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INFORMATION TO USERS This manuscript has been reproduced from the microfilm master. UMI films the text directly from the original or copy submitted. Thus, some thesis and dissertation copies are in typewriter face, while others may be from any type of computer printer. The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleedthrough, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction. In the unlikely event that the author did not send UMI a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Oversize materials (e.g., maps, drawings, charts) are reproduced by sectioning the original, beginning at the upper left-hand corner and continuing from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps. ProQuest Information and Learning 300 North Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 USA 800-521-0600 UMT UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA GRADUATE COLLEGE HOME ONLY LONG ENOUGH: ARCTIC EXPLORER ROBERT E. PEARY, AMERICAN SCIENCE, NATIONALISM, AND PHILANTHROPY, 1886-1908 A Dissertation SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE FACULTY in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy By KELLY L. LANKFORD Norman, Oklahoma 2003 UMI Number: 3082960 UMI UMI Microform 3082960 Copyright 2003 by ProQuest Information and Learning Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Titie 17, United States Code. ProQuest Information and Learning Company 300 North Zeeb Road P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 c Copyright by KELLY LARA LANKFORD 2003 All Rights Reserved. HOME ONLY LONG ENOUGH: ARCTIC EXPLORER ROBERT E. PEARY, AMERICAN SCIENCE, PHILANTHROPY, AND NATIONALISM, 1886-1908 A Dissertation APPROVED FOR THE DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY BY Acknowledgements “Life is brief and very fragile. Do that which makes you happy.” My parents gave me a plaque with this uplifting phrase during a pivotal moment in my life. The completion of the dissertation became one of those “do that which” moments for me, many years later, and I dedicate it to my parents. They have remained my most constant cheerleaders and interested readers, and even learned finally to stop asking, “Are you finished yet?” I am ever grateful for all of it. Of course, a dissertation is never the work of one person, even one with a fantastically supportive family. I have many people to thank. My sister Susan offered counsel, cheer, and laughter at every turn. Everyone should be so lucky as to have a person in her life who demands that they laugh. My grandparents, Lula and Eugene Bryson, were unnervingly optimistic, but even better, they were as interested in stories about teaching and crazy dogs as they were in the dissertation. Perspective is everything, and they helped me keep it. True friend Suzi Goerlach believed in this story from the beginning, and reminded me at the end, when it mattered most, how to tell it. I will never forget. Jacki Rand pushed without being pushy, believed that 1 could do it, and had an uncanny knack for knowing when to offer advice or silent support. I found each tactic invaluable. Maria Paleologou finished her dissertation in Philosophy simultaneously, and it made all the difference to have a friend who understood the daily ups and downs, anxieties, small triumphs, and exasperations. It is especially meaningful that we are crossing the finish line together, considering all the trouble and help we have been to one another. Steve Martel tried teasing, prodding, and IV outright bribery to speed the process along, but never despaired, and has been and always will be a remarkable friend. Brad Raley offered advice, astounding humor, and help at so many key moments I lost count. I consider him a trustworthy friend and an invaluable guide. Wonderful Rita and Bob Broyles opened their home to me and reminded me repeatedly of what really matters: love, laughter, good stories, ice cream, and someone you can always count on. Sylvia Patterson smiled, encouraged, and helped tremendously by never asking, “So, what is your thesis?” Thankfully, her happy outlook on life is contagious. CJ Metcalf clapped, cheered, and seemed so genuinely pleased by my progress that I may undertake another large project soon, in order to keep receiving her enthusiastic praise. 1 am deeply grateful to Dr. Marilyn Ogilvie, who offered her own good cheer and limitless support. More important, she allowed me to have full access to the History of Science Collections, which is a gift so much larger than access to the books and “where they live.” It is an invitation to know and depend upon a beautiful assortment of people that included, while I was there, Nancy Larsen, Mrs. Goodman, Pat, Becky, Elin, Susy, Kim, Darcy, Melissa, Maureen, Liz, Lauren, Squire, and Sarah. It was a genuine pleasure to be there, and I loved my job at the Collections. Dr. Daniel Wren and Sydona Baroff of the Bass Collection also gave uninterrupted support for a project that took longer than any of us ever imagined, and I appreciate their help and good natures. Rhonda George and Barbara Million made the last stages of the dissertation much less stressful than they might otherwise have been. I will always remember their kindnesses. In addition, I must thank Thomas, Amelia, and Taryn for giving me reason to smile in moments of quiet solitude. Finally, thanks to Penny, Lucy, Kasey, Henry, and Coal for invaluable comfort. I thank my committee as well: Drs. Donald Pisani, David Levy, Linda Reese, A1 Hurtado, Katherine Pandora, and Kerry Magruder. Their comments and suggestions will be of great service to me as I continue to work on this project, and I appreciate the time they took to help and guide me. I thank two committee members for more specific contributions, however. Dr. Magruder asked me casually one day about the progress of the dissertation, and in a fit of frustration I said it was not going well. He asked me to describe my topic, and when I stopped talking one hour later he said simply, “That’s a great idea.” He changed my entire attitude about the project with this one question, this one reaction. He is still the only person who has ever asked me about the dissertation and then actually waited until I finished talking before asking questions, making suggestions, offering another angle, listing helpful sources, or asking why I chose to write about the North Pole rather than the South Pole. I can trace my ability to finish the dissertation to my renewed faith in it after that conversation. Dr. Magruder also digitized the maps in the Appendix for me. Dr. Pisani deserves a special thanks. He remained committed to me and to my work, listened patiently to new ideas, and seemed always to be able to rise above my writing and actually get the point. His advice and critical analysis strengthened the dissertation, and any future insight I have into this topic will be due to questions he insisted that 1 consider. I appreciate his full deliberation of my work. VI TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgments ...................................................................................................................iv List of Illustrations............................................................................................................... viii Abstract .....................................................................................................................................ix Introduction...............................................................................................................................1 Chapter One-The Open Polar Sea and the Northwest Passage: Pre-Peary Arctic Explorations.............................................................................................................. 26 Chapter Two-“EspecialIy for Making Discoveries:” Americans in the Arctic................. 63 Chapter Three-“A Common Carrier:” Scientists, Money, and Peary—1897..................108 Chapter Four-“In a Permanent and Lasting Manner:” The PAC, Peary, and the Pole, 1898-1902.................................................................................................................148 Chapter Five-“I Would Sometimes Sell My Soul:” The Need for a Ship, 1902-1905... 190 Conclusion............................................................................................................................224 Bibliography ..........................................................................................................................233 Appendix ............................................................................................................................... 241 VII UST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Peary’s Farthest North............................................................................................ 242 Map, Arctic..............................................................................................................243 Map Detail, Central Canadian Arctic .................................................................... 244 Map Detail, Peary’s Routes....................................................................................245 Map Detail, Greenland Coastline.......................................................................... 246 Map Detail, Peary’s “American Route”................................................................247 Vtll Abstract American Arctic explorer
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