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Resources in English on the criminal justice system of the People’s Republic of

Ellen Sexton CUNY John Jay College

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Ellen Sexton John Jay College of Criminal Justice, City University of New York

ensational stories in the Western English language media from the world’s most populous country and second biggest economy have been captivating audiences with glimpses of the contemporary SChinese criminal justice system. Our screens in 2012 showed the arrest and subsequent disappearance of high-flying politician and provincial chief Bo Xi Lai, the unsuccessful attempt of his police chief in seeking asylum, the single-day trial and conviction of his wife for murdering a British “fixer”, and the dramatic escape from rural house arrest of blind activist “barefoot lawyer Chen Guang Cheng. All of this playing out against a background of mind-blowing income inequality, conspicuous luxury consumption, high- tech goods produced in prison-like conditions, widespread corruption, repression, mass protests, and censorship. The year concluded with the 341 342 Criminal Justice and Law Enforcement historically unusual peaceful transition of power among the top leadership. All these raise questions about what exactly the average entrant into the criminal justice system experiences. Is the system as revealed by these few highly publicized cases operating as usual? Or atypical? What is the aver- age citizen’s actual experience of criminal justice in China? With opportunities for US–China faculty exchanges and student study- abroad programs increasing, we librarians are experiencing a surge of in- terest in materials about China from users without strong Chinese lan- guage skills. Being unable to read Chinese is a serious limitation to those who wish to read about criminal justice in China. Fortunately there are many works published in English in fairly broad circulation. The aim of this bibliography is to identify, for those new to the field, recent valuable contributions to the criminal justice literature on contemporary China, and some classic works useful for setting the historic context. The period covered is generally from the post-Mao reform period, 1976, to the pres- ent, but concentrates heavily on the administrations of Hu Jintao and Wen Jiabao, from 2003–12. The focus is on the People’s Republic of China, that is, . Some China-based researchers do of course publish in the top English- language journals, either alone or in collaboration with Western authors. But the many journals published by universities, public security (police) colleges, and procuratorates in China are inaccessible to non-Chinese-lan- guage readers. However, selected works chosen from academic Chinese- language journals are republished in English translation, in Frontiers of Law in China (SpringerVerlag) and in Social Sciences in China (Taylor & Francis), both of which are indexed in SCOPUS. Unfortunately, the quality of the translation can at times be less than ideal. Some English-language literature reviews do successfully integrate both English- and Chinese- language works.1 The print format in which this bibliography is presented limits the entry points to the resources. Thus, each is listed under one heading only, though in many cases, other headings would also have been valid. An attempt has been made to choose the most appropriate single heading. The topics are

1. For example, on torture and interrogation, Wu and Beken (2010, 2012). Wu, W., and T. Van der Beken. 2010. “Police Torture in China and its Causes: A Review of Literature.” Australian and Journal of Criminology 43 (3): 557–79; Wu, W., and T. Van der Beken. 2012. “The Evolution of Criminal Interrogation Rules in China.” International Journal of Law, Crime and Justice 40 (4): 271–95. Justice System of the People’s Republic of China 343 not intended as comprehensive, but indicative of the range of publications available, and hopefully have included the most interesting and the most significant.

Introductions to China General Overviews of the Chinese Criminal Justice System History Non-Period Specific General Criminal Justice Histories Pre-1949 1949 to the Death of Mao Zedong, 1976 Reform Era to Tiananmen Square, 1989 Post–Tiananmen Square to 2003 Criminology Research and Methodological Issues Police and Policing Investigation and Interrogation Administrative Detention Courts Corrections Death Penalty Juvenile Justice Forensic Psychology and Psychiatry Forensic Science Crime General Corruption Organized Crime & Terrorism Drugs, Alcohol & Tobacco Sex Crimes Intimate Partner Violence Environmental Crimes Transnational Issues Intellectual Property Cybercrime Public Opinion, Attitudes, and Media Law—General Criminal Law Rule of Law Lawyers 344 Criminal Justice and Law Enforcement

Special Administrative Regions: and Websites and Social Media Professional and Academic Organizations Human Rights Nongovernmental Organizations Academic sites News Sites Government Sites Blogs

Introductions to China

Criminal justice does not exist in a vacuum. Before diving into the specif- ics, some context may be helpful. There are many books on the market attempting to explain China to the curious reader. The third edition of Yale professor John Bryan Starr’s Understanding China: A Guide to China’s Economy, History and Political Culture (Hill & Wang, 2010) is recommend- ed, and includes a chapter on the rule of law. Also from a Yale scholar, also in its third edition, is Jonathan Spence’s classic on modern Chinese history, The Search for Modern China (W. W. Norton, 2012). Richard McGregor’s The Party: The Secret World of China’s Communist Rulers (Harper Perennial, 2012) serves as a reminder of the ubiquitous presence of the communist party. On the lighter side, journalist Duncan Hewitt has written a lively and intelligent firsthand account,Getting Rich First: Life in a Changing China (Vintage, 2008), published in the United States under the title China: Getting Rich First: A Modern Social History (Pegasus, 2008). From another foreign correspondent, Oliver August, the anecdote-filled Inside the Red Mansion (Houghton Mifflin, 2007) reflects a many years long obsession with the entrepreneur/gangster Lai Changxing, exploring the chaotic and legally ambiguous business in the 1990s and early 2000s. Justice System of the People’s Republic of China 345

General Overviews of the Chinese Criminal Justice System

An anthology to be published mid-2013, by Routledge, the Handbook of Chinese Criminology, promises to deliver up-to-date surveys of criminal justice topics written by leading researchers, including Margaret Lewis, Liqun Cao, Bakken Borge and more. Currently available is a special issue of the Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice (vol. 26, no. 1), published in 2010. It was “designed to provide readers with a basic understanding of China’s historical development and its current state of criminological research and practice.”2 Articles focus on policing, corrections and pun- ishment, adjudication and legal reform, corruption, prostitution, Internet issues, and general criminology. Other prominent journals that have pub- lished special issues concentrating on criminal justice in China, include Crime, Law and Social Change (vol. 50, no. 3, 2008), the Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology (vol. 37, suppl. 1, 2004), the British Journal of Criminology (vol. 42, no. 2, 2002), the Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice (vol. 14, no. 3, 1998), and Crime & Delinquency (vol. 39, no. 3, 1993). “Chinese legal scholars frequently refer to the stages of the criminal process as being completely separate and independent from one anoth- er. The police have complete control over the investigative stage of a case. The prosecutors control the charging decision. The courts decide guilt or innocence.”3

Albrecht, H. J., and H. Kury. 1999. Crime, Criminal Law Reform & Correc- tions in Times of Social Change. Papers from the second German-Chinese Colloquium on Criminology and Criminal Law, 1997. [Freiburg, Ger- many: Max Planck Institute for Foreign and International Criminal Law]. Bakken, B., ed. 2005. Crime, Punishment, and Policing in China. Lan- ham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. A collection of six essays from lead- ing researchers, focusing mainly on punishment and policing, with an introduction by Bakken.

2. Hong Lu, and Terance D Miethe. 2010. “Editors’ Introduction”, in “Crime and Justice in China” eds. Hong Lu and Terence D. Miethe, special issue, Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 26, no. 1 (2010), 4. 3. I. Belkin, “China,” in Criminal Procedure: A Worldwide Study, 2nd ed., ed. C. M. Bradley (Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press, 2007), 92. 346 Criminal Justice and Law Enforcement

Belkin, I. 2000. “China’s Criminal Justice System: A Work in Progress.” Washington Journal of Modern China 6(2): 61–84. http://www.law.yale. edu/documents/pdf/Chinas_Criminal_Justice_System.pdf. Broadhurst, R., ed. 2004. Crime and its Control in the People’s Republic of China: Proceedings of the University of Hong Kong Annual Sympo- sia 2000–2002. Hong Kong: University of Hong Kong. Retrieved from http://eprints.qut.edu.au/4264/. An anthology of papers covering a vari- ety of topics including economic crime is available at the digital reposi- tory hosted by the Queensland University of Technology. The papers were presented by researchers based in mainland China, Hong Kong, , the United States, and the United Kingdom at symposia held in Beijing and Hong Kong between 2000 and 2002. The thirty papers are in six groups: financial risk control, economic crime, crime patterns and social transition, drugs and crime, organized crime and its control, and crimes and criminals. Broadhurst, R., and J. Liu. 2004. “Introduction: Crime, Law and Crimi- nology.” In “Crime, Law and Criminology in China”, edited by Roderic Broadhurst and Jianhong Liu. Special issue, The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology 37 (suppl.): 1–12. Cao, L., I. Y. Sun, and B. Hebenton. Forthcoming. Handbook of Chinese Criminology. NY: Routledge. Chen, X. 2004. “Social and Legal Control in China: A Comparative Per- spective.” International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 48 (5): 523–36. Cohen, J. A., and Y. Han. 2011. “China’s Struggle for Criminal Justice.” U.S. Asia Law Institute, September 27. http://www.usasialaw.org/?p=5928. He, J. 2007. “Ten Tendencies of Criminal Justice.” Frontiers of Law in China 2 (1): 1–22. Hom, S. and S. Mosher, eds. 2007. Challenging China: Struggle and Hope in an Era of Change. New York: New Press. Hong Lu, and T. D. Miethe. 2010. “Editors’ Introduction.” In “Crime and Justice in China,” edited by Hong Lu and Terence D. Miethe. Special is- sue, Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 26 (1): 4–6. Lee, T. 1997. Law, the State, and Society in China. New York: Garland. Peerenboom, R. P. 2006. “Law and Development of Constitutional Democ- racy: Is China a Problem Case? Annals of the American Academy of Po- litical and Social Science 603:192–99. Seay, P. A. 1998. “Law, Crime, and Punishment in the People’s Republic of China: A Comparative Introduction to the Criminal Justice and Legal Justice System of the People’s Republic of China 347

System of the People’s Republic of China.” Indiana International & Com- parative Law Review 9 (1): 143–54. Trevaskes, S. 2007. “Severe and Swift Justice in China.”British Journal of Criminology, 47(1): 23–41. Trevaskes, S. 2011. “Political Ideology, the Party, and Politicking: Justice System Reform in China.” Modern China 37(3): 315–44. US Congressional-Executive Commission on China (2002). China’s Crimi- nal Justice System : Roundtable before the Congressional-Executive Com- mission on China, One Hundred Seventh Congress, Second Session, July 26, 2002. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. http://purl.ac- cess.gpo.gov/GPO/LPS22980. For sale by the US Government Printing Office, Superintendent of Documents, Congressional Sales Office. Wang, Y. 2008. “China Reexamined: The Worst Offender or a Strong Con- tender.” Michigan Law Review 106(6): 1143–55. White, L. T. 2008. “Contemporary China: A Book List.” Winter 2007–2008 edition. http://www.princeton.edu/~lynn/chinabib.pdf. Xin, R., and X. Ren. 1997. Tradition of the Law and Law of the Tradition: Law, State, and Social Control in China. Contributions in Criminology and Penology, 50. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Yuzhong, D. 2010. “The Pursuit of Criminal Justice.” InChina’s Journey toward the Rule of Law: Legal Reform, 1978–2008, edited by C. Dingjian and W. Chenguang, 155–98. Boston: Brill. Zhang, L., S. F. Messner, and J. Liu. 2008. “A Critical Review of Recent Literature on Crime and Criminal Justice in China: Research Findings, Challenges, and Prospects.” In “Crime and Criminal Justice in China: The Current Knowledge Base and Prospects for Future Research,” edited by Lening Zhang, Steven F. Messner and Jianhong Liu. Special issue, Crime, Law and Social Change 50(3): 125–30. Zheng, X. 2006. Reforming Injustices within the Criminal Justice System in China. PhD diss., Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada. 348 Criminal Justice and Law Enforcement

History

Non Period Specific General Criminal Justice Histories

Dutton, M. 1992. Policing and Punishment in China: From Patriarchy to “the People.” Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Covers regulation and punishment from late imperial to modern China, with particular emphasis on the household registration system. Mühlhahn, K. 2009. Criminal Justice in China: A History. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. This highly praised work covers the Late Im- perial period through Deng’s Early Reform period, paying particular at- tention to the role of punishment.

Pre-1949

Bourgon, J. 2003. “Abolishing ‘Cruel Punishments’: A Reappraisal of the Chinese Roots and Long-Term Efficiency of the Xinzheng Legal Re- forms.” Modern Asian Studies 37 (4): 851–62. This article covers the 1905 suppression of so-called cruel punishments (kuxing). Brook, T., J. Bourgon, and G. Blue. (2008). Death by a Thousand Cuts. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Dikötter, F. 2002. Crime, Punishment, and the Prison in Modern China, 1895–1949. New York: Columbia University Press. Dikötter, F., L. LLaamann, and Z. Xun. 2004. Narcotic Culture: A History of Drugs in China. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Gui, W., and R. van Gulik. 2007. Crime and Punishment in Ancient Chi- na : T’ang-yin-pi-shih. Bangkok, : Orchid Press. (Originally published as Tang-yin-pi-shih [Parallel Cases from under the Pear Tree]. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1956). This piece is a thirteenth-century manual of jurisprudence and detection. MacCormack, G. 1990. Traditional Chinese Penal Law. Edinburgh, Scot- land: Edinburgh University Press. McKnight, B. E. 1981. The Quality of Mercy: Amnesties and Traditional Chi- nese Justice. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii. Song, C., and B. McKnight, trans. 1981. The Washing Away of Wrongs: Forensic Medicine in Thirteenth-century China. Science, Medicine, and Technology in East Asia, Vol. 1. Ann Arbor: Center for Chinese Studies, University of Michigan. Justice System of the People’s Republic of China 349

Wong, K. C. 1998. “Black’s Theory on the Behaviour of Law Revisited III: Law as More or Less Governmental Social Control.” International Jour- nal of the Sociology of Law 26 (3): 365–92. This article reviews the law enforcement role and functions of the Strike Committee during the Canton–Hong Kong strike of 1925–26.

1949 to the Death of Mao Zedong, 1976

Cohen, J. 1968. The Criminal Process in the People’s Republic of China, 1949–63: An Introduction. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Gao, E. 2009. In Search of my Homeland: A Memoir of a Chinese Labor Camp. New York: Ecco Press. This piece is concerned with the Mao pe- riod. Johnson, E. H. 1986. “Politics, Power and Prevention: The People’s Repub- lic of China Case.” Journal of Criminal Justice 14 (5), 449–57. Lo, C. W. 1985. The Legal System and Criminal Responsibility of Intellectuals in the People’s Republic of China, 1949–82. Maryland Occasional Papers/ Reprints Series in Contemporary Asian Studies, no. 2. Baltimore: Oc- casional Papers/Reprints Series. http://digitalcommons.law.umaryland. edu/mscas/vol1985/iss2/1/. Rickett, W., and A. Rickett. 1957. Prisoners of Liberation: Four Years in a Chinese Communist Prison. New York: Cameron Associates. Trevaskes, S. 2004. “Propaganda Work in Chinese Courts: Public Trials and Sentencing Rallies as Sites of Expressive Punishment and Public Education in the People’s Republic of China.” Punishment and Society 6 (1): 5–21.

Reform Era to Tiananmen Square, 1989

Bracey, D. H. 1989. “The Regulations of the People’s Republic of China concerning Punishments for Disturbing Order: The Police and Admin- istrative Punishment.” Criminal Justice Review 14 (2): 154–65. Chiu, H. 1981. Structural Changes in the Organization and Operation of China’s Criminal Justice System. Review of Socialist Law 7 (1): 53–72. (Reprinted in Occasional Papers/Reprints Series in Contemporary Asian Studies, 1981 no. 1. http://digitalcommons.law.umaryland.edu/ mscas/vol1981/iss1/1.) Chiu, H. 1988. China’s Changing Criminal Justice System. Current History 87 (530): 265–69. 350 Criminal Justice and Law Enforcement

Cohen, J. A. (1982). “China’s Criminal Codes.” Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 73 (1): 135–37. Leng, S. C., and H. Chiu. 1985. Criminal Justice in Post-Mao China: Analy- sis and Documents. Albany: University of New York Press. Tanner, H. M. 1999. Strike Hard! Anti-crime Campaigns and Chinese Crim- inal Justice, 1979–1985. Cornell East Asia series, no. 104. Ithaca, NY: East Asia Program, Cornell University. Troyer, R. J., J. P. Clark, and D. G. Rojek. 1989. Social Control in the People’s Republic of China. New York: Praeger.

Post–Tiananmen Square to 2003

Asia Watch. 1991. Prison Labor in China. New York: Asia Watch. Chiu, H. 1992. “China’s Criminal Justice System and the Trial of Pro-de- mocracy Dissidents.” New York University Journal of International Law and Politics 24 (3): 1181–1201. (Reprinted in Maryland Series in Con- temporary Asian Studies, 1992, No. 6, Article 1. http://digitalcommons. law.umaryland.edu/mscas/vol1992/iss6/1/.) Deng, X., and A. Cordilia. 1999. “To Get Rich Is Glorious: Rising Expecta- tions, Declining Control, and Escalating Crime in Contemporary Chi- na.” International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Crimi- nology 43 (2): 211–29. Dikötter, F. 2002. Crime, Punishment and the Prison in Modern China. New York: Columbia University Press. Dikötter, F. 2002. The Promise of Repentance: Prison Reform in Modern China. British Journal of Criminology 42 (2): 240–49. Dutton, M. (1992). “A Mass Line without Politics, Community Policing and Economic Reform.” In Economic reform and social change in China, edited by A. Watson, 200–27. London: Routledge. Dutton, M., and L. Tianfu. 1993. “Missing the Target? Policing Strategies in the Period of Economic Reform.” Crime & Delinquency 39 (3): 316–36. Gaylord, M. S. 1990. “The Chinese Laundry: International Drug Traffick- ing and Hong Kong’s Banking Industry.” Contemporary Crises 14 (1): 23–37. Gelatt, T. A. 1993. Criminal Justice with Chinese Characteristics : China’s Criminal Process and Violations of Human Rights. New York: Lawyers Committee for Human Rights, Human Rights First. Shapiro, S. 1990. The Law and the Lore of China’s Criminal Justice. Beijing: New World Press. Distributed by China International Book Trading Corp. Justice System of the People’s Republic of China 351

Tong, J. 2002. “Anatomy of Regime Repression in China: Timing, Enforcement institutions, and Target Selection in Banning the Falung- ong, July 1999.” Asian Survey 42 (6): 795–820. Vagg, J. 1992. “The Borders of Crime: Hong Kong-China Cross-border Criminal Activity.” British Journal of Criminology 32 (3): 310–28. Wong, K. C. (2002). “Policing in the People’s Republic of China: The Road to Reform in the 1990s.” British Journal of Criminology 42 (2): 281–316.

Criminology

Cao, L. 2004. “The State of Criminology in China.”The Criminologist 29 (4): 1–5. Friday, P. C. 1998. “Crime and Crime Prevention in China: A Challenge to the Development-Crime Nexus.” Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 14 (3): 296–314. Hebenton, B., and S. Jou. 2010. “Criminology in and of China: Disci- pline and Power.” Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 26 (1): 7–19. Huang, H. L. 2006. “Dragon Brothers and Tiger Sisters: A Conceptual Typology of Counter-cultural Actors and Activities of American Chinatowns, China, Hong Kong, and , 1912–2004.” Crime, Law and Social Change 45 (1): 71–91. Liu, J. 2004. “Social Transition and Crime in China: An Economic Moti- vation Thesis.”Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology 37 (Suppl. 1): 122–38. Mei, J., and M. Wang. 2007. “Social Change, Crime, and Criminology in China.” Crime and Justice International 23 (97): 14–22. Messner, S. F., Z. Lu, L. Zhang, and J. Liu. 2007. “Risks of Criminal Vic- timization in Contemporary Urban China: An Application of Lifestyle/ Routine Activities Theory.”Justice Quarterly 24 (3): 496–522. Tanner, M. S. 2002. “Changing Windows on a Changing China: The Evolv- ing ‘Think Tank’ System and the Case of the Public Security Sector.” China Quarterly, no. 171, 559–74. Wong, K. C. (2008). “The Study of Criminology in China. Historical De- velopment: Part I.” China Report 44 (3): 213–31. 352 Criminal Justice and Law Enforcement

Wong, K. C. 2008. “The Study of Criminology in China. Part II: Contemporary developments.” China Report 44 (4): 323–46. Zhang, L., S. F. Messner, and J. Liu. 2007. “An Exploration of the Determi- nants of Reporting Crime to the Police in the City of Tianjin, China.” Criminology 45 (4): 959–84. Zhao, L. S. 2008. “Anomie Theory and Crime in a Transitional China (1978– ).” International Criminal Justice Review 18:137–57.

Research and Methodological Issues

Curran, D. J., and S. Cook. 1993. “Doing Research in Post-Tiananmen Chi- na.” In Researching Sensitive Topics, edited by C. M. Renzetti and R. M. Lee, 71–81. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. He, N., and I. H. Marshall. 1997. “Social Production of Crime Data: A Critical Examination of Chinese Crime Statistics.” International Crimi- nal Justice Review 7 (1): 46–64. Liang, B., and H. Lu. 2006. “Conducting Fieldwork in China: Observations on Collecting Primary Data Regarding Crime, Law, and the Criminal Justice System.” Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 22 (2): 157–72. Liu, J. 2007. “Developing Comparative Criminology and the Case of China: An Introduction.” International Journal of Offender Therapy and Com- parative Criminology 51 (1): 3–8. Liu, J. 2008. “Data Sources in Chinese Crime and Criminal Justice Re- search.” Crime, Law and Social Change 50 (3): 131–47. Ross, J. I., and M. Dai. 2012. “The Dissemination of Criminological and Criminal Justice Knowledge and Practice: A Profile of People’s Repub- lic of China Scholars who Earn Doctorates in the United States.” Asian Journal of Criminology: An Interdisciplinary Journal on Crime, Law and Deviance in Asia 7 (3): 225–238. Zhang, L., S. Messner, J. Lu, and J. Liu. 2007. “Criminological Research in Contemporary China: Challenges and Lessons Learned from a Large- scale Criminal Victimization Survey.” International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology,51 (1): 110–121. Zvekić, U., W. Lixian, and R. Scherpenzeel, eds. 1995. Development and Policy Use of Criminal Justice Information. Proceedings of the Beijing Justice System of the People’s Republic of China 353

Seminar, Beijing, China. September 12–16, 1994. Beijing and Rome: United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute.

Police and Policing

Two particular themes stand out in the literature on policing: campaign- style enforcement and community policing. Susan Trevaskes has written extensively about campaign justice, from the first Strike Hard! (yanda) campaign in the early 1980s to the present day (see Tanner’s Strike Hard! in the history section for a thorough re- view of the period 1979–85, and a discussion of the influence of the Soviet Union). Campaigns “share the characteristics of coordinated operation (tongyi xingdong), which involves interagency bureaucratic mobilization at multiple levels of government.”4 Campaigns have been waged against serious crime, drugs, prostitution, nonpayment of wages, and other ills. Widely used in the prereform era, typified by mass mobilization and used as a “powerful ideological tool”5; at present they operate “without the near complete disregard for legality that was common in many prereform campaigns”6 as “transformed, depoliticised or technocratic versions of the political mass mobilization campaigns.”7 Multiple party and state agencies are involved, including the courts, with punishments meted out tending to be harsher than normal. Formerly an inspector with the Hong Kong Police, Kam C. Wong earned a JD and a PhD in the United States and has held academic appointments in Hong Kong and the United States. He is currently at Xavier University in Ohio. He has written extensively on Chinese policing and is a founding member of the Asian Association of Police Studies. His 2001 paper reviews the background of community policing in China, emphasizing the tradi- tion of localized informal social control.

4. S. Biddulph, S. Cooney, and Y. Zhu, “Rule of Law with Chinese Characteristics: The Role of Campaigns in Lawmaking,”Law & Policy 34, no. 4 (2012): 376. 5. Ibid. 6. Ibid. 7. Ibid., 377. 354 Criminal Justice and Law Enforcement

Additional sections of this bibliography cover the powers of the police to detain people without charge (administrative detention) and interrogation.

Biddulph, S., S. Cooney, and Zhu, Y. 2012. “Rule of Law with Chinese Characteristics: The Role of Campaigns in Lawmaking.” Law & Policy 34 (4): 373–401. Dan, M. 2008. “Policing in the People’s Republic of China: A Review of Recent Literature.” Crime, Law and Social Change 50 (3): 211–27. Dutton, M. 2000. “The End of the (Mass) Line? Chinese Policing in the Era of the Contract.” Social Justice 27 (2): 61–105. Dutton, M. 2009. “A Chinese Theory of Community Policing.” In Commu- nity Policing: International Patterns and Comparative Perspectives, edited by D. Wisler and I. D. Onwudiwe, 215–56. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. He, X. F. 2003. “Sporadic Law Enforcement Campaigns as a Means of So- cial Control: A Case Study from a Rural-Urban Migrant Enclave in Bei- jing.” Columbia Journal of Asian Law 17 (1): 121–45. Jiao, A. Y. 2001. “Police and Culture: A Comparison between China and the United States.” Police Quarterly 4 (2): 156–85. Lam, W. 2011. “The Politicisation of China’s Law-Enforcement and Judicial Apparatus.” In The Impact of China’s 1989 Tiananmen Massacre, edited by J. P. Beja, 125–141. New York and London: Routledge. Liang, B. 2005. “Severe Strike Campaign in Transitional China.” Journal of Criminal Justice 33 (4): 387–99. Lo, S. S. 2012. “The Changing Context and Content of Policing in China and Hong Kong: Policy Transfer and Modernisation.” Policing and Soci- ety 22 (2): 185–203. Ma, Y. 1997. “The Police Law 1995: Organization, Functions, Powers and Accountability of the Chinese Police.” Policing 20 (1): 113–35. Shukai, Z. 2000. “Criminality and the Policing of Migrant Workers.” China Journal 43:101–10. Sun, I. Y., and Y. Wu. 2010. “Chinese Policing in a Time of Transition, 1978–2008.” Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 26 (1): 20–35. Trevaskes, S. 2003. “Yanda 2001: Form and Strategy in a Chinese Anti- crime Campaign.” Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology 36 (3): 272–92. Trevaskes, S. 2010. Policing Serious Crime in China : From “Strike Hard” to “Kill F e w e r.” Routledge studies on China in transition. New York: Routledge. Wong, K. C. 2001. “Community Policing in China: Philosophy Law and Practice.” International Journal of the Sociology of Law 29 (2): 127–47. Justice System of the People’s Republic of China 355

Wong, K. C. 2012. Police Reform in China. Boca Raton, FL: Taylor Francis. Wong, Kam C. 2004. “Govern Police by Law (Yifa Zhijing) in China.” Aus- tralian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology 37 (Suppl. 1): 90–106. Wong, K. C. 2009. Chinese Policing: History and Reform. New Perspectives in Criminology and Criminal Justice, vol. 3. New York: Peter Lang. Wong, K. C. 2010. “The Study of Policing in China.” In Police Without Bor- ders: The Fading Distinction between Local and Global, edited by C. Rob- erson, D. K. Das, and J. K. Singer, 111–50. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. Xu, J. (2011). “Drive-away Policing and Situational Crime Prevention in China: An Analysis of Motorcycle Ban (Jinmo) Policy in Guangzhou.” International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 56 (2): 239–64. Yang, Z. 2006. “On Integration of Police and Procurator.” Frontiers of Law in China 1 (2): 193–209. Yu, O., and L. Zhang. 1999. “The Under-recording of Crime by Police in China: A Case Study.” Policing: An International Journal of Police Strate- gies Management 22 (3): 252–63.

Investigation and Interrogation

The police (Public Security Bureau) are generally charged with investi- gating crimes, although government officials are investigated by a sec- tion of the procuratorate.8 Under the 1997 Criminal Procedure Law, suspects can be held for interrogation for twelve hours, and further detained (ju liu) for up to thirty-seven days.9 After this time, a formal arrest is required to continue detention. Formal arrests must be ap- proved by the chief procurator’s office. Detention may continue for up to seven-and-a-half months before a decision to prosecute is made.10 Release on bail for up to twelve months is possible but rare.11 House

8. I. Belkin, “China,” in Criminal Procedure: A Worldwide Survey, 2nd ed., edited by C. M. Bradley, 91–106 (Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press, 2007), 97. 9. Ibid., 98. 10. Ibid., 99. 11. Ibid., 100. 356 Criminal Justice and Law Enforcement arrest is another option used. Of suspects, 90 percent are detained dur- ing investigation.12 Although “ prohibits the use of torture and deception to obtain evidence . . . China suffers from a high incidence of confessions obtained by coercion.” 13

Belkin, I. 2011. “China’s Tortuous Path toward Ending Torture in Criminal Investigations.” Columbia Journal of Asian Law 24 (2): 273–301. Stutsman, T. 2011. “The Use of Demonstration Projects to Advance Crimi- nal Procedure Reform in China.” Columbia Journal of Asian Law 24 (2): 333–66. This article discusses coerced confessions and the need for law reform. Tanner, M. S. 2000. “Shackling the Coercive State: China’s Ambivalent Struggle against Torture.” Problems of Post 47 (5): 13–30. Thelle, H. 2006. “Torture in China.” Torture: Quarterly Journal on Rehabili- tation of Torture Victims and Prevention of Torture 16 (3): 268–75. Wu, W., and T. Van der Beken. 2010. “Police Torture in China and its Causes: A Review of Literature.” Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology 43 (3): 557–79. Wu, W., and T. Van der Beken. 2012. “The Evolution of Criminal Interroga- tion Rules in China.” International Journal of Law, Crime and Justice 40 (4): 271–95. The period of study in this article is from the pre-Han to the reform era. Wu, W., and T. Van der Beken. 2012. “Relativism and Universalism in In- terrogation Fairness: A Comparative Analysis between Europe and Chi- na.” European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research V:1–31. Xiaozheng, L. 2012. “The Chinese Model of the Legal Regulation of Tech- nical Investigation.” Social Sciences in China 33 (4): 179–91. Zhang, L., and J. Liu. 2004. “Official Status and the Swiftness of Criminal Arrest: A Chinese Case of the Impact of Social Position on Criminal Justice.” Policing 27 (1): 82–96.

12. Ibid., 98. 13. Ibid., 101. Justice System of the People’s Republic of China 357

Administrative Detention

The police (Public Security Bureau) have the power to detain people with- out trial. Laojiao, or reeducation through labor, is used “to tackle petty crime, prostitution and drug addiction without damaging defendants’ ‘criminal records’” and “to preserve social order and maintain political c ont ro l ,” 14 Reeducation through labor may be imposed for up to three years without any judicial procedure.15 refers to the detention of Communist Party officials for questioning, which may last for months. Communist Party members suspected of crimes are generally dealt with outside the general criminal justice system, unless they are expelled from the party.

Bejesky, R. 2004. “Falun Gong and Re-education through Labor: Tradi- tional Rehabilitation for the ‘Misdirected’ to Protect Societal Stability within China’s Evolving Criminal Justice System.” Columbia Journal of Asian Law 17 (2): 147–89. Biddulph, S. 1996. “Law Reform in China.” Alternative Law Journal 21 (4): 178–84, 190. Biddulph, Sarah. 2007. Legal Reform and Administrative Detention Powers in China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Chu, Z. 2011. “Official Fear: Inside a Shuanggui Investigation Facility.” Dia Hua Human Rights Journal, July 5. http://www.duihuahrjournal. org/2011/07/official-fear-inside-shuanggui.html. Fu, H. 2005. “Punishing for Profit: Profitability and Rehabilitation in a Laojiao Institution.” In Engaging the Law in China: State, Society and Possibilities for Justice, edited by N. J. Diamant, S. B. Lubman, and K. J. O’Brien, 213–29. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Human Rights Watch. 2005. “We Could Disappear at Any Time”: Retalia- tion and Abuses against Chinese Petitioners. New York: Human Rights

14. J. Kinkel and W. Hurst, “Review Essay. Access to Justice in Post-Mao China: Assessing the Politics of Criminal and Administrative Law,” Journal of East Asian Studies 11, no. 3 (2011): 474, citing I. Belkin, “China’s Criminal Justice System: A Work in Progress,” Washington Journal of Modern China 6, no. 2 (2000): 9–10; and Sarah Biddulph, Legal Reform and Administrative Detention Powers in China (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 193, 195. 15. Belkin, “China,” 96. 358 Criminal Justice and Law Enforcement

Watch. http://www.hrw.org/reports/2005/12/07/we-could-disappear- any-time. Human Rights Watch. 2009. “An Alleyway in Hell”: China’s Abusive . New York: Human Rights Watch. http://www.hrw.org/re- ports/2009/11/12/alleyway-hell-0. Hung, V. M.-Y. (2003). “Improving : Should Re- education through Labor Be Abolished?” Columbia Journal of Transna- tional Law 41 (2): 303–26. Lewis, M. K., and J. A. Cohen. 2011. “The Enduring Importance of Police Repression: Laojiao, the Rule of Law and Taiwan’s Alternative Evolu- tion.” In The Impact of China’s 1989 Tienanmen Massacre, edited by J.-P. Beja, 142–53. New York: Routledge. Peerenboom, R. P. 2004. “Out of the Pan and into the Fire: Well-inten- tioned but Misguided Recommendations to Eliminate All Forms of Ad- ministrative Detention in China.” Northwestern University Law Review 98 (3): 991–1104. Sapio, F. 2008. “Shuanggui and Extralegal Detention in China.” China In- formation 22 (1): 7–37. Wu, H., T. Slingerland, and F. Lizhi. 1992. , the Chinese Gulag. Boul- der, CO: Westview Press. Yanyou, Y. 2008. “Arrest as Punishment: The Abuse of Arrest in the People’s Republic of China.” Punishment and Society 10 (1): 9–24. Yu, Ping. 2006. “Administrative Model v. Adjudication Model: The Impact of Administrative Detention in the Criminal Process of the People’s Re- public of China.” PhD diss., University of Washington, Seattle.

Courts

The courts in China are not considered independent. “The workings of courts are overseen by political legal commit- tees. Courts are also beholden to local governments as their budgets and personnel decisions are controlled by them.”16 The courts cannot make

16. Ibid., 92. Justice System of the People’s Republic of China 359 law, have no authority to invoke the Constitution, and likely do not have the authority to overturn administrative rules.17 Trials are generally very short—often lasting no more than a day and usually include a confession by the defendant. There is no separate sentencing hearing. There is no right to silence, and witnesses are rarely present in person.18

An, L., H. Ming, and P. Li-ping. 2011. “An Empirical Research on Chi- nese Sentence Decision-making.” Criminal Justice Studies 24 (3): 307– 18. Bian, J., and J. Li. 2006. “Seeing the Improvement of the Criminal Trial Structure from China’s Criminal Courtroom Arrangements (Tribunal Design).” Frontiers of Law in China 1 (2): 164–84. Chang, Y. 2004. “Courtroom Questioning as a Culturally Situated Persua- sive Genre of Talk.” Discourse and Society 15 (6): 705–22. Chang, Y. 2002. “Culture and Communication: An Ethnographic Study of Chinese Criminal Courtroom Communication” PhD diss., University of Iowa, Iowa City. Davidson, R., and Z. Wang. 1996. “The Court System in the People’s Repub- lic of China with a Case Study of Criminal Trial.” In Comparative and International Criminal Justice Systems: Policing, Judiciary, and Correc- tions, edited by O. N. I. Ebbe, 139–53. Boston: Butterworth-Heineman. Gechlik, M. Y. 2005. “Judicial Reform in China: Lessons from Shanghai.” Columbia Journal of Asian Law 19 (1): 97–137. He, X. 2004. “Ideology or Reality? Limited Judicial independence in Con- temporary Rural China.” Australian Journal of Asian Law 6 (3): 213–30. He, X. 2007. “Why Did They not Take on the Disputes? Law, Power, and Politics in the Decision-making of Chinese Courts.” International Jour- nal of Law in Context 3 (2): 203–25. He, X. 2009. “Court Finance and Court Responses to Judicial Reforms: A Tale of Two Chinese Courts.” Law & Policy 31 (4): 463–86. He, X. 2011. “Debt Collection in the Less Developed Regions of China: An Empirical Study from a Basic-Level Court in Shaanxi Province.” China Quarterly 206:253–75. He, X. 2012. “Black Hole of Responsibility: The Adjudication Committee’s Role in a Chinese Court.” Law & Society Review 46 (4): 681–712.

17. Ibid. 18. Ibid., 91. 360 Criminal Justice and Law Enforcement

Ip, E. C. 2011. “The Supreme People’s Court and the Political Economy of Judicial Empowerment in Contemporary China.” In “Reforming Chi- na’s Criminal Procedure”, Special Symposium Issue, Columbia Journal of Asian Law 24 (2): 367–436. Keith, R. C., and Z. Lin. 2009. “Judicial Interpretation of China’s Supreme People’s Court as Secondary Law with Special Reference to Criminal L aw.” China Information 23 (2): 223–55. Lancaster, R., and X. Ding. 2007. “Addressing the Emergence of Advocacy in the Chinese Criminal Justice System: A Collaboration between a U.S. and a Chinese Law School.” Fordham International Law Journal 30 (2): 356–73. Li, L. 2012. “The ‘Production’ of ’s Courts: Judicial Politics and Decision Making in a One-Party State.” Law & Social In- quiry 37 (4): 848–77. Liebman, B. 2007. “China’s Courts: Restricted Reform.” China Quarterly 191:620–38. Lu, H. and K. Drass. 2002. “Transience and the Disposition of Theft Cases in China.” Justice Quarterly 19 (1): 69–96. Lu, H., and T. D. Miethe. 2003. “Confessions and Criminal Case Disposi- tion in China.” Law & Society Review 37 (3): 549–78. McConville, M. 2011. Criminal Justice in China : An Empirical Inquiry. Cheltenham, UK , and Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar. Peerenboom, R., and X. He. 2009. “Dispute Resolution in China: Patterns, Causes and Prognosis.” East Asia Law Review 4:1–61. Shi, Y. 2008. “On Restorative Justice Practiced in China - Status, Challenge and Future of the Victim-Offender Reconciliation System.”Frontiers of Law in China 3 (2): 294–323. Trevaskes, S. 2002. “Courts on the Campaign Path in China: Criminal Court Work in the ‘Yanda 2001’ Anti-crime Campaign.” Asian Survey 42 (5): 673–93. Trevaskes, S. 2007. Courts and Criminal Justice in Contemporary China. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books. Yang, Y. 2007. “Reforms on the Criminal Compensation System of China.” Frontiers of Law in China 2 (3): 403–417. Zhang, Q. 2003. “The People’s Court in Transition: The Prospects of the Chinese Judicial Reform.” Journal of Contemporary China 12 (34): 69– 101. Zhu, S. L. 2007. “Political parties in China’s Judiciary.” Duke Journal of Comparative and International Law 17 (2): 533–560. Justice System of the People’s Republic of China 361

Corrections

This section includes works on postcriminal conviction punishment, but does not include the death penalty. Works on the death penalty have their own section. Laogai, or reform through labor, is the term given to punish- ment imposed after a criminal conviction.

Anderson, A. F. 1996. “A Perspective on China’s New Prison Law.” Interna- tional Criminal Justice Review 6 (1): 79–88. Bakken, B. 2004. “Moral Panics, Crime Rates and Harsh Punishment in China.” Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology 37(Suppl. 1): 67–89. Deng, X., L. Zhang, and A. Cordilia. 1998. “Social Control and Recidivism in China.” Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 14 (3): 281–95. Epstein, E. J., and S. H.-Y. Wong. 1996. “The Concept of ‘Dangerousness’ in the People’s Republic of China and its Impact on the Treatment of Prisoners.” British Journal of Criminology 36 (4): 472–95. Guo, J. 2012. “Anyone in My Shoes Will End up Like Me”: Female Inmates’ Discourse of Responsibility for Crime.” Discourse and Society 23 (1): 34–46. Kempton, N., N. Richardson. 2009. Laogai: The Machinery of Repression. Minneapolis, MN: Umbrage Editions. Laogai Handbook 2007–2008. (2008). Milpitas, CA: Laogai Research Foundation. Li, L. 2010. “Nulla Poena Sine Lege in China: Rigidity or Flexibility?” In “Symposium: Constitutional Review in China,” edited by Larry Catá Backer. Suffolk University Law Review43 (3): 655–667. Liang, B., and C. Wilson, 2008. “A Critical Review of Past Studies on China’s Corrections and Recidivism.” Crime, Law and Social Change 50 (3): 245–62. Liu, J. 2005. “Predicting Recidivism in a Communitarian Society: China.” International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 49 (4): 392–409. Liu, J., D. Zhou, A. E. Liska, S. F. Messner, M. D. Krohn, L. Zhang, and Z. Lu. 1998. “Status, Power, and Sentencing in China.” Justice Quarterly 15 (2): 289–300. Liu, J. 1999. “Social Capital and Covariates of Reoffending Risk in the Chinese context.” International Criminal Justice Review 9 (1): 39–55. 362 Criminal Justice and Law Enforcement

Lu, H., L. Zhang, and T. D. Miethe. 2002. “Interdependency, Communi- tarianism and Reintegrative Shaming in China.” Social Science Journal 39:189–201. Lu, H., and B. Kelly. 2008. “Courts and Sentencing Research on Contempo- rary China.” Crime, Law and Social Change 50 (3): 229–43. Qi, S., and D. Oberwittler. 2009. “On the Road to the Rule of Law: Crime, Crime Control, and Public Opinion in China.” European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research 15(1–2): 137–57. Ruddell, R., and M. G. Urbina. 2007. “Weak Nations, Political Repression, and Punishment.” International Criminal Justice Review 17 (2): 84–107. Seymour, J. D., R. Anderson. 1998. New Ghosts, Old Ghosts : Prisons and Labor Reform Camps in China. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe. Shaw, V. N. 2010. “Corrections and Punishment in China: Information and Analysis.” Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 26 (1): 53–71. Sui, M., L. Zhou, Y. Deng, and Y. Zhang. 2011. “Ethical Dilemma in Chi- nese Prison Hospital.” Journal of Medical Colleges of PLA 26 (2): 98–102. Sun, Q. 2008. “Perspectives on Chinese Establishing State Compensation System for Victim of Crimes.” Frontiers of Law in China 3 (3): 388–407. Trevaskes, S. 2003. “Public Sentencing Rallies in China: The Symbolizing of Punishment and Justice in a Socialist State.” Crime, Law and Social Change 39 (4): 359–82. Trevaskes, S. 2010. “The Shifting Sands of Punishment in China in the Era of ‘.’” Law and Policy 32 (3): 332–61. Wang, H. 2011. “Research on the Judicial Review and Variation of Sen- tence for the Death Penalty with a Suspension of Execution in Chinese Criminal Law.” Frontiers of Law in China 6 (2): 316–31. Williams, P. F., and Y. Wu. 2004. The Great Wall of Confinement: The Chi- nese Prison Camp through Contemporary Fiction and Reportage. Berke- ley: University of California Press. Yu, P. 2008. “Sentencing and Computation of Punishment—On ‘Comput- erized Sentencing.’” Frontiers of Law in China 3 (4): 507–24. Zhang, L., and L. Zhao. 2007. “The Punishment of Corporate Crime in China.” In International Handbook of White-collar and Corporate Crime, edited by H. Pontell and G. Geis, 663–79. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Zhu, S., L. Li, and Y. Li. 2011. “China’s Criminal Penalty for Medical Mal- practice: Too Lenient or Not?” Legal Medicine 13 (3): 116–19. Zongxian, W. 2003. “Western Prisons and Chinese Prisons: Focusing on differences.”European Journal of Crime, Criminal Law and Criminal Jus- tice 11 (1): 93–113. Justice System of the People’s Republic of China 363

Zou, B. 2012. “Improvement on Rights Protection of Criminals of Death Penalty in China.” Asian Social Science 8 (8): 40–44.

Death Penalty

The numbers of people put to death each year is a state secret, but inter- ested organizations do estimate numbers. The Dua Hua Human Rights Group has observed a dramatic reduction in the estimated annual capital punishment deaths, from 12,000 to 15,000 in 2000, to an estimated 4,000 occurrences in 2011.19 (Dua Hua Foundation, 2012).

Becker, C. 1999. “Money Talks, Money Kills: The Economics of Transplan- tation in and China.” Bioethics 13 (3–4): 236–43. Bingzhi, Z., and W. Yunfeng. 2009. “On Limiting and Abolishing the Death Penalty for Economic Crimes in China.” Chinese Sociology and Anthro- pology 41 (4): 14–40. Chen, X. 2006. “Destiny of the Death Penalty in China in the Contempo- rary Era.” Frontiers of Law in China 1 (1): 53–71. Jiang, S., and J. Wang. 2008. “Correlates of Support for Capital Punishment in China.” International Criminal Justice Review 18 (2): 24–38; erratum, 255. Johnson, D. T., and F. E. Zimring. 2009. The Next Frontier: National De- velopment, Political Change and the Death Penalty in Asia. New York: Oxford University Press. Lenning, E. 2007. “Execution for Body Parts: A Case of State Crime.” Con- temporary Justice Review 10 (2): 173–91. Lewis, M. K. 2011. “Leniency and Severity in China’s Death Penalty De- bate.” Columbia Journal of Asian Law 24 (2): 303–32. Lu, H., and T. D. Miethe. 2007. China’s Death Penalty: History, Law, and Contemporary Practices. New York: Routledge. Matas, D., and D. Kilgour. 2009. Bloody Harvest: The Killing of Falun Gong for their Organs. Ontario, Canada: Seraphim. Although this piece is not

19. “Criminal Justice,” Dui Hua Foundation, http://duihua.org/wp/?page_id=136. 364 Criminal Justice and Law Enforcement

a scholarly work, it has received considerable attention in Canada since its publication. Matas, D., and T. Trey, eds. 2012. State Organs: Transplant Abuse in China. Woodstock, Ontario, Canada: Seraphim. Although this piece is not a scholarly work, it has received considerable attention in Canada since its publication. Trevaskes, S. 2008. “The Death Penalty in China Today: Kill Fewer, Kill Cautiously.” Asian Survey 48 (3): 393–413.

Juvenile Justice

Bakken, B. 1993. “Crime, Juvenile Delinquency and Deterrence Policy in China.” Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs 30:29–58. Bao, W. N., A. Haas, and Y. Pi. 2004. “Life Strain, Negative Emotions, and Delinquency: An Empirical Test of General Strain Theory in the People’s Republic of China.” International Journal of Offender Therapy and Com- parative Criminology 48 (3): 281–97. Bao, W. N, and A. Haas. 2009. “Social Change, Life Strain, and Delin- quency among Chinese Urban Adolescents.” Sociological Focus 42 (3): 285–305. Choi, A., and T. W. Lo. 2002. Fighting Youth Crime: Success and Failure of Two Little Dragons. : Times Academic Press. Liu, R. X. 2011. “Strain as a Moderator of the Relationship between Paren- tal Attachment and Delinquent Participation: A China Study.” Interna- tional Criminal Justice Review 21 (4): 427–42. Liu, R. X. 2012. “The Effects of Strain and Centrality of Strain on Delinquen- cy among Chinese Adolescents.” Sociological Inquiry 82 (4): 578–600. Mazerolle, P. 2009. “A Response to ‘Social Change, Life Strain, and Delin- quency among Chinese Urban Adolescents’: Thoughts on the Broader Implication of China’s Economic Success on the Production of Delin- quency.” Sociological Focus 42 (3): 306–11. Webb, V. J., L. Ren, J. S. Zhao, N. P. He, and I. H. Marshall. 2011. “A Com- parative Study of Youth Gangs in China and the United States: Defini- tion, Offending, and Victimization.” International Criminal Justice Re- view 21 (3): 225–42. Justice System of the People’s Republic of China 365

Wei, Z., R. Homel, J. Prichard, and J. Xu. 2004. “Patterns of Juvenile Of- fending in Shanghai and Brisbane.” Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology 37 (Suppl. 1): 32–51. Wong, D. S. W. 1999. “Delinquency Control and Juvenile Justice in China.” Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology 32 (1): 27–41. Wong, D. S. W. 2001. “Changes in Juvenile Justice in China.” Youth and Society 32 (4): 492–509. Wong, D. S. W. 2004. “Juvenile Protection and Delinquency Prevention Policies in China.” Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology 37(Suppl. 1): 52–66. Xiang, G. 1999. “Delinquency and its Prevention in China.” International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 43 (1): 61– 70. Zhang, L., and J. Liu. 2007. “China’s Juvenile Delinquency Prevention Law: The Law and the Philosophy.” International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 51 (5): 541–54. Zhang, L. 1994. “Peers’ Rejection as a Possible Consequence of Official Re- action to Delinquency in Chinese Society.” Criminal Justice and Behav- ior 21 (4): 387–402. Zhang, L. 2008. “Juvenile Delinquency and Justice in Contemporary Chi- na: A Critical Review of the Literature over 15 years.” Crime, Law and Social Change 50 (3): 149–60.

Forensic Psychology and Psychiatry

Bonnie, R. J. 2002. “Political Abuse of Psychiatry in the Soviet Union and in China: Complexities and Controversies.” Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law 30 (1): 136–44. Chan, K. L. 2011. “Association between Childhood Sexual Abuse and Adult Sexual Victimization in a Representative Sample in Hong Kong Chinese.” Child Abuse and Neglect 35 (3): 220–29. Chinese Human Rights Defenders. 2012. “The Darkest Corners”: Abuses of Involuntary Psychiatric Commitment in China. Washington, DC: Chi- nese Human Rights Defenders. http://chrdnet.com/?p=6385. 366 Criminal Justice and Law Enforcement

Freckelton, I. 2010. “Mental Illness, Sentencing and Execution: The Dis- turbing Death of an Englishman in China.” Psychiatry, Psychology and Law 17 (3): 333–44. Gao, B., W. H. Reid, and J. Li. 2011. “Forensic Psychiatry in the People’s Republic of China.” Journal of Psychiatric Practice 17 (2): 129–32. Hu, J., M. Yang, X. Huang, and J. Coid. 2011. “Forensic Psychiatry in Chi- na.” International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 34 (1): 7–12. Liao, D. L., C. J. Hong, H. L. Shih, and S. J. Tsai. 2004. “Possible Associa- tion between Serotonin Transporter Promoter Region Polymorphism and Extremely Violent Crime in Chinese Males.” Neuropsychobiology 50 (4): 284–87. Lu, S. Y., and V. B. Galli. 2002. “Psychiatric Abuse of Falun Gong Practitio- ners in China.” Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law 30 (1): 126–30. Maercker, A., C. Mohiyeddini, M. Müller, W. Xie, Z. H. Yang, J. Wang, and J. Müller. 2009. “Traditional versus Modern Values, Self-perceived In- terpersonal Factors, and Posttraumatic Stress in Chinese and German Crime Victims.” Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice 82 (2): 219–32. Munro, R. 2000. “Judicial Psychiatry in China and its Political Abuses.” Columbia Journal of Asian Law 14 (1): 1–128. Munro, R. 2001. “Political Psychiatry in China: A Glance at the Documen- tary Evidence (Part 2).” Mental Health Reforms 6 (1): 6–9. Munro, R. 2002. Dangerous Minds: Political Psychiatry in China Today and its Origins in the Mao Era. New York: Human Rights Watch. http://www. hrw.org/reports/2002/china02/. Munro, R. 2002. “On the Psychiatric Abuse of Falun Gong and Other Dissenters in China: A Reply to Stone, Hickling, Kleinman, and Lee.” Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law 30 (2): 266–74. Munro, R. J. 2002. “Political Psychiatry in Post-Mao China and its Origins in the .” Journal of the American Academy of Psychia- try and the Law 30 (1): 97–106. Schwartz, D., L. Chang, and J. M. Farver. 2001. “Correlates of Victimiza- tion in Chinese Children’s Peer Groups.” Developmental Psychology 37 (4): 520–32. Stone, A. A. 2002. “Psychiatrists on the Side of the Angels: The Falun Gong and Soviet Jewry.” Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law 30 (1): 107–11. Justice System of the People’s Republic of China 367

Wang, F. M., J. Q. Chen, W. Q. Xiao, Y. T. Ma, and M. Zhang. 2012. “Peer Physical Aggression and its Association with Aggressive Beliefs, Em- pathy, Self-control, and Cooperation Skills among Students in a Rural Town of China.” Journal of Interpersonal Violence 27 (16): 3252–67. Wang, X., J. D. Livingston, J. Brink, and E. Murphy. 2006. “Persons Found ‘Not Criminally Responsible on Account of Mental Disorder’: A Com- parison of British Columbia, Canada and Hunan, China.” Forensic Sci- ence International 164 (2–3): 93–97. Wang, Y., K. Xu, G. Cao, M. Qian, J. Shook, and A. L. Ai. 2012. “Child Mal- treatment in an Incarcerated Sample in China: Prediction for Crime Types in Adulthood.” Children and Youth Services Review 34 (8): 1553–59. Yuqiang, L. 2012. “Research on the Legal Attributes and Values of Foren- sic Testimony in Criminal Proceedings from the Perspective of Legal Norms.” Social Sciences in China 33 (4): 157–67. Zhou, J., C. Chen, X. Wang, W. Cai, S. Zhang, C. Qiu, H. Wang, Y. Luo, and S. Fazel. 2012. “Psychiatric Disorders in Adolescent Boys in Deten- tion: A Preliminary Prevalence and Case-control Study in Two Chinese provinces.” Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology 23(5/6): 664–75.

Forensic Science

A complete bibliography of Chinese forensic science is beyond the scope of the work. This section illustrates the scope, if not the extent, of recent forensic science work carried out in China.

Bai, R., Z. Zhang, Q. Liang, D. Lu, L. Yuan, X. Yang, and M. Shi. 2013. “Haplotype Diversity of 17 Y-STR Loci in a Chinese Han Population Sample from Shanxi Province, Northern China.” Forensic Science Inter- national: Genetics 7 (1): 214–16. Chen, J., H. Pu, Y. Chen, H. Chen, R. Ma, S. Xie, and L. Zhang. 2012. “Pop- ulation Genetic Data of 15 Autosomal STR Loci in Uygur Ethnic Group of China.” Forensic Science International: Genetics 6 (6): e178–e179. Guo, Z., Zheng, H., Lu, Y., & Wei, Y. (2012). Isolation and purification of from heroin street samples by preparative high performance liq- uid chromatography. Forensic Science International, 221(1–3), 120–124. 368 Criminal Justice and Law Enforcement

Guo Y. D., J. F. Cai, F. M. Meng, Y. F. Chang, Y. Gu, L. M. Lan, L. Liang, and J. F. Wen. 2012. “Identification of Forensically Important Flesh Flies Based on a Shorter Fragment of the Cytochrome Oxidase Subunit I Gene in China.” Medical and Veterinary Entomology 26 (3): 307–13. Li, Q., T. Qiu, H. Hao, H. Zhou, T. Wang, Y. Zhang, X. Li, G. Huang, and J. Cheng. 2012. “Rapid and On-site Analysis of Illegal Drugs on the Na- no-microscale Using a Deep Ultraviolet-Visible Reflected Optical Fiber Sensor.” Analyst 137 (7): 1596–1603. Ma, Y., J. Z. Kuang, W. Zhu, Z. Yang, Y. J. Wang, T. G. Nie, C. Li, and Y. P. Hou. 2012. “A Y-chromosomal Haplotype with Two Short Tandem Re- peat Mutations.” Journal of Forensic Sciences 57 (6): 1630–33. Tang, J., R. Chen, and X. Lai. 2012. “Stature Estimation from Hand Dimen- sions in a Han Population of Southern China.” Journal of Forensic Sci- ences 57 (6): 1541–44. Tang, Z.C., Y. D. Guo, X. W. Zhang, J. Shi, K. T. Yang, X. L. Li, Y. Q. Chen, and J. F. Cai. 2012. “Identification of the Forensically Important Beetles Nicrophorus japonicus, Ptomascopus plagiatus and Silpha carinata (Co- leoptera: Silphidae) Based on 16S rRNA Gene in China.” Tropical Bio- medicine 29 (3): 493–98. Wei, Y. L., C. X. Li, J. Jia, L. Hu, and Y. Liu. 2012. “Forensic Identification Using a Multiplex Assay of 47 SNPs.” Journal of Forensic Sciences 57 (6): 1448–56. Wang, X., R. Wang, Y. Zhang, C. Liang, H. Ye, F. Cao, and Y. Rao. 2012. “Extending the Detection Window of Diazepam by Directly Analyzing its Glucuronide Metabolites in Human Urine Using Liquid Chroma- tography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry.” Journal of Chromatography A 1268:29–34. Wang, X. F., J. Yu, A. L. Zhang, D. W. Zhou, and M. X. Xie. 2012. “Non- destructive Identification for Red Ink Entries of Seals by Raman and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometry.” Spectrochimica Acta. Part A, Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy 97:986–94. Yang, L., Y. Zhao, C. Liu, D. W. T. Chan, M. Chan, and M. He. 2013. “Allele Frequencies of 15 STRs in Five Ethnic Groups (Han, Gelao, Jing, Shui and Zhuang) in .” Forensic Science International: Genetics 7 (1): e9–e14. Zhang, Y., D. Lv, D. Tong, X. Mao, Y. Zhou, C. Zhou, Y. Zaerhumaer, Y. Zang, and Z. Chen. 2013. “Allele Frequencies of 12 Y-chromosomal STRs in Chinese Tuvans in the Altay Region.” Forensic Science Interna- tional: Genetics 7 (1): e7–e8. Justice System of the People’s Republic of China 369

Crime

General

Broadhurst, R., B. Bouhours, and T. Bouhours. 2012. “Business and the Risk of Crime in China.” British Journal of Criminology 53 (2): 276–96 . Cheng, H. 2012. “Cheap Capitalism: A Sociological Study of Food Crime in China.” British Journal of Criminology 52 (2): 254–73. Curran, D. J. 1998. “Economic Reform, the Floating Population, and Crime: The Transformation of Social Control in China.” Journal of Con- temporary Criminal Justice 14 (3): 262–80. Ding, X. L. 2001. “The Quasi-criminalization of a Business Sector in Chi- na: Deconstructing the Construction-Sector Syndrome. Crime, Law and Social Change 35 (3): 177–201. Dong, X., M. A. Simon, M. Gorbien, J. Percak, and R. Golden. 2007. “Lone- liness in Older Chinese Adults: A Risk Factor for Elder Mistreatment.” Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 55 (11): 1831–35. Greenlee, M. J. 2006. “A King who Devours his People: Jiang Zemin and the Falun Gong Crackdown: A Bibliography.” International Journal of Legal Information 34 (3): 556–84. Jiang, S., E. Lambert, and J. Wang. 2007. “Correlates of Formal and Infor- mal Social/Crime Control in China: An Exploratory Study.” Journal of Criminal Justice 35 (3): 261–71. Kaltman, B. 2007. Under the Heel of the Dragon: Islam, Racism, Crime, and the Uighur in China. Athens: Ohio University Press. Keith, R. C., and Z. Lin. 2006. New Crime in China: Public Order and Hu- man Rights. Routledge Contemporary China Series, 5. New York: Rout- ledge. Leheny, D., and S. Liu. 2010. “The Politics of Crime, Punishment, and Social Order in East Asia.” Annual Review of Law and Social Science 6:239–58. Liu, J. 2005. “Crime Patterns during the Market Transition in China.” Brit- ish Journal of Criminology 45:613–33. Liu, J. 2006. “Modernization and Crime Patterns in China.” Journal of Criminal Justice 34 (2): 119–30. Liu, J., S. F. Messner, and A. E. Liska. 1997. “Chronic Offenders in China.” International Criminal Justice Review 7 (1): 31–45. Liu, M. 2011. “Credit Card Fraud under Chinese Criminal Law.” Frontiers of Law in China 6 (3): 369–86. 370 Criminal Justice and Law Enforcement

Lo, T. W., and G. Jiang. 2006. “Inequality, Crime and the Floating Popula- tion in China.” Asian Journal of Criminology 1 (2): 103–18. Peng, C., S. Xueming, Y. Hongyong, and L. Dengsheng. 2011. “Assessing Temporal and Weather Influences on Property Crime in Beijing, China.” Crime, Law and Social Change 55 (1): 1–13. Ping, H. 2006. “Is Money Laundering a True Problem in China?” Interna- tional Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 50 (1): 101–16. Situ, Y., and W. Liu. 1996. “Restoring the Neighborhood, Fighting against Crime: A Case Study in Guangzhou City, People’s Republic of China.” International Criminal Justice Review 6 (1): 89–102. Taylor, T. J., P. C. Friday, X. Ren, E. G. M. Weitekamp, and H. J. Kerner. 2004. “Risk and Protective Factors Related to Offending: Results from a Chinese Cohort Study.” Australian and New Zealand Journal of Crimi- nology 37 (Suppl. 1): 13–31. Wang, W., H. Jia, Q. Wang, Z. Cai, L. Wei, D. Wang, and A. H. Bittles. 2003. “STR Polymorphisms of ‘Forensic Loci’ in the Northern Han Chinese Population.” Journal of Human Genetics 48 (7): 337–41. Yang, C. 1994. “Public Security Offences and their Impact on Crime Rates in China.” British Journal of Criminology 34 (1): 54–68. Zhang, L., and S. F. Messner. 1999. “Bonds to the Work Unit and Official Offense Status in Urban China.” International Journal of Offender Thera- py and Comparative Criminology 43 (3): 375–90. Zhang, L., S. F. Messner, D. Zhou, A. E. Liska, M. D. Krohn, J. Liu, and Z. Lu. 2000. “Organization of Ownership and Workplace Theft in China.” International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 44 (5): 581–92. Zhang, S. X. 1995. “Street Crime and Informal Social Control in an Anom- ic China.” Chinese Journal of Political Science 1 (1): 73–100. Zhong, G. L., and R. Broadhurst. 2006. “Building Little Safe and Civilized Communities: Community Crime Prevention with Chinese Charac- teristics?” International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 51 (1): 52–67. Zhong, L. 2008. Communities, Crime and Social Capital in Contemporary China. Portland, OR: Willan. This book examines the Building Little Safe and Civilized Communities crime prevention strategy]. Zhuo, Y., S. F. Messner, and L. Zhang. 2008. “Criminal Victimization in Contemporary China: A Review of the Evidence and Challenges for Fu- ture Research.” Crime, Law and Social Change 50 (3): 197–209. Justice System of the People’s Republic of China 371

Corruption

Ai, L. 2013. “A Cost-effective Strategy of Implementing International Anti- corruption Initiatives: Enhancing the Role of Anti-money Laundering in Combating Corruption.” Journal of Money Laundering Control 16 (1): 83–90. Deng, X., L. Zhang, and A. Leverentz. 2010. “Official Corruption during China’s Economic Transition: Historical Patterns, Characteristics, and Government Reactions.” Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 26 (1): 72–88. Fabre, G. 2001. “State, Corruption, and Criminalisation in China.” Interna- tional Social Science Journal 53 (169): 459–65. Fabre, G. 2002. “Decentralisation, Corruption and Criminalisation: China in Comparative Perspective.” China Report 38 (4): 547–69. Gong, T. 2002. “Dangerous Collusion: Corruption as a Collective Venture in Contemporary China.” Communist and Post-Communist Studies 35 (1): 85–103. Guo, Y. 2008. “Corruption in Transitional China: An Empirical Analysis.” China Quarterly 194: 349–64. Hao, Y., and M. Johnston. 2002. “Corruption and the Future of Economic Reform in China.” In Political Corruption: Concepts and Contexts, 3rd ed., edited by A. J. Heidenheimer and M. Johnston, 583–604. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction. Hsu, C. L. 2001. “Political Narratives and the Production of Legitimacy: The Case of Corruption in Post-Mao China.” Qualitative Sociology 24 (1): 25–54. Huaisheng, L. 2011. “Criminal Sanctions against Non-state Functionaries who Accept Bribes and Abuse Public Power.” Social Sciences in China 32 (4): 148–61. Keith, R. C., and Z. Lin. 1999. “‘Economic crime’ in China’s Transition to ‘Rule of Law Economy.’” China Report 35 (2): 143–61. Lewis, M. K. 2012. “Presuming Innocence, or Corruption, in China.” Co- lumbia Journal of Transnational Law 50:287–369. Lo, T. W. 1993. Corruption and Politics in Hong Kong and China. New Di- rections in Criminology. Philadelphia: Open University Press. Lu, H., and E. Gunnison. 2003. “Power, Corruption, and the Legal Process in China.” International Criminal Justice Review 13:28–49. Manion, M. 1998. “Issues in Corruption Control in Post-Mao China.” Is- sues and Studies 34 (9): 1–21. 372 Criminal Justice and Law Enforcement

Pei, M. 2007. “Corruption Threatens China’s Future.” Carnegie Endow- ment Policy Brief, 55, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Washington, DC. Qiuhong, X. 2011. “China’s Anti-corruption Strategies from the Viewpoint of Criminal Justice.” Social Sciences in China 32 (4): 176–91. Shieh, S. 2005. “The Rise of Collective Corruption in China: The Xiamen Smuggling Case.” Journal of Contemporary China 14 (42): 67–91. Wedeman, A. 2005. “Anticorruption Campaigns and the Intensification of Corruption in China.” Journal of Contemporary China 14 (42): 93–116. Youxiang, Z. 2012. “Recasting Anti-commercial Bribery Provisions in Criminal Law.” Social Sciences in China 33 (1): 92–103. Yu, O. 2008. “Corruption in China’s Economic Reform: A Review of Recent Ob- servations and Explanations.” Crime, Law and Social Change 50 (3): 161–76. Zhigang, Y. 2011. “China’s System of Anti-corruption Charges: The Tight- ening-Up Process and Future Development.” Social Sciences in China 32 (4): 128–47. Zhu, J. 2012. “Do Severe Penalties Deter Corruption? A Game-Theoretic Analysis of the Chinese Case.” China Review 12 (2): 1–32.

Organized Crime and Terrorism

August, O. 2007. Inside the Red Mansion: On the Trail of China’s Most Wanted Man. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. This is a journalist’s anecdotal account of searching for entrepreneur-gangster Lai Changxing. Chen, A. 2005. “Secret Societies and Organized Crime in Contemporary China.” Modern Asian Studies 39 (1): 77–107. Chung, J., H. Lai, and M. Xia. 2006. “Mounting Challenges to Governance in China: Surveying Collective Protestors, Religions Sects and Criminal Organizations.” China Journal 56:1–31. Wayne, M. I. 2008. China’s War on Terrorism: Counter-insurgency, Politics, and Internal Security. New York: Routledge. Zhang, L., S. F. Messner, Z. Lu, and X. Deng. 1997. “Gang Crime and its Punishment in China.” Journal of Criminal Justice 25 (4): 289–302. Zhang, S., and K.-L. Chin. 2003. “The Declining Significance of Triad So- cieties in Trans-national Illegal Activities: A Structural Deficiency Per- spective.” British Journal of Criminology 43:469–88. Zhang, S. X., and K. Chin. 2008. “Snakeheads, Mules, and Protective Um- brellas: A Review of Current Research on Chinese Organized Crime.” Crime, Law and Social Change 50 (3): 177–95. Justice System of the People’s Republic of China 373

Zhao, L. S. 2012. “Chinese Underground Banks and their Connections with Crime: A Review and an Appraisal.” International Criminal Justice Review 22 (1): 5–23.

Drugs, Alcohol, and Tobacco

Biddulph, S., and C. Xie. 2011. “Regulating Drug Dependency in China: The 2008 PRC Drug Prohibition Law.” British Journal of Criminology 51 (6): 978–96. Clarke, R. 2008. “Narcotics Trafficking in China: Size, Scale, Dynamic and Future Consequences. Pacific Affairs 81 (1): 73–93. Gao, H. 2011. Women and Heroin Addiction in China’s Changing Society. New York: Routledge. Gu, J., H. Xu, J. T. F. Lau, Y. Hao, Y. Zhong, L. Fan, and W. Ling. 2012. “Mis- conceptions Predict Dropout and Poor Adherence Prospectively among Newly Admitted First-time Methadone Maintenance Treatment Clients in Guangzhou, China.” Addiction 107 (9): 1641–49. Hser, Y. I., L. Fu, F. Wu, J. Du, and M. Zhao. 2013. “Pilot Trial of a Recovery Management Intervention for Heroin Addicts Released from Compul- sory Rehabilitation in China.” Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment 44 (1): 78–83. Huang, K., J. Liu, R. Zhao, G. Zhao, and P. C. Friday. 2012. “Chinese Nar- cotics Trafficking: A Preliminary Report.” International Journal of Of- fender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 56 (1): 134–52. Huang, K., L. Zhang, and J. Liu. 2011. “Drug Problems in Contemporary China: A Profile of Chinese Drug Users in a Metropolitan Area.” Inter- national Journal of Drug Policy 22 (2): 128–32. Liang, B., H. Lu, and M. Taylor. 2009. “Female Drug Abusers, Narcotics Offenders, and Legal Punishment in China.” Journal of Criminal Justice 37 (2): 133–41. Lu, H., T. D. Miethe, and B. Liang. 2009. China’s Drug Practices and Poli- cies : Regulating Controlled Substances in a Global Context. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate. Lu, Hong, and B. Liang. 2008. “Legal Responses to Trafficking in Narcotics and Other Narcotic Offenses in China.”International Criminal Justice Review 18: 212–28. Trevaskes, S. 2010. “The People’s War on Drugs.” InPolicing Serious Crime in China: From “Strike Hard” to “Kill Fewer,” 124–142. New York: Rout- ledge. This chapter follows the 2005–07 campaign against illegal drugs. 374 Criminal Justice and Law Enforcement

VonLampe, K., M. K. Kurti, A. Shen, and G. A. Antonopoulos. 2012. “The Changing Role of China in the Global Illegal Cigarette Trade.” Interna- tional Criminal Justice Review 22 (1): 43–67. VonLampe, K., A. Shen, and G. Antonopoulos. 2010. “‘The Dragon Breathes Smoke’: Cigarette Counterfeiting in the People’s Republic of China.” British Journal of Criminology 50 (2): 239–258. Zhang, L., J. Liu, and K. Huang. 2011. “The Role of Criminal Justice Sys- tem in Treating Drug Abusers: The Chinese Experience.”Journal of Sub- stance Abuse Treatment 41 (1): 45–54. Zhang, L., J. W. Welte, W. F. Wieczorek, and S. F. Messner. 2000. “Alcohol and Crime in China.” Substance Use and Misuse 35 (3): 265–79.

Sex Crimes

Anderson, A. F., and V. E. Gil. 1998. “China’s Modernization and the De- cline of Communitarianism: The Control of Sex Crimes and Implica- tions for the Fate of Informal Social Control.” Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 14 (3): 248–61. Anderson, A. F., and V. E. Gil. 1994. “Prostitution and Public Policy in the People’s Republic of China: An Analysis of the Rehabilitative Ideal.” In- ternational Criminal Justice Review 4:23–36. Chan, K. L. 2009. “Sexual Violence against Women and Children in Chi- nese Societies.” Trauma, Violence, and Abuse 10 (1): 69–85. Jeffreys, E. 2004.China, Sex and Prostitution. New York: Routledge. Kaufman, J. 2011. “HIV, Sex Work, and Civil Society in China.” Journal of Infectious Diseases 204 (Suppl. 5): S1218–22. Liu, M. 2012. “Chinese Migrant Women in the Sex Industry: Exploring their Paths to Prostitution.” Feminist Criminology 7(4): 327–49. Liu, M., and J. O. Finckenauer. 2010. “The Resurgence of Prostitution in China: Explanations and Implications.” Journal of Contemporary Crimi- nal Justice 26 (1): 89–102. Lu, H., J. Liu, and A. Crowther. 2006. “Female Criminal Victimization and Criminal Justice Response in China.” British Journal of Criminology 46 (5): 859–74. This article examines sexual assault. Runge, R. R. 2012. “International Perspective: Learning from China about Ending Violence against Women.” Report 18 (2): 19–20. Schuckman, E. 2006. “Antitrafficking Policies in Asia and the Russian Far East: A Comparative Perspective.” Demokratizatsiya: The Journal of Post-Soviet Democratization 14 (1): 85–102. Justice System of the People’s Republic of China 375

Vincent E, G., and A. F. Anderson. 1999. “Case Study of Rape in Contem- porary China: A Cultural-Historical Analysis of Gender and Power Dif- ferentials.” Journal of Interpersonal Violence 14 (11): 1151–71. Zhao, G. M. 2003. “Trafficking of Women for Marriage in China: Policy and Practice.” Criminal Justice 3 (1): 83–102.

Intimate Partner Violence

Paris, W. L., T. Wang, E. O. Laumann, S. Pan, and Y. Luo. 2004. “Intimate Partner Violence in China: National Prevalence, Risk Factors and Asso- ciated Health Problems.” International Family Planning Perspectives 30 (4): 174–81. Shen, A. C. T., M. Y. L. Chiu, and J. Gao. 2012. “Predictors of Dating Vio- lence among Chinese Adolescents: The Role of Gender-Role Beliefs and Justification of Violence.” Journal of Interpersonal Violence 27 (6): 1066–89. Yanqiu, G., W. Yan, and A. Lin. 2011. “Suicidal Ideation and the Prevalence of Intimate Partner Violence against Women in Rural .” Violence against Women 17 (10): 1299–1312. Zhang, W. 2006. “Curbing Domestic Violence in China: Towards an Effec- tive Criminal Justice Response.” PhD diss. Dalhousie University, Hali- fax, Nova Scotia, Canada.

Environmental Crimes

Dong, H. 2007. “Why Does Environmental Compliance Cost More than Penalty? A Legal Analysis on Environmental Acts of Enterprises in Chi- na.” Frontiers of Environmental Science and Engineering in China 1 (4): 434–42. Goelz, D. J. 2009. “China’s Environmental Problems: Is a Specialized Court the Solution?” Pacific Rim Law & Policy Journal 18 (1): 155–87. Moyle, B. 2009. “The Black Market in China for Tiger Products.”Global Crime 10 (1–2): 124–43. Pils, E. 2005. “Land Disputes, Rights Assertion, and Social Unrest in China: A Case from Sichuan.” Columbia Journal of Asian Law 19 (1): 235–92. Tyler, Z. 2006. “Transboundary Water Pollution in China: An Analysis of the Legal Framework to Protect Downstream Jurisdictions.” Columbia Journal of Asian Law 19 (2): 572–614. 376 Criminal Justice and Law Enforcement

Van Rooij, B. 2006. “Regulating Land and Pollution in China: Lawmaking, Compliance, and Enforcement; Theory and Cases.” Phd diss. Leiden University Press, Leiden, the Netherlands. https://openaccess.leide- nuniv.nl/handle/1887/5433. Van Rooij, B., and C. Wi.-H. Lo. 2010. “Fragile Convergence: Understand- ing Variation in the Enforcement of China’s Industrial Pollution Law.” Law & Policy 32 (1): 14–37. Wang, S. 2004. “Environmental Crime and Environmental Criminal Law in the People’s Republic of China.” European Journal of Crime, Criminal Law and Criminal Justice 12 (2): 150–65.

Transnational Issues

Bakker, C. A. E. 2006. “Universal Jurisdiction of Spanish Courts over Genocide in : Can it Work?” Journal of International Criminal Jus- tice 4 (3): 595–601. Chi, M. 2012. “Finding out the ‘Achilles’ Heels’: Piracy Suppression under International Law and Chinese Law.” Journal of East Asia and Interna- tional Law 5 (1): 7–36. Findlay, M. 2010. “The Challenge for Asian Jurisdictions in the Develop- ment of International Criminal Justice.” Singapore Journal of Legal Stud- ies, July, 37–57. Hastings, V. J. 2009. “Illicit Flows in the Hong Kong-China-Taiwan Tri- angle.” Issues and Studies 45 (2): 185–220. Jianping, L., and W. Zhixiang. 2005. “China’s Attitude towards the ICC.” Journal of International Criminal Justice 3 (3): 608–20. Lewis, M. 2007. “China’s Implementation of the United Nations Conven- tion against Transnational Organized Crime.” Asian Journal of Crimi- nology 2 (2): 179–96. Mattis, P. L. 2012. “Assessing Western Perspectives on Chinese Intelligence.” International Journal of Intelligence & Counterintelligence 25 (4): 678–99. Moran, N. R. 2002. “The Globalization of Russian, Colombian, and Chi- nese Organized Crime from 1991–2001: A Time-series Analysis.” PhD diss. Sam Houston State University, Huntsville, Texas. Schloenhardt, A. 2001. “Trafficking in Migrants: Illegal Migration and -Or ganized Crime in Australia and the Asia Pacific Region.” International Journal of the Sociology of Law 29 (4): 331–78. Zheng, X. F. 2002. “Organised Crime in Mainland China and its Coun- termeasures against Cross Border Organised Crime.” In Transnational Justice System of the People’s Republic of China 377

Organized Crime. Bridging the GAP: A Global Alliance Perspective. Con- ference Proceedings, Hong Kong, March 18–21, 2002, edited by R. G. Broadhurst, 249–53. Hong Kong: .

Intellectual Property

Hu, R. 2009. “Protecting Intellectual Property in China: A Selective Bibli- ography and Resource for Research.” Law Library Journal 101 (4): 485– 515. Liu, C. 2004. “Chinese Law on Trade, Investment and Intellectual Property Rights: A Bibliography of Selected English-Language Materials.” Inter- national Journal of Legal Information 32 (1): 1–33. Liu, H. 2010. “The Criminal Enforcement of Intellectual Property Rights in China: Recent Developments and Implications.” Asian Journal of Crimi- nology 5 (2): 137–56. Ma, Z., and W. Gao. 2012. “Impact of the ‘Tomato Garden’ Software In- ternet Piracy Case on Combating Copyright Infringement in China.” Journals of Intellectual Property Rights 17 (1): 27–36. Shao, K. 2010. “The Promotion of Learning in Chinese History: Discover- ing the Lost Soul of Modern Copyright.” Columbia Journal of Asian Law 24 (1): 63–85. Tang, G. H. 2010. “Is Administrative Enforcement the Answer? Copyright Protection in the Digital Era.” Computer Law and Security Review 26 (4): 406–17.

Cybercrime

Chang, Y. C. 2012. “Combating Cybercrime across the Taiwan Strait: In- vestigation and Prosecution Issues.” Australian Journal of Forensic Sci- ences 44 (1): 5–14. Heinonen, J. A., T. J. Holt, and J. M. Wilson. 2012. “Product Counterfeits in the Online Environment: An Empirical Assessment of Victimization and Reporting Characteristics.” International Criminal Justice Review 22 (4): 353–71. Kshetri, N. 2013. “Cybercrime and Cyber-security Issues Associated with China: Some Economic and Institutional Considerations.” Electronic Commerce Research 13 (1): 41–69. Liang, B, and H. Lu. 2012. “Fighting the Obscene, Pornographic, and Un- healthy—An Analysis of the Nature, Extent, and Regulation of China’s 378 Criminal Justice and Law Enforcement

Online Pornography within a Global Context.” Crime, Law and Social Change 58 (2): 111–30. Liang, B., and H. Lu. 2010. “Internet Development, Censorship, and Cy- ber Crimes in China.” Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 26 (1): 103–20. Wan, H. A., and M. T. Lu. 1997. “An Analysis of Chinese Laws against Com- puter Crimes.” Journal of Global Information Management 5 (2): 16–21. Zhigang, Y. 2011. “Cyber Variants of Traditional Crimes and Criminal Law Responses.” Social Sciences in China 32 (1): 66–79.

Public Opinion, Attitudes, and Media

Cao, L., and C. Hou. 2001. “A Comparison of Confidence in the Police in China and in the United States.” Journal of Criminal Justice 29 (2): 87–99. Cao, L., and F. Cullen. 2001. “Thinking about Crime and Control: A Com- parative Study of Chinese and American Ideology.” International Crimi- nal Justice Review 11:58–81. Huang, X. 2012. “Re-legalization or De-legalization? Netizens’ Participa- tion in Criminal Justice Practices in China.” British Journal of Criminol- ogy 52 (4): 724–43. Jiang, S., I. Y. Sun, and J. Wang. 2012. “Citizens’ Satisfaction with Police in Guangzhou, China.” Policing 35 (4): 801–21. Lambert, E. G., and S. Jiang. 2006. “A Comparison of Chinese and US col- lege students’ Crime and Crime Control Views.” Asian Journal of Crimi- nology 1 (1): 37–49. Li, W. 2008. “Transformation of the view on crimes in modern China.” Frontiers of Law in China 3 (1): 98–122. Liang, B., H. Lu, T. D. Miethe, and L. Zhang. 2006. “Sources of Variation in Pro-death Penalty Attitudes in China.” British Journal of Criminology 46 (1): 119–30. Liebman, B. L. 2005. “Watchdog or Demagogue? The Media in the Chinese Legal System.” Columbia Law Review 105 (1): 1–157.. Liu, J., Messner, S. F., Zhang, L., & Zhuo, Y. (2009). “Socio-demographic Cor- relates of Fear of Crime and the Social Context of Contemporary Urban China.” American Journal of Community Psychology 44 (1–2): 93–108. Justice System of the People’s Republic of China 379

Lu, H., and B. Liang. 2011. “Introduction: Public Participation and Involve- ment in the Criminal Justice System in Asia.” Asian Journal of Criminol- ogy 6 (2): 125–30. Nielsen, I., and R. Smyth. 2008. “Who Wants Safer Cities? Perceptions of Public Safety and Attitudes to Migrants among China’s Urban Popula- tion.” International Review of Law and Economics 28 (1): 46–55. Song, Y. I., and B. C. Lee. 1998. “Group Self-criticism Rituals and Devi- ance Deterrence in the People’s Republic of China.” China Report 34 (1): 69–85. Wu, Y. 2010. “College Students’ Evaluation of Police Performance: A Com- parison of Chinese and Americans.” Journal of Criminal Justice 38 (4): 773–80. Wu, Y., S. Jiang, and E. Lambert. 2011. “Citizen Support for Community Policing in China.” Policing 34 (2): 285–303. Wu, Y., I. Y. Sun, and Z. Wu. 2011. “Support for the Death Penalty: Chinese and American College Students Compared.” Punishment and Society 13 (3): 354–76. Wu, Y., S. Jiang, and E. Lambert. 2011. “Citizen Support for Community Policing in China.” Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management 34(2), 285–303. Zhang, L., S. F. Messner, and Z. Lu. 1999. “Public Legal Education and In- mates’ Perceptions of the Legitimacy of Official Punishment in China.” British Journal of Criminology 39 (3): 433–49. Zhang, Y. 2011. “A Cross-cultural Study of Crime Judgment.” PhD diss. University of California, Irvine. Zhong, H., M. Hu, and B. Liang. 2011. “Public Opinions on Criminal Trials in China: A Comparative Study of Chinese College Students in the PRC and Hong Kong.” Asian Journal of Criminology 6 (2): 191–205. Zhong, L. Y. 2010. “Bystander Intervention and Fear of Crime: Evidence from Two Chinese Communities.” International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 54 (2): 250–63. Zhuo, Y. 2012. “Social Capital and Satisfaction with Crime Control in Ur- ban China.” Asian Journal of Criminology 7 (2): 121–36. 380 Criminal Justice and Law Enforcement

Law

General

There are many works written about the law in China, especially about business law and the rule-of-law debate. The following have been selected as useful introductions to Chinese law and contemporary legal issues. The China Quarterly has had two special issues on the Chinese legal system, one in 1995 (volume 141) with a follow-up in 2007 (volume 191), which included articles on the courts and policing. A special issue of the Columbia Journal of Asian Law in 2005 (volume 19, no. 1) included articles on Chinese law from a conference honoring eminent legal scholar Stanley Lubman. In 2003, the NYU Journal of International Law and Politics dedicat- ed an issue (volume 43, no. 3) to the eminent China scholar, and New York University professor, Jerome A. Cohen; its articles focused on the exclusion- ary rule. Volume 24, no. 2 of the Columbia Journal of Asian Law published articles from the symposium “Reforming China’s Criminal Procedure Law,” discussing the state of the law before the 2012 amendments. Both the Asia Pacific Law Review and the Columbia Journal of Asian Law focus on China, the latter to the point of exclusivity.

Chinese Legal System. N.d. http://www.lawinfochina.com/Legal/index. shtm. This webpage provides a very brief introduction from a Chinese legal database provider. Chen, J. 2007. “The Transformation of Chinese Law: From Formal to Sub- stantial.” Hong Kong Law Journal 37 (2): 689–739. Chow, D. C. K. 2009. The Legal System of the People’s Republic of China in a Nutshell. 2nd ed. St. Paul, MN: Thomson West. Clarke, D. C. 2007. “Introduction: The Chinese Legal System since 1995: Steady Development and Striking Continuities.” In China’s legal system: New developments, new challenges, edited by Donald C. Clarke. Special issue, China Quarterly, no. 191, 555–566. Cohen, J. 2006. “China’s Legal Reform at the Crossroads.” Far Eastern Economic Review 169:23–28. http://www.cfr.org/china/chinas-legal-re- form-crossroads/p10063. Cohen, J. A. 2005. “Law in Political Transitions: Lessons from East Asia and the Road Ahead for China.” New York University Journal of Interna- tional Law and Politics 37 (3): 423–39. Justice System of the People’s Republic of China 381

Diamant, N. J., S. B. Lubman, and K. J. O’Brien. 2005. Engaging the Law in China: State, Society, and Possibilities for Justice. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. This anthology is a collection of essays by social scien- tists. Gallagher, M., and M. Woo, eds. 2011. Chinese Justice: Civil Dispute Resolu- tion in Contemporary China. New York: Cambridge University Press. Hsu, C. S., ed. 2003. Understanding China’s Legal System: A Festschrift in Honor of Jerome A. Cohen. New York: New York University Press. Jihong, M. O. 2009. “The Constitutional Law of the People’s Republic of China and its Development.” Columbia Journal of Asian Law 23 (1): 137–84. Liebman, B. 2009. “Assessing China’s Legal Reforms.” Columbia Journal of Asian Law 23 (1): 17–34. Liebman, B. L., and R. R. Edwards, eds. 2005. “Celebrating Stanley Lub- man.” Special issue, Columbia Journal of Asian Law, 19(1). This special issue honors Lubman’s contributions to Chinese legal studies. Lijiang, Z. 2010. “Chinese Practice in Public International Law: 2009.” Chi- nese Journal of International Law 9 (3): 607–62. Liu, J. 2005. “Finding Chinese Law on the Internet.” LawinfoChina.com. http://www.lawinfochina.com/Article/Article2.shtm. Lubman, S. 2003. “The Study of Chinese Law in the United States: Reflec- tions on the Past and Concerns about the Future.” Washington Univer- sity Global Studies Law Review 2 (1): 1–35. Lubman, S. 2006. “Looking for Law in China.” Columbia Journal of Asian Law 20 (1): 1–92. Peerenboom, R. 2006. “What Have We Learned about Law and Develop- ment? Describing, Predicting, and Assessing Legal Reforms in China.” Michigan Journal of International Law 27:823–71. Zhang, T. 2012. “The Pragmatic Court: Reinterpreting the Supreme Peo- ple’s Court of China.” Columbia Journal of Asian Law 25 (1): 1–61. van Rooij, B. 2012. “The People’s Regulation: Citizens and Implementation of Law in China.” Columbia Journal of Asian Law 25 (2): 116–79. 382 Criminal Justice and Law Enforcement

Criminal Law

For thirty years after the founding of the People’s Republic of China, there was no formal comprehensive criminal code or criminal procedure law,20 although there was a Police Act passed in 1957. In 1979, two years after the death of Mao, a criminal law and a criminal procedure law were put in place to “set forth the framework for the operation of criminal justice” and were “written at a relatively high degree of abstraction.”21 “The 1979 CPL did not include the presumption of innocence and instead directed that courts, procuratorates and public security organs ‘must rely on the masses and must take facts as their basis and law as their criterion’ when conducting crimi- nal proceedings.”22 In 1995, a new Law on People’s Police replaced the 1957 Police Act. The criminal procedure law was significantly revised in 1996. In 2001, the criminal law was amended to include antiterrorism legislation. In 2010, new rules on evidence and confessions were disseminated. In 2012, a widely anticipated new criminal procedure law was passed, which “largely incorporates the 2010 evidence rules,” and went into effect in January 2013.23

“Amendment 8 of the Criminal Law of the People’s Republic of China: People’s Republic of China Presidential Order no. 41.” 2012. Chinese Law and Government 45 (1): 57–58. Baker, D. J., and L. X. Zhao. 2009. “Responsibility Links, Fair Labeling, and Proportionality in China: Comparing China’s Criminal Law Theory and Doctrine.” UCLA Journal of International Law & Foreign Affairs 14 (2): 275–329. Belkin, I. 2007. “China.” In Criminal Procedure: A Worldwide Study, 2nd ed., edited by C. M. Bradley, 91–106. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press. Bo, Z. 2010. “The National Human Rights Action Plan 2009–2010: The Chinese Government’s Attitude toward the New Criminal Procedure Reform.” Criminal Justice Studies 23 (3): 269–76. Capowski, J. J. 2012. “China’s Evidentiary and Procedural Reforms, the Fed- eral Rules of Evidence, and the Harmonization of Civil and Common L aw.” Texas International Law Journal 47:455–504.

20. M. K. Lewis, “Presuming Innocence, or Corruption, in China,” Columbia Journal of Transnational Law 50: 287–369. 21. Ibid., 318. 22. Ibid., 319. 23. Ibid., 325. Justice System of the People’s Republic of China 383

Chen, W. 2006. “The Basic Concepts of Re-modifying the Criminal Proce- dure Law.” Frontiers of Law in China 1 (2): 153–63. Chen, W. 2010. “Retrospection and Perspective: Chinese Criminal Proce- dure Law (1979–2009).” Frontiers of Law in China 5 (4): 510–31. Chen, Y. J. 2011. “One Problem, Two Paths: A Taiwanese Perspective on the Exclusionary Rule in China.” New York University Journal of Interna- tional Law & Politics 43 (3): 713–28. Congressional-Executive Commission on China. (2008). Rights of Crimi- nal Suspects and Defendants: Reprinted from the 2007 Annual Report of the Congressional-Executive Commission on China, One Hundred Tenth Congress, First Session, October 10, 2007. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. For sale by the Superintendent of Documentation, US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC. Retrieved from http:// purl.access.gpo.gov/GPO/LPS93320. Clarke, D. C. 1998. Wrongs and Rights: A Human Rights Analysis of China’s Revised Criminal Law. New York: Lawyers Committee for Hu- man Rights. http://www.humanrightsfirst.org/wp-content/uploads/pdf/ Wrongs-Rights-HRF-rep.pdf. Cohen, J. A. 2011. “Reforming China’s Criminal Procedure: An Introduc- tion to this Symposium.” Columbia Journal of Asian Law 24 (2): 213–27. Daum, J. 2011. “Tortuous Progress: Early Cases under China’s New Proce- dures for Excluding Evidence in Criminal Cases.” New York University Journal of International Law & Politics 43 (3): 699–712. Fu, H. L. L. 1998. “Criminal Defence in China: The Possible Impact of the 1996 Criminal Procedural Law Reform.” China Quarterly 153:31–48. Halliday, T., and S. Liu. 2009. “Recursivity in Legal Change: Lawyers and Reforms of China’s Criminal Procedure Law.” Law & Social Inquiry 34:A911–950. He, H. 2008. “The Dawn of the Due Process Principle in China.”Columbia Journal of Asian Law 22 (1): 57–118. Hecht, J. (1996). Opening to Reform? An Analysis of China’s Revised Crimi- nal Procedure Law. New York: Lawyers Committee for Human Rights. http://www.law.yale.edu/documents/pdf/Opening_to_Reform.pdf. Huatr, D. 2011. “Translation of China’s New Rules on Evidence in Criminal Trials.” New York University Journal of International Law & Politics 43 (3): 739–65. Human Rights Watch. 1997. Whose Security? “State Security” in China’s New Criminal Code. New York: Human Rights Watch. http://www.hrw. org/legacy/reports/1997/china5/. 384 Criminal Justice and Law Enforcement

Jianwei, Z. 2012. “Judicial Amendment and Lack of Thoroughness: Analy- sis of Provisions on Evidence in the Amendment to the Criminal Proce- dure Law.” Social Sciences in China 33 (4): 149–56. Kinkel, J., and W. Hurst. 2011. “Review Essay. Access to Justice in Post-Mao China: Assessing the Politics of Criminal and Administrative Law.” Jour- nal of East Asian Studies 11 (3): 467–99. Lewis, M. 2011. “Controlling Abuse to Maintain Control: The Exclusionary Rule in China.” NYU Journal of International Law and Politics 43:629– 697. This article was awarded the Jerome A. Cohen Prize for Interna- tional Law and East Asia. Li, L., and Y. Ma. 2010. “Adjudication and Legal Reforms in Contemporary China.” Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 26 (1): 36–52. Liang, B. 2008. The Changing Chinese Legal System, 1978–Present: Centralization of Power and Rationalization of the Legal System. New York: Routledge. Lo, W. 1995. China’s Legal Awakening: Legal Theory and Criminal Justice in Deng’s Era. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. Long, Z. 2006. “On the Criminal Policy of China in Regulating Economy in Transition.” Frontiers of Law in China 1 (2): 221–31. Luo, W. 2000. The Amended Criminal Procedure Law and the Criminal Court Rules of the People’s Republic of China: With English Translation, Introduction, and Annotation. Buffalo, NY: W. S. Hein & Co. Ma, Y. 2003. “The Powers of the Police and the Rights of Suspects under the Amended Criminal Procedure Law of China.” Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management 26 (3): 490–510. Ma, Yue. 2007. “A Comparative View of the Law of Interrogation.” Interna- tional Criminal Justice Review 17 (1): 5–26. Minyuan, W. 2009. “On the ‘Criterion’ of Proof in Capital Cases and the Revision of the Criminal Procedure Law.” Social Sciences in China 30 (2): 138–51. Nesossi, E. 2012. China’s Pre-trial Justice: Criminal Justice, Human Rights and Legal Reforms in Contemporary China. London: Wildy, Simmonds and Hill. Rho, H. J. 2011. “The Exclusionary Rule in China and a Closer Look at the Dynamics of Reform.” New York University Journal of International Law & Politics 43 (3): 729–38. Ruihua, C. 2011. “China’s New Exclusionary Rule: An Introduction.” Co- lumbia Journal of Asian Law 24 (2): 229–46. Sapio, F. 2010. Sovereign Power and the Law in China. China Studies, vol. 18. Leiden, the Netherlands, and Boston: Brill. Justice System of the People’s Republic of China 385

Secretariat of Amnesty International. (2002). People’s Republic of China: China’s Anti-terrorism Legislation and Repression in the Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region. London: Amnesty International. Wang, J. 2006. “On the Theoretical Basis for Plea Bargaining System.” Fron- tiers of Law in China 1 (2): 185–92. Wang, S. 2010. “On Development of Criminal Law in the People’s Republic of China.” Verfassung und Recht in Übersee/Law & Politics in Africa, Asia & Latin America 43 (3): 292–303. Yang, V. C. 1996. “How to Specify? Vagueness in Definitions of Crimes in Chinese Law and Reception of Western Legal Concepts.” PhD diss. Si- mon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada. Yin, B., P. Duff. 2010. “Criminal Procedure in Contemporary China: So- cialist, Civilian or Traditional?” International and Comparative Law Quarterly 59 (4): 1099–127. Zemin, J. 2012. “Criminal Law of the People’s Republic of China: Presiden- tial Decree of the People’s Republic of China Order No. 83.” Chinese Law and Government 45 (2): 74–77. Zheng, L. 2012. “Revival and Development of the Criminal Reconciliation System in China.” Social Sciences in China 33 (4): 168–78.

Rule of Law

States that operate under a “rule of law” legal system theoretically hold no person above the law, but all are supposedly treated equally. In a “rule by law” system, the governing elite use laws to maintain their control and status, and enforce their wishes upon the population. Tanner refers to the legal system in China as “an instrument with which the Party leadership was to carry out the historical project of socialist transformation,” involv- ing both “moral as well as material transformation.”24 In 1997, the Fifteenth Congress of the Communist Party of China adopted the program of “ruling the country according to law.”25 Whether China is moving toward a rule- of-law system, and with what speed, is a hotly debated topic. Also subject to debate is whether rule of law is desirable and appropriate for China.

24. Tanner, H. M. 1999. Strike Hard! : Anti-crime Campaigns and Chinese Criminal Justice, 1979–1985. ( Cornell East Asia Series ; No. 104). Ithaca, N.Y.: East Asia Program, Cornell University. 29. 25. Biddulph, Cooney, and Zhu, “Rule of Law.” 386 Criminal Justice and Law Enforcement

Balme, S., and M. W. Dowdle, eds. (2010). Building Constitutionalism in China. NY: Palgrave Macmillan. Cai, D., and C. Wang, eds. 2010. China’s Journey toward the Rule of Law: Legal Reform, 1978–2008. Boston: Brill. Cai, D. 2005. “The Development of Constitutionalism in the Transition of Chinese Society.” Columbia Journal of Asian Law 19 (1): 1–29. Diamond, L. 2003. “The Rule of Law as Transition to Democracy in China.” Journal of Contemporary China 12 (35): 319–31. Dowdle, M. 1999. “Heretical Laments: China and the Fallacies of ‘Rule of L aw.’” Cultural Dynamics 11 (3): 287–314. He, W. 2012. In the Name of Justice: Striving for the Rule of Law in China. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press. Keith, R. C., and Z. Lin. 2003. “The ‘Falun Gong Problem’: Politics and the Struggle for the Rule of Law in China.” China Quarterly, no. 175, 623–42. Peerenboom, R. 2002. China’s Long March toward Rule of Law. New York: Cambridge University Press. Peerenboom, R. P. 2004. “Competing Conceptions of Rule of Law in Chi- na.” In Asian Discourses on Rule of Law: Theories and Implementation of Rule of Law in Twelve Asian Countries, edited by R. P. Peerenboom, 109–141. London: Routledge. Peerenboom, R., ed. 2009. Judicial Independence in China: Lessons for Glob- al Rule of Law Promotion. New York: Cambridge University Press. Stephenson, M. 2006. “A Trojan Horse in China?” In Promoting the Rule of Law Abroad : In Search of Knowledge, edited by T. Carothers, 191–216. Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Tanner, M. S., and E. Green. 2007. “Principals and Secret Agents: Central Versus Local Control Over Policing and Obstacles to ‘Rule of Law’ in China.” The China Quarterly 191: 644–670. Yuzhong, D. 2010. “The Pursuit of Criminal Justice.” InChina’s Journey toward the Rule of Law: Legal Reform, 1978–2008, edited by C. Dingjian and W. Chenguang, 155–198. Leiden: Brill.

Lawyers

The tools and strategies available to criminal defense lawyers in China are much more limited than are those in the United States. Access to the client Justice System of the People’s Republic of China 387

is limited. “A suspect may hire a lawyer only after the initial interrogation.”26 There is no separate sentencing stage of a trial. The accused is strongly -en couraged to confess and to show remorse during the short trial, and he or she may be rewarded with a mitigated sentence. Lawyers seen as mounting too vigorous a defense may be charged with a crime themselves and/or have their or their firm’s license revoked. Belkin reports that most criminal defendants are not represented by a lawyer during their trial.27

Cai, Y., and S. Yang. 2005. “State Power and Unbalanced Legal Develop- ment in China.” Journal of Contemporary China 14 (42): 117–34. Clark, G. 2008. “An Introduction to the Legal Profession in China in the Year 2008.” Suffolk University Law Review 41 (4): 833–50. Cohen, J., J. Walker, R. Greathead, M. Shulman, S. Fitts, S. Stein, R. N. Hor- nick, M. K. Lewis, and E. Wickeri. 2009. “Report of the Mission to China of the Association of the Bar of the City of New York.” Columbia Journal of Transnational Law 48:519–39. Cohen, J. A. 2011. “The Suppression of China’s Human Rights Lawyers: Do Foreign Lawyers Care?” U.S. Asia Law Institute, June 6. http://www. usasialaw.org/?p=5543. Enshen, L. 2010. “The Li Zhuang Case: Examining the Challenges Facing Criminal Defense Lawyers in China.” Columbia Journal of Asian Law 24 (1): 129–69. He, W. 2005. “China’s Legal Profession: The Nascence and Growing Pains of a Professionalized Legal Class.” Columbia Journal of Asian Law 19 (1): 138–51. Human Rights Watch. 2008. “Walking on Thin Ice”: Control, Intimidation and Harassment of Lawyers in China. New York: Human Rights Watch. http://www.hrw.org/reports/2008/04/28/walking-thin-ice-0. Liu, S. D., and T. Halliday. 2011. “Political Liberalism and Political Em- beddedness: Understanding Politics in the Work of Chinese Criminal Defense Lawyers.” Law & Society Review 45 (4): 831–66. Lu, H., and T. D. Miethe. 2002. “Legal Representation and Criminal Pro- cessing in China.” British Journal of Criminology 42 (2): 267–80. Lynch, E. 2010. “China’s Rule of Law Mirage: The Regression of the Legal Profession since the Adoption of the 2007 Lawyers Law.” George Wash- ington International Law Review 42 (3): 535–85.

26. Belkin, “China,” 101. 27. Ibid., 104. 388 Criminal Justice and Law Enforcement

Mitchelson, E. 2007. “The Practice of Law as an Obstacle to Justice: Chi- nese Lawyers at Work.” In Working in China: Ethnographies of Labor and Workplace Transformation, edited by C. K. Lee, 169–187. London: Rout- ledge. Mosher, S., and P. Poon, eds. 2009. A Sword and a Shield: China’s Human Rights Lawyers. Hong Kong: Swindon Book Company. Pils, E. 2011. “The Practice of Law as Conscientious Resistance: Chinese Weiquan Lawyers’ Experience.” In The Impact of China’s 1989 Tianan- men Massacre, edited by J.-P. Beja, 109–124. New York: Routledge. Shumei, H., and R. Keith. 2011. “The Defense Lawyer in the Scales of Chi- nese Criminal Justice.” Journal of Contemporary China 20 (70): 379–95. Sun, J. 2010. “How ‘Three Difficulties’ of Criminal Defense Became ‘10 Dif- ficulties’: Difficulty Getting Defense Arguments Accepted Stunts Growth of Criminal Defense Work.” Dui Hua Human Rights Journal, February 2, 2011. http://www.duihuahrjournal.org/2011/02/translation-how-three- difficulties-of.html. Yu. P. 2010. “Glittery Promise vs. Dismal Reality: The Role of a Crimi- nal Lawyer in the People’s Republic of China after the 1996 Revision of the Criminal Procedure Law.” Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law 35:827–38.

Special Administrative Regions: Hong Kong and Macau

Hong Kong and Macau, colonies of Great Britain and Portugal, respective- ly, until the late 1990s, have retained a large amount of autonomy from the Chinese government. Both have their own constitutions (the Basic Laws). The social environments, criminal justice systems, and procedures are very different from those on the mainland. The University of Hong Kong Centre for Criminology is home to a number of active researchers, holds regular conferences, and disseminates results of research about both Hong Kong and mainland China. Doctoral dissertations are housed on the institutional repository, and available for public viewing at www.crime.hku.hk/HKUcrime 4/HKUcrime/index. html. Justice System of the People’s Republic of China 389

Adorjan, M., and W. H. Chui 2012. “Making Sense of Going Straight: Per- sonal Accounts of Male Ex-prisoners in Hong Kong.” The British Journal of Criminology 52 (3): 577–90. Chan, K. L. 2011. “Association between Childhood Sexual Abuse and Adult Sexual Victimization in a Representative Sample in Hong Kong Chinese.” Child Abuse and Neglect 35 (3): 220–29. Chi-Mei, J. L. 2010. “Innovative Police Project to Tackle Youth Crime Problems in Hong Kong: Operation Breakthrough.” In Police without Borders: The Fading Distinction between Local and Global, edited by C. Roberson, D. K. Das, and J. K. Singer, 177–92. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. Chui, W. H. 2007. “Prisoners’ Right to Vote in Hong Kong: A Human Rights Perspective.” Asian Journal of Social Science 35 (2): 179–94. Chui, W. H., and H. Chan. 2012. “Criminal Recidivism among Hong Kong Male Juvenile Probationers.” Journal of Child & Family Studies 21 (5): 857–68. Chui, W. H., and L. Gelsthorpe. 2004. “In the Eyes of Hong Kong Chinese Female Drug Offenders.”Australian and New Zealand Journal of Crimi- nology 37 (Suppl. 1): 107–21. Chui, W. H., and T. W. Lo. 2008. Understanding Criminal Justice in Hong Kong. Cullompton, UK , and Portland, OR: Willan. de Speville, B. 2010. “Anticorruption Commissions: The ‘Hong Kong mod- el’ Revisited.” Asia-Pacific Review 17 (1): 47–71. Gaylord, M. S., and J. F. Galliher. 1991. “Riding the Underground Dragon: Crime Control and Public Order on Hong Kong’s Mass Transit Railway.” British Journal of Criminology 31 (1): 15–26. Gaylord, M. S., D. Gittings, and H. Traver, eds. 2009. Introduction to Crime, Law and Justice in Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. Gaylord, M.S., and H. Traver. 1994. Introduction to the Hong Kong Criminal Justice System. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University, Gray, P. 1999. “Community Corrections and the Experiences of Young Male Offenders in the Hong Kong Youth Justice System.” Journal of So- cial Policy 28 (4): 577–94. Groves, J. M., W. Y. Ho, and K. Siu. 2012. “Youth Studies and Times- capes: Insights from an Ethnographic Study of ‘Young Night Drift- ers’ in Hong Kong’s Public Housing Estates.” Youth & Society 44 (4): 548–66. Jiao, A. Y. 2007. The Police in Hong Kong: A Contemporary View. Lanham, MD: University Press of America. 390 Criminal Justice and Law Enforcement

Jiao, A. Y., R. W. K. Lau, and P. Lui. 2005. “An Institutional Analysis of Or- ganizational Change: The Case of the Hong Kong Police.”International Criminal Justice Review 15 (1): 38–57. Jones, C. A. G., and J. Z. Z. Vagg. 2007. Criminal Justice in Hong Kong. New York: Routledge-Cavendish. Kellogg, T. 2004. “Legislating Rights: Basic Law Article 23, National Se- curity and Human Rights in Hong Kong.” (2004). Columbia Journal of Asian Law 17 (2): 307–369. Komala, M., P. Tang, and S. Cheung. 1989. A Bibliography of Criminologi- cal Literature in Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Centre for Hong Kong Studies, Chinese University of Hong Kong. Lo, A., & Cheng, P. D. 2011. “The Perceived Risks of Traveling to Mainland China: Evidence from University Students in Hong Kong.” Journal of China Tourism Research 7 (1): 62–84. Lo, S. S. H. 2009. Hong Kong Becoming China : Politics of Cross-border Crime in Greater China : Case Studies of Mainland China, Hong Kong, and Macao. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe. Lo, T. W. 2012. “Resistance to the Mainlandization of Criminal Justice Practices: A Barrier to the Development of Restorative Justice in Hong Kon g .” International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 56 (4): 627–45. Lo, T W., 2012. “Triadization of Youth Gangs in Hong Kong.” The British Journal of Criminology 52 (3): 556–76. Moran, J. 1999. “The Changing Context of Corruption Control: The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, 1997–99.” Journal of Common- wealth and Comparative Politics 37 (3): 98–116. Ngai, N. P., and C. K. Cheung. 2005. “Predictors of the Likelihood of De- linquency: A Study of Marginal Youth in Hong Kong, China.” Youth and Society 36 (4): 445–70. Oliveira, J., and P. Cardinal, eds. 2009. One Country, Two Systems, Three Legal Orders—Perspectives of Evolution: Essays on Macau’s legal status after the resumption of sovereignty by China. London: Springer. Tang, C. S. K., D. Wong, F. M. C. Cheung, and A. Lee. 2000. “Explor- ing How Chinese Define Violence against Women: A Focus Group Study in Hong Kong.” Women’s Studies International Forum 23 (2): 197–209. Wong, K. C. (2012). One Country, Two Systems: Cross-border Crime be- tween Hong Kong and China. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction. Justice System of the People’s Republic of China 391

Wong, K. C., and G. Wong. 2005. “Law and Order in Cyberspace: A Case Study of Cyberspace Governance in Hong Kong.” John Marshall Journal of Computer & Information Law 23:249–76. Xiang, F. 2005. “Mutual Legal Assistance in Criminal Matters between Hong Kong and the Mainland.” PhD, diss. University of Hong Kong.

Websites and Social Media

This section lists current-affairs resources, including news sources, blogs, and websites of think tanks, research institutions, government organiza- tions, and some professional and academic organizations with English- language websites.

Professional and Academic Organizations

ABA Section of International Law. China Committee. http://apps.american- bar.org/dch/committee.cfm?com=IC860000&edit=1. This source pub- lishes the China Law Reporter, which is available on its website. Asian Association of Police Studies. http://www.aaps.or.kr/. The association publishes the Asian Pacific Journal of Police & Criminal Justice, articles from which are available on its website. Asian Criminological Society. http://www.ntpu.edu.tw/college/e4/acs/. Association of Chinese Criminology and Criminal Justice. http://www. acccjus.org. This association was founded in 2010 during the annual meeting of American Society of Criminology in San Francisco. European China Law Studies Association. http://www.ecls.eu/.

Human Rights Nongovernmental Organizations

Amnesty International. http://www.amnesty.org/en/region/china. Chinese Human Rights Defenders. http://chrdnet.com/. CHRD publishes briefings and research reports on its website. Dui Hua. http://duihua.org/wp/. Founded in 1999, this San Francisco– and Hong Kong–based NGO focuses on political and religious prisoners, juvenile justice, women in prison, and other criminal justice issues. 392 Criminal Justice and Law Enforcement

Dui Hua - Human Rights Journal: Current Issues in China’s Criminal Justice System. http://www.duihuahrjournal.org/. Human Rights in China. http://www.hrichina.org/. This NGO, with offices in New York, Hong Kong, and Brussels, was founded by Chinese stu- dents and scholars in March 1989. Human Rights Watch. http://www.hrw.org/asia/china.

Academic Sites

John L. Thornton China Center at the Brookings Institution. http://www. brookings.edu/about/centers/china. China Center at Yale Law School. http://www.law.yale.edu/intellectuallife/ chinalawcenter_mission.htm. China Justice News Update at Harvard Kennedy School. http://www.hks. harvard.edu/programs/criminaljustice/research-publications/publica- tions/china-justice-news-update. Chinalaw List [Listserv] (formerly Chinese Law Net). http://chinalawlist. org. China Media Project, a project of the Journalism & Media Studies Centre at the University of Hong Kong. http://cmp.hku.hk/. U.S. Asia Law Institute, at New York University; founded in 1996 by Jerome A. Cohen, the institute’s site still features his blog. http://www.usasialaw.org/. University of Hong Kong Centre for Criminology. http://www.crime.hku.hk/ HKUcrime 4/HKUcrime/index.html. Reports and other publications are hosted at this site. University of Hong Kong Scholars Hub. http://hub.hku.hk/. This institution- al repository includes the full texts of doctoral theses from the criminol- ogy department.

News Sites

Caixin Online. http://english.caixin.com/. This Beijing-based news site provides business, financial, and other news; its editor earned fame and notoriety for her investigative journalism. Online. http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/. This is the online English-language version of the government-supported People’s Daily, very much an organ of the Communist Party. China Hearsay. http://www.chinahearsay.com/. This site provides com- mentary on Chinese law, economics, and business. Justice System of the People’s Republic of China 393

South China Morning Post. http://www.scmp.com. This site is an English- language Hong Kong newspaper. Tea Leaf Nation: “Making Sense of China through Social Media.” http://tea- leafnation.com/. This English-language “magazine” re-reports stories and trends from the Chinese-language Internet world. Wall Street Journal China Real Time Report (blog). http://blogs.wsj.com/ chinarealtime/.

Government Sites

Supreme People’s Court of the People’s Republic of China (English-language version). http://en.chinacourt.org/. U.S. Congressional-Executive Commission on China. http://www.cecc.gov/. This Commission has a mandate to monitor human rights and the rule of law in China. The annual report is available on the website.

Blogs

China Law and Policy. http://chinalawandpolicy.com/. Founded by lawyer Elizabeth Lynch, and notable for its video podcasts of interviews with researchers and others. It also has book reviews. Chinese Law and Politics Blog. http://sinolaw.typepad.com/chinese_law_ and_politics_/. This blog is edited by Carl Minzner, Associate Professor of Law, Washington University in St. Louis. Chinese Law Prof Blog. http://lawprofessors.typepad.com/china_law_prof_ blog/. This blog is authored by Donald C. Clarke, Professor of Law at George Washington University Law School. Jerome A .Cohen’s Blog. http://www.usasialaw.org/?cat=29. This is the blog of Jerome A. Cohen, eminent China law scholar.