GEORGE C. MARSHALL: THE CIVILIAN CONSERVATION CORPS, 1932-1933.

George C. Marshall Foundation Lexington, VA May 1, 2006

Michael L. Strauss Shepherd University 2006

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction……………………………………………………………………………. 3

Chapter 1: History of the Civilian Conservation Corps………..………………………5

Chapter 2: Marshall at Fort Screven, Georgia…….……………………………..……13

Chapter 3: Marshall at Fort Moultrie, South Carolina…………………………...... ….27

Chapter 4: Marshall and the Anatomy of the CCC…………….……………..………36

Conclusion……………………………………………..………………………………44

Appendix……………………………………………………………………………….45

Selected Bibliography…………………………………………….………….…………47

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INTRODUCTION

George C. Marshall’s leadership played an important role in the day to day operation of the Civilian Conservation Corps. As a district commander of two separate areas during the height of the depression he was able to gain valuable experience commanding civilians that would serve him later when he became the Chief of Staff in the Army during World War II. The training he acquired during the early months of 1933 grounded him firmly grounded him with the ability to communicate with civilians and military troops. George C. Marshall’s time with the Civilian

Conservation Corps was an inspiration for him and one that forged a lasting bond of caring that he exhibited throughout his professional career regardless of where he was stationed.

Marshall had an uncanny ability to know what the men he commanded needed most, and was not above putting himself though the same hardships as those under his command. His ability to command civilians in the CCC stretched back nearly twenty years, with his first opportunity to work with civilians as a young Captain of Infantry while stationed at Fort Douglas in Utah during the summer of 1916. The fort which was close to Salt Lake City had a large number of civilian recruits recently inducted into the military. Most of the men he commanded were new to military life and had little formal training before meeting Marshall, who taught them some of the fundamentals of military life. Although his stay at Fort Douglas was short from

August 21, 1916 through September 16, 1916, the training the men received was the very best and the compassion that Marshall showed his men was clearly illustrated.1

One of Marshall’s early superior officers Lt-Colonel Johnson Hagood praised him on his potential as an officer when he wrote: “He is a military genius and one of those rare cases of wonderful military development during peace…he is of the proper age, has had the training and

1 Larry L. Bland, ed. The Papers of George Catlett Marshall: The Soldierly Spirit, December 1880-Jun 1939 (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1981), 97-98. 4 experience, and possesses the ability to command large bodies of troops in the field…the Army and the nation sorely needs such men in the grade of General Officer at this time”.2

Hagood felt so strongly about Marshall’s ability to command civilians and military personnel that he wrote a glowing report of him to the War Department in 1916 after his service at Fort Douglas relating: “Marshall should be made a Brigadier General in the regular Army, and every day this is postponed is a loss to the Army and the nation”.3 This paper explores the life of

George C. Marshall with the Civilian Conservation Corps from 1932 to 1933 and the continued success that he experienced in command of civilians and military men under his command during a troubling time in our nations history.

2 Mark A. Stoler, George C. Marshall: Soldier-Statesman of the American Century (New York: Twayne Publishers, 1989), 27-28. 3 Leonard Mosley, Marshall: Hero for our Times (New York: Hearst Books, 1982), 41. 5

CHAPTER 1 HISTORY OF THE CIVILIAN CONSERVATION CORPS

The history of the organization of the Civilian Conservation Corps stretches back several decades when the United States was very prosperous after the turn of the twentieth century.

America at that time was a debtor nation and sold many of her industrial and agricultural products abroad. All over Europe, money was spent on crops that farmers raised to good that industries produced. During the Woodrow Wilson administration America broke bonds with the older policy of isolation from the rest of the world, but did little to slow the ever-increasing consumption of goods that Europe still demanded. After the involvement of the United States in

World War I from 1917 to 1918, this country moved from being a debtor to a creditor nation.

It became necessary for the people in this country to change their ways of doing business if international trade was to be regained. Most citizens in this country were completely unaware of the situation facing the Government and expected business to continue as normal, but problems were arising, as Europe could no longer afford to purchase foreign products. For the

United States the boom was over, and a crash would be inevitable4

This crash took the form of the falling stock prices and the eventual crash of the stock market on October 29, 1929. Tens of thousands of people lost their entire savings, while other lost all hope and committed suicide. Credit was seen as one of the evils of this corruption that caused widespread panic all across this country. Youths from rural areas left farms and moved to larger urban areas where they attempted to find suitable employment. The problems were that goods were being turned out quicker than the general public had the ability to consume them.

With widespread depression came increased unemployment as many families were put on relief

4 Perry H. Merrill, Roosevelt’s Forest Army: A History of the Civilian Conservation Corps, 1933-1942 (Montpelier: Perry H. Merrill, 1981), 1. 6 rolls to support themselves. Wages tumbled and farmer’s burned the overstock of grains they could not sell, as more persons became desperate for any employment that was available.5

This was the daunting mission that confronted President Franklin D. Roosevelt when he took office after winning the November election of 1932. Roosevelt garnered 472 to 59 electoral votes over the incumbent President Herbert Hoover, who the public felt had abandoned them.

Roosevelt moved quickly to bring relief to the public and worked hard with Congress for some drastic changes. By spring of 1933, Congress passed relief acts to ease some of the current financial burdens. Congress passed several laws including the Agricultural Act (which provided for farmers and subsidies), Farm Credit Act (which assisted farmers with their mortgage payments), The National Recovery Act (geared to national industrial recovery), and the Public

Works Administration (providing funds for local employment) for people out of work. All of these projects acted as a catalyst towards the formation of the CCC one month later.6

Roosevelt recognized the importance of getting Americans back to work and pushed for quick action. He was a conservation minded President and pushed for Congress to restore and revitalize idle and vacant lands in each state. His plan was to use these lands and make the most out of the natural resources each offered and at the same time provide work for the unemployed.

On March 24, 1933, Roosevelt sent a message to Congress asking for unemployment relief by putting young men from cities and rural communities to work on forestry and conservation projects all across the United States. One week later Congress responded by passing the

Emergency Conservation Work Act bringing about the birth of the Civilian Conservation Corps.7

5 Robert A. Ermentrout, Forgotten Men: The Civilian Conservation Corps (Smithtown: Exposition Press, 1982), 1. 6 Merrill, Roosevelt’s Forest Army: A History of the Civilian Conservation Corps, 1933-1942, 2. 7 John A. Salmond, The Civilian Conservation Corps, 1933-1942: A New Deal Case Study (Durham: Duke University Press, 1967), 26-27. The Emergency Conservation Work (ECW) was the original name given to the Civilian Conservation Corps. In an earlier message to Congress on March 21, 1933, Roosevelt used the term Civilian Conservation Corps when describing the organization to gain public support. The new title eventually caught on and on June 28, 1937 the CCC was officially created by an act of Congress. 7

The message that Roosevelt read to the public that same month on March 21, 1933 was

one of excitement and served to capture the hearts of the people. Timing was a significant factor

in his bringing to the floor his proposed plan as he worked hard to gain public support. The mood

in Congress at this time was one of crisis, but Roosevelt hoped his program would help opens the

doors wider for a new deal program.8 In his message he wrote:

I purpose to create a Civilian Conservation Corps to be used in simple work, not interfering with normal employment, and confining itself to forestry, the prevention of soil erosion, flood control and similar projects…I call your attention to the fact that this type of work is of definite practical value not only through the prevention of great present financial loss, but also as a means of creating future national wealth…this enterprise is an established part of our national policy…it will make improvements in national and state domains which have been largely forgotten in the past few years of industrial development…more important, however than material gains will be the moral and spiritual value of such work…the overwhelming majority of unemployed Americans who are now walking the streets and receiving private or public relief would infinitely prefer to work…it is not a panacea for all the unemployment, but it is an essential step in this emergency.9

For Roosevelt getting people back to work was something that needed his undivided

attention. The idea for the creation of the CCC was Roosevelt’s alone as many political leaders

failed to grasp his broader mission and instead greeted him with contempt and ridicule. Under

mounting pressures from the outside Roosevelt held firm.10

Robert Fechner of Chattanooga, Tennessee was chosen by Roosevelt as the man to head up the Civilian Conservation Corps at an annual salary of $12,000. He was a respected labor leader who worked his way from selling newspapers in his youth to being the vice-president of the

American Federation of Labor.11 With the project firmly underway and a new director chosen to lead the way, Roosevelt gave the United States Department of Labor the task of enrolling youths

8 James E. Sargent, James E. Roosevelt and the Hundred Days: Struggle for the Early New Deal (New York: Garland Publishing, 1981), 110. 9 Franklin D. Roosevelt Speech to Congress. March 21, 1933. 10 Kenneth S. Davis, FDR: The New Deal Years, 1933-1937 (New York: Random House, 1986), 77-78. 11 Leslie A. Lacy, The Soil Soldiers: The Civilian Conservation Corps in the Great Depression (Radnor: Chilton Book Company, 1976), 16. 8 to fill the ranks of the CCC. When the Corps started in 1933 the original plan was to enroll

250,000 young men between the ages of 18 and 25. Each state was given a quota to fill and sought to enroll the mandatory number of recruits. There were some stipulations for gaining employment and including being physically fit, unemployed, unmarried, and having no dependents. The young men had to be willing to have an allotment of their pay sent home to their families. By 1935 the age limits were altered to include men between 17 and 28. On July 1, 1933 the first quota was filled and included enrollees (about 55%) from rural areas of the country.12

Each new member of the Corps who enlisted received $30.00 per month and had to send

$25.00 of their wages home to their families. Men joining who showed promise and aptitude for leadership were promoted to positions of authority, including assistant leaders who were paid

$36.00 monthly and leaders who were paid a monthly wage of $45.00. Every recruit was furnished clothing to fit his duty station according to the type of work he would perform, and the climate at the time of year when he would serve his six month enlistment. Bedding and sufficient sheets rounded out the enrollees temporal needs at his new camp assignment.13

In addition to the young men (now called juniors), the government decided to employ civilian men and woman to assist the thousands of new recruits who would be working in the forests and private lands with little to no experience and to whom training was required. The solution was to use local men who knew the terrain and were familiar with the work projects to be completed. These men commonly were referred to as Local Experienced Men (LEM’s for short)

12 Merrill, Roosevelt’s Forest Army: A History of the Civilian Conservation Corps, 1933-1942, 11; Happy Days, April 27, 1933. The CCC recruited men from all backgrounds and nationalities. One of the largest minority groups comprised black recruits. By 1942 when the CCC was being disbanded over 200,000 blacks served in the ranks all over the United States; Olen Cole. The African-American Experience in the Civilian Conservation Corps (Jacksonville: University Press of Florida, 1999), 7. 13 Donald Mace Papers, Folder 3, George C. Marshall Foundation, Lexington, VA 9 being employed by the Department of Labor and paid according to their job descriptions. The use of LEM’s locally proved to be very successful for Roosevelt.14

One business firm that felt the depression was the landscape firm of Frederick Law

Olmstead in New York. Olmstead employed a number of architects and landscape engineers who assisted in the work at the camps once they were established. Many of his employees were out of work and because they were experienced they were called upon to assist in the forestry work that the government required of the local men.15

The last group of men employed by the CCC was veterans. These men were War veterans from World War I-better known as the “Bonus Army” who marched to the doorsteps of the Capital in 1932 demanding to be paid bonuses due them for wartime services rendered. This group of men averaged 40 years of age being hard hit by the depression. With the help of the

Veterans’ Administration, and through the influence of Roosevelt, enrollment to include veterans began immediately so by May 11, 1933 their numbers swelled to 25,000 enlistees.16

Once the Corps had filled the ranks, it became apparent that the Department of Labor needed help to get the new recruits clothed, housed, and working. In order to get camps built to handle all of the new recruits, Roosevelt enlisted the aid of other Federal agencies to help the plethora of new faces. The Department of Labor would have the responsibility of selecting youths and veterans to be employed in the Corps, while he War Department was given the assignment of transporting, feeding, clothing, housing, and seeing to the physical conditioning of each new recruit. The Departments of Agriculture and Interior were given the responsibility of providing work projects for the new enrollees once the Army had trained them properly and they were ready

14 Merrill, Roosevelt’s Forest Army: A History of the Civilian Conservation Corps, 1933-1942, 11 15 Olmstead Associates Papers Manuscript Division, Library of Congress 16 Ibid. 10 to work. This new deal program was the combined effort of several key agencies and went a long way to help the under unemployed in the United States during the 1930’s.17

Each new camp was composed of one company of 200 new recruits. The Army had charge of discipline and training at the camps and rated qualified recruits to positions of leadership to help with training. Leaders were asked assume the roles of mess stewards, storekeepers, and cooks. Assistant leaders served as company clerks, educational advisors, and assistant cooks. The new job titles offered better pay for the recruits and helped to foster trust between the Army and the civilian enlistees. Each camp had a number of buildings including a kitchen, mess hall, recreational building, schools, infirmary, and barracks to house the new recruits, officers, and enlisted men attached to each camp.18

The internal workings of the Civilian Conservation Corps and the Army allowed for a simple regimented routine as the military sought to establish camps in each of the geographical localities in the United States, Puerto Rico and Virgin Islands. The United States was divided nicely into Corp areas each with a specific headquarters (see Figure 1, Appendix).19 Within each

Corps area the geographical area was broken down further by District. It was at this District level that military commanders like Lt. Colonel George C. Marshall worked with the camps in his area of responsibility (see Figure 2, Appendix).20

17 Philip M. Conti, The Civilian Conservation Corps: Salvaging Boys and Other Treasures (Harrisburg: Conti, 1989), 35-36. 18 Stan Cohen, The Tree Army: A Pictorial History of the Civilian Conservation Corps, 1933 1942 (Missoula: Pictorial Histories Publishing Company, 1980), 25. 19 Conti, The Civilian Conservation Corps: Salvaging Boys and Other Treasures, 47. The CCC closely followed the United States Army Corps boundaries and headquarters set by the military from the days of World War I. These included: Corps Area I-Boston, MA, Corps Area II-Governors Island, NY, Corps Area III- Baltimore, MD, Corps Area IV-Atlanta, GA, Corp Area V-Columbus, OH, Corps Area VI-Chicago, IL, Corps Area VII-Omaha, NE, Corps Area VIII-Houston, TX, and Corps Area IX-San Francisco, CA. 20 General Administrative Files, 1933-1935, RG407, National Archives. Each District covered a certain geographical area within the confines of a Corps. In the IV Corp Area where Lt. Colonel Marshall worked their were several Districts all with alphabetical designations and headquartered at forts in the geographical boundaries of the Corps. District “A”-Fort Bragg, NC, District “B”-Fort McPherson, GA, District “C”-Fort Oglethorpe, GA, District “D”-Fort McClellen, AL, District “E”-Fort Beauregard, LA, District “F” Fort 11

Each camp was given alphabetical designations to help the Army sort out the type of camps and the work that was going to be completed at each site. The Army also assigned individual numerical designations for each camp that was attached to the CCC. Marshall’s camp at Fort Screven, Georgia was selected to be Camp NP-1, Company 460, while his new camp at

Fort Moultrie was designated as Camp P-58, Company 450. 21

In each camp certain procedures had to be strictly observed. Camp life was nothing short of life in the Army and the military ran their camps in the same fashion that would be expected of men enlisting in the regular Army. The day for a new recruit began at 6 AM and included three meals over the course of a day. In between meals the life of the recruit was filled with work and educational activities, and ended with tattoo at 10:30 PM each night. This routine was followed everyday and was to be carried out without complaint.22

Within many of the CCC camps news traveled quickly. A weekly Civilian Conservation

Corps newspaper called Happy Days was printed out of the Washington office and distributed to all of the camps and offered each recruit news from home and from inside his camps. Many of the individual camps printed their own newsletters or newspapers to cover events that happened in each camp. By 1940 there were over 3500 different camp publications from over 2800 camps.23

This was the situation that faced Lt. Colonel George C. Marshall when he took command at Fort Screven, Georgia in June 1932 and later at Fort Moultrie, South Carolina the following

Screven, GA (Marshall’s first CCC command), District “G”-Fort Barrancas, FL, District “H”-Fort Benning, GA, and District “I”-Fort Moultrie, SC (Marshall’s second CCC command). 21 Camp Directories, 1933-42, RG35, National Archives. Each camp was given a specific alphabetical code to list the type of camp and work related to the camp. “F” (National Forest), “S” (State Forest), “P” (Private Lands), “GF” (Oregon Land Grant), “L” (Federal Land-Levee), “PE” (Private Land-Erosion), “SE” (State Land-Erosion), “BF” (Federal Game Refuse), “GLO” (Public Domain), “MP” (Military Park), “NM” (National Monument), “NP” (National Park), “SP” (State Park), and “ARMY” (Military Reservation). 22 Donald Mace Papers, folder 3, George C. Marshall Foundation, Lexington, VA 23 Alfred E. Cornbise. The CCC Chronicles: Camp Newspapers of the Civilian Conservation Corps, 1933-1942 (Jefferson: McFarland & Company, 2004), 45. 12 summer in 1933. Marshall was up to the challenge being well prepared for whatever the United

States Army was ready to ask of him.

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CHAPTER 2 MARSHALL AT FORT SCREVEN, GEORGIA

After working more than four and a half years as a training officer and Assistant

Commandant at Fort Benning in Georgia under Major General Campbell King, his transfer to troops in the field was something that Lt. Colonel George C. Marshall was delighted in obtaining. In spring 1932 Marshall received orders for his departure from Fort Benning. In a letter dated March 28, 1932 to his old friend General John J. Pershing on his transfer to

Savannah, Georgia Marshall wrote: “I have succeeded in avoiding a desk and getting an assignment to troop and command of a post…Fort Screven, Georgia…however small, it at least keeps me away from office work and high theory…and I understand it is a very delightful station”.24

The officers and men left behind at Fort Benning would miss Marshall as would the local citizens at the fort. Marshall was a loyal and trustworthy officer who made every effort to be directly involved with the civilian community surrounding his station. This was something that most civilians had not expected from military commanders.25 It was his care for the civilian populace that made Marshall stand out as a leader with great potential as he continued to work with local people from his time at Fort Screven, Georgia to his next post at Moultrie, South

Carolina to work with the Civilian Conservation Corps. One military commander who recognized his potential with the local populace was his immediate superior at Fort Benning.

Major General Campbell King spoke very highly of Marshall on his approaching transfer to Fort

Screven writing:

24 Lt. Colonel George C. Marshall to General John J. Pershing, March 28, 1932, George C. Marshall Papers, box 1, folder 1, George C. Marshall Library, Lexington, Virginia. (Hereafter cited as Marshall Papers, Marshall Library). 25 Mark A. Stoler, George C. Marshall: Soldier-Statesman of the American Century (New York: Twayne Publishers, 1989), 58. 14

I view your impending departure from this station with distinct regret, and desire to take this means of expressing to you my personal appreciation of your services during the period of my incumbency as Commandant…for the past four years and seven months, you have served the infantry school…the value of your services cannot be overestimated…your able handling of the school [Infantry] has been of inestimable value to the service at large and has been indicative of the reputation you have long enjoyed as one of the Army’s ablest and most brilliant officers26

Marshall was scheduled to leave Fort Benning on June 15, 1932 and to report to his new duty station at Fort Screven. He wrote Captain Claude M. Adams on June 3, 1933 at Screven notifying him that he would be arriving within two weeks to take command of his new post.27

His new command post was charming, old, and very beautiful. At the time of Marshall’s transfer it was the home to one battalion of the Eighth Infantry that he was coming to take command.

The fort was located on Tybee Island (about 18 miles southeast of Savannah) and was established as a military installation as early as March 18, 1898.28

On his arrival at camp Marshall plunged into his new job with energy and passion. The depression sweeping throughout the United States was everywhere and Fort Screven was no exception. Marshall he was the senior officer and was untouched by the social upheaval caused by the depression. Many of the younger officers and his enlisted men as his post in the Eighth

Infantry were not as fortunate as their Colonel. Recently the United States Congress had authorized furloughs without pay for his troops and put a freeze on pay raises and promotions for

26Major General Campbell King to Lt. Colonel George C. Marshall, June 14, 1932, Memorandum, Marshall Papers, box 1, folder 1, Marshall Library. 27 Larry I. Bland, The Papers of George Catlett Marshall:” The Soldierly Spirit”, December 1880-June 1939 (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1981), 376. Captain Claude M. Adams was temporary commander at Fort Screven, Georgia awaiting Marshall to take command. He would later be promoted to General and served as the Aide-De-Camp to Marshall from 1940-1941. New York Times, March 27,1958. 28 Charles J. Sullivan, Army Posts and Towns: The Baedeker of the Army. (Burlington: Free Press, 1926), 142. The fort was originally named Camp Graham, but was later changed to Fort Screven in honor of James Screven who was killed at Midway Church in 1778 during the Revolutionary War while serving as a General of militia. Later by 1808 the government acquired jurisdiction over all of the outlying property that would eventually become part of the fort. The early armament of the fort was twenty guns and was very active through World War II. The fort was also the headquarters for the local coastal defense of Savannah’s port until February 24, 1924 and guarded the entrance to the harbor. By the early 1930’s the fort housed men from the 8th United States Infantry. See also Georgia State Historical Commission, Marker at Fort Screven. 15 those soldiers with seniority. Marshall understood this very well, and was in the same pay grade for nearly ten years. Officers and enlisted men were hardest hit by the depression and needed some financial assistance. A 2nd Lieutenant’s pay was reduced to $119.00 a month, nearly 1/5 less than twenty-five years earlier. The enlisted ranks were hit harder than the officers. Privates at the post under Marshall suffered the most having their pay reduced as much as 44.7 percent.29

With nearly 400 men at his garrison he wasted no time into alleviating the current financial and economic situation faced by most the men in his command. Marshall personally undertook the building of numerous chicken coups and hog pens to help feed the families of his troops. He ordered vegetable gardens planted and harvested for additional foodstuffs. He ordered his mess officers to prepare larger portions of the noonday meal and permitted his men to hot meals at cost to take home to their families. The price came to about 10 cents per meal, and would feed the families of his men regardless of their size during the first summer at his new post.30

With the battalions economic burdens somewhat lifted, Marshall looked to improve the overall condition of his camp, as he believed this would help with the morale of his men. Fort

Screven was rundown in comparison to his previous command, allowing Marshall to see to need repairs in the camp. The upkeep of his camp was completed with everyman on the post from the highest ranking officer to the lowliest private participating. No detail was too small to escape his attention, as he sought to beautify his surroundings and make his new command as comfortable as possible.31

29 Ed Cray, General of the Army: George C. Marshall, Soldier and Statesman (New York: W.W. Norton, 1990), 113. 30 Forest C. Pogue, George C. Marshall: Education of a General 1880-1939 (New York: Viking Press, 1987), 273- 274. 31 Cray, General of the Army: George C. Marshall, Soldier and Statesman, 113. 16

With the men of his command working hard, Marshall set about doing military training and business all over the camp. One of the first items of business was to have a strong elationship between his command and the civilian populace surrounding the fort. He felt it absolutely necessary to have a good working relationship with the local community to make his time as Fort Screven successful. On his first Sunday, Marshall and his new bride of only two years (Katherine Tupper Marshall) drove into downtown Savannah to attend church services at a local Episcopal church. The pastor was very pleased that Marshall took the time to come such a distance and attend services at his parish. The pastor introduced Marshall and his wife to many of his parishioners and made him feel very welcome in his new community. Some of the citizens in Columbus, Georgia (at Fort Benning) told him he would not get along with the people of

Savannah. Mrs. Marshall was told “You will not like Savannah…the people there do not know the Army people at Screven” and warned her that the citizenry was a closed neighborhood that did not welcome new visitors.32

Marshall wasted little time in getting better aquainted with the people of Savannah after his initial visit to their city. On November 23, 1932 Marshall accepted an invitation from Alfred

W. Jones who headed the Brunswick Rotary Club. A date was set for December 6, 1932 for

Marshall to speak at their monthly meeting to the members at the Oglethorpe Hotel in

Brunswick, Georgia and to meet at 1 PM.33 On December 8, 1932 Marshall received a letter

Alfred W. Jones thanking him for a wonderful program “There have been several comment

32 Katherine Tupper Marshall, Together: Annals of an Army Wife (New York: Tupper & Love, 1946), 10. 33 Alfred W. Jones to Lt. Colonel George C. Marshall, November 23, 1932, Memorandum, Marshall Papers, box 1, folder 4, Marshall Library. 17 about this program since you were here and it has been agreed that this was the best foreign talk we have had in many years”.34

Two days later Marshall received a letter from Major Richard H. Mayer Jr. of the

Savannah Volunteer Guards requesting him and his wife to act as chaperons for their annual military ball to be held on December 16, 1932 at the Savannah Armory. Marshall was excited about accepting the invitation when he received orders from Colonel T.A. Roberts at the

Headquarters of the Fourth Corps at Fort McPherson in Atlanta, Georgia. He was to report for temporary duty to the promotion examining board to determine his physical fitness for active duty and any subsequent promotions per special order number #193.35 After the physical he returned to Fort Screven in January 1933 and received word from the examining board that he passed all of the testing and was qualified for promotion. On January 9, 1933 Marshall sent a letter to the Adjutant General Office in Washington D.C. “I request that when a vacancy for my promotion occurs [to Colonel] that I be nominated under the name of George C. Marshall, the present junior of my name to be omitted”.36

Once he returned to duty at Fort Screven, Marshall sought to continue with his community efforts, attending a meeting of the Exchange Club in Savannah, Georgia on January

16, 1933. On January 30, 1933 he received a letter from Charles Ellis of Savannah who was the

Governor of the Society of Colonial Wars in the Georgia asking him to “Represent the United

States Army, at the ceremonies incident and to the unveiling of a memorial, erected by the

34 Alfred W. Jones to Lt. Colonel George C. Marshall, December 8, 1932, Memorandum, Marshall Papers, box 1, folder 5, Marshall Library. 35 Colonel T.A. Roberts to Lt. Colonel George C. Marshall, December 12, 1932, Memorandum, Marshall Papers, box 1, folder 5, Marshall Library. 36 Letter Lt. Colonel George C. Marshall to Adjutant General Office January 9, 1933, RG407, National Archives. His request was granted and became effective several days later on January 13, 1933. 18 society, commemorating the services of Colonel William Bull, of South Carolina who assisted

Oglethorpe in laying out the town of Savannah”.37

With the new year of 1933, conditions in the United States economically failed to improve. There was widespread unemployment in his locality with many men out of work. On

March 29, 1933 Marshall wrote a letter to Captain Germain Seligman in New York City concerning President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s proclamation concerning the forming of the

Civilian Conservation Corps. Marshall wrote: “We were enroute to Fort Benning for the annual

Corps area maneuvers when the concentration was called off because of the President’s emergency employment proposal for 250,000 men”.38

Marshall now would have a new role to assume in commanding civilians at his location for what was anticipated initially to be a short period. The role of the United States Army was to feed, house, cloth, and to entertain the new recruits expected to join his camp for training. In order to expedite the rapid influx of numerous men, Districts were set up in the areas of each

Army corps with military officers being appointed to take command each District. Marshall was immediately ordered to command District “F” which was to be headquartered at Fort Screven,

Georgia that included new CCC camps in Florida and Georgia.39

Soon after taking command of his new District on April 6, 1933 he received news from

Major General Edward L. King, commanding the Fourth Army Corps at Fort McPherson in

Atlanta, Georgia about some of the work with the Civilian Conservation Corps. In his letter King wrote:

37 Charles Ellis to Lt. Colonel George C. Marshall, January 30, 1932, Memorandum, Marshall Papers, box 1, folder 6, Marshall Library. 38 Captain Germain Seligman to Lt. Colonel George C. Marshall, March 29, 1932, Memorandum, Marshall Papers, box 1, folder 8, Marshall Library; Seligman was a longtime friend since his days in World War I. 39 Bland, The Papers of George Catlett Marshall:” The Soldierly Spirit”, December 1880-June 1939, 392; JC Ryan. The CCC and Me (Duluth: JC Ryan, 1987), 44. 19

Sorry we didn’t have the maneuvers, but with the labor situation coming on, I felt we should be set to go, and I wanted to be ready for it…the quota for this Corps Area is 7,100 and my general scheme is to establish a camp at Bragg near the textile industries of North and South Carolina…one at Oglethorpe for Chattanooga and vicinity…one at McClellan for the Birmingham area…one at Pensacola for New Orleans and other points…by reducing the number of camps I am saving overhead and keeping the new men out of small posts and away from the immediate vicinity of large cities as far as possible…the only thing you will have to do about it is the possibility of giving me if necessary some of your troops to one or more of these camps to furnish personnel for handling.40

Marshall moved very quickly to establish new camps and to house and start to train the incoming civilians moving into Fort Screven. By April 29, 1933 Marshall transferred several officers and enlisted men from his command for special duty with the newly formed Civilian

Conservation Corps.41

Shortly afterwards, Marshall was notified that his new camps would be inspected by

Major General Edward L. King. The General, expected by plane from Atlanta landed at Hunter

Field in Savannah on May 3, 1933. Marshall personally escorted King to his post at Fort

Screven. His command in Georgia had already reached 1250 young men. Recruits flooded in from neighboring states to join his CCC operation for further training and assignments. Over

40 Major General Edward L. King to Lt. Colonel George C. Marshall, April 6, 1933, Memorandum, Marshall Papers, box 1, folder 9, Marshall Library. 41 Records relating to the Civilian Conservation Corps, 1933-43. April 29, 1933, RG407, National Archives. Sergeant Nick Bordis, (Company A), Corporal Joseph E. Watson (Company A) to work at Camp Headquarters. Corporal Herbert S. Parks (Company C), Private James R. Sims (Company C) to work with the Supply Officer. Sergeant William B. Penndorf (Company C) as Steward, Sergeant Henry Skinner (Company C) as Mess Sergeant and Privates 1st Class Harley T. Hutchinson (Company A), Oscar Boling (Company A), Robert R. Carroll (Company B), Henry W. Kendrick (Company B), Andy Dunda (Company C), Carter M. Ramsey (Company C), Jasper R. Franklin (Company D) all detailed as cooks. Private Harry L. Todd (Company B) as a K.P. Instructor, Sergeant Ernest C. Boswell (Company B) in charge of the mess hall, and Private Edward Dixon (Company D) detailed with the Quartermaster of the post. Marshall detailed Captain Jasper M. Groves of the 8th Infantry to Juniper Springs, Florida on temporary duty to confer with Forestry Supervisor E.W. Hudley of Lake City, Florida to find suitable locations for two additional Civilian Conservation Corps camps-Florida Camp#1 (Later Camp#449) Ocala National Forest, Ocean Pond, Florida and Florida Camp#2 (Later Camp#450) Ocala National Forest, at Juniper Springs, Florida). 20

400 men from Jacksonville, Florida and an additional 150 men from nearby Gainesville arrived only days before and were undergoing physical training when King inspected his camp.42

On May 26, 1933 Marshall received word from Colonel Lawrence Halstead of the War

Department concerning his approaching transfer to Fort Moultrie in South Carolina. Halstead wrote: “I note with interest what you say relative to the Civilian Conservation Corps work. This work is onerous and probably distasteful to the Army as it is not exactly military work but I feel that it is the salvation of the Army”.43 Marshall was slated to leave Fort Screven no later than

July 1, 1933 according to the local press and Colonel Abraham was to take over his former responsibilities.44

Marshall worked very hard to make sure that his assignment with the Civilian

Conservation Corps was a great success. He was ready to establish additional camps outside of

Fort Screven having sent Captain Jasper M. Grove of his command to Florida to find suitable locations. Grove responded favorably by having two camps ready in a short time, and ready to take on young men for forestry work. The new camps were organized on private lands and some of the men would be supplied from Fort Screven to be trained at these new camps.45

On May 27, 1933 a large force of more than one hundred CCC boys left for Eastport,

Florida to see to forestry work under orders of Marshall. The work in Florida was a vital part of

42 Savannah Morning News, May 3, 1933. 43 Colonel Lawrence Halstead to Lt. Colonel George C. Marshall, May 26, 1933, Memorandum, Marshall Papers, box 1, folder 10, Marshall Library. 44 Savannah Morning News, April 28, 1933. 45 Records relating to the Civilian Conservation Corps, 1933-43. May 15, 1933, RG407, National Archives. Each Camp was accorded a number according to CCC regulations. Camp P-54 (Private Land) was designated as Company #449 with Captain G. Davidson as the camp commander. 1st Lieutenants J.W. Childs, E.G.Piper, and 2nd Lieutenant C.C. Skelton were assigned as junior officers to the new camp. The camp was listed as a junior camp (men 17-28) and was ready for occupation on May 27, 1933 with the initial enrollees totaling 181 white men. Camp P-63 (Private Land) was designated as Company#450 with Captain E.M. Fabian as the camp commander. 1st Lieutenant W.A. Miller, and 2nd Lieutenants D.T. Workizer and J.R. Chisholm were assigned as junior officers to the new camp. The camp was recorded as a junior camp and was ready for occupation on June 18, 1933 with the initial enrollees totaling 188 white men. Station and strength reports, 1933-42, August 31, 1933, RG35, National Archive 21 his operation as he needed to establish more camps for the growing number of recruits under his command. Marshall reported that an additional 300 men were expected to join the Florida camps from various Georgia points. Captain Jasper Groves was at Osceola National Forest, east of

Lake City, Florida constructing another camp.46

Another junior officer with Marshall, Lieutenant Reuben Jenkins was on a similar mission building a camp nearby at Hinesville, Florida, along with Lieutenant D.T. Workizer who organized a small camp twenty-five miles north of Lake City, Florida. All of the recruits expected to join these camps would be physically fit having received proper training to harden their muscles for what promised to be demanding work. The men also acquired some rudimentary training that was to be used in their new location in plumbing, electrical wiring, and cooking. Marshall believed after their initial six month enlistment these men would be well prepared to step into civilian life and apply what skills they learned in the CCC.47

On May 26, 1933 Marshall sent a letter to Major General Edward L. King referring to his transfer to Fort Moultrie and updating him on his progress within his District. He wrote:

My dear General: Special Orders 119, War Department relieves me from duty here immediately and sends me to Moultrie…my successor Colonel Abraham is due here after July 1st…there are these forestry considerations…this is a forestry district headquarters…we are deep in establishing camps, mostly at a considerable distance…Moultrie may be in the same predicament but it is not yet deep in forestry camp construction, which is no path of roses in a swamp region…I have one company in camp at Ocala, Florida another leaving here tomorrow for Camp at Eastport [Florida]… a camp ready today at Hinesville, Georgia for a Benning Company…another camp ready at Homerville, Georgia for a Georgia Company…another camp-water system, septic tank etc., is well under way on Sewanee River near Lake City [Florida]…and work starting today on the camp at Ocean Pond [Florida] near Lake City…The very few officers I have here have been splendid…each man carried about five jobs…all display fine initiative and I believe with the absolute minimum of overhead staff an excellent bit of work has

46 Savannah Morning News, May 28, 1933. 47 Ibid. 22

been accomplished…I am ready to put on high speed reconnaissance of new camp sites when announced.48

On occasion Marshall experienced problems with some of the men stationed in his camps. On May 5, 1933 he wrote to the Adjutant General Office about one member of his command who was being dishonorably discharged. According to the regulations of the Civilian

Conservation Corps, William B. Coleman was discharged due to his willful destruction of government property and for carrying a concealed weapon at camp. The Quartermaster noted on his discharge they would transport the former recruit to his place of enlistment at South

Jacksonville, Florida.49

On that same day Marshall wrote penciled a message to Colonel Clyde R. Abraham commanding at Fort Moultrie on some of the work he will become responsible for upon his arrival at Fort Screven. Marshall related: “I am deep in the complicated business of building camps in the Florida-Georgia swamps…as well as running a big CCC camp here and getting ready to take on an increased sized unit of 500 Civilian Military Training Corps boys on June 13,

1933 with reserve officers to handle them”.50 A week later he hastily scribbled another note to

Colonel Abraham updating him on conditions in his District and when he expected to leave Fort

Screven for his new duty station:

I am slated to leave here June 28, 1933…I have six camps now, from Ocala, Florida to Waycross, Georgia, with 1,200 men in them or about to land…I also have 850 CCC men here…by July 1st this District will probably have 3,500 men in scattered camps to supply inspect and administer and possibly 500 CCC men in camp here…all this running on a little post headquarters without the addition of a single extra clerk from outside…I am utilizing these forestry boys to clear and grade all the formerly inaccessible portions of the reservations and all the adjacent jungle so that the training area will be tremendously

48 Lt. Colonel George C. Marshall to Major General Edward L. King, May 26, 1933, Memorandum, Marshall Papers, box 1, folder 10, Marshall Library. 49 Records relating to the Civilian Conservation Corps, 1933-43. May 5, 1933, RG407, National Archives. 50 Lt. Colonel George C. Marshal to Colonel Clyde R. Abraham, May 26, 1933, Memorandum, Marshall Papers, box 1, folder 10, Marshall Library. 23

increased…the appearance of things equally improved and the mosquitoes almost eliminated.51

The camp where Marshall had his headquarters was not only a central location to train new recruits being sent to new camps being established, but also served as a separate camp in itself. Fort Screven was designated as Camp 460 and registered as NP-1 (National Park) with a total enrollment of 201 men. Like all of the camps in Marshall’s District, it was listed as a junior camp. Camp NP-1 was in command of Captain T.B. Jones (an Infantry reserve officer) who had two additional commissioned officers and no enlisted men working at the camp. The civilian project supervisor was H.J. McLeroy and he had 27 men employed by the forestry service.52

Marshall was the overall District commander and looked after the discipline and other needs of the camp the same way he cared for all the new camps he was responsible for. Like all of his other camps, NP-1 was very active and remained so for a long time. Camp NP-1 experienced many of the same problems that other camps witnessed in that some of the men deserted while other were discharged for various reasons ranging from elopement to accepting employment, or for having problems with authority and being discharged for disorderly conduct.

At camp NP-1 in the first several months, eight young men deserted, while two were discharged for misconduct. Added to this number were three who were honorably discharged because they took employment, and eight men sent home because they eloped and would soon be married.53

With so many men in his camps, problems sometimes arose that Marshall had a difficult time to change immediately. Because of the size of the camp the men experienced overcrowding

51 Lt. Colonel George C. Marshall to Colonel Clyde R. Abraham, June 3, 1933, Memorandum, Marshall Papers, box 1, folder 10, Marshall Library; Colonel Clyde R. Abraham was a 1906 graduate of the United States Military Academy and was stationed at the Army War College in Carlisle, PA. He was scheduled to assume command of Fort Screven, GA on July 1, 1933. Bland, The Papers of George Catlett Marshall: The Soldierly Spirit, December 1880-June 1939, 395. 52 Camp Inspection Reports, 1933-1942, RG35, National Archives. 53 Ibid. 24 in the barracks provided by the Army. Just prior to the formation of the CCC and Marshall’s first full year at his post, he was visited by the United States Army Inspector General for a routine annual inspection of his camp. Major Thomas W. King noted the overall condition of the camp stating that “Conditions at Fort Screven are abnormal…cost of living, food stuffs, and garrison social requirements are unusually low…the financial situation of the officers is therefore not a fair example for the Army at large”. He was also quick to note that Marshall was a superior officer and realized that conditions at the camp were difficult at times both financially and temporally but he was a exceptional officer who in his eyes deserved commendation “for the efficient and economical administration of his duties and the high state of morale of his command”.54

This was not to say that everything at Fort Screven was without improvements. In his time at his post, Marshall made internal changes that added to the overall favorable condition of the camp and allowed for a more pleasant atmosphere in which to live. The young men at his camp benefited greatly from the training they received while under his command. He had an educational advisor who worked with the men and helped them get schooling to improve their individual situations. The camp educational officer was H.W. Harvey and he had a number of programs that included journalism, history, singing, and vocational guidance that each recruit could make part of his daily activity. In addition Harvey also instituted the addition of several other programs including business arithmetic, auto mechanics, citizenship, and personal health.

The education program at camp NP-1 under Marshall was a great success and offered courses for recruits who were illiterate and need help in reading.55

54 Inspection Reports, 1814-1939, March 24, 1933, RG 159, National Archives and Cray, General of the Army: George C. Marshall, Soldier and Statesman, 114 55 Camp Inspection Reports, 1933-1942, RG35, National Archives. 25

In addition to the mental boost that each recruit received under Marshall’s command, each recruit was given physical challenges as a daily part of his life at camp. Daily work included building structures, laying telephone lines, clearing roads, and overall general improvements to not only the camp, but the neighboring communities. This is not to say that no time was permitted for physical off-duty recreation. Marshall encouraged each man to be active in body and mind and offered baseball, basketball, boxing, volleyball, and swimming to challenge the young men. Additional indoor recreational activities during poor weather included having camp magazines and newspapers available along with a small library for the recruits to utilize.56

All of the work, educational, and recreational activities went a long way to mold the young men who passed through the gates at Fort Screven with Marshall in command. The young men who lived at the camp ate very well, which came as no surprise with all of the strenuous activities each recruit received as each worked up healthy appetites. Three square meals were provided for each man everyday, and Marshall encouraged the men to eat hardy. A typical breakfast consisted of bacon omelets, pancakes, cereal, and milk or coffee. Most of the young men that entered the CCC camps gained between 5 and 27 pounds during the duration of the six months enrollment. Very seldom did a recruit loose weight, unless he came to camp overweight and needed the physical conditioning. One camp inspector noted how many pancakes a group of

200 young men could consume at one sitting for breakfast. On the average the recruits at each camp ate about 2,200 pancakes per day indicative of how well fed and hardworking these men were under the direction of the camp and district commanders.57

56 Ibid. 57 Camp Inspection Reports, 1933-1942, RG35, National Archives; Nelson C. Brown, The Civilian Conservation Corps Program in the United States (Washington: GPO, 1934), 5. 26

Marshall felt he did his best to make sure that each recruit was provided that best care and treatment possible. All the work completed at Fort Screven was done to make conditions better for everyone who lived at the camp. Marshall was a stickler for details, and demanded the very best that each enlisted man, officer, and CCC recruit had to offer during his stay at the post.

He was not above the demands of the men under his command and lived by the same ideals.58

His last days at the fort were spent with his men, and the citizens of Savannah who he would miss very much. The people of Savannah gave the Marshall’s a farewell dinner on June

26, 1933 that included many local citizens and city officials. Mayor Porter G. Pierpoint who was the president of the local chamber of commerce officiated at the evening festivities and presented

Marshall with a beautiful baton with an inscribed plate “To the Marshall of Savannah” something for which both he and his wife were very grateful. It was time for Marshall to move on to his next command and put the same vigor into making his new post a success.59

58 Pogue, George C. Marshall: Education of a General 1880-1939, 273. 59 Marshall, Together: Annals of an Army Wife, 11; Savannah Morning News, June 27, 1933; Charleston News and Courier, June 28, 1933.

27

CHAPTER 3 MARSHALL AT FORT MOULTRIE, SOUTH CAROLINA

In his last month at Fort Screven, Marshall received a letter from the local chamber of commerce in Charleston, South Carolina about his upcoming transfer to their city. The civilian populace was exited to have him come to their city and intended on giving him a warm reception upon his arrival. The chamber wrote: “It is with a great deal of pleasure that we learn through the local press that you are soon to take command of the garrison at Fort Moultrie…this is a delightful post and one that is very close to the citizens generally of Charleston”.60

On June 29, 1933 Marshall assumed command of his new post and commanded the entire regiment of the Eighth Infantry instead of a battalion at Fort Screven. As the new Colonel of the regiment, he still had command of the men he left behind in Georgia, and replaced Colonel

Gilbert M. Allen who was being transferred to Florida.61

Marshall set the tone very quickly that his new post was going to be as demanding as his previous post. On his official arrival he declined a formal reception in his honor from his troops on the grounds that the work at hand with the Civilian Conservation Corps was to take priority over any ceremony. Marshall felt this work needed his immediate attention and in his new

District and he acted quickly by planning to visit all of his new camps, which was something that he did on regularly in Georgia.62

Marshall was given the responsibility of command of District “I” of the Civilian

Conservation Corps with headquarters at the fort. His new district comprised all of the CCC

60 Coleman C. Martin to Lt. Colonel George C. Marshall, June 2, 1933, Memorandum, Marshall Papers, box 1, folder 11, Marshall Library. 61 Charleston News and Courier, June 28, 1933. A farewell review was given at the post in Colonel Allen’s honor. Major Octave DeCarre succeeded Allen as temporary commander of the fort until Marshall arrived to take command. Colonel Gilbert M. Allen was assigned to Gainesville, Florida at the University of Florida where he would assume the position of Professor of military science and tactics. 62 Charleston News and Courier, June 30, 1933. 28 camps and activities in South Carolina.63 Marshall had fifteen camps in his District and managed to visit each of the camps twice a month on the average. The distances that he traveled with his new command was not equal to the traveling that he did while at Fort Screven where he traveled in Georgia and Florida.64

Fort Moultrie in South Carolina was an old fort located on Sullivan’s island located about three miles from downtown Charleston. The fort dated back to colonial days and in 1776 was known as Fort Sullivan. During the Revolutionary War the fort protected the city and saved it from the threat of being captured by the British during the waning years of the war. By 1933 the outpost was on a list of locations run by the Army that Congress felt would not be missed if shut down. It was reached by a toll road from town and served as headquarters for the Eighth

Infantry.65

Marshall showed the same determination to take command of his situation and improve camp conditions while not loosing sight of the mission of the CCC. He was keenly aware that for many of the officers and men who staffed these camps this was their first experience with civilians on a command level and was all about improvising solutions to a variety of everyday problems that might arise in each camp.66

On July 11, 1933 he again wrote his old friend General John J. Pershing about his recent transfer to South Carolina and how he was getting along with his new command.

I inherited another forestry district covering South Carolina…in addition I have a citizens military training camp starting next week and three National Guard regiments coming into camp here for training… as few regular officers remain it is hard to manage…this CCC affair has been a major mobilization and a splendid experience for the War

63 Bland, The Papers of George Catlett Marshall:” The Soldierly Spirit”, December 1880-June 1939, 392. 64 Pogue, George C. Marshall: Education of a General 1880-1939, 278. 65 Ibid. 66 Ibid. 29

Department and the Army…the former has got a lot to learn about decentralization and simplicity.67

The employment with the CCC took nearly all of Marshall’s available time while at Fort

Moultrie and he made sure that he visited all of his camps regularly in addition to his care of the camp headquarters at Fort Moultrie. His command was self-engrossing and Marshall took to his work with the enthusiasm that he felt as a fresh young Lieutenant on his first assignment. No detail was too small for attention and no soldier or civilian in his command too ordinary for him to take interest. Marshall issued very few actual orders to his men and those commands he issued were followed with precision and strictly enforced.68

The men under his command were a fine group of officers and enlisted men who took their responsibilities as seriously as Marshall himself as he instilled in them that same enthusiastic work ethic that he followed. His men had many years of active and demanding service with very little recognition from the high command at Corps headquarters. One inspection tour by Corps commander Major General Edward King was fondly remembered by

Mrs. Marshall who spoke about her husband: “When the Corps area command came to inspect the post, George has these old sergeants lined up on our lawn introduced them to General

Edward King mentioning the service of each one”.69

Fort Moultrie like his post in Georgia was hit hard by the depression, as this was a very lean time for both the men and families that lived at the post. Many of the same practices that were in place in Georgia were carried over to his new command. He ordered chicken yards, vegetable gardens, and hog pens to be built to help feed the men and their families. Marshall also

67 Lt. Colonel George C. Marshall to General John J. Pershing, July 11, 1933, Memorandum, Marshall Papers, box 1, folder 12, Marshall Library. 68 Marshall, Together: Annals of an Army Wife, 12. 69 Ibid. 30 instituted a lunch pail system by which his men could get a hot meal cooked at the mess for a very small cost. This was done so that food could be taken home to the families of the soldiers to help feed their dependants.70

In addition to helping the men of his command provide for their families, he also made sure that his camp was in the best physical condition possible. When Marshall arrived at the post he noticed that it was shabby and run down. By having the men caring for the general condition of the post he instilled in them some sense of care for their new homes. Marshall was the first to plant a garden, and all of the Officers and men alike were not slow to take the hint and very soon many families on the post were following his lead. To help with camp beautification he requested funds from the Works Progress Administration and received enough money to paint and repair all of the buildings on his post.71

Marshall cared about all the men whether they were the recruits of the CCC or were his own soldiers or any of the men transferred to the various camps under his command throughout the state of South Carolina. One of the camps that he helped to form was the one at Fort

Moultrie. Camp P-58 (Private Lands) was known as Company 445 was at the site of the present headquarters. It was a camp of juniors and had a total of 206 white young men stationed at the camp being officially occupied on June 29, 1933 shortly after his arrival at the fort.72

Camp P-58 was a very active camp and had plenty of work that needed to be completed.

One of the largest projects that the camp was responsible for was the cutting and hauling of over

25,000 telephone poles over a period of several month. In Marshall’s last months in command at

70 Ibid. 71 Harold Faber, Soldier & Statesman: General George C. Marshall (New York: Ariel Books, 1964), 74-75. 72 Station and strength reports, 1933-42, August 31, 1933, RG35, National Archives; Camp directories, 1933-42, RG35, National Archives. 31

Fort Moultrie in October of 1933 the camp shipped 3,857 telephone poles and his men worked more than 12,320 hours for the month.73

Captain George B. Buell who was an Infantry reserve officer was placed in command of the camp with Marshall as his immediate superior. He had with him three additional commissioned officers under his command with no enlisted men working in the CCC camp.

There were also seven civilians attached to the camp from the forestry department with E.H.

Hutchinson as the superintendent in charge of the recruits who acted as the direct liaison between the Army officers of Marshall and Buell and the CCC recruits at the camp.74

Like the camps in Georgia, Marshall experienced the same problems with a number of men being discharged for various reasons during his tenure as commander of his District. Men were discharged for many of the same reasons. Some accepted employment outside the CCC, while others enlisted in the military. Still other men refused work or had serious problems with discipline. Marshall had no patience or time for men who would not pull their own weight in camp. Marshall chose to eliminate these men from the roster of the CCC and replace them with men willing to work. Some men reentered school after getting an education at the camp either vocational or otherwise, and still others were discharged because they were to be married. The

CCC junior camps were organized for men who were unmarried and had no families to immediately support. For many recruits their enlistments expired and they were discharged accordingly.75

The same extra curricular activities that were offered in Georgia were offered here at

South Carolina. Camp P-58 had an excellent reputation for education programs in the camp.

This post offered the CCC recruits, without cost, to attend the College of Charleston for night

73 Monthly work progress reports, 1933-42, October 31, 1933, RG35, National Archives. 74 Camp inspection reports, 1933-42, RG35, National Archives. 75 Ibid. 32 school classes and had some men enrolled in various Army extension courses that would lead to reserve officer commissions for any man who stuck with the full program.76

In addition to the educational offerings at his camps, Marshall believed in needing to spiritually feed the men at the post. Church services were offered at the post chapel at Fort

Moultrie for any man who wished to attend religious services. The post however was not without the usual recreational hall for physical activity outside the workday and many of the recruits availed themselves to the activities offered at the camp that comprised most sporting events. Like his camp in Georgia, the men at Fort Moultrie ate very well and had hearty meals prepared for them by the mess at the post.77

After a month with his new command, Marshall wrote to Colonel Claude Abraham about some of the men at Fort Screven, Georgia who stood out as exceptional individuals deserving of special consideration. He wrote about four men who he worked with while stationed at the camp asking Abraham to recognize these men individually. Colonel Abraham was impressed by the concerns of Marshall about these men and kept all four of them at Fort Screven deciding not to transfer men who showed certain promise.78

Work for Marshall continued with the CCC as each of the challenges that came his way were met and dealt with sharp measure. From the War Department news of his promotion was received and made effective on September 1, 1933 making Marshall a full Colonel. On

September 4, 1933 Marshall sent a report to the headquarters of the 4th Corps in Atlanta, Georgia about his situation over the last couple of weeks in command of his district conducting forestry

76 Ibid. 77 Ibid. 78 Lt. Colonel George C. Marshall to Colonel Claude Abraham, July 15, 1933, Memorandum, Marshall Papers, box 1, folder 12, Marshall Library; Mr. Farrell who worked as the chief Quartermaster Clerk, Sgt Morossow working as a police Sgt, Private Robinson QMC painter, and Mr. Campbell working as a carpenter at the post. 33 work “My impression from what I have seen on several inspections…with the local forestry superintendents there…the men have done more actual forestry work for the number of men available…the rapidity with which they were made available and considering the facilities made available for such work in the way of trucks and tools…In this district one of my serious problems until the past three weeks has been to secure enough genuine forestry work to keep the men closely employed…the delayed delivery of trucks made work programs hard to arrange.”79

Marshall never lost sight of the work that had to be completed and always tried to have his superiors understand and appreciate his situation with the CCC. On October 7, 1933

Marshall was disappointed when he was informed that he was going to be transferred to Chicago,

Illinois effective by the end of the month on October 30, 1933. He was to be relieved of his assignment at Fort Moultrie, South Carolina and to be detailed as an instructor in the 33rd

Division of the Illinois National Guard. He was to report to the commanding officer of the VI

Army Corps for further instruction on his arrival at Chicago.80

On the news that he was departing for Chicago, Mayor Burnet R. Maybank of Charleston wrote to Marshall about his regret in seeing him leave South Carolina. “It is useless for me to try to express our appreciation of the kind cooperation you have rendered the City of Charleston since you were stationed here…the people one and all deeply appreciate all you have done and your leaving will be a severe loss to us”.81

Marshall was equally upset over his sudden change of duty station. He confided in the

Mayor “This change is a very depressing affair to me…the work here with the post and regiment and with the forestry camps in South Carolina has been a most satisfactory experience…I deeply

79 General Administrative Files, 1933-1935, September 5, 1933, RG407, National Archives. 80 General Douglas MacArthur to Colonel George C. Marshall, October 7, 1933, Memorandum, Marshall Papers, box 1, folder 13, Marshall Library. 81 Mayor Burnet R. Maybank to Colonel George C. Marshall, October 11, 1933, Memorandum, Marshall Papers, box 1, folder 13, Marshall Library. 34 regret that I cannot remain to carry through various plans I had made for the post”.82 Marshall had expected to be stationed at Fort Moultrie for at least a period of one to two years. He was only able to stay at his station for four months. This sudden change in duty stations was a complete surprise and came as a shock to Marshall who felt his transfer was actually a demotion for him. The National Guard, although highly respected by local state politicians, was considered by many career Army officers as a place to hide less effective commanders and one that Marshall felt unwarranted in his transfer. To put it bluntly, he believed that the National

Guard was not a part of the regular Army and that his transfer would have a direct impact on his eventual promotion to Brigadier General.83

One local businessman who felt that Marshall’s transfer was a sad loss to the community was Edmund P. Grice Jr. He was a food broker in Charleston who worked as an administrator for the Federal Emergency Relief Administration. He wrote:

The community loses a very able friend…the post an able commanding officer…in a personal way I will lose much in your departure…in the operation of the CCC camps you have been most sympathetic and helpful in those things where my work touched yours and my observation of the work done by those under your command as it was reflected in the conduct and attitude of the boys and men in the camps reveals the individual attention and constructive helpfulness in handling them…it is one thing to fulfill the requirements of orders…and I am quite sure that the personnel of the CCC will remember your thoroughness in looking after them and your fairness in dealing with them.84

All of the feeling of regret from citizens in Charleston was not going to stop Marshall from going to his next duty station. Because he was a career soldier he was trained to follow orders regardless of whether he approved of his transfer or not. Marshall left Fort Moultrie on

October 30, 1933 bound for Chicago, Illinois to join the National Guard. He wrote to General

82 Colonel George C. Marshall to Mayor Burnet R. Maybank, October 13, 1933, Memorandum, Marshall Papers, box 1, folder 13, Marshall Library. 83 Mary Sutton Skutt, George C. Marshall, Reporting for Duty, (Lexington: Blue Valley Books, 2001), 88. 84 Edmund P. Grice Jr. to Colonel George C. Marshall, October 18, 1933, Memorandum, Marshall Papers, box 1, folder 13, Marshall Library. 35

Douglas MacArthur who served as the chief of staff making his first request for special duty asking the Army to reconsider his transfer and allow him to stay with his regiment. His request was denied and Marshall followed his new orders.85

When he arrived at Chicago and settled into his new post he again wrote a letter to

General John J. Pershing. He always felt that Pershing was someone that would listen to him and to whom he could speak freely when he wrote: “I tried to remain at Moultrie…where I had been established four months…but without success…there I had a regiment…including 4,000

CCC men throughout South Carolina and rather complete independence…General Douglas

MacArthur wrote me in a very sympathetic manner…but it was back to staff duty for me…I seem fated”.86

Mrs. Marshall noticed in the first months in Chicago that her husband was rather withdrawn, and had a gray look about him. To Katherine Marshall it was a look she had never seen before and seldom since that point. Marshall took his transfer very hard, but in a couple of months had fully rebounded back to good spirits, and put into his new post all of the same enthusiasm that he showed in every transfer he ever had since his commissioning as a young

Lieutenant in 1898.87

85 Marshall, Together: Annals of an Army Wife, 18. 86 Colonel George C. Marshall to General John J. Pershing,, November 13, 1933, Memorandum, Marshall Papers, box 1, folder 14, Marshall Library. 87 Marshall, Together: Annals of an Army Wife, 18. 36

CHAPTER 4 MARSHALL AND THE ATAMONY OF THE CCC

A large number of men passed through the gates at both Fort Moultrie in Charleston,

South Carolina and at Fort Screven at Savannah, Georgia in the months that Lieutenant Colonel

George C. Marshall was in command in 1933. Some of these men had interesting stories of their experiences with the Civilian Conservation Corps while others worked hard and went on to have successful careers using what became some of their first work experiences that acted as a catalyst towards a lifetime vocation.

One veteran of the Civilian Conservation Corps at Fort Moultrie, South Carolina in 1933 who was acquainted with camp life was Frank A. Damon. Damon was a native of Florence,

South Carolina (very close to Charleston) and lived in the area up to the time of his induction into the Civilian Conservation Corp in the spring of 1933. He was the son of Charles W. and

Gertrude (Bonsil) Damon and was born in 1914. His father Charles W Damon worked many years as a railroad conductor while his mother worked as a secretary for a local charity.88

Damon was one of several children and when the depression hit at his home that required some of his family members to seek alternate work. Because of the inability of the family to secure good paying work they moved several times in Florence, South Carolina first in 1917 living at 306 Orby Street. Afterwards, the family moved to 222 McQueen Street in 1920 and by

1930 had again moved to 419 Pine Street in Florence.89 Damon recorded his experience in South

88 U.S. Bureau of Census, Population Schedules of the Fifteen Census of the United States, 1930 (National Archives) Florence, Florence County, South Carolina. RG29, T626, Roll 2196, Pg 3B and Frank A. Damon, Interview by author, March 23, 2006. Charleston, SC. Shepherd University, Shepherdstown, WV. 89 U.S. Bureau of Census, Population Schedules of the Fourteenth Census of the United States, 1920 (National Archives) Florence, Florence County, South Carolina. RG29, T625, Roll 1695, Pg 16B and Population Schedules of the Fifteen Census of the United States, 1930 (National Archives) Florence, Florence County, South Carolina. RG29, T626, Roll 2196, Pg 3B, See also Draft registrants, 1917-1918, RG143, National Archives. 37

Carolina during the early months when George C. Marshall was in command at Fort Moultrie writing:

I finished high school in 1932 and had been looking everywhere for a job…finally after looking I heard about the WPA [Works Progress Administration] and applied for a job digging ditches and that type work for $1.00 per day…I worked at this job until President Roosevelt started the Civilian Conservation Corps…On July 15, 1933 I successfully passed the physical and was sent to Company 445 at Fort Moultrie, South Carolina…Since I had taken typing in high school, I was offered the job as Assistant Company Clerk and after two weeks the Company Clerk left to accept employment and I was assigned to his job90

Damon remembered vividly his time while stationed at Fort Moultrie. He served faithfully in his junior company stationed at the fort. When he enlisted he was paid $30.00 per month the same wage as all new recruits. In a short period of a few weeks he was promoted to the position of leader along with a pay increase to $45.00 per month. In the position of Company clerk he remembered the military personal stationed at his camp. Damon recalled Captain [later

Colonel] George B. Buell was the commander of Camp 445 and later as Adjutant with Colonel

George C. Marshall commanding the entire district [District “I”] from the time of his recruitment into the Civilian Conservation Corps.

Damon sensed Marshall was a hard working officer who cared about his command and all of the men stationed their regardless of whether they were civilian or military. Damon wrote:

“It was really hard for me at first as I had so much to learn…life at Fort Moultrie was not easy…we lived in tents and the mosquito’s really had a healthy appetite.”91 The training he received at Fort Moultrie under Marshall’s guidance was something he prized and would use in

90 Chester M. Nolte, Civilian Conservation Corps: The way we remember it, 1933-1942 (Paducah: Turner Publishing Company, 1990), 79. 91 Ibid. 38 his adult life. He was discharged on September 14, 1936 after serving six separate enlistments totaling three years before accepting permanent employment with the National Park Service.92

Many other young men besides Damon benefited greatly from the encouragement and training that the United States Army provided. At Fort Moultrie other men who served with

Marshall left the Civilian Conservation Corps with training that undoubtedly helped them in their chosen professions later in life. One man at Fort Moultrie was Thomas S. Axson Jr. from

Hopewell in rural Aiken County, South Carolina. Axson was born in Orangeburg County, South

Carolina on December 12, 1910 and was the son of Thomas S. and Elizabeth Axson. His family lived from 1920 through 1930 in Hopewell Township and did farming related work. By 1930 his father was 69 years of age and was nearing retirement. Thomas Jr. worked on the family farm when the times were hard for the family.93

On July 13, 1933 Axson joined the Civilian Conservation Corps and served a single enlistment for six months. He was discharged on December13, 1933 along with other members of his company by reason of the expiration of his enrollment at Fort Moultrie having served under the direct leadership of Marshall.94 Several years after his time with the CCC he joined the regular Army. On August 5, 1940 he enlisted at Fort Moultrie, South Carolina and was stationed at Panama working with the medical department for the duration of the war. After his return to civilian life he returned to the area of his residence and worked for the City of Charleston until his retirement. Axson died in Charleston on November 7, 1979 as was buried locally.95

92 Frank A. Damon, Interview by author, March 23, 2006. Charleston, SC. Shepherd University, Shepherdstown, West Virginia 93 U.S. Bureau of Census, Population Schedules of the Fourteenth Census of the United States, 1920 (National Archives) Hopewell, Aiken, South Carolina. RG29, T625, Roll 1682, Pg 186; U.S. Bureau of Census, Population Schedules of the Fifthteenth Census of the United States, 1930 (National Archives) Hopewell, Aiken, South Carolina. RG29, T626, Roll 2184, Pg 7A. 94 Camp inspection reports, 1933-42, RG35, National Archives. 95 Charleston Courier and Post, November 8, 1979. 39

One of Axson bunkmates at Fort Moultrie was another local youth named Joseph J.

Gratzick Jr. He was born in Charleston, South Carolina on July 21, 1915 and was the son of

Joseph J. and Bertha (Diers) Gratzick. He was raised in the city of Charleston his entire youth.

He was the oldest child in his family having four younger brothers and sisters. His father moved frequently changing occupations regularly. By 1917 when John was two years old, his family was living at 350 Rutledge Street in Charleston and his father worked for the City of Charleston at Hampton Park as a gardener.96

By 1920 his family moved to 68 Fishburn Street in Charleston with his father working for the Navy yard as a coppersmith. The family continued to grow and by 1930 the family was now living at 129 Congress Street in Charleston with his father self-employed as a grocery store merchant. Joseph Jr. was by this time 15 years of age and was working as a messenger boy for a local telegraph company.97 By spring 1933 with the depression he enrolled in the Civilian

Conservation Corps at Fort Moultrie and served under Marshall. After his six month term of service had expired he was discharged from his obligations on December 13, 1933 and resumed work locally.98 Gratzick worked as a welding supervisor at the Navy yard in Charleston until his retirement. He died October 13, 1995 in Charleston and was buried locally.99

Another local man who worked with Axson and Gratzick was Forrester Semken of

Charleston. He was also very young at his enrollment with the CCC. He was born on October

27, 1914 in Dothan, Alabama. His parents were Julius W. and Regina Semken and he spent his first years of his life outside of South Carolina. He was living in Charleston by 1920 at 10 Wall

96 Draft registrants, 1917-1918, RG143, National Archives. 97 U.S. Bureau of Census, Population Schedules of the Fourteenth Census of the United States, 1920 (National Archives) Charleston, Ward 12, Charleston, South Carolina. RG29, T625, Roll 1688, Pg 20A; U.S. Bureau of Census, Population Schedules of the Fifthteenth Census of the United States, 1930 (National Archives) Charleston, Ward 11, Charleston, South Carolina. RG29, T626, Roll 2190, Pg 15A. 98 Camp inspection reports, 1933-42, RG35, National Archives. 99 Charleston News and Courier, October 15, 1995. 40

Street where his father was working as foreman in a fertilizer plant. By 1930 his father was dead and he was living with his mother at 28 Wall Street in Charleston renting a small apartment for

$10.00 per month. Neither he nor his mother had any visible means of support and by 1933 with the depression worsening, he moved another time to 28 South Alexander Street in Charleston.

On June 3, 1933 he enlisted at Fort Moultrie in the CCC for six months having reported to the fort and working under the command of Marshall.100 After his discharge from the CCC Semken retired as a shipping supervisor for Exxon. He died on November 24, 2004 and was buried in

Charleston.101

Not all of the men who worked with Marshall were impressionable CCC recruits. He also worked with a large number of outside civilian employees who trained the recruits. These men and woman were local experienced men (LEMS) who were paid a set daily or monthly wage and assisted in the operation of the camps that Marshall commanded. Two of the men who worked with Marshall while he was at Fort Screven, Georgia from April to June of 1933 were men who worked as laborer or some other skilled occupation. The new CCC recruits worked side by side with the civilian employees taking orders and helping with some of the more mundane jobs that might be required while at the camp.

One civilian employee who worked in Georgia was Cuthbert M. Herb Jr. Herb worked as an electrician at Fort Screven for a number of months during the summer of 1933. He was born on October 16, 1907 in Savannah, Georgia and was older than most recruits. His parents were Cuthbert and Stella Herb and he was raised in the area of Savannah his entire youth. His family moved frequently like most of the men associated with the CCC as families tended to move to where work was readily available. His father Cuthbert M. Herb Sr. worked as a

100 Charleston News and Courier, June 4, 1933. 101 Charleston News and Courier, November 27, 2004. 41 shipyard engineer as early as 1917 when the family was living at 2626 L Street, in Brunswick,

Glynn County, Georgia near Savannah about the time that his son was ten years old.102

By 1920 his family moved into downtown Savannah living at 410 Hull Street with

Cuthbert Sr. securing work as a factory molder. In 1930 his family was still in Savannah and

Cuthbert was living in the household of his brother-in-law Charles M. Tilton who was working as a marine engineer. His parents and three of his older siblings were all living in the same household with him. His father was still working as a molder, but now he was 22 years old and had secured work as an electrician, no doubt having learned from a master.103

Herb enrolled as a civilian employee in Savannah and was immediately assigned to work at Fort Screven, Georgia. He was classed an electrician and was paid $5.50 per day in wages and at the end of the month his wages totaled $144.92 per month.104 After his time working with the

CCC he was discharged and resumed his work as an electrician. Herb worked as a master electrician for the remainder of his life operating his own business in Savannah. He was the owner and operator of the Herb Electric Company and also belonged to an electrician union and a number of local community organizations. Herb died on August 6, 1981 in Savannah and was buried locally.105

Another civilian employee at Fort Screven was Greeley Whatley who worked as laborer at the camp. He was born in Newman, Georgia on June 26, 1890, and was raised in the area

102 Draft registrants, 1917-1918, RG143, National Archives 103 U.S. Bureau of Census, Population Schedules of the Fourteenth Census of the United States, 1920 (National Archives) Savannah, Chatham, Georgia. RG29, T625, Roll 241, Pg 16A; U.S. Bureau of Census, Population Schedules of the Fifthteenth Census of the United States, 1930 (National Archives) Savannah, Chatham, Georgia. RG29, T626, Roll 344, Pg 6B. 104 Records relating to the Civilian Conservation Corps, 1933-43, RG407, National Archives; Fort Screven, Georgia has a number of civilian employees both skilled and unskilled who worked alongside the CCC recruits. These employees included Greeley Whatley (laborer), Solomon Williams (laborer), Preston Williams (laborer), Willie Wilson (laborer), John W. Baker (carpenter), James B. McNatt (carpenter), Cuthbert M. Herb (electrician), Harold Ornsdorff (plumber), Catherine Blackburn (clerk), Carrie Williams (clerk), Martin Johnson (fireman), Mrs. Frank Graves (laborer), Mary Sowart (laborer), and Minnie Williams (laborer). 105 Savannah Morning News, August 7, 1981. 42 surrounding Savannah. He resided in Fort Screven since 1929 and by 1933 he was working with the CCC as a civilian employee taking orders from Marshall at the fort as an unskilled laborer making $2.00 per day.106 After his time with the CCC he settled into life near Savannah and died on May 2, 1973 and was buried locally.107

One of the Forestry Department employees that had contact with Marshall and would have carried out his orders was Eugene H. Padgett. He worked as a foreman with the department and acted as the liaison between the military personnel and the CCC recruits. It was his department that provided the necessary conservation training that each recruit needed as he would have worked alongside both the military and civilian (LEMS) instructing the recruits.

Padgett was much older most of the civilian employees and was born in Colleton County, South

Carolina on August 7, 1901.

He was the son of Robert R. and Rebecca Padgett. Padgett was living in 1920 in Colleton

County. His father was a farmer and he was the youngest of seven children.108 At Fort Moultrie

Padgett was paid a salary of $140.00 per month working for the forestry department. His immediate superior was E.H. Hutchinson who served as the superintendent and reported directly to Colonel Marshall.109 Padgett eventually got out forestry work and sought another profession.

He retired after a number of years working as a barber with a shop in Charleston. He died on

December 19, 1969 and was buried a few days later locally.110

Over the months that Marshall was in command of the District offices in South Carolina and Georgia he came into contact with thousands of men and woman, both young and old who

106 Records relating to the Civilian Conservation Corps, 1933-43, RG407, National Archives. 107 Savannah Morning News, May 4, 1973. 108 U.S. Bureau of Census, Population Schedules of the Thirteenth Census of the United States, 1910 (National Archives) Warren Township, Colleton, South Carolina. RG29, T624, Roll 1457, Pg 162A. 109 Camp inspection reports, 1933-42, RG35, National Archives. 110 Charleston News and Courier, December 20, 1969. 43 he tried to instill upon them some work ethics that he followed. Retelling some of their stories denote volumes on how life was for a few short months in 1933 with the CCC and their time with Colonel George C. Marshall.

44

CONCLUSION

Buried deeply in the vaults of the National Archives and other research institutions are stacks of files dealing with all of the failures and accomplishments during the height of the depression. Some of these records include the operation of the Civilian Conservation Corps and all of the blood and sweat that was put to make this program successful during the early years from 1933 when the urgency of the Government to provide relief for fellow Americans was most needed. In the chronicles of this organization the name of George C. Marshall appears time and again. Always giving his best effort, the results that Marshall was able to achieve as a District commander in two different states over a small period of six months was to be commended.

From the very beginning of his time with the CCC Marshall was able to gain their respect and support of all the soldiers and civilians under his command. By taking care of the everyday needs of the men and woman that he worked with, no matter how small the necessity, he was able to give to his men self-respect, which many felt they had lost in their inability to find suitable work to support themselves. Many of these recruits believed that they amounted to nothing and did not know how they could measure up to the tasks presented to them. Marshall was able to bring the boys together to work as a team, thereby giving to them a solid foundation of work ethics that would serve them the remainder of their lives. George C. Marshall was a natural born leader who was groomed early in his military career and trained to command civilians and military soldiers always putting the extra effort required to make each of his commands successful. It was his early successes in his military career that lead to other most important positions later in his life as the limited time he had with the Civilian Conservation

Corps acted as one of the catalysts that make him a great leader.

45

APPENDIX

Figure 1

46

United States Army Corp (IV)

Figure 2

47

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

MANUSCRIPT SOURCES

Mace, Donald Papers George C. Marshall Foundation, Lexington, VA

Marshall, George C. Papers George C Marshall Foundation, Lexington, VA

Olmstead Associates Papers Manuscript Division, Library of Congress

RECORDS IN THE NATIONAL ARCHIVES

RG 29 Records of the Bureau of the Census

Population Schedules of the United States, 1910-1930

RG 35 Records of the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC)

General correspondence, 1933-42 Camp directories, 1933-42 Camp inspection reports, 1933-42 Station and strength reports, 1933-42 Correspondence with state selecting agencies, 1933-42 Quarterly and statistical reports, 1933-42 Monthly work progress reports, 1933-42

RG 159 Records of the Office of Inspector General (Army)

Inspection Reports, 1814-1939

RG 163 Records of the Selective Service System

Draft registrants, 1917-1918.

RG 407 Records of the Adjutant General’s Office 1917-

General Administrative Files, 1933-1935. Records relating to the Civilian Conservation Corps, 1933-43.

48

PUBLISHED PRIMARY SOURCES, REMINISCENSES, AND MEMOIRS

Bland, Larry I. ed. The Papers of George Catlett Marshall: The Soldierly Spirit, December 1880- June 1939. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1981.

Marshall, Katherine Tupper. Together: Annals of an Army Wife. New York: Tupper & Love, 1946.

Nolte, Chester M. Civilian Conservation Corps: The way we remember it, 1933-1942. Paducah: Turner Publishing Company, 1990.

Ryan, J.C. The CCC and Me. Duluth: J.C. Ryan, 1987.

NEWSPAPERS

Charleston, SC. Charleston News and Courier

New York, NY. New York Times

Savannah, GA. Savannah Morning News

Washington, D.C. Happy Days

PUBLISHED SECONDARY SOURCES

Brown, Nelson C. The Civilian Conservation Corps Program in the United States. Washington: GPO, 1934.

Cohen, Stan. The Tree Army: A Pictorial History of the Civilian Conservation Corps, 1933 1942. Missoula: Pictorial Histories Publishing Company, 1980.

Cole, Olen. The African-American Experience in the Civilian Conservation Corps. Jacksonville: University Press of Florida, 1999.

Conti, Philip M. The Civilian Conservation Corps: Salvaging Boys and Other Treasures. Harrisburg: Conti, 1989.

Cornbise, Alfred E. The CCC Chronicles: Camp Newspapers of the Civilian Conservation Corps, 1933-1942. Jefferson: McFarland & Company, 2004.

Cray, Ed. General of the Army George C. Marshall, Soldier and Statesman. New York: W.W. Norton, 1990. 49

Davis, Kenneth S. FDR: The New Deal Years, 1933-1937. New York: Random House, 1986

Ermentrout, Robert A. Forgotten Men: The Civilian Conservation Corps. Smithtown: Exposition Press, 1982.

Faber, Harold. Soldier & Statesman: General George C. Marshall. New York: Ariel Books, 1964.

Lacy, Leslie A. The Soil Soldiers: The Civilian Conservation Corps in the Great Depression. Radnor: Chilton Book Company, 1976.

Merrill, Perry H. Roosevelt’s Forest Army: A History of the Civilian Conservation Corps, 1933- 1942. Montpelier: Perry H. Merrill, 1981.

Mosley, Leonard. Marshall: Hero for our Times. New York: Hearst Books, 1982.

Pogue, Forrest C. George C. Marshall: Education of a General 1880-1939. New York: Viking Press, 1987.

Salmond, John A. The Civilian Conservation Corps, 1933-1942: A New Deal Case Study. Durham: Duke University Press, 1967.

Sargent, James E. Roosevelt and the Hundred Days: Struggle for the Early New Deal. New York: Garland Publishing, 1981.

Skutt, Mary Sutton. George C. Marshall, Reporting for Duty. Lexington: Blue Valley Books, 2001.

Stoler, Mark A. George C. Marshall: Soldier-Statesman of the American Century. New York: Twayne Publishers, 1989.

Sullivan, Charles J. Army Posts and Towns: The Baedeker of the Army. Burlington: Free Press, 1926.

INTERVIEWS

Damon, Frank A. Interview by author, March 23, 2006. Charleston, SC. Shepherd University, Shepherdstown.