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An Exploratory Analysis of Eco-Terrorism and Its Relationships to U.S Nova Southeastern University NSUWorks Department of Conflict Resolution Studies Theses CAHSS Theses and Dissertations and Dissertations 1-1-2014 The Axe Without the Handle: An Exploratory Analysis of Eco-Terrorism and its Relationships to U.S. Public Policy towards Terrorism:1990-2010 Phillip Andrew Smith Nova Southeastern University, [email protected] This document is a product of extensive research conducted at the Nova Southeastern University College of Arts, Humanities, and Social Sciences. For more information on research and degree programs at the NSU College of Arts, Humanities, and Social Sciences, please click here. Follow this and additional works at: http://nsuworks.nova.edu/shss_dcar_etd Part of the American Politics Commons, Defense and Security Studies Commons, Environmental Policy Commons, Peace and Conflict Studies Commons, and the Public Policy Commons Share Feedback About This Item NSUWorks Citation Phillip Andrew Smith. 2014. The Axe Without the Handle: An Exploratory Analysis of Eco-Terrorism and its Relationships to U.S. Public Policy towards Terrorism:1990-2010. Doctoral dissertation. Nova Southeastern University. Retrieved from NSUWorks, Graduate School of Humanities and Social Sciences. (5) http://nsuworks.nova.edu/shss_dcar_etd/5. This Dissertation is brought to you by the CAHSS Theses and Dissertations at NSUWorks. It has been accepted for inclusion in Department of Conflict Resolution Studies Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of NSUWorks. For more information, please contact [email protected]. The Axe Without the Handle: An Exploratory Analysis of Eco- Terrorism and its Relationships to U.S. Public Policy towards Terrorism: 1990-2010 By Phillip Andrew Smith A Dissertation Presented to the Graduate School of Humanities and Social Sciences of Nova Southeastern University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Nova Southeastern University 2014 Copyright © by Phillip Andrew Smith May 2014 Dedication This dissertation is dedicated to my wife, Daniela and my two sons: Lucca and Logan. Without you guys in my life, my world would have no meaning, thank you for supporting and inspiring me on my journey! Eu amo voces muito com tudo meu coracao!! Acknowledgements There are many people I would like to acknowledge as to having an influence on the completion of this dissertation. First, I would like to thank my Dad, Robert Lee Smith and my Step mother Pamela Smith for always supporting me with all the different pathways I have chosen throughout the past 34 years of my life. If it wasn’t for your support I am not sure any of this would have been possible. Second, I would like to thank my professors at Kennesaw State University in the Political Science department. I am not sure where I would be without your support and exposure to Political Science and International Relations. It was your guidance and support that has helped me throughout this entire process. I would always refer back to my books and literature that you provided to give me the necessary strength to push through! Third, I would like to acknowledge the support that I have received from Dustin Berna. If it wasn’t for your belief in my abilities and patience I am not sure I would have been able to complete this study. Thank you also for being patient for my anxiety attacks I have had from time to time along the way to this path! I am forever grateful. I would also like to thank my committee Toran Hansen and Michele Rice for their support as in helping me shape this dissertation. Fourth, I would like to thank two other people who have helped me: Gail Shapiro and Kathy Pillatzki. Gail, you have been a tremendous help mentoring and coaching me along this way until the end. Kathy, thanks for helping me get this project off the ground and running. Your help has made this dream a reality. I am truly grateful. There are countless others of people who have supported me in one aspect or another throughout my academic career. The list is too long to name each and every person and would require extensive volumes in addition to this dissertation Abstract From 1990-2010 ecoterrorist attacks by the Animal Liberation Front (ALF) and Earth Liberation Front (ELF) created an anomaly in the U.S. with millions of dollars in property destruction. Interestingly, in a post 9/11 era, the FBI warns that the number one threat to U.S. national security is not religious terrorism, but rather environmental-group terrorism. When examining this topic further, there is a void in analysis between examining ecoterrorist attacks and U.S. public policy. Is there a statistical significant relationship between terrorist attacks by ALF/ELF and U.S. public policy towards terrorism? Is per capita income an influence on the attacks occurring in specific states? This study seeks to analyze such relationships through an exploratory analysis and case study approach. I conducted a trend analysis on attacks by ELF/ALF from 1990- 2010 and the subsequent adoption of U.S. public policy towards terrorism. I analyzed per-capita income by region and its relationships to attacks occurring. I performed chi^2 hypothesis testing in order to determine the statistical significant relationships between ELF/ALF attacks/U.S. public policy and per capita income by State. The findings of this study suggest that the definition of terrorism is ambiguous and can lead to alternative interpretations, which can affect U.S. public policy towards terrorism. Attacks by ALF/ELF are not deterred by U.S. public policy. Also, a majority of attacks by ALF/ELF are most likely to occur in states that rank in the top 20 th percentile regarding per capita income and occur mainly on the west coast. The statistical significance of the relationships between ELF/ALF attacks and U.S. public policy demonstrate that these two entities are mutually exclusive. Per capita income levels by states and ELF/ALF attacks are also mutually exclusive. This study creates an improved understanding of what constitutes terrorism and an understanding of the radical elements in the environmental movement and its place in a post 9/11 America. The significance of this study is to provide a model for analysis of terrorist attacks and government responses and provide a framework of inquiry for the fields of terrorism, public policy and conflict studies. Table of Contents Dedication………………………………………………………………………………………… Acknowledgements………………………..……………………………………………….……. Abstract….....…………………………..………………………………………………………….. List of Tables….…………………………………….………………..…..…………...……...….iv List of Figures…..…………………………………….………………………………………….v Chapter 1: Introduction……………………………………....………………………………...1 Theoretical Underpinnings….….………………………………………..……………………..2 Problem Statement………………………………………………………………………………4 Purpose Statement and Research Questions ..……………….….…………………………....8 Definition of Terms….…………………………………………………………………………..9 Hypotheses…………………………………………………..………………………………….10 Relevance………………………………………………………………………………………..11 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………..……….……13 Chapter 2: A Review of Literature…………………………………………………………...15 Introduction………...…………………...……………………………………………………...15 Defining Terrorism….…………………………………………………………………18 Definition of Terrorism: U.S. Government….….......…...………….……………….19 Definition of Terrorism: Academia…………………………….………………….…23 Typologies in Terrorism…….…………………………………………………………40 State Terror/State Sponsorship of Terrorism…………………………..……………40 Religious Terrorism……………………………………………………………………41 Nationalist Terrorism………………………………………………………………….43 Leftwing Terrorism………………………………….…………………………………45 The Special Interest Eco-terrorist……...……………………………….….…….……46 U.S. Environmental Public Policy…………………………………………………………….47 U.S. Public Policy towards Terrorism……………….……………………………………….62 Animal Enterprise Protection Act of 1992.…..……………………..….…………….62 Patriot Act 2001..………………………………………....…………………………….67 Safety Act 2002….……………………………………………………………………...71 Military Commissions Act 2006….…………………………………………………...72 Animal Enterprise Terrorism Act of 2006...…………………...….………..….…….73 Evolution of Research…............................................................................................................76 Conclusion…………..……………………………………...………………………………….77 i Chapter 3: Methodology…………………………..………………………..……………..….79 Introduction……...…………………………………………………………………………….79 Research Questions and Null Hypotheses………………………………………………….79 Research Question and Null Hypothesis#1….……………….…………………….80 Research Question and Null Hypothesis#2…….…………….…………………….81 Research Question and Null Hypotheses#3………………….………….…………82 Mixed Methods……………..……………………………………...…………………………84 Instruments (Data Collection Methods)..…………………………………………………..86 Sampling and Computing….…………………………………………………………91 Interpretation of Results…..………………………………………………………….92 Reliability and Validity……...….…………..…..…………………...……………..…93 Descriptive Statistics……………………………………………………………………….…93 Independent/Dependent/Control Variables…………………………………...…...94 Exploratory Analysis Model…….……………….…………………………………..……….94 Trend Analysis...………………………..………….......……………………………....95 Chi-square (x) ^2”Goodness of Fit” Hypothesis Testing…...………………………97 Interpretation of Results……………………………..………………………….……100 Case Study……………………………………………………………………..……………....101 Theoretical Justification and Summary ……………………………………………………105 Chapter 4: Data Analysis and Presentation…………………..……………..……………107 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………….107 Dependent/Independent Variables……….…………………………….…………………108 Analysis of Hypothesis#1……………………………………………..……………………110
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