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MHI-10 Urbanisation in India Indira Gandhi National Open University School of Social Sciences Block 4 (Part 2) URBANISATION IN MEDIEVAL INDIA-1 UNIT 17 Sultanate and Its Cities 5 UNIT 18 Regional Cities 29 UNIT 19 Temple Towns in Peninsular India 63 UNIT 20 Southern Dimension : The Glory of Vijayanagara 80 UNIT 21 Sultanate Capital Cities in the Delhi Riverine Plain 105 Expert Committee Prof. B.D. Chattopadhyaya Prof. Sunil Kumar Prof. P.K. Basant Formerly Professor of History Department of History Department of History Centre for Historical Studies Delhi University, Delhi Jamia Milia Islamia, New Delhi JNU, New Delhi Prof. Swaraj Basu Prof. Amar Farooqui Prof. Janaki Nair Faculty of History Department of History Centre for Historical Studies IGNOU, New Delhi Delhi University, Delhi JNU, New Delhi Prof. Harbans Mukhia Dr. Vishwamohan Jha Prof. Rajat Datta Formerly Professor of History Atma Ram Sanatan Dharm Centre for Historical Studies Centre for Historical Studies College JNU, New Delhi JNU, New Delhi Delhi University, Delhi Prof. Lakshmi Subramanian Prof. Yogesh Sharma Prof. Abha Singh (Convenor) Centre for Studies in Social Centre for Historical Studies Faculty of History Sciences, Calcutta JNU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi Kolkata Prof. Pius Malekandathil Dr. Daud Ali Centre for Historical Studies South Asia Centre JNU, New Delhi University of Pennsylvania Philadelphia Course Coordinator : Prof. Abha Singh Programme Coordinator : Prof. Swaraj Basu Block Preparation Team Unit No. Resource Person Unit No. Resource Person 17 Prof. Abha Singh 19 Prof. Abha Singh Faculty of History Faculty of History School of Social Sciences School of Social Sciences Indira Gandhi National Indira Gandhi National Open University Open University New Delhi New Delhi 20 Dr. Ranjeeta Dutta Centre for Historical Studies 18 Dr. Pushkar Sohoni Jawaharlal Nehru University University of Pennsylvania New Delhi Philadelphia 21 Prof. Sunil Kumar Department of History University of Delhi, Delhi Material Production Illustrations Cover Design Mr. Manjit Singh Mr. Vimal Gaurav Sharma Mr. Anil Kumar Saxena Section Officer (Pub.) EMPC, IGNOU Mr. Vimal Gaurav Sharma SOSS, IGNOU New Delhi EMPC, IGNOU New Delhi November, 2017 © Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2017 ISBN : All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University. “The University does not warrant or assume any legal liability or responsibility for the academic content of this course provided by the authors as far as the copyright issues are concerned” Further information on Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the Univer- sity's office at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110 068 or visit University's Website http://www.ignou.ac.in. Printed and published on behalf of the Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by Director, School of Social Sciences. Lasertypesetted at Graphic Printers, Mayur Vihar, Phase-I, Delhi-110091. Printed at : BLOCK 4 URBANISATION IN MEDIEVAL INDIA - 1 The Arab conquest of Sindh and Punjab (712-13 CE) followed by the Ghazni and the Ghorid invasions, resulting in the establishment of the Turkish Sultanate, drastically modified the traditional institutions. The introduction of new politico-cultural institutions notably shaped and influenced the existing traditional fabric of the subcontinent. At the international scenario by 11th century there began shifts in Arab assaults towards Persia and the Persian Gulf. Thus during 8-12th centuries while Persian Gulf was the dominant route, with Venice being at the centre stage, the Red Sea lagged behind. With the Turkish and the Mongol attacks and unsettling of the Caliphate the Red Sea route through Egypt emerged prominent. Al-Fustat (Cairo) and Alexandria assumed importance, while Egypt and Syria became the core distribution centres. Cairo war now catching up with the eastern ports of Calicut and Aden, a trading link that thus far was primarily confined to the western coast via Persian Gulf. Red Sea added east- coast link via Malacca, which was soon to occupy the centre stage in China-India eastern trade. These encounters and developments greatly facilitated and accelerated the international trade, inturn enriching the hinterlands resulting in high degree of monetisation and urbanisation in the subcontinent. The resurgence of a variety of urban centres visible in the 9-10th centuries continued during the Sultanate period albeit at a much greater pace. Delhi Sultans brought a large part of the subcontinent under their sway. The peace following the establishment of the Turkish power helped traders and craftsmen. The introduction of new techniques and tools led to the emergence of new crafts which got further accelerated by the ‘liberation of craftsmen’ who were shackled by the jati restrictions. This ‘liberation’ contributed to craft mobility what Mohammad Habib has termed an ‘urban revolution’. New towns emerged and the existing ones were modified. Further, since the new ruling elite was largely city based; the large share of revenue resources from the rural areas were mobilised to the cities to meet the requirements of their armed retainers and large establishments. The luxurious lifestyle of the elites/nobility and their other needs accompanied with an increased demand for various commodities which in turn steered the emergence of new crafts as well as expansion of the existing ones. Moreover, state’s insistence on revenue returns in cash further speeded the monetisation process that facilitated the spurt in markets across the subcontinent in the fourteenth century. The Turkish conquest also radically altered the physical cityscape.The sovereigns, the royalty and the nobility belonged to a different faith – Islam. Their requirements for worship were different resulting in mosques and tombs to the cityscape. The new architectural forms, arch and dome and the introduction of good cementing material changed the skylines of the city, thus drastically transforming the cityscape. The Mongol invasions further unsettled the political scenario in Central Asia and Iran resulting in the emigration of the Muslim literati to the Indian subcontinent. Soon north Indian cities acquired a cosmopolitan character (Unit 17). This process continued even after the decline of the Sultanate. The cities flourished across various regions. The new urban centres like Jaunpur, Gaur/Pandua, Mandu, Bidar, Gulbarga, Ahmadabad emerged in the fifteenth century (Unit 18). In the peninsular India medieval urbanism took a different trajectory. Here temples and ceremonial complexes were ‘institutionalised’ and townships emerged around them (Unit19). The awesome fascinating city of Vijayanagara, situated in a dramatic rocky terrain with its splendid ruins and the quintessential Sultanate city Delhi which represented the signet cities of the peninsular India and the Sultanate formed part of the discussions in Units 20 and 21. 4th Page Blank UNIT 17 SULTANATE AND ITS CITIES* Structure 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Textual Representations of the Sultanate Cities 17.3 Debates 17.4 Process of Urbanisation 17.4.1 Iqtas 17.4.2 Monetisation 17.4.3 Capital Towns and Provincial Headquarters 17.4.4 Khanqah 17.4.5 Sarai, Thana (Military Outposts) and Forts 17.4.6 Mosques and Madrasas 17.4.7 Bazaars, Mandis 17.4.8 Karkhanas 17.5 Wave of New Towns 17.6 New Trends 17.6.1 Metropolitan Towns 17.6.2 Planned Cities: Changing Landscape and Skylines 17.6.3 Cosmopolitan Cities 17.6.4 Changing Demography 17.7 New Urban Ethos 17.7.1 New Urban Groups 17.7.2 Institution of Slavery and a New Urban Culture 17.8 Artisans and Labour 17.9 Trade and Urban Centres 17.10 Summary 17.11 Exercises 17.12 References 17.1 INTRODUCTION Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406), Arab historian, believed that ‘royal authority’ and ‘dynasties’ were essential for building and planning of a city. Large cities and monuments could only be the effort of strong and influential authority/dynasty. Thus Ibn Khaldun sees cause (dynasty) and effect (cities) relationship between the towns. Its rise and fall too was closely intertwined with the fate of the dynasty: ‘If the dynasty is of short duration, life in the town will stop at the end of the dynasty…On the other hand, if the dynasty is of long duration and lasts a long time, new constructions will always go up in the town, the number of large mansions will increase, and the walls of the town will extend further and further’ (Ibn Khaldun, cited from Omer, 2011). The city was where knowledge flowed. Thus the primordial ‘Islamic city’ Medinah was addressed as ‘city of knowledge’ (madinat al-ilm). * Prof. Abha Singh, School of Social Sciences, Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi. 5 Urbanisation in Turks established their sway over north India in 1206 when Muizzi slave Qutbuddin Medieval India - 1 Aibak assumed power in Delhi. However, even much before the Turkish conquest, Muhammad Qasim’s onslaught in Sind made a deep impact on the layout of the Indian cities. With Turks, markers of the ‘Islamic cities’ started showing signs in the layout of north Indian cities in a big way. Here, my purpose is not to enter into a dialogue whether idea of ‘an Islamic city existed at all?’ what K. Brown calls it a ‘western notion’. Nonetheless there are some ‘typical’ features common to all the so-called ‘Islamic’ cities: a) the main mosque (where weekly congregational prayers were to be performed) surrounded by the suq (the market); attached to which was the madrasa (school/ college). While mosque was central to religious life; bazaar (suq) was where centred the economic activities. b) the citadel (qasaba) with covered walls where resided the ‘goveror’/‘sultan’ along with his administrative machinery and retinues. c) Residential quarters (later mohallas) often based on personal ties (ethnic, social, economic) generally had their own gates. d) There existed main street/s leading to network of sub-streets connecting the main street/s/mosque/fortress.

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