STEINAR AAS1
The role of the polar explorer in the Norwegian identity
Norway is a rather young nation and has had two spells under the rule of foreign empires: the first was under Denmark with the definite beginning in 1536, then ending in 1814. The second spell under foreign rile was under the Kingdom of Sweden from 1814 to 1905. Despite the late rebirth of Norway as an independent nation state, the young modern Norwegian kingdom established a polar empire with significant possessions in both the Arctic and the Antarctic by 1940. In the modern-day history of science, Norway is a stronghold for polar research, and the rise of polar exploration, polar research, and nation-state building went hand-in-hand from the last part of 19th and first half of the 20th century, and until today. This article aims to connect the understanding of the explorer as part of the rise of the modern nation-state Norway. Consequently, it demands a certain attentiveness to the context of nation-state building. This article reflects on the nation-state building and aims to envisage the role of the polar explorer in Norwegian culture, identity, and historiography.
The explorer as part of Norwegian history
The history of Norway has its own “poetics”, its own “national narrative”. This article aims to show how polar exploration is vital to understand this narrative, this poetics. The Norwegian historiography about the process of the country’s independence from the Swedish empire is often linked with some key narratives that require explanation. The polar explorer is part of this process of emancipation from Sweden and early nation building as an independent country. The process of the dissolution of the Swedish Norwegian union was an ongoing conflict during the 19th century, and resulted in the dissolution in 1905, after a period of almost 100 years. The union was rather loose; Norway, could for instance establish its own government, an own prime minister, a parliament and departmental structure, a national bank with Norwegian currency, and a modern constitution different from that of Sweden and based on the principles of the then-modern French revolution and constitution when it was established by the new Norwegian Constituent Assembly in 1814 (Myhre, 2012, pp. 27-40).
1 Faculty of Social science, Nord University; [email protected].
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There were still two fundamental pro lems with the union with Sweden. Norway could neither have a forei n policy with forei n stations nor make decisions in the parliament without the risk of the Swedish kin interferin with or vetoin them vi, pp. . The freedom seekin Norwe ians, tryin to aim towards independence from the vetoin kin of Sweden, was also part of the rhetoric and national narrative of the Norwe ians durin the th and th century. The freedom seekin people of Norway sou ht its independence and co determination, like suppressed people in other countries without self overnance vi, p. . Nevertheless, Norwe ian nation state uildin was underway and was fuelled y the Norwe ian onstituent ssem ly, takin place in ay after the Treaty of iel made enmark cede Norway to the Swedish kin . The conse uences of this new independence movement ased on Norwe ian interests also implied a newfound scientific approach in the Norwe ian re ime of science and hi her education. Now the aim was to stren then the niversity of slo, newly esta lished as the only university in Norway in . onse uently, the content of hi her education and advanced science were to e part of the nation state uildin . The focus of the Norwe ian policy for research and hi her education was on the o ective of preparin civil servants to uild a Norwe ian oriented pu lic administration ased on merit, ut another aim for national research and education centred on stren thenin science as a means for the e ploration and mappin of the national territory. or instance, eo raphers aimed to uild institutions for mappin the physical eo raphy of the country and its people. iolo ists and otanists aimed to re ister the fauna and flora of the nation. ultural researchers and ethnolo ists were desi nated to make surveys of the national culture, its character, and its societal features as distinct from those perceived as forei n or not Norwe ian. The purpose was to uild national identity and pride while completin the systematic mappin of the territory vi, pp. estmark, . This national “renaissance”, or rebirth, stood in stark contrast to the previous period of national decline under the anish rule. The poetics of decline was orrowed from the Norwe ian poet enrik sen, who introduced the concept “the 400 year night” in the novel Peer Gynt in . The term referred to the period from to when the Norwe ian demo raphic, political, and economic decline resulted in a union with enmark, with Norway ruled as a colony y anish kin s from openha en sen, , . n later Norwe ian historio raphy, the concept of the year decline ecame a common concept, althou h it has come under scrutiny y historians in later years. However, the whole point with the narrative of the “dark” years, was to use the darkness to contrast it with the renewed nation uildin process of th century, y this nationalists could esta lish a former period of decline and oppression in contrast to the new, more promisin process of a national renaissance le osen , , N .
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There were still two fundamental pro lems with the union with Sweden. The th cent ry th s developed as an arena for orwegian researchers – Norway could neither have a forei n policy with forei n stations nor make like historians and c lt ralists – to re establish and chart the old orwegian decisions in the parliament without the risk of the Swedish kin interferin with c lt re, sic, and lang age d ring the post 4 period. To achieve the ai of or vetoin them vi, pp. . The freedom seekin Norwe ians, tryin to aim a new golden age, researchers so ght knowledge fro the golden years before towards independence from the vetoin kin of Sweden, was also part of the the decline of orway in , the period before the 400 year night, and the rhetoric and national narrative of the Norwe ians durin the th and th enith of the orwegian real , when the kingdo enco passed celand century. The freedom seekin people of Norway sou ht its independence and reenland parts of cotland and ngland s ch as an, the Hebrides, hetland, co determination, like suppressed people in other countries without self and the Orkneys; the Faeroe Islands; and parts of today’s southwestern Sweden overnance vi, p. . sen, 0 4, pp. . Nevertheless, Norwe ian nation state uildin was underway and was eginning in , there were no orwegian cabinet or ad inistration – fuelled y the Norwe ian onstituent ssem ly, takin place in ay after at that point, Norway was under Denmark’s rule. Norway became a province the Treaty of iel made enmark cede Norway to the Swedish kin . The nder the anish state. This year arked a vital day in orwegian history as it conse uences of this new independence movement ased on Norwe ian was to be the downfall of the orse iking days with the fall of the independent interests also implied a newfound scientific approach in the Norwe ian re ime orwegian nation state. ring the years to co e, and d ring this period the of science and hi her education. Now the aim was to stren then the niversity orway lost al ost all its orth tlantic ins lar possessions to en ark, the of slo, newly esta lished as the only university in Norway in . nited ingdo , and weden rsland, andvik, , pp. . onse uently, the content of hi her education and advanced science were to e y the ti e orway gained independence fro weden in 0 , ost part of the nation state uildin . The focus of the Norwe ian policy for research pop lated areas of the world were colonised to so e degree. n addition, the and hi her education was on the o ective of preparin civil servants to uild a e ploration of re ote rctic and ntarctic areas beca e si ltaneo s as Norwe ian oriented pu lic administration ased on merit, ut another aim for expeditions were launched in new, undiscovered areas of land, known as “no national research and education centred on stren thenin science as a means for man’s land” or terra nullius this was not so different fro the great e plorations the e ploration and mappin of the national territory. or instance, eo raphers of earlier cent ries wherein the “civilised” world explored “unknown continents” aimed to uild institutions for mappin the physical eo raphy of the country in the “undiscovered” areas of Asia, Africa, and the Americas. This fact changed and its people. iolo ists and otanists aimed to re ister the fauna and flora of the ter s for i perialist co ntries. The est for e pansion and international the nation. ultural researchers and ethnolo ists were desi nated to make surveys co petition between states oved into the rctic and ntarctic re, , pp. of the national culture, its character, and its societal features as distinct from 0 and . n 0, the rctic was terra nullius – land that was not those perceived as forei n or not Norwe ian. The purpose was to uild national considered to be anyone’s property. However, during the subsequent 20 years, identity and pride while completin the systematic mappin of the territory vi, this matter of “ownership” was settled. In the Arctic for instance, five rctic pp. estmark, . states were established by 40 en ark, anada, orway, the oviet nion, This national “renaissance”, or rebirth, stood in stark contrast to the and the vi, pp. 4 . en ark was the sovereign over reenland, while previous period of national decline under the anish rule. The poetics of decline anada, the , and the oviet nion controlled the rctic areas north of their was orrowed from the Norwe ian poet enrik sen, who introduced the territories respectively vi, p. 4 erg, 0 , pp. 0 4 . concept “the 400 year night” in the novel Peer Gynt in . The term referred to The foreign political ai of the new orwegian nation state in the age of the period from to when the Norwe ian demo raphic, political, and i perialis was to for a new foreign policy which, co bined with the policy economic decline resulted in a union with enmark, with Norway ruled as a of research, co ld pave the way for i perial orwegian clai s and help orway colony y anish kin s from openha en sen, , . regain the role as a orth tlantic e pire, tho gh on a s aller scale than in the n later Norwe ian historio raphy, the concept of the year decline iking age. ecame a common concept, althou h it has come under scrutiny y historians in Norway’s foreign political imperialist ambitions were directed toward both later years. However, the whole point with the narrative of the “dark” years, was the rctic and the ntarctic. n line with national senti ents in the interwar to use the darkness to contrast it with the renewed nation uildin process of period, orwegian politicians eant that possessing the polar regions gave the th century, y this nationalists could esta lish a former period of decline and r ling nation political prestige re, , p. . evertheless, the i perialis oppression in contrast to the new, more promisin process of a national towards the polar regions was not of the sa e content as the traditional renaissance le osen , , N . i perialis . The polar regions were considered as peripheral, arginal areas that
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were difficult to domicile permanently. However, they were potentially important due to the previously mentioned international prestige connected with hem, as well as possible oil and mineral recourses and economically promising resources in connection with hunting, sealing, and whaling Ivi, pp. 0 and . The Norwegian foreign policy implied substantial offensive considerations during the interwar period. Firstly, there were considerations regarding the inclusion of territories from neighbouring states under Norwegian sovereignty e.g., those in Finland and the Soviet nion . Secondly, Norway launched campaigns toward areas with disputed sovereignty such as ast reenland. Thirdly, Norway absorbed polar islands and areas with terra nullius status into Norwegian sovereignty, like an ayen 0 , ear Island 20 , and Svalbard specific treaty 20; Ivi, pp. 20 . The role of science was substantial in the quest for new polar territories. An example of the willingness to support and fund polar research as a part of national aim for prestige and honour, as well as new land, is the funding of the research ship Fram – used by Nansen in his expedition to reenland in . The public costs invested by the national budget was at the same level as the annual budget of the niversity of Oslo the same year. The science historian eir Hestmark claims that the national prestige connected with the polar sciences in Norway was of great significance, but the Norwegian polar imperialism was rather innocent compared to other sorts of imperialist campaigns in the last part of the th century Hestmark, 200 , p. 0 . He explains this by explaining that the Norwegian polar imperialism did not result military activity or end in warfare. The annexation of the territories did not end in any occupation or suppression of indigenous people or other nation’s population, either. Nevertheless, the exploration and science used as a means of mapping, studying, and conquering the new, unexplored white areas paid off. Norway’s “polar ocean imperialism” resulted in territorial gains, such as gaining jurisdiction over not only the Svalbard Islands in the Arctic Ocean by 2 , but also by expanding in the Antarctic during the 20s and 0s. This expansion led to the annexation of the ouvet Island in 2 , eter I Island in , and ueen aud and in Fure, , p . These dependent territories are all under Norwegian administration, although they have been put under international treaties regulating the use of the territory The Antarctic Treaty .
The unsound rivalry of polar exploration
Thus far, we have discussed how Norway, as a rather young, peaceful nation, used scientific expeditions as part of territorial expansion and how science can play a role in the nation building process. One example is the meteorological expeditions of the Norwegian eteorological Institute in the 20s to an ayen. During the purely scientific expeditions to the isle, there were put up
238 STEINAR AAS - The role of the polar explorer in the Norwegian identity
were difficult to domicile permanently. However, they were potentially important commemorations by the meteorologist that they had “occupied” the isle between due to the previously mentioned international prestige connected with hem, as and ure, , pp. . hese e amples of Norwegian well as possible oil and mineral recourses and economically promising resources e pansion in to the polar regions illustrates how science has the potential as in connection with hunting, sealing, and whaling Ivi, pp. 0 and . spearhead for territorial gains. n one hand a significantly international affair as The Norwegian foreign policy implied substantial offensive science often ased on international cooperation can e a tool for nationalists. considerations during the interwar period. Firstly, there were considerations onse uently, this di ision etween international ri alry and cooperation has a regarding the inclusion of territories from neighbouring states under Norwegian potential to trigger unsound ri alry etween nations. here are many e amples sovereignty e.g., those in Finland and the Soviet nion . Secondly, Norway of this ri alry – for instance, the race for the outh ole etween o ert alcon launched campaigns toward areas with disputed sovereignty such as ast cott and oald mundsen in . nother more recent e ample, which reenland. Thirdly, Norway absorbed polar islands and areas with terra nullius ended in misery, was the mundsen llsworth No ile transpolar flight in , status into Norwegian sovereignty, like an ayen 0 , ear Island 20 , and wherein oald mundsen fell out with the other participants – in particular with Svalbard specific treaty 20; Ivi, pp. 20 . the talian participant m erto No ile – due to the disparate aims of the two The role of science was substantial in the quest for new polar territories. nations cooperating in setting a polar record together. National honour was not An example of the willingness to support and fund polar research as a part of easy to share under such conditions, and the motifs ehind the scientific national aim for prestige and honour, as well as new land, is the funding of the approaches ha e lately een part of the historical studies as, , pp. research ship Fram – used by Nansen in his expedition to reenland in as, , pp. . uch ri alry, as in the case of No ile ersus mundsen, . The public costs invested by the national budget was at the same level as resulted in commonly unfa ourable views among Amundsen’s fellow the annual budget of the niversity of Oslo the same year. The science historian Norwegians towards No ile and the talian people. owe er, Norway as a eir Hestmark claims that the national prestige connected with the polar sciences collecti e also e perienced criti ue due to the ri alry etween polar antagonists. in Norway was of great significance, but the Norwegian polar imperialism was One example is the attitudes towards Amundsen’s lack of sportsmanship from rather innocent compared to other sorts of imperialist campaigns in the last part the British press after the race for the South Pole between Amundsen and Scott’s of the th century Hestmark, 200 , p. 0 . He explains this by explaining that ritish crew in omann arsen, , pp. and . the Norwegian polar imperialism did not result military activity or end in warfare. he potentially suspicious role of science during the polar e peditions, The annexation of the territories did not end in any occupation or suppression where the feats ecame connected with personal ri alry as well as prestige of indigenous people or other nation’s population, either. entangled with nationalism and ri alry etween nations, made polar e plorations Nevertheless, the exploration and science used as a means of mapping, pro lematic for some. ome Norwegian politicians contested its legitimacy and studying, and conquering the new, unexplored white areas paid off. Norway’s refused to fund it. he decline of the funding of Norwegian polar research “polar ocean imperialism” resulted in territorial gains, such as gaining jurisdiction occurred after political de ates in the parliament addressed political criticism over not only the Svalbard Islands in the Arctic Ocean by 2 , but also by about the legitimacy of the research. “Conspicuous consumption” – the use of expanding in the Antarctic during the 20s and 0s. This expansion led to the pu lic money for ragging or for personal or national prestige – was not annexation of the ouvet Island in 2 , eter I Island in , and ueen aud considered morally accepta le y some politicians in a research system funded and in Fure, , p . These dependent territories are all under largely y pu lic udgets. t thus ecame more difficult to use pu lic money to Norwegian administration, although they have been put under international fund research projects of this ind uls s, , p. . Norwegian politicians treaties regulating the use of the territory The Antarctic Treaty . ecame less tolerant of the use of national udgets for personal ragging and ri alry.
The unsound rivalry of polar exploration The polar explorer and the creation of a Norwegian national character Thus far, we have discussed how Norway, as a rather young, peaceful nation, used scientific expeditions as part of territorial expansion and how science n the Norwegian polar history, Into the Ice, the editors inar rne can play a role in the nation building process. One example is the meteorological ri enes and arald ag lle conclude that Norway’s polar history is closely expeditions of the Norwegian eteorological Institute in the 20s to an ayen. tied to “culture and politics”; they introduce “Norwegian polar imperialism” as a During the purely scientific expeditions to the isle, there were put up concept descri ing the Norwegian polar nation during the last part of the th
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and the first half of the th century. hey also acknowledge that it is difficult to write about Amundsen and his con uest of the South Pole without examining its effect on Norway’s self image rivenes lle p. . As previously discussed the legendary stereotypical polar hero became strongly attached to the development of a specific “national character”. During the early phases of nation state building in Norway these certain types the polar heroes were used as examples of abilities ideal for the future generations of Norwegians. he idols were to idoli e certain distinctive narratives and identity marks connected to goals to achieve. he narrative was partly built on the perception of Norwegian abilities shown by the polar explorer and that their capacities as explorers were seen in a historical perspective as if there was a direct line between the ikings and the modern explorer. estmark illustrated how history was used as a motivation for the modern Norwegian explorer estmark pp. and . e also proved how Nansen found inspiration and support in the fact that a specific national character had developed throughout the years in Norway. One aspect was the knowhow connected with ship building after centuries of craftmanship. his knowledge was a good help to make him reach his goals when developing a scientific vessel suitable for the harsh conditions in the ice. Another aspect was the Norwegian tradition with sailing and navigation. rom the iking age to the era of modern steam navigation Norwegians had developed competence as sailors learning navigation skills and seamanship on the high seas. n addition the experienced Norwegian whalers and sealers had learnt how to manoeuvre in and around drift ice in cold climates and under extreme polar conditions far away from their national shores bidem . hus Norwegian polar explorer in particular became a gendered figure. t was the masculinity of the Norwegianness which was promoted through the polar hero. he national expansion into the polar regions was associated with masculinity and masculine ideals. he triumphs and uest for national honour and international reputation provided status among e uals in the international competition between male polar adventures doing daring expeditions into the far off places as illustrated over. Nations of the late th and th century were all part of an uropean imperialist atmosphere and polar explorers like ridt of Nansen and oald Amundsen afforded Norway an international reputation as the home of polar research and exploration. hey literary put Norway on the map. he Norwegian trade connected with experiences with polar exploration like sealing whaling and hunting earned Norway a reputation as a polar nation as well as the records made by the polar heros. he documentation of these records contributed to strengthen territorial Norwegian claims in the Arctic regions vi p. . he connection between trade industry and the polar explorer was the common aim of connecting them both to the national knowledge of Norway as a nation of seafarers. n the modern narrative of the Norwegian nation with an obvious link between the iking age and the modern Norwegian. hey were both brave and
240 STEINAR AAS - The role of the polar explorer in the Norwegian identity
and the first half of the th century. hey also acknowledge that it is difficult to fearless i ing settlers and colonisers which under the awa ening nation state write about Amundsen and his con uest of the South Pole without examining its ecame ideals for the new generations of the Norwegian coastal population. he effect on Norway’s self image rivenes lle p. . i ing desire for nowledge and their curiosity a out daring e peditions fit hand As previously discussed the legendary stereotypical polar hero became in glove with what was perceived as a typical national characteristic of the strongly attached to the development of a specific “national character”. During modern Norwegian. the early phases of nation state building in Norway these certain types the polar odern day candinavian e plorers aim to esta lish a narrative with a heroes were used as examples of abilities ideal for the future generations of clear cut continuation from the Norse i ing age e plorers li e iri aude Norwegians. he idols were to idoli e certain distinctive narratives and identity and eiv ri sson ca. who allegedly were the first marks connected to goals to achieve. he narrative was partly built on the uropeans on reenland and Newfoundland a rador anada respectively. perception of Norwegian abilities shown by the polar explorer and that their he medieval e plorers also situated the northern polar regions as a central place capacities as explorers were seen in a historical perspective as if there was a direct in the consciousness of modern Norwegians ure p. . line between the ikings and the modern explorer. estmark illustrated how ven though Nansen and his fellow countrymen tried to show the history was used as a motivation for the modern Norwegian explorer estmark connection etween their contemporary attempts to uild the new nation state pp. and . e also proved how Nansen found inspiration and support and the i ing heritage there were similar processes advancing in weden as in the fact that a specific national character had developed throughout the years well. here were a wedish tendency to connect their polar e ploration with the in Norway. One aspect was the knowhow connected with ship building after i ing inheritance too. he wedish science historian r an r erg centuries of craftmanship. his knowledge was a good help to make him reach characterises Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld’s (1832 e peditions into the rctic his goals when developing a scientific vessel suitable for the harsh conditions in regions as i ing raids of science r erg p. . t is Nordens i ld the ice. Another aspect was the Norwegian tradition with sailing and navigation. who esta lished a Nordic polar tradition which paved the way for later rom the iking age to the era of modern steam navigation Norwegians had scientific activities in the same regions that were significant in defining national developed competence as sailors learning navigation skills and seamanship on identities and shaping scientific profiles vi p. . the high seas. n addition the experienced Norwegian whalers and sealers had hese polar e plorations ecame uests for manliness in oth weden and learnt how to manoeuvre in and around drift ice in cold climates and under Norway as well. or Norwegian fisheries sealing and whaling as part of extreme polar conditions far away from their national shores bidem . scientific uests in the polar regions and for record rea ing sailors and s iers hus Norwegian polar explorer in particular became a gendered figure. t e ploring un nown territories vi p. erg pp. r erg was the masculinity of the Norwegianness which was promoted through the states that the rctic wilderness offered a worthy field on which to harvest polar hero. he national expansion into the polar regions was associated with glory . e adds that masculinity and masculine ideals. he triumphs and uest for national honour and international reputation provided status among e uals in the international ental and social strain during e tended periods away from home added to a competition between male polar adventures doing daring expeditions into the far protracted erosion of discipline and cultural values. his all had to e off places as illustrated over. Nations of the late th and th century were all counteracted y the manliness s ill and co operation of all mem ers of the part of an uropean imperialist atmosphere and polar explorers like ridt of e pedition and the nowledge planning and leadership of its commander. hese Nansen and oald Amundsen afforded Norway an international reputation as were not traits that scientists had previously een nown for ut represented new opportunities for heroism and fame which some of them at mid nineteenth the home of polar research and exploration. hey literary put Norway on the century saw enefits to sei e efore a wide pu lic and a growing set of colonially map. he Norwegian trade connected with experiences with polar exploration minded private sponsors of polar e ploration r erg p. . like sealing whaling and hunting earned Norway a reputation as a polar nation as well as the records made by the polar heros. he documentation of these This tradition of male “Viking raids”, introduced by Nordenskiöld, was records contributed to strengthen territorial Norwegian claims in the Arctic the start of a new era for the Nordic nations. y the dissolution of the union with regions vi p. . he connection between trade industry and the polar weden the Norwegians had adopted and had essentially ta en over the concept explorer was the common aim of connecting them both to the national of “Viking raids” of science. Both Fridtjof Nansen crossing Greenland in 1888 knowledge of Norway as a nation of seafarers. and the Nansen e pedition with the ship Fram in were a continuation n the modern narrative of the Norwegian nation with an obvious link of this “Nordenskiöld tradition”. In the polar history of Norway, the period from between the iking age and the modern Norwegian. hey were both brave and 1887 to 1928 has been characterised as “the era of the heroes” by the editors
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ri enes and lle (Norsk Polarhistorie The istory of Norway in the olar Regions). The value of the polar hero “as a role model” in the 19th and early 2 th century schools of Norway should not be underestimated, according to r kberg ( r kberg, 2 19, p. 17 . e adds that the cult of athletic and self supporti e manliness was first combined with hristian alues later it became imbued by sociobiological ideas sic (Ibidem . For another author, Atle N ss the perspecti e of heroism and manliness is ital in the Norwegian idolisation of the polar e plorer (N ss, 2 , p. 1 . Norsk Polarhistorie also names Nansen, tto erdrup (18 193 , and oald Amundsen (1872 1928) as the “three greatest” explorers in Norwegian polar history. Otto Sverdrup took part in Nansen’s crossing of Greenland in 1888 and was also a member of the Fram e pedition together with Nansen again in 1893 189 (Barr, 2 , p. 397 . e furthered his e ploration ambitions by borrowing the polar essel Fram for an e pedition into the Baffin iki taaluk egion of anada in 1898 19 2 (I i, p. 399 . ere he, in traditional European colonial style, named isles, inlets, bays, and the archipelagic waters after the wedish Norwegian royalty, e pedition sponsors, and famous Norwegian e plorers or ga e them traditional Norwegian place names, disregarding the names used by the Innuits li ing there (N ss, 2 , pp. 1 11 . The aim of the Fram II e pedition was mainly to reach the North ole by sailing in though the territories west of Greenland in a race against other international e peditions, but this goal was not achie ed. owe er, the presence of the Norwegians in the anadian Arctic is still identifiable by the shape of regional semiotically Norwegian names for certain locations (I i, p. 11 . oald Amundsen took up the gauntlet after Nansen and erdrup, first by placing Norway on the Antarctic map in 191 1912 there, he – in competition with Robert Falcon Scott’s expedition – became the leader of the first e pedition to reach the outh ole in ecember 1912 (I i, pp. 13 1 3 . Although the main reason for the e pedition was to set this record, there were elements of research in Amundsen’s expedition and even more so during his attempt to go through the Northeast assage (1918 192 and the hucki and East iberian seas (1921 192 with the ship Maud.
Losing the results of research out of sight?
Are we about to forget about the research efforts achie ed by the polar e plorers in all these critical reflections on the masculine nationalism Arnoldus chytte Bli has recently demonstrated the significant amount of scientific material on meteorology, terrestrial magnetism, geology, palaeontology, oceanography, ethnography, oology, and botany that was published as a result of the e pedition through the Northeast Passage, under Amundsen’s firm leadership ( chytte Bli , 2 1 , p. 1 . chytte Bli askes the fundamental uestion,
242 STEINAR AAS - The role of the polar explorer in the Norwegian identity
ri enes and lle (Norsk Polarhistorie The istory of Norway in the olar “ as oald Amundsen a scientist ”. The reason was the recent criticism from Regions). The value of the polar hero “as a role model” in the 19th and early 2 th historians dissecting Amundsen’s whereabouts and actions, which resulted in a century schools of Norway should not be underestimated, according to narrow perspective only conserving Amundsen as part of the nation state r kberg ( r kberg, 2 19, p. 17 . e adds that the cult of athletic and self building. Schytte Blix claimed there was a tendency of forgetting the science supporti e manliness was first combined with hristian alues later it became when writing about the life of polar explorers. The conclusion of Schytte Blix imbued by sociobiological ideas sic (Ibidem . seemed to be that Amundsen “certainly was” a polar researcher, although For another author, Atle N ss the perspecti e of heroism and manliness perhaps not a scientist. The example of the polar exploration of oald Amundsen is ital in the Norwegian idolisation of the polar e plorer (N ss, 2 , p. 1 . illustrates the anus face of Norwegian polar research. The polar explorer was on Norsk Polarhistorie also names Nansen, tto erdrup (18 193 , and oald one hand collecting material for scientific use, but on the other hand giving Amundsen (1872 1928) as the “three greatest” explorers in Norwegian polar ammunition to nationalism and national expansion into the polar regions. n history. Otto Sverdrup took part in Nansen’s crossing of Greenland in 1888 and resent research on the historiography of polar research, there has been underlying was also a member of the Fram e pedition together with Nansen again in 1893 criticism about the role of research as part of a somewhat chauvinist nationalism. 189 (Barr, 2 , p. 397 . e furthered his e ploration ambitions by borrowing This criticism was part of the motivation behind Schytte Blix’s article. the polar essel Fram for an e pedition into the Baffin iki taaluk egion of Amundsen’s scientific achievements were overshadowed by issues of his anada in 1898 19 2 (I i, p. 399 . ere he, in traditional European colonial style, personal qualities though his scientific feats were celebrated at the time , he has named isles, inlets, bays, and the archipelagic waters after the wedish Norwegian since received scant recognition in more recent assessments of his royalty, e pedition sponsors, and famous Norwegian e plorers or ga e them accomplishments vi, p. . traditional Norwegian place names, disregarding the names used by the Innuits n Norwegian historiography, the anus face of Norwegian polar records, li ing there (N ss, 2 , pp. 1 11 . The aim of the Fram II e pedition was the role of the masculine Norwegian is central in during and after the eventful mainly to reach the North ole by sailing in though the territories west of crossing across reenland on s is in by ridt of Nansen. The reception of Greenland in a race against other international e peditions, but this goal was not this particular expedition was first and foremost seen as a Norwegian record achie ed. owe er, the presence of the Norwegians in the anadian Arctic is attempt by a Norwegian hero, therefor a vital part of the creation of the still identifiable by the shape of regional semiotically Norwegian names for Norwegian identity Aas, , p. . By the accomplishment, the s ier came certain locations (I i, p. 11 . into the spotlight and became a significant role model for the coming generation. oald Amundsen took up the gauntlet after Nansen and erdrup, first by The country of Norway and generations of Norwegians were encouraged and placing Norway on the Antarctic map in 191 1912 there, he – in competition influenced by the nation’s polar history, which became an exercise in manhood with Robert Falcon Scott’s expedition – became the leader of the first e pedition and manliness uls s, , pp. and . The polar explorations to reach the outh ole in ecember 1912 (I i, pp. 13 1 3 . Although the main related to research, but this research was entangled with a mix of national pride reason for the e pedition was to set this record, there were elements of research and the struggle for independence from the union with Sweden. ne Norwegian in Amundsen’s expedition and even more so during his attempt to go through narrative is that Nansen and his men, through the expedition of , tread the Northeast assage (1918 192 and the hucki and East iberian seas (1921 their s i trac s straight into the path of the dissolution of the union with Sweden 192 with the ship Maud. vi, pp. and . By this uls s saw a direct connection between Nansen’s achievements and its consequences for the Norwegian self esteem, which again triggered off the confidence needed for a political confrontation with Losing the results of research out of sight? the Swedes. The Norwegian polar explorers ridt of Nansen and oald Amundsen Are we about to forget about the research efforts achie ed by the polar were both firmly placed in a tradition of uropean exploitation and conquest of e plorers in all these critical reflections on the masculine nationalism Arnoldus the New orld, which started centuries earlier with the voyages of discovery in chytte Bli has recently demonstrated the significant amount of scientific the th and th century erriman, , pp. . n addition the material on meteorology, terrestrial magnetism, geology, palaeontology, development of the two Norwegian and their expeditions were mar ed by the oceanography, ethnography, oology, and botany that was published as a result same concepts and ideas li e in the previous years both when it comes to the of the e pedition through the Northeast Passage, under Amundsen’s firm necessity of developing a modern system of concepts vital in classifying and leadership ( chytte Bli , 2 1 , p. 1 . chytte Bli askes the fundamental uestion, systematising white spots on the western world’s map. The rhetoric and semiotic
243 I viaggi e la modernità Dalle grandi esplorazioni geografiche ai mondi extraterrestri
were part of the same system of new modern explorations, too. xpressions li e “imperialism”, “conquest”, “scientific expeditions”, “exploration”, and “nation building” was basically a continuation of former explorers of the European hemisphere.
The end of the polar hero – welcome entertainment and realpolitik
Although the Norwegian explorers arrived late, their role has been of huge significance in the history of explorers. This paper has placed Norwegian exploration within a uropean imperialist perspective and has examined its nationalist approach and development as well as the underlying tensions between nationalism and anti nationalist critique during the th century. This critique has contributed to ending the old fashioned chauvinism associated with exploration and the explorers themselves. The main focus of this paper has also been to view explorers and explorations in connection with the growth of empires or nation states and, in the Norwegian case, with laying the foundation for a national identity and self understanding, the explorers really have been part of the modern invention of nationalism, which historians li e ric obsbawn have highlighted lately. Nationalism has given significant fuel to the modern world the last two decades, as shown in the Norwegian case obsbawn, , pp. . ven though the polar hero still was a significant hero in the Norwegian public for years after orld ar , there is a tendency to tone down the heroism and national sentiments related to their achievements. The reflections from Schytte Blix seems to illustrate that there is a stronger awareness directed towards science, and that the nationalist and political spheres is toned down as sectors of lesser importance and that Norwegian polar explorers in the post war period lessened their nationalist sentiments. n later years Norwegian exploration have been part of the individual adventures of some, or used for infotainment, edutainment, or entertainment purposes afterwards. ther expeditions are strictly research based. The Swedish scholar within the history of science, Sver er Sörlin, found “some deep seated contrasts” in the ways that Sweden, Norway, and enmar have developed their national traditions of science regarding the Arctic and North Atlantic in the post war period he states that, for Norway, the “geopolitics of science” have been at the forefront of Arctic research in the post war period S rlin, , pp. . ircumpolar science was part of the Norwegian “realpolitik”, playing a vital role. By this the role of the Arctic regions has been to fulfil Norwegian obligations within the foreign policy and security policy. The consequences of the realpoliti was to direct the efforts of polar research within a NAT sphere in a old ar context vi, p. . Nevertheless, Norwegians li e Thor eyerdahl , elge ngstad , and Anne Stine ngstad represented a new
244 STEINAR AAS - The role of the polar explorer in the Norwegian identity
were part of the same system of new modern explorations, too. xpressions li e development wherein explorers became part of an exploration and entertainment “imperialism”, “conquest”, “scientific expeditions”, “exploration”, and “nation industry. he same occurred for skiers such as Stein . Aasheim, iv Arnesen, building” was basically a continuation of former explorers of the European onica ristensen, B rge usland, and Erling agge, who made encounters hemisphere. into the polar regions in part for research purposes but mainly in the name of adventure, self realisation, commerce, or a combination of these aspects oks yr, , pp. . The end of the polar hero – welcome entertainment and realpolitik Norway has developed its polar research in a less nationalistic direction and international cooperation is more explicit than earlier. he emphasis is Although the Norwegian explorers arrived late, their role has been of huge consequently on science as a means of getting more knowledge about the global significance in the history of explorers. This paper has placed Norwegian challenges, like climate change and the state of the earth. Still national aims are exploration within a uropean imperialist perspective and has examined its still vital, as when the Norwegian research vessels are doing research or mapping nationalist approach and development as well as the underlying tensions between and surveying the vast ocean around Norway as well as around the Norwegian nationalism and anti nationalist critique during the th century. This critique has annexations in the Arctic and Antarctic waters. Although exploration and contributed to ending the old fashioned chauvinism associated with exploration scientific research are the main targets, there are aspects of economic, political and the explorers themselves. and national interests involved in the activities. Norway as a polar nation is in The main focus of this paper has also been to view explorers and good standing with other modern day polar nations, with research stations on explorations in connection with the growth of empires or nation states and, in an ayen, Svalbard, and ueen aud and in the Antarctic. n , the the Norwegian case, with laying the foundation for a national identity and self Norwegian esearch ouncil concluded that Norway was the fifth biggest understanding, the explorers really have been part of the modern invention of contributor to global polar research N , , p. . oday, Norwegian polar nationalism, which historians li e ric obsbawn have highlighted lately. research has become part of an international cooperation addressing current Nationalism has given significant fuel to the modern world the last two decades, scientific challenges related to the planet’s cold areas. Nonetheless, one of the as shown in the Norwegian case obsbawn, , pp. . visions for and aims of polar research is still to compete on a high level in the ven though the polar hero still was a significant hero in the Norwegian international competition” through “high activity and production … high public for years after orld ar , there is a tendency to tone down the heroism quality … visibility and influence N , p. , p. . hus, Norwegian polar and national sentiments related to their achievements. The reflections from research remains ambitious and competitive. Schytte Blix seems to illustrate that there is a stronger awareness directed towards science, and that the nationalist and political spheres is toned down as sectors of lesser importance and that Norwegian polar explorers in the post war period lessened their nationalist sentiments. n later years Norwegian exploration have been part of the individual adventures of some, or used for infotainment, edutainment, or entertainment purposes afterwards. ther expeditions are strictly research based. The Swedish scholar within the history of science, Sver er Sörlin, found “some deep seated contrasts” in the ways that Sweden, Norway, and enmar have developed their national traditions of science regarding the Arctic and North Atlantic in the post war period he states that, for Norway, the “geopolitics of science” have been at the forefront of Arctic research in the post war period S rlin, , pp. . ircumpolar science was part of the Norwegian “realpolitik”, playing a vital role. By this the role of the Arctic regions has been to fulfil Norwegian obligations within the foreign policy and security policy. The consequences of the realpoliti was to direct the efforts of polar research within a NAT sphere in a old ar context vi, p. . Nevertheless, Norwegians li e Thor eyerdahl , elge ngstad , and Anne Stine ngstad represented a new
245 I viaggi e la modernità Dalle grandi esplorazioni geografiche ai mondi extraterrestri
teinar as, , slo, et nors e amlaget, . d., “One Man’s Foolishness Led to the Death of 14 Men”. Norwegian Reactions to Umberto Nobile and the “Italia” Disaster, in cta orealia. Nordic ournal of the ircumpolar ocieties , , https .tandfonline.com doi full . , Nor egian olar nstitute, https .npolar.no en fact the antarctic treaty seen eptem er usan arr, , in inar rne rivenes, arald ag lle eds. , , slo, yldendal Nors orlag, , pp. . oald erg, , in inar rne rivenes, arald ag lle, , pp. . d., , slo, amlaget, . or omann arsen, , slo, . . appelen forlag, . inar rne rivenes, arald ag lle eds. , , slo, yldendal ademis , . nne ri sen, , in inar rne rivenes, arald ag lle, , pp. . eir tle rsland, ilde andvi , , slo, amlaget, . Narve uls s, , in inar rne rivenes, arald ag lle, , pp. . dd rn ure, , slo, niversitetsforlaget, . atti o s yr, , in inar rne rivenes, arald ag lle, , pp. . eir estmar artleggerne, inar rne rivenes, arald ag lle, , slo, yldendal nors forlag, , pp. . ric o s a n, , am ridge, am ridge niversity ress, . enri sen, , ondon, alter cott td, . teinar msen, , in teinar msen ed. , His ‘Skattlands’ as a Political System c. 12 – , ergen, ag o forlaget, . ohn erriman, , Ne or ondon, . . Norton ompany, , pp. . le . oseng, , Novem er , ecture and article in the Nor egian tate roadcasting, “Hvor mørk var ‘400 rs natten’?”, https .nr .no ultur hvor mor var ars natten . , seen uly an ivind yhre, , slo, amlaget, . Nor egian esearch ouncil, – , https .fors ningsradet.no siteassets pu li as oner .pdf accessed eptem er . tle N ss, , in inar rne rivenes, arald ag lle, , pp. . rnoldus chytte li , On Amundsen’s scientific achievements, in olar esearch , , https doi.org . polar.v . . ver er rlin, , in cience in onte t , , , pp. . r an r erg, , in cta orealia. Nordic ournal of ircumpolar ocieties , , , pp. .
246 STEINAR AAS - The role of the polar explorer in the Norwegian identity
he role of the olar e lorer in the Norwegian identity – or a to a a on era e o er en t ome to nternat ona re ear n t e r t an ntar t re on, t re ear tat on an re ear , rov n kno e e n a va t area o en e e a k ro n o t o t on art a e on a o ar e orat on an re ear a k n t t teinar as, , slo, et nors e amlaget, . an n an t t e nat on tate n an nat ona m n t e an 0 ent r d., “One Man’s Foolishness Led to the Death of 14 Men”. Norwegian Reactions to Umberto Nobile and the tate ormat on o t e a n n or e an nat on tate e art e a m to ve more t t “Italia” Disaster, in cta orealia. Nordic ournal of the ircumpolar ocieties , n ormat on a o t t onne t on t a o a m to ee an 0 ent r e orat on , https .tandfonline.com doi full . a art o t e en tenment an over o t e ne or , an a art o a more , Nor egian olar nstitute, https .npolar.no en fact the antarctic nat ona t nat on tate ormat on ro e , ere e orer ere to n n rat on or treaty seen eptem er ormer or o t me n t e e e usan arr, , in inar rne rivenes, arald ag lle eds. , , slo, yldendal Nors orlag, , pp. . eywords at ona m o ar e orat on or a oa m n en r t o an en oald erg, , in inar rne rivenes, arald ag lle, , pp. . d., , slo, amlaget, . or omann arsen, , slo, . . appelen forlag, . inar rne rivenes, arald ag lle eds. , , Il ruolo delle esplorazioni polari nell’identità norvegese – a orve a att a mente na e e slo, yldendal ademis , . ma or oten e ne am o e a r er a nterna ona e ne a re one art a e antart a nne ri sen, , in inar rne rivenes, arald ag lle, , pp. e ta on r er a e e nav norve e orn ono ono en e e o rono va te aree . ent e a k ro n e ta o one o enar o nterna ona e on a a eir tle rsland, ilde andvi , , slo, amlaget, . sull’esplorazione polare che sulla ricerca, elementi base che sono andati di pari passo con Narve uls s, , in inar rne rivenes, arald ag lle, , pp. . a o tr one e a orma one e o tato ne e ne 0 e o o n orve a, a en a dd rn ure, , slo, niversitetsforlaget, . a em re r o erto n r o o entra e ne o v o e o tato na ona e e e atti o s yr, , in inar rne rivenes, arald ag lle, , pp. . na ona mo e to art o o ro one orn re ma or n orma on e to eir estmar artleggerne, inar rne rivenes, arald ag lle, , slo, yldendal nors forlag, , pp. . legame, oltre a evidenziare come l’esplorazione del XIX e del XX secolo faccia parte ric o s a n, , am ridge, am ridge niversity ress, . dell’individuazione e della sco erta e n ovo mon o, o tre e n ro e o enri sen, , ondon, alter cott td, . orma one e o tato na one n ave na ona ta tato na one er a e teinar msen, , in teinar msen ed. , e orator ovevano trovare ra one ne tem or o e e oevo His ‘Skattlands’ as a Political System c. 12 – , ergen, ag o forlaget, . ohn erriman, , Ne or ondon, Parole chiave a ona mo ora one o are orve a oa m n en r t o . . Norton ompany, , pp. . an en le . oseng, , Novem er , ecture and article in the Nor egian tate roadcasting, “Hvor mørk var ‘400 rs natten’?”, https .nr .no ultur hvor mor var ars natten . , seen uly an ivind yhre, , slo, amlaget, . Nor egian esearch ouncil, – , https .fors ningsradet.no siteassets pu li as oner .pdf accessed eptem er . tle N ss, , in inar rne rivenes, arald ag lle, , pp. . rnoldus chytte li , On Amundsen’s scientific achievements, in olar esearch , , https doi.org . polar.v . . ver er rlin, , in cience in onte t , , , pp. . r an r erg, , in cta orealia. Nordic ournal of ircumpolar ocieties , , , pp. .
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