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The Council Fire's Advacacy of Native American Civil Rights, 1878-1889

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The Council Fire's Advacacy of Native American Civil Rights, 1878-1889 University of Nebraska at Omaha DigitalCommons@UNO Student Work 8-1-1992 In defense of "Poor Lo": The Council Fire's advacacy of Native American civil rights, 1878-1889 Jo Lea Wetherilt Behrens University of Nebraska at Omaha Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.unomaha.edu/studentwork Recommended Citation Behrens, Jo Lea Wetherilt, "In defense of "Poor Lo": The Council Fire's advacacy of Native American civil rights, 1878-1889" (1992). Student Work. 495. https://digitalcommons.unomaha.edu/studentwork/495 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by DigitalCommons@UNO. It has been accepted for inclusion in Student Work by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@UNO. For more information, please contact [email protected]. IN DEFENSE OF "POOR LO"s THE COUNCIL FIRE'S ADVOCACY OF NATIVE AMERICAN CIVIL RIGHTS. 1878-1889 A Thesis Presented to the Department of History and the Faculty of the Graduate College University of Nebraska In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Arts University of Nebraska at Omaha by Jo Lea Wetherilt Behrens August 1992 UMI Number: EP73133 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. UMT PlsserisfiM Pi.bl.slt.tg UMI EP73133 Published by ProQuest LLC (2015). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code P r o Q u e s t ' ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 THESIS ACCEPTANCE Acceptance for the faculty of the Graduate College, University of Ncbracka, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Master of Arts, University of Nebraska at Omaha. Committee Name Department Chai rman J L u Z / s r , i Date ABSTRACT By the late-1870s, the clamor of miners and white settlers demanding access to the tracts of western land reserved for Native Americans had crescendoed, and Eastern humanitarians began the establishment of numerous groups to protect the natives and to reform national Indian policy. Between 1878 and 1889, a pro-Indian rights journal. The Council Fire, was circulated monthly to some 2,000 readers from its headquarters in Washington, D.C. Its originator, Alfred B. Meacham, hoped to initiate a positive and fundamental change in the public's view of Native Americans. Initially, all reform groups expressed similar ideologies regarding the protection of America's "wards," but as pressure to open the western lands increased, the reformers and their organizations split into two factions. One division, whose views were documented in the pages of Council Fire, saw Native Americans as an "exceptional" minority, a group in need of special training and a lengthy timeframe to learn white ways. The other faction wanted to quickly assimilate the Indian minority in the same manner being used to Americanize other immigrant groups, by making the Indian a farmer with a small plot of land from which he could take his sustenance and become part of America's capitalistic "salad bowl." Since most Indian policy changes were legislated, the latter group of reformers, including the Indian Rights Association, united with congressional lawmakers to legislate their ideals. After Meacham's death in 1882, Thomas Bland took over as editor of the journal and led the fight to protect the natives' right to collective ownership of their lands. Bland was also instrumental in the formation of the National Indian Defense Association [NIDA] which believed Indians were an exceptional minority not yet ready for individual land ownership. Council Fire became the organ of the NIDA, as well as a forum for the verbal battles between the two factions of reformers. The history chronicled in Council Fire is an invaluable record of this long-overlooked facet of the reform movement. While the editors took an interest in all issues relating to the Indian question, this paper discusses five of the most critical ones: (l)the exceptional reformers' opposition to the 1878 attempt to transfer the Indian Bureau to the War Department; (2)Meacham's efforts on the 1880 Ute Commission; (3)the battles among reformers over the passage of an allotment bill; (4)the journal's four-year effort to remove abusive Agent V.T. McGillycuddy from the Pine Ridge Agency in Dakota; and (5)NIDA influence on the final draft of the bill to reduce Sioux lands. Although many historians have referred to Council Fire because of its exceptionalist approach to reform, a thorough reading of the journal shows that a substantial segment of the population believed America's natives were an exceptional minority. And a century of adverse effects from the laws enacted by mainstream reformers has demonstrated that Council Fire represented the opinions of the wisest among all the Indian rights activists who sought to defend the civil rights of "Poor Lo." 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A fa/a/t(jfaPopo) f e o c s i f a l j / A 3 f a TABLE OF CONTENTS An Essay on Man.................................................... v Hap List............. vii Introduction................. 1 I."How Best to Get His Lands:" Nineteenth Century Epithet for American Indian Policy.........................12 II.The Council Fire is Kindled: Its Editors and Early Challenges........................... 54 III.Affirming Their Right to Just Compensation: Meacham and the Ute Agreement............................. 102 IV.Conserving Poor Lo's Traditions: Council Fire and the Struggle Over Passage of a Land-In-Severalty Bill...... 163 V.Countering Corruption: Council Fire's Opposition To Agent Valentine McGillycuddy........................... 216 VI.Pinnacle of Influence Attained: Council Firefs Record of a Fair Settlement for the Sioux................266 Conclusion........... 315 Appendix Ute Agreement of 1880. ...................... 325 General Allotment Act of 1887............................. 332 Ft. Laramie Treaty of 1868.................................336 Sioux Bill of 1889............... 342 Bibliography 354 MAPS Map 1 Ute Bands and Their Agencies............................ ...105 Map 2 Ute Reservation and Agencies, 1880........................ 108 Map 3 Western Indian Lands, 1885..................................202 Map 4 Western Indian Lands, 1935................................. 203 Map 5 Pine Ridge Agency and Surrounding Reservation Area...... 221 Map 6 Great Sioux Reservation (1868)............................. 268 Map 7 Reduced Sioux Reservation (1876)........................... 270 Map 8 Diminished Sioux Reservations (1889)........... 303 vii INTRODUCTION The only hope of saving the Indian from premature extinction is in his becoming a civilized man. You may reason and preach to [him] until doomsday and he will be an Indian still. He must have a working exemplification of the new way. He is in one sense peculiar and needs peculiar treatment, and the teacher needs especial qualification for the task. Alfred B. Meacham, Council Fire April 1881 Late in 1889, a weary Dr. Thomas A. Bland put the finishing touches on his final monthly essay for The Council Fire, a pro-Indian rights journal he had edited since 1882. Mentally exhausted by his protracted effort to protect Indian civil rights, a month earlier Bland had written, "Should we consult our own selfish interests only, we should stop [the journal] at once and drop the whole Indian work, but this we cannot get our consent to do while there seems to be need of our services in this field of humanitarian labors and sacrifice."1 The editor's statement reflected his sense of futility over Council Fire's inability to dramatically change public sentiment toward Native Americans. The journal's twelve-year effort to keep the public informed about abuses of Native American rights had become less important to an American populace which contented itself with the belief that recent legislation had successfully solved the "Indian problem" and 2 had taken Native Americans well down the road to civilization. Bland's attitude in December, 1889 contrasted sharply with the optimism expressed by editor Alfred B. Meacham when he initiated the Council Fire in January, 1878. Anticipating only positive results from his journalistic efforts, Meacham had proclaimed, "May fCouncil Fire! burn until every Indian on the continent of America has been recognized as a man . s his rights secured to him on equal terms with all other men; until he has been admitted to citizenship, with all its privileges and responsibilities; and until the last savage council fire in America shall have died out forever."2 Unfortunately, the intervening years had seen such significant policy and opinion changes that, as a journal advocating the protection of Native American civil rights through moderate policy reform, the Council Fire's flame had been extinguished.
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