7 Segmentation De La Zone Côtière À L'échelle Globale Et

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7 Segmentation De La Zone Côtière À L'échelle Globale Et 7 Segmentation de la zone côtière à l’échelle globale et application aux apports continents - océans 7.1 Introduction..............................................................................................................................325 7.2 Origine des données .................................................................................................................329 7.3 Critères de segmentation.........................................................................................................329 7.4 Métriques utilisées ...................................................................................................................339 7.5 Principaux résultats.................................................................................................................342 7.5.1 Identification des ‘segments de raccord’...............................................................................342 7.5.2 Morphologie côtière..............................................................................................................342 7.5.3 Répartition de la population..................................................................................................347 7.5.4 Répartition de l’écoulement spécifique.................................................................................354 7.5.5 Répartition des flux d’azote total ..........................................................................................362 7.6 Importance des mers régionales .............................................................................................365 7.6.1 Identification des mers régionales.........................................................................................365 7.7 Premières conclusions et perspectives....................................................................................367 7.7.1 Importance de la zone côtière................................................................................................367 7.7.2 Hétérogénéité des flux spécifiques........................................................................................367 7.7.3 Mers régionales et bordures des continents...........................................................................369 7.7.4 Perspectives...........................................................................................................................369 7.1 Introduction Deux approches parallèles ont été utilisées pour étudier les relations continents – océans au travers des apports fluviaux. D’une part (i) les géographes de la fin du XIXème siècle se sont attachés à déterminer la part des écoulements fluviaux vers les régions internes du globe (endorheisme) et à carter les régions totalement privées d’écoulement (arheisme), d’autre part il y a (ii) les géochimistes travaillant sur les fleuves et calculant les apports pour un petit nombre d’entre eux, de préférence les plus grands bassins. Les premiers (BERGHAUS 1891, DE MARTONNE 1950-55, KORZOUN et al. 1978, SCHOTT 1936, SUESS 1888) ont établi des cartes globales séparant dans chaque continent les régions endo- et exorheiques ; les régions arheiques étant le plus souvent confondues avec des régions endorheiques, notamment par les auteurs soviétiques, comme au Sahara. On dispose ainsi d’une dizaine de grandes régions d’écoulement qu’on peut encore diviser par bassin océanique (Ex. : Atlantique Ouest, Océan Arctique) ou par 325 7 Segmentation de la zone côtière à l’échelle globale et application aux apports continents - océans mer régionale (Mer Noire, Méditerranée, Golfe Persique, etc.), soit une vingtaine de régions naturelles, encore assez grandes et pas très bien limitées selon les auteurs. Les géochimistes quant à eux suivent quelques dizaines, au mieux quelques centaines de bassins fluviaux de taille très variable (10 000 à 6,4 millions de km2) qu’ils s’appliquent ensuite à extrapoler à l’ensemble du globe. D’autre part, lorsqu’on examine les atlas du monde, en particulier les atlas hydrographiques et océanographiques, on remarque qu’ils sont généralement schizophrènes : les premiers ne concernent que les bassins continentaux et masquent complètement le relief sous-marin, les deuxièmes détaillent la morphologie sous-marine, les courants, les températures mais laissent en général les continents vides de toute information. Il est ainsi difficile de visualiser et d’individualiser les relations continents – océans dans toute leur dimension. Des cartes ou des globes montrant le relief sous-marin de même que le relief continental, comme le globe préparé par la National Geographic Society (1974), sont difficiles à trouver et donc rares et précieux. Une exception notable doit être soulignée : il s’agit de l’Atlas mondial de Géographie Physique (Académie des Sciences Sovietique, GERASIMOV et al. 1964), ouvrage remarquable dans lequel chaque carte est à la fois documentée sur les continents et les océans. Malheureusement les géographes soviétiques ne disposaient pas à cette époque du SIG et des données à l’échelle globale (climat, relief, écoulement, etc.) que nous avons aujourd’hui. Nous avons donc repris la question des relations continents – océans à la base en segmentant la zone côtière en une centaine de segments exorheiques – les parties endorheiques n’étant pas concernées par les apports vers les océans – les plus homogènes possibles, de 1 000 à 2 000 km de longueur, typiquement définis à la fois par des critères continentaux et océaniques (voir illustration schématique à la Figure 7-1). Une fois définis, les bassins versants de ces segments côtiers ont été déterminés à la résolution de 0,5° que nous avons déjà utilisée par ailleurs, puis leurs caractéristiques morphologiques, hydrologiques, lithologiques (MEYBECK et al. en préparation). Un premier jeu d’application de cette segmentation concerne les flux d’eau, d’azote et de matières en suspension aux océans (DÜRR et al. en préparation). 326 7.1 Introduction Water tower EXORHEIC ENDO- EXORHEIC RHEIC River inputs Virtual basin Lithology, relief, y Area runoff, river networks y Lithology & other data y Discharge / runoff y Fluxes (sediments, this work - chapters 1 - 6 Endo- N inputs) rheic y Pressures (population) Segmentation of the coastal zone, n ≈ 150 Regional segments with delineated Homogeneous Coastal Sea exorheic catchment basins regions ? Segments Coastal Coastal basins Segment characteristics & fluxes Coastal ribbon ‘Masked’ part of river basin concerning material fluxes due to trapping by lakes characteristics Figure 7-1 : Représentation schématique du concept de la segmentation côtière. Les segments sont définis pour représenter une homogénéité maximale des régions côtières. Différentes applications sont proposées dans ce chapitre pour mettre en valeur les caractéristiques des bassins côtiers et leurs rubans côtiers. Notre démarche de régionalisation se distingue des autres essais en cours de la façon suivante : • Nous définissons un ensemble de critères purement physiques et géographiques qui permettent d’effectuer facilement des regroupements de bassins côtiers pour déterminer des flux par océans, continents ou régions. Les grands segments côtiers (Ex. : côte du Pérou – Chili, côte sibérienne) utilisés par les programmes GIWA (Global International Water Assessment) sont ici segmentés et aucun segment n’est à cheval sur deux continents, ou sur une mer régionale et un océan ouvert. De même, les grandes îles comme la Nouvelle Guinée ne sont pas découpées suivant des critères politiques : dans la banque de données d’ESRI, l’Irian Jaya est attribuée à l’Asie et le Papua New Guinea à l’Australie ! 327 7 Segmentation de la zone côtière à l’échelle globale et application aux apports continents - océans • Par rapport au LME (Large Marine Ecosystems) nous avons une résolution spatiale beaucoup plus fine (0,5° soit 50 km à l’équateur) avec une attention extrême sur les archipels côtiers. • Par rapport à l’Atlas de Géographie Physique (GERASIMOV et al. 1964) toute cellule continentale est reliée au travers de l’écoulement de surface à sa cellule terminale située dans un lac terminal (Ex. : Aral, Caspienne, Tchad, etc.) ou sur la côte océanique. Inversement à chaque cellule côtière correspond un bassin versant amont. Nos segments côtiers sont définis par deux cellules extrêmes, le bassin versant est donc l’ensemble des bassins correspondant aux cellules côtières situées entre elles. Nous utilisons la numérisation des réseaux fluviaux à 0,5° établie par l’Université du New Hampshire (VÖRÖSMARTY et al., 2000 a et b). Ces réseaux concernent l’ensemble de l’écoulement potentiel des continents, celui qui aurait lieu si la pluie était en excès partout. Ils ont été changés et adaptés pour quelques bassins, notamment des bassins endorheiques, comme décrit dans les chapitres 2.5 et 6. • Par rapport à DE MARTONNE (1950-55) et au Soviet IDH Committee nous distinguons systématiquement l’endorheisme, lié à la position de la cellule terminale du système d’écoulement considéré, de l’arheisme. Celui-ci est défini comme un écoulement anormal moyen inférieur à 3 mm/an, déterminé par le modèle global de l’université du New Hampshire validé par les mesures de débits du Global Runoff Data Center (GRDC à Koblenz) (FEKETE et al. 1999). • Par rapport à la typologie en cours dans le programme IGBP-LOICZ (LOICZ 1996, 2000, MAXWELL & BUDDEMEIER 2002, PERNETTA & MILLIMAN 1995) nous effectuons ici un regroupement de cellules côtières qui ont en général des caractéristiques très proches les unes des autres c’est-à-dire que la variabilité
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