Child Safety Online Global challenges and strategies
Technical Report THE UNICEF OFFICE OF RESEARCH, INNOCENTI
The Innocenti Research Centre (IRC) was established in Florence, Italy in 1988 to strengthen the research capability of the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and to support its advocacy for children worldwide. The Centre helps to identify and research current and future areas of UNICEF’s work. Its prime objectives are to improve international understanding of issues relating to children’s rights and to help facilitate full implementation of the Convention on the Rights of the Child in developing, middle-income and industrialized countries.
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Front cover photo: © UNICEF/NYHQ2010-3011/Giacomo Pirozzi Design and layout: BlissDesign.com
© United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) May 2012
ISBN: 978-88-6522-002-3
Child Safety Online: Global challenges and strategies
Technical Report
i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Ann Linnarsson, Protection Specialist, UNICEF This publication, Child Safety Online: Global Port-au-Prince; former Programme Officer, IRC Challenges and Strategies, was coordinated by the UNICEF Office of Research, Innocenti, Clara Sommarin, Child Protection Specialist, assisted by an international panel of advisers UNICEF New York and reviewers. The research was conducted in close consultation and collaboration with Child Exploitation and Online Protection the Child Exploitation and Online Protection Centre Centre (CEOP) in the United Kingdom. Special Graham Ritchie, Missing and Trafficked Children thanks to the following UNICEF country Manager offices that provided data, case studies and Gabrielle Shaw, Head of International Relations recommendations that informed the report: Albania, Brazil, Croatia, the Philippines, External advisers/peer reviewers South Africa, Thailand and Venezuela Alisdair A. Gillespie, Professor of Criminal Law (Bolivarian Republic of). and Justice, Department of Law, De Montfort University, Leicester, United Kingdom This study was made possible through a generous contribution from the Japan David Finkelhor, Director, Crimes against Committee for UNICEF. Children Research Center, Co-Director, Family Research Laboratory, Department of Sociology, Research University of New Hampshire, United States Gerison Lansdown, lead researcher; independent Ethel Quayle, COPINE Research, Clinical and consultant on child rights and child participation Health Psychology, School of Health in Social Science, University of Edinburgh, United Margaret Akullo, criminology expert; Project Kingdom Coordinator for Project Childhood: Protection Pillar, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Julia Davidson, Director of Research in Bangkok Criminology and Sociology; Co-Director, Centre for Abuse and Trauma Studies, Kingston John Carr, expert adviser on use of the Internet University, London and related technologies by children and young people Lars Lööf, Head of Children’s Unit, Council of the Baltic Sea States Mark Hecht, Legal Counsel, Children’s Aid Society of Ottawa Lena Karlsson, Director, Child Protection Initiative, Save the Children, former Child Tink Palmer, Chief Executive Officer, Marie Protection Specialist, IRC Collins Foundation Olga Kolpakova, Head of Prevention Programs UNICEF Office of Research, Innocenti Department, Stellit, Saint Petersberg, Russian Federation Gordon Alexander, Director Rodrigo Nejm, Director of Prevention Jasmina Byrne, Child Protection Specialist Programmes, SaferNet Brasil Andrew Mawson, Chief of Child Protection Sonia Livingstone, Coordinator EU Kids Online; Susanna Nordh, Consultant Professor and Head of the Department of Claire Akehurst, Executive Assistant Media and Communications, London School of Economics and Political Science UNICEF technical support/advice Tiago Tavares Nunes de Oliviera, Founder and Karin Heissler, Child Protection Specialist, President of SaferNet Brasil Planning and Evidence-Building, UNICEF Pia Lang, former Policy Officer, Safer Internet New York Programme, European Commission Priscillia Hoveyda, Consultant, Young People, UNICEF Division of Communication, New York Editorial Ravi Karkara, Child Participation Specialist, Christine Dinsmore, editing formerly with the Division of Policy and Practice, Catherine Rutgers, copy-editing UNICEF New York
ii FOREWORD
Over the past twenty years the Internet behaviour, risks and vulnerability to harm, has become an integral part of our lives. documenting existing preventive and protective We have eagerly embraced its potential for measures to combat their online abuse and communication, entertainment and information- exploitation. The study draws on lessons from seeking. For many of today’s children, the high- and middle-income countries, viewed Internet, mobile phones and other technologies through the lens of the dynamic that, given are a constant and familiar presence. For them, the speed of innovation, other countries may the distinction between online and offl ine has soon experience. increasingly become meaningless, and they move effortlessly between both environments. What we have learned is that a singular approach to combating these crimes is not An increasing number of children can scarcely effective. What is required is a collective effort imagine life without a social networking by policymakers, law enforcement agencies, profi le; videos and photographs shared social workers, teachers, parents and the private online – often in real time – and online gaming. sector to systematically protect children. We Indeed, young people are at the vanguard have also discovered that many children are of technological change. Their coming-of- comfortable navigating the Internet and are age in this era of exponential innovation has able to avoid risks. They may see themselves widened the generational divide between them as protectors of younger children and are and their parents, their teachers and other themselves agents for change. Children should caregivers. This gap, while becoming less stark be allowed to express their views on how to in industrialized countries, is wider in lower- mitigate risks, and they should be listened to income countries where caregivers arguably and empowered to safely exploit the benefi ts have fewer opportunities to access information of the Internet. However, despite children’s and communication technology. But the agency, we should not overestimate their ability situation is changing rapidly. to protect themselves. Ultimately, the onus lies with adults to put in place a framework There is no doubt that the Internet yields that ensures children equal and equitable numerous opportunities and benefi ts for access to the Internet, along with a safer children in terms of its impact on their online environment. educational attainment and social inclusion. However, it has also exposed children to Access to knowledge, participation, leisure and dangers that defy age, geographic location play are fundamental rights of all children, as and other boundaries that are more clearly enshrined in the Convention on the Rights of the delineated in the real world. This has resulted Child. In today’s real and virtual worlds, it is our in risks to children and young people of collective responsibility to ensure those rights having abusive images of them shared on for all children. the Internet; of being groomed or lured into sexual conversations or exploitation by adult offenders; of being bullied or harassed online.
Bearing this in mind, the UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre has, in partnership with the Child Exploitation and Online Protection Centre in the United Kingdom, collaborated Gordon Alexander with a number of actors to undertake this Director study. The research explored children’s online UNICEF Offi ce of Research, Innocenti
iii Contents
Acknowledgements...... ii Foreword...... iii Introduction...... 1 Scope, methodology and limitations...... 3
PART ONE: CHILD PROTECTION IN THE ONLINE/OFFLINE ENVIRONMENT...... 9 Chapter 1: Understanding the social and cultural context...... 10 Chapter 2: Sexual exploitation and abuse in the online/offline environment...... 13 Child abuse images...... 13 Grooming...... 15 Abusers and exploiters online...... 16 Chapter 3: Children’s activities using information and communication technology ...... 18 Levels of Internet access and usage...... 19 Use of mobile phones ...... 21 Children’s online and cyberspace activities ...... 22 Chapter 4: Risk, vulnerability and harm...... 26 Behaviour and activities carrying potential risk of harm...... 26 Exposure to pornography...... 31 Bullying and harassment...... 33 Perceptions of risk, vulnerability and harm...... 35 Vulnerability to sexual solicitation...... 39 Potential impact ...... 42 Chapter 5: Sources of support and help...... 44
PART TWO: ONLINE/OFFLINE PROTECTION...... 49 Chapter 6: International instruments and commitments...... 50 Convention on the Rights of the Child...... 51 Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography...... 54 UN Trafficking Protocol...... 54 Council of Europe Convention on Cybercrime ...... 54 Council of Europe Convention on the Protection of Children against Sexual Exploitation and Sexual Abuse ...... 55 Commitments by the international community...... 55 Chapter 7: Challenges for law enforcement and child protection...... 59 National legislation...... 59 Law enforcement and child protection ...... 61 Chapter 8: Building a protective environment: Implications for policy response...... 70 Objective One: Empower children and enhance resilience to harm ...... 71 Objective Two: Remove impunity for abusers...... 77 Objective Three: Reduce availability and access to harm...... 85 Objective Four: Promote recovery and rehabilitation for children exposed to harm...... 90 Conclusions...... 95 Glossary...... 97 Notes ...... 102 Abbreviations and acronyms ...... 129
iv Child Safety Online Introduction
The Internet, mobile phones and other income countries or examination of the state electronic media provide children and young of knowledge and/or the responsiveness of people with levels of access to information, bodies with responsibilities for child protection culture, communication and entertainment and law enforcement. Little research exists impossible to imagine just 20 years ago. With about the use of the Internet by children and many of their extraordinary benefits, however, young people in Africa, much of Asia and Latin come hazards. The Internet and associated America (and the bearing this might have on technologies have made abusive images of risk). Furthermore, research findings from children easier to create and distribute, and different parts of the industrialized world are provide significant new opportunities for sometimes contradictory. abusers to access and make contact with children and young people online. While It would be a mistake to believe that child abuse information and communication technologies in which ICT play a role is only an issue for the (ICT) have not created crimes involving sexual economically better off, whether societies or abuse and exploitation of children, they have social groups. Web access is rapidly increasing, enhanced the scale and potential of some old supported by increasing broadband and mobile and familiar ones. phone penetration. Indeed, the emergence of broadband has been a decisive factor Expanding Internet access for all children in facilitating online child abuse because it and young people without discrimination and allows the exchange of larger files, particularly exclusion in all parts of the world, together with files containing photos, videos and audio. As promoting digital citizenship and responsibility, broadband speeds start to become available ought to be critical objectives for policymakers in lower-income countries there is a high concerned with enhancing opportunities for expectation that, in the absence of any counter children.1 Building safer Internet access is measures, patterns of abusive behaviour integral to that project. Questions such as ‘what witnessed elsewhere will follow. is the nature of risk globally?’ and ‘what are the most effective strategies to address it?’ are Globally, children and young people tend to therefore important. The purpose of this report, become early users and prime innovators on which was developed by the UNICEF Innocenti the Internet, and are often far ahead of their Research Centre (IRC) in partnership with parents and other adults in terms of use, skills the Child Exploitation and Online Protection and understanding. The Internet, particularly Centre (CEOP), is to review the global evidence social networking and other interactive media, available. The study primarily addresses two provides new forms of social space globally, issues: child sex abuse recorded in images; which did not exist when most contemporary and the grooming of young people for sex. A parents were themselves children. Young third issue, cyberbullying, emerging from much people in all societies today are pioneers, research as an issue of particular significance to occupying online spaces in ways that adults children, is also touched on in this report. often cannot imagine. These spaces can be immensely creative, but can also expose There are many knowledge gaps about the children to dangers adults may in many protection challenges raised by the Internet, instances only dimly perceive. particularly in parts of the world where its penetration is so far more limited. There has The ease of interaction among and with been significant work undertaken to analyse children, the risk of sexual abuse, new and children’s online behaviour and investments fast-changing technology, and adults’ lack of made in strategies to address and prevent awareness and understanding of the Internet abuse in parts of Asia, across Europe and the or children’s usage is a recipe for societal United States of America. But there has been anxiety − as well as sensationalism, myth- less exploration of online child abuse and making and inappropriate policy responses. exploitation across many low- and middle- New technologies are commonly accompanied
1 by fears as to their potential dangers, often of child protection systems and responses. provoked without a solid foundation in Integrating awareness of online-related evidence. The popular fear that the Internet abuse and exploitation into the broader endangers all children has not been supported child protection agenda should be a priority by the research evidence so far.2 Nevertheless, for policymakers. there are genuine risks associated with it, and calibrating appropriate protective responses Given the centrality of the private sector to requires reliable information that helps to the Internet, it has major responsibilities in accurately identify the nature and scale of risk relation to child protection online. Under and harm. contemporary understanding of corporate responsibilities for respecting human rights, Although much of the original research and recently internationally articulated in the work that led to the development of the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Internet involved both public and private Rights: Implementing the United Nations sector partners, since the mid-1990s the “Protect, Respect and Remedy” Framework, Internet has been recognized as being owned businesses have obligations both to respect and driven almost entirely by private sector human rights and to seek to prevent or mitigate entities. Meanwhile, it has become central to adverse human rights impacts directly linked to the global economy and by extension to the their operations, products and services.3 Child efficient functioning of a great many and rapidly abuse and exploitation are manifestly “adverse increasing number of national economies. It human rights impacts”. The industry has it in underpins public infrastructure that provides its powers to develop and introduce new tools for the smooth operation of transport, power, to make the Internet safer for children. The banking and other vital systems. It is playing importance of action by the private sector in a major role in the social and political lives of support of law enforcement and Internet safety a substantial and growing number of citizens are discussed later in this report. around the world. Precisely because of this dimension, governments, inter-governmental There are genuine challenges and fears within bodies and other public agencies have the industry. Some of the measures that might generally proceeded with circumspection when contribute to making the Internet safer for discussing new laws or regulations about how children appear to challenge current business the Internet should operate, or in relation to models; they might appear to reduce the what is expected of the myriad large and small competitiveness of an individual company, or companies that make up the modern Internet to threaten other freedoms inherent in the way industry. The urge to legislate and regulate the Internet currently operates. However, it is in ways that might curb the Internet is clearly arguably in the longer-term interests of the there, however, as reactions by politicians Internet itself, and in particular of the larger to phenomena such as the use of social companies that dominate it, for governments to networking sites (SNS) during periods of civil feel that legitimate concerns for the welfare of disorder have shown. their citizens, perhaps especially in relation to children and young people, are taken seriously Governments have tended to tackle online- and are acted upon promptly. Otherwise there related sexual exploitation and abuse with is a risk that governments or regional bodies an emphasis on building the ‘architecture’ will step in to regulate and legislate in ways that to protect or rescue children − establishing negatively impact the Internet as a single global legislation, pursuing and prosecuting abusers, system embodying freedom of information. raising awareness, reducing access to harm and supporting children to recover from abuse or Given that most research on usage and risk exploitation. These are essential components of has taken place in the industrialized world, a protection response. Internationally, however, the extrapolation of findings to other socio- progress is patchy. Many legal jurisdictions, economic and cultural contexts must be for example, fail to enact legislation sufficient approached with caution. However, there is to combat child abuse images or laws to enough research in low- and middle- income criminalize grooming. There is also a lack of countries to be suggestive of patterns and awareness among parents and agencies with potential problems. One important finding child protection responsibilities about the from industrialized and lower-income countries real nature of hazards or effective protection alike is the importance of action, innovation, strategies. Awareness of online-related child exploration and discovery by adolescents on abuse and exploitation appears not yet to be the Internet, in other words, the significance of organically embedded in the great majority child agency in accessing the creative benefits
2 Child Safety Online of the Internet, in exposure to certain forms of is a focus on activities that involve interaction risk, and in managing that risk. online and offline and an analysis of research findings about where children turn for support The protection response needs to strike a when things go wrong. balance between the right to protection from all forms of violence, sexual abuse and exploitation The challenge for policymakers is not to get and the rights to information, freedom of sidetracked into blaming the medium. Instead, expression and association, privacy and non- it is to coordinate action by a range of public discrimination as defined in the Convention and private actors on a number of interrelated on the Rights of the Child and other relevant issues that ultimately come under the heading international standards. That balance must be of ‘building a safer Internet’. These include anchored in the best interests of children as a integrating an understanding of child sexual primary consideration, the right to be heard and abuse and exploitation into building Internet taken seriously, and recognition of the evolving access; understanding child usage of ICT capacities of children and young people. It is and working with young people on effective unlikely ever to be possible to remove all the safety strategies; integrating awareness and risks to children and young people that exist understanding of online-related child abuse in the online environment. Moreover, beyond and exploitation into child protection systems; a certain point, attempting to do so could developing effective law enforcement against threaten the very essence of the Internet and its online-related child abuse and exploitation; multiple benefits. and integrating child protection into effective law enforcement. While usage may still be It would be a mistake ever to think that all less pervasive in low- and middle-income children and young people are equally adept countries, protection is a challenge they will or at home in the online environment or face in the imminent future that needs to be equally knowledgeable about it.4 Children’s addressed now. use of the Internet and their behaviour and vulnerabilities online differ according to their The report also considers ways to build a safer age. To be effective, protection strategies environment for children and young people need to incorporate measures and messages for whom the Internet is a basic social medium appropriate to different ages and levels of in which the online and offline worlds come understanding. It is nonetheless the case that together. It outlines relevant international law by and large children and young people are and key challenges to governments and law often the best experts in relation to their own enforcement agencies in achieving greater ICT usage. This report argues that effective protection for children and young people. It protection strategies require children’s argues that a multi-tiered approach is necessary participation, particularly that of adolescents, to challenge the potential threats to children’s both in their design and implementation, as well-being and safety in the online environment. well as the empowerment of parents and other Accordingly, it concludes by putting forward adults who work closely with young people, a strategic protection framework with four such as teachers, to enable them to support and main objectives: 1) empowering children understand children’s use of information and and promoting their resilience; 2) removing communication technologies and the risks and impunity for abusers; 3) reducing availability hazards that they may encounter. This is both a of harmful material from the Internet and pragmatic recognition of reality and a position access to harm; and 4) promoting recovery based on human rights principles. and rehabilitation for children who have experienced harm. This report discusses the nature and scale of sexual abuse and exploitation of children and young people online and the types of Scope, methodology and crime perpetrated against them. It considers the generational divide between parents and limitations children in their knowledge of and engagement with the online environment and how this The initial focus of research was to gather affects experiences and approaches to the evidence on the impact of sexual abuse Internet and its usage. The report outlines how and exploitation in the online/offline world. children and young people across the world Cyberbullying is also included because use the Internet, including an examination of numerous surveys show this phenomenon to specific online activities and experiences that be a concern of children and young people. The have the potential to place them at risk. There key areas include:
Introduction 3 © UNICEF/NYHQ2005-2250/Giacomo Pirozzi (a) The current available evidence on (a) Existing legal systems that govern the behaviour and activities of children cyberspace, in particular, those that protect and young people online in order to children from abuse and exploitation in the gain a better understanding of the online environment; relationship between the online and offline environments and the risks and (b) Law enforcement policy and practice, and potential for violence and sexual abuse application of child-centred approaches in and exploitation as a consequence of preventing and responding to sexual abuse that interface. The goal of prevention and and exploitation of children in the merged behavioural change in relationship to online/offline environment; sexual exploitation and abuse of children in the online/offline environment cannot (c) The behaviour and activities of children be pursued effectively without confronting and young people online, and the risks and such fundamental questions as: potential for merged online/offline abuse and exploitation, including an overview ●● How are children and young people of children’s views and recommendations using and exploring the new information regarding risk-taking behaviour and technologies? How are these information preventive practices; technologies influencing them? (d) Referral systems and rehabilitation ●● What are the current behaviour patterns services designed to respond to sexual abuse of children? and exploitation of children in the merged online/offline environment. ●● What risks do they currently face? How do those risks arise, and how do children The methodology did not involve primary mitigate those risks? research, but used secondary research that brought together the widest possible existing ●● To what extent are behaviours and risks evidence from a broad range of countries. culturally defined? Given that academic research was not available from countries in every region, some use was ●● How do children’s and adults’ also made of non-academic sources such as perspectives on risk differ? newspaper articles, press releases and non- governmental organization (NGO) reports to ●● Which children’s rights need to reflect, as far as possible, developments across be protected? all parts of the world. Evidence included:
●● What behaviours need to change, and ●● Data on the penetration and degree of how can that change be achieved? usage of the Internet and mobile phones;
(b) The actions taken to date to ●● Research evidence on patterns of strengthen children’s right to protection behaviour of children and young people at the international and national levels in the online environment; by governments, international agencies, the private sector and other key actors ●● Research findings on the implications including legislation, law enforcement, policy and impact of that behaviour; developments, social welfare provision and international collaboration. ●● Research evidence on children and young people’s perspectives (c) Illustrative examples of protection-related on their behaviour and its impact initiatives on the ground. The report does not and implications; evaluate these initiatives and, while many look very promising, it does not propose ●● Findings from a survey on children’s them as proven good practice. Nevertheless, experiences online, which was posted many examples cited are thought-provoking on the UNICEF Voices of Youth website5 and merit further attention and follow-up. for three months in 2010 and attracted nearly 1,000 responses; In 2010, four initial background papers were developed for IRC and provided the basis ●● Evidence submitted to the Third World for this publication. The papers addressed Congress against Sexual Exploitation of the following: Children and Adolescents in 2008;
Introduction 5 ●● Earlier research on sexual abuse and consultative meeting in Florence, Italy, to exploitation from UNICEF IRC; review and discuss the background papers. This group reflected a broad range of professional ●● Review of recent reports from the expertise from all regions. Council of Europe, the European Union and the Organisation for Economic A considerable number of constraints in Co-operation and Development (OECD) undertaking the study were encountered, on sexual abuse and exploitation of resulting in limitations to both the scope of children online; the findings and their reliability as a basis for programming in respect of all children. They ●● Review of international legislation include the following: relating to sexual abuse and exploitation and cybercrime; (a) The predominant body of available research derives from countries in Europe ●● Review of current law enforcement and and the United States. While valuable, social welfare challenges in the field of there are dangers in drawing generalized cyberspace and child protection; conclusions from evidence based on experiences in the most economically ●● Case studies submitted from countries advanced countries. Although some research representing different regions of is being conducted in a number of other the world, elaborating recent legal regions, it is less accessible internationally developments in protecting children and often not published in English, rendering and young people in the merged online/ it inaccessible to the writers of this report. offline environment (countries were selected because their legal responses Efforts were made to seek out as much to harm against children in a merged information as possible from all regions, online/offline environment offer but the final paper is necessarily reliant, in insights that may be informative for terms of evidence, on a disproportionate other jurisdictions); body of data from the industrialized world. Some low- and middle-income countries – ●● Case studies developed by the including Brazil, Egypt, Nepal, the Philippines CEOP Centre, amplifying examples and South Africa – have undertaken research of how specific countries employed in this area. These countries are heavily their law enforcement agencies to cited, not because they can be seen as protect children; representative of their regions or have any particular significance in terms of online ●● Discussions with key experts in the behaviour, but simply because they have field of law, law enforcement, social produced valuable research. welfare and child protection (the social welfare material, for example, drew on Apart from South Africa, there is a dearth responses from experts in Australia, of information from sub-Saharan Africa, Canada, the Czech Republic, Denmark, and there is little in general from the Middle Egypt, Estonia, Finland, Germany, East and North Africa on children and young Iceland, India, Italy, Japan, Latvia, people’s patterns of online activity and Lithuania, Malta, New Zealand, Poland, potential exposure to risk. Nevertheless, the the Russian Federation, Serbia, Slovenia, limited available research indicates some Sweden, Taiwan Province of China, similarities, adjusted for cultural and social Ukraine, the United Kingdom, the context, in usage of electronic media by United States of America and countries young people. in the Caribbean); (b) Each source study uses different data ●● Questionnaires on child protection in the sets, methodologies and sample sizes; online environment were sent to experts therefore, compatibility between sources from a broad range of countries across is problematic. Similarly, different studies the world, of which responses were use different age ranges and definitions received from 10 countries.6 for children, young people and youth. Many of them, such as the International The work was supported by an Expert Advisory Telecommunication Union (ITU), include Group that provided written comments children aged 15–17 as part of the wider on drafts and participated in a June 2010 ‘youth’ category, which may run up to
6 Child Safety Online age 24 in other studies. From a protection sites. Where doing so is seen as promoting perspective, aggregating young people under status and machismo, for instance, boys age 18 with those over 18 makes it difficult might be happy to report using such sites. In to link statistical information with the legal other environments, they are more likely to implications of the Convention of the Rights describe their contact with such material as of the Child and of many national laws. inadvertent or mistaken.
(c) Existing research tends to focus on risk (e) There are groups of children about whose factors that children face. To date, there is online activity and its implications are little relatively little evidence on the resilience and known and for whom the experience may agency of children in managing the online/ vary significantly from that of the majority – offline environment, or the strategies they for example, children with disabilities; gay, adopt to protect themselves or mitigate lesbian, bisexual and transgender young risk. Some anecdotal information exists, people; or children without parental support. for example, as to how children and young people are using mobile phones to alert (f) Rapid changes in the online environment others to danger, report abuse and support and how children and young people use it peers at risk, but these patterns of activity and adapt to it cause research to become have yet to be adequately documented quickly outdated. It is a constant challenge to and researched. remain on top of the issue.
(d) Differences in socio-cultural values and While taking these limitations into account, norms may affect research findings. For this report nevertheless provides a relatively example, attitudes towards pornography comprehensive overview of the available within a society as well as how pornography evidence and a sufficiently robust analysis is defined may determine whether a young to point the way towards strategies for person is willing to acknowledge that he strengthening child protection in the merged or she actively sought out pornographic online/offline environment.
Introduction 7 © UNICEF/NYHQ2007-0269/Cirillo©
8 Child Safety Online PART ONE:
Child protection in the online/offline environment
Key message a factor that has particular significance in the developing world, where the population under Information and communication technology age 18 makes up a much higher proportion of is central to the lives of children and young the total compared to industrialized countries. Children and young people are not merely people in industrialized countries and, passive users of communication technologies; increasingly, in the developing world. they are actively involved in creating and shaping them to meet their own demands It is a key educational resource, providing and interests. information, entertainment, music and films. Young people are growing up in a world where ICT is viewed by many as a fundamental electronic communication is increasingly part of their social lives. For children, considered to be as normal as face-to-face and telephone contact were for earlier generations. the boundaries between the online and Whereas older adults conceptualize a clear offline worlds have become seamless. distinction between the online and offline worlds, for young people building social networks in both worlds the differentiation is less meaningful. In this sense, the relationship During the past decade, the world has between the virtual and physical worlds is witnessed an extraordinary change in the becoming seamless or merged. Electronic opportunities and means through which media are central to the lives of an ever- individuals and communities communicate with growing proportion of children and young each other. The benefits of these developments people in terms of social relationships and are huge as the growth of electronic and communication. They provide access to digital media has afforded millions of people information, entertainment, games, the arts the chance to learn, publish and communicate and culture as well as a way to create and on an unprecedented scale.7 Information and exchange content. communication technologies offer opportunities for global exploration, dynamic interactive Activities that previously took place only in experiences and wide-ranging social networks. the physical world are happening more and Initially, the fastest rate of penetration, or more online, and their nature and scope are adoption and use, took place in industrialized being transformed. Through websites, blogs, countries, but today most regions of the world social networking sites, mobile phones, are rapidly catching up, particularly with the microblogging platforms, chatlines, gaming rise in mobile phone usage that enables access sites, consoles and digital cameras, children without reliance on fixed telephone lines. and young people are expanding the scale of access to their peers and redefining the Children and young people have a significant concept of friendship. These new media offer role in these developments. They tend to be opportunities for young people to construct early adopters of new forms of communication, their lives in different forms from previous
Child protection in the online/offline environment 9 generations. They can forge new, alternative are passed down from older to younger and short-term identities, establish intense and generations; co-figurative, where people learn constant levels of social engagement, build from their peers; and pre-figurative, where rapid wide social networks and enter communities social change requires the younger generation previously inaccessible to them. to instruct their elders in how to function in a new cultural environment. Although all three Not only are the electronic and physical worlds forms can coexist, the advent of new forms of of children and young people progressively social media, the speed of their penetration merging, but their behaviours within into cultural life, their growing predominance cyberspace are affecting their experiences and in children and young people’s lives, and the activities as well as their risks and vulnerabilities consequent changes required in skills, practices across their day-to-day lives offline. This and patterns of behaviour mean that children phenomenon is described in this paper as ‘the and young people are more often transmitting merged online/offline environment’. their knowledge to the older generation rather than the other way around.
Chapter 1: As noted by Tanya Byron, “The trouble is that although as adults we instinctively know how Understanding the social to protect our children offline, we often assume that their greater technological expertise will and cultural context ensure they can look after themselves online. But knowledge is not the same as wisdom.”10
Locating children’s vulnerability to online- related sexual abuse and exploitation in a Key message wider social and cultural context can provide a better understanding of the nature of concerns Through ICT, young people are exposed to and how they are framed. Clearly, the context information, values, ideas and opportunities in which children are beginning to engage in the online environment varies hugely across beyond those of their families or religious and within different regions: there is no single or community leaders, using a medium that global experience. There are some widespread patterns, however, which can be identified to many adults do not understand or access help inform both how children’s behaviour in the same way. Such exposure has the online and adults’ reactions to their behaviour are related to day-to-day realities of the potential to transform aspirations and offline world. behaviours. However, unless parents are First, as described, the world many children also directly engaged with ICT or effectively and young people now inhabit incorporates a communicate with their children about virtual reality that was unknown to previous generations. For many children in the 21st their online experiences, their capacity to century, their ideas, values, culture, aspirations understand their children’s experiences and expectations of material goods are increasingly informed not by their parents or or offer effective protection is limited. community and religious leaders but rather by the broader world around them, the pressures of commerce, advertising, and mass media, including the Internet.8 This experience of In the Internet age, a growing number of intergenerational divergence is far from new. contemporary societies could be described, in But the scale and speed at which change is one sense at least, as being in a pre-figurative happening, to varying degrees of intensity pattern of cultural development. Growing depending on countries’ socio-economic numbers of children are now creating and and technological development, is of a exploring their own virtual social networks. different order. Through exposure to knowledge, information, online advertising, and political, religious, Margaret Mead’s analysis of cultural forms is cultural or sexual ideas that may be profoundly relevant in conceptualizing this change.9 Mead at odds with those of their parents, children’s identified three divisions of culture: post- and young people’s worlds are significantly figurative, where knowledge and traditions more complex than they have been hitherto.
10 Child Safety Online Therefore, there are also concerns that greater 10 years earlier. Overall, the rate of serious access and exposure to electronic media can violent crimes against children aged 12–17, have harmful implications, including potentially including aggravated assault, rape, robbery diminishing parents’ capacity to provide a and homicide, was on the decline for both boys protective environment for their children.11 and girls.16
Second, in much of the industrialized world, ‘Moral panics’ in respect to emerging there has been an emerging fear of the technologies are not a new phenomenon. There unknown paedophile, an adult who is sexually were many fears about the use of the telegraph attracted to children, as an ever-present in the 1800s, with disapproval of women using threat. Media exposure in many countries it for communication.17 Women were considered during the early 1990s intensified and fed this to be naive and incapable, and a virtuous fear. In the United Kingdom, concern about woman was supposed to be technologically such perpetrators of sexual abuse became ignorant. In the early 20th century, the widespread following exposure of child sexual telephone was considered to be a method by abuse in residential childcare homes and other which illicit conversations could happen and institutions where children were supposed to sparked panic that it would encourage girls to be protected.12 A high-profile case that hit the be more aggressive in their approach to men headlines in 1996 was that of a released sexual and would threaten parental control.18 abuser charged with a series of child murders in Belgium.13 Meanwhile, also in 1996, ‘Megan’s Caution is therefore necessary in response Law’ was created in the United States following to concerns about risk in the merged online/ the rape and murder two years earlier of a offline environment. Obviously, children are 7-year-old girl by a twice-convicted sex offender exposed to additional risks in this new social who lived on the same street.14 space but the popular fear that the Internet endangers all children has not been supported by the research evidence so far.19 The crucial Key message issues that need to be addressed are the scale of the problem, the nature of the risk, and which There is a risk of ‘moral panic’ concerning children are vulnerable and why. the Internet. Although the Internet does Third, the period in which cybertechnology has provide a new avenue for child abuse, it become so dominant in the lives of children is important that is weighed against the coincides with a period, predominantly in industrialized countries, where anxieties about many benefits it provides for children. paedophilia (together with crime and safety in general) have led to severe restrictions in the social freedoms associated with childhood. Children, particularly middle-class children, Although these cases undoubtedly represent are far less likely to be allowed outside to play grave criminal offences against children, the independently and increasingly have their sensational media coverage led to a perception social lives and entertainment managed by of a growing threat to children, despite parents. This pattern is well established in many evidence that such risks are both rare and not industrialized countries and is also becoming increasing.15 The Internet has exacerbated these the case among the middle class in middle- and fears, providing a new environment where low-income countries.20 Parents’ increasing children, particularly girls, are seen to be at containment of children has been accompanied ever-growing risk. by mounting adult perceptions reinforced by politicians and the media that public space The fact is that prevalence rates of child is the legitimate sphere of adults and that sexual abuse are quite high, but in general, children in public space are at risk, a nuisance perpetrators are known by and close to the or a threat.21 children they abuse. In the United States, the percentage of single offender crimes against The physical world is far less accessible to girls where the offender is an adult and a many contemporary children in industrialized stranger has declined since 1994, concurrent countries than it might have been to previous with the rise of Internet use. According to the generations.22 There are restrictions in other Juvenile Offenders and Victims: 2006 National parts of the world too, such as the Middle East, Report, the 2003 non-fatal, violent victimization where public spaces are highly regulated for rate of 12- to 17-year-olds was half that of young people, particularly girls.23 The process
Child protection in the online/offline environment 11 of denying children access to the public sphere Middle Eastern country, unrelated male influences the way they shape their identities and female teenagers, who are prohibited and learn social skills.24 by authorities from talking to each other, let alone meeting, are beginning to subvert controls on their behaviour by using Key message Bluetooth technology (allowing electronic devices to transmit wirelessly) to share In high-income countries, anxiety about images and communicate with each other 27 risks of harm from paedophiles and other without risk of being caught. threats has led to growing restrictions Fourth, in a growing number of countries, being placed on children. It is important the messages children receive from an early age concerning sex and sexuality are to keep in mind, however, that while contradictory. In Australia, North America and children need protection, the Internet also many European countries, growing fears over sexual abusers have led not only to children provides them with a new and exciting being subject to increasing protection, but also route for interaction and exploration. to a fear of all adults who might have close contact with children. In some places, there are reports of primary schoolteachers not allowed to touch any child in their classes, and The desire to protect children from the there is general suspicion of any adult who external environment is challenged by approaches or speaks to a child.28 the rise of the Internet, with its rapidly expanding opportunities for communication Fear about children’s exposure to sexual and networking, and as a substitute for or assault in the real world and via the Internet complement to the street or the playground. coincides in the industrialized world with As Yvonne Jewkes, criminology professor anxieties about the increasing sexualisation at the University of Leicester, observes: of the social environment and of children “Adventure is, for many children, a virtual themselves. Examples commonly cited pleasure; competitiveness is honed at the include makeup for children, fashion games console rather than on the sports field; collections themed around Lolita, sexualized and sexual development occurs in chat rooms, music videos on weekend morning television, on social networking sites and via mobile sexually explicit ‘adult only’ DVD covers in phones.”25 As children in some parts of the local video shops, sexually overt and often world are subjected to continuing or increasing degrading lyrics in popular songs, highly controls over their physical autonomy, they are sexualized dolls, padded bras for pre-teens discovering a virtual world in which to explore, and explicit billboards.29 Some researchers, interact and play. The Internet offers a young such as Linda Papadopoulos in a review person the opportunity to engage in an infinite for the UK Home Office published in 2010, world of connections and contacts while sitting argue that the constant bombardment with at home in their room. It therefore requires a sexual imagery has shifted the boundaries rethinking of how to effectively protect children. of behaviour and expectation deemed acceptable for children, especially girls, in The irony is that this virtual world offers a ways that are harmful.30 Not all researchers degree of freedom of expression, including agree on the impact on young people, but the sexual expression, and of thought. It offers views of Papadopoulos and others are at the the opportunity to construct an identity very least indicative of a strong groundswell and access information far beyond that to of concern in the wider public.31 which children and young people have in the physical world and in ways in which Fifth, attitudes towards sexual exploitation their parents are far less equipped to and abuse of women and girls within any intervene. Young users of social networking given culture also influence behaviours in sites, for example, perceive these areas both the online and offline environments. If as private and free from parental control a society tolerates sexual violence against while allowing opportunities for regular women and girls offline, for example, it is and instant communication with their unlikely that behaviours involving online peers.26 This pattern is not just exemplified communication or interaction will be in industrialized countries. In at least one very different.
12 Child Safety Online Sixth, children are not empty or passive vessels. Key message They play an active role in interpreting and constructing the world around them. But in doing so, they are influenced by age, gender, Children have always been exposed to family environment and culture.32 Adolescents sexual abuse and exploitation, but the are at a stage of life when they are likely to explore and experiment, including with their Internet provides new opportunities sexuality, while pulling away from adults to for abusers. Those who prey on the define their own place in the world. vulnerabilities of children and young Although many of the developments described people can now reach them on a scale here reflect phenomena observed largely in industrialized countries, they serve to illustrate that was unimaginable prior to the how a complex interplay of social and cultural access provided by the Internet. phenomena influences how children understand the world in which they are engaged – its moral and ethical boundaries, the nature of risk, expectations and normality in sexual behaviour. Children and young people vulnerable to These phenomena provide the lens through abuse and exploitation can fall into three which adults in general and parents in particular broad clusters: construct their relationships with children and the way in which adults understand risk. They ●● Younger children who are sexually abused impose limits on the degree of adult access to and photographed, by or with their parents the worlds that children inhabit. or caregivers collusion, for the purposes of online exploitation; It is important to recognize that children’s activities and the challenges they face do ●● Older children who place sexualized images not occur in a social vacuum. To influence of themselves online, and in doing so, and minimize children’s risk of abuse and expose themselves to potential grooming exploitation, adults need to understand the and exploitation; context and complexity of their lives. ●● Young people who are the victims of their peers, who may assault them, photograph Chapter 2: Sexual them and distribute the images online. exploitation and abuse Risks, however, should be viewed in a broader context. For the vast majority of children and in the online/offline young people, their online behaviour does not lead to victimization or harm. Behaviours that environment have the potential to place them at risk are dealt with in subsequent chapters. To understand the context in which those risks arise, it is The rise of the online environment has necessary to review the available research not created crimes of sexual abuse and on the scale of online sexual abuse and exploitation of children. But new venues exploitation, the forms they take, the children for content, contact or conduct online do who are abused online, and the nature and allow much easier access to a wide range of numbers of online abusers. children, increasing the scale of ‘opportunity’ and the potential for causing harm. Images of children are easier to create and distribute, Child abuse images viewers can easily turn into exchangers, and traders and producers of child abuse materials Sexual abuse and exploitation of children can open new arenas for distribution of their through images spans material that is ‘products’. The Internet environment has suggestive to images depicting explicit sexual allowed children themselves to initiate and activity.33 Although most international and engage in sexually explicit behaviours with much national legislation refer to these images an apparent degree of anonymity, and adults as child pornography, there is increasing who seek to perpetrate online or offline sexual preference among law enforcement and child exploitation and abuse to make contact with protection agencies for the term ‘child abuse children and young people. images’, which places a stronger emphasis on,
Child protection in the online/offline environment 13 and recognition of, the abuse and exploitation mobile phones or prepaid cards that reduce of children perpetrated through such images. traceability have all contributed to the potential for online abusive and exploitative activity It is difficult to estimate the number of websites towards children. globally that depict child abuse images. The Internet Watch Foundation (IWF) has identified Perpetrators can also sell children for live abuse and taken action against some 16,700 instances online, in which the perpetrators announce to of child sexual abuse content on different their online ‘peer’ or ‘peer group’ their intention web pages worldwide in 2010, compared with to abuse a child on a set date and time.39 Those identifying around 10,600 URLs of individual who wish to watch the live abuse arrange web pages or websites in 2006.34 The IWF with the perpetrator to be online at that time. acknowledges the difficulty in comparing data Payment may be in money or through bartering, from different years due to the rapid changes such as exchanging images or drugs. Children in hosting arrangements of child abuse images, may be lured into the perpetrator’s house and which render the numbers of images and sexually abused, and may or may not be aware web pages to be no longer comparable. The that live transmission is occurring. increase could be attributed to a change in hosting patterns; instead of posting collections Recent evidence from the European Financial of images in a folder on a single web page, Coalition against Commercial Sexual content is being posted on separate websites.35 Exploitation of Children Online indicates that Most significantly, however, child abuse images organizers of commercial child abuse websites are increasingly shared among networks distribute images but do not produce them.40 of like-minded individuals through peer-to- Not all distributors are from organized criminal peer distribution, which avoids the necessity networks; many are individuals working of housing the images on storage systems together who may or may not have a personal owned by third-parties such as Internet service sexual interest in children. Once posted, the providers (ISPs).36 images are difficult to retrieve. The child has no control over his or her images, and these There are millions of child abuse images on the images can remain in cyberspace in perpetuity. Internet, with tens of thousands of individual Some current images may have been produced children depicted in the images.37 In April 2010, more than 20 or 30 years ago and have since the National Society for the Prevention of been digitized and posted online.41 The vast Cruelty to Children (NSPCC), one of the leading majority of images in cyberspace, however, child protection charities in the United Kingdom, have been produced much more recently and published a study in which media reports of are linked to the emergence of cheap, easy- court cases in England and Wales between to-use, high-quality digital cameras and to April and September 2010 were analysed. The the development of the Internet as a mass NSPCC found that close to 3 million images consumer product. These newer images may had been circulated by 284 offenders who were derive from within the child’s family or social consequently convicted. Some 35,000 images circle or be procured through child prostitution. were classed as categories 4 and 5, which are the most severe levels of abusive images as The public posting of child abuse images online set in the guidelines issued by the Sentencing can have lasting consequences for children. Guidelines Council Advisory Panel (England and Since the images are almost impossible to Wales) in 2002.38 erase once in cyberspace, the children in these photos may realize that for the rest of their lives Once on the Internet, images can easily be someone could be looking at their pictures on transmitted to other websites, downloaded the Internet. The threat of publication alone onto mobile phones or distributed to an may be a form of coercion used by child sexual unknown number of recipients via email abusers, allowing them to continue long- without the knowledge or consent of the term abuse.42 individual depicted. Potential abusers are able to communicate, and share images and other materials, across the world with others of The children in child abuse images like mind and interests. High-speed Internet connections, higher bandwidth, increased use A significant proportion of child abuse images of peer-to-peer networks, more sophisticated online are of young children, with an identifiable compression and encryption techniques to downward trend in age. According to the ease anonymous distribution, and new ways IWF 2010 Annual Report, 73 per cent of the of accessing the Internet through Wi-Fi on child victims identified in online child sex abuse
14 Child Safety Online images appear to be less than 10 years old.43 availability of ICT and other technologies Other analyses of online images confirm the for image capture and distribution in preponderance of prepubescent children. There industrialized countries. is also evidence that the images are becoming more graphic and more violent.44 The IWF, for When developing protective strategies, it example, found that sexual activity, including is important to differentiate between those rape and torture, between adults and children children who are being forced into sexual was depicted in more than 65 per cent of still exploitation and abuse, either through their images and videos found online.45 parents or other adults in their lives, and those whose personal online activities and Girls and Caucasian children also figure behaviour may under some circumstances disproportionately. Studies from Australia, place them at or expose them to risk. Given New Zealand, South Africa and the the disproportionate numbers of very young United Kingdom have consistently found that children represented in the child abuse images the child sexual abuse images on the Internet worldwide, it appears likely that exploitation are of mostly Caucasian, westernized, female by family members is involved in a significant children, 8 to 12 years old.46 In much of the number of cases. research, the main context for the abuse appears to be domestic, and the relationships between those producing the images and the Grooming children are familial or of social proximity.47 Grooming has been defined as the process Ethel Quayle and Terry Jones recently carried of ‘befriending’ a young person online “to out the first systematic study of a random facilitate online sexual contact and/or a physical sample of abusive and sexualized images of meeting with them with the goal of committing children distributed through the Internet and sexual abuse.”50 Cyberspace provides a variety obtained through a police database of seized of forums in which predators can groom their collections. They found that the odds of children potential victims through chat rooms, social in the abuse images being female versus male networking sites and instant messaging.51 were about 4 to 1 and the odds of the images Offenders use online networks to communicate being of Caucasian children versus non-white with each other and show live-time abuse and children were about 10 to 1. Compared with share images to gain credibility among other female children, male children were more likely offenders,52 and research in the United States to be prepubescent or very young. Compared suggests that arrests for Internet sex crimes to white children, non-white children were more against children often have a social networking likely to be prepubescent but less likely to be site connection.53 very young.48 The European Online Grooming Project reports that evidence from stakeholders indicates that Key message offenders may have up to 200 young people listed as online ‘friends’ at various stages of the Child abuse images tend to feature children grooming process, and that they typically use aged between 0 and 10 years old, Caucasian the ‘success’ of previous contacts with young people as a basis for adapting their activities.54 and female. Those who become the victims These processes of online grooming may take of grooming tend to be adolescents. minutes, hours, days or months, depending on the goals and needs of the abuser and the reactions of the young person. Offenders can move from online grooming towards an offline These results are similar to those found across sexual assault. Alternatively, the relationship all other samples taken from seized collections may be pursued by persuading the child to send of images, reported content of web pages and sexually explicit images of herself or himself, identified children.49 With regard to the issue which are then used and disseminated to of ethnicity, the preponderance of Caucasian networks of sexual abusers. children in sexualized images could be a reflection of the fact that most research has Offenders use online networks to communicate thus far been undertaken in Western countries with each other and show live-time abuse and and offenders demonstrate a preference share images to gain credibility among other for children who share their own ethnic abusers. There is also evidence of an increased characteristics. It may also reflect greater use of webcams linked to instant messaging,
Child protection in the online/offline environment 15 employed to coerce a child into witnessing or There is no information on the number of performing sexual acts.55 individuals who are grooming children online. In many countries, such activity is not a crime Who is vulnerable to being groomed is and no records exist relating to such behaviour. discussed fully in a subsequent section. Even among those countries where it has In terms of age, evidence suggests that been criminalized, there are no coordinated adolescents are most at risk, particularly databases of offenders. adolescent girls. At that stage, young people are often active users of the Internet as a means of meeting people and making Demographics of offenders friends, all part of the process of developing their sense of self and their sexual and Regarding the characteristics of those who emotional identities. create, view and distribute child abuse images, there are striking demographic consistencies found in studies undertaken during the past Abusers and exploiters 5–10 years. Janis Wolak, David Finkelhor and Kimberly Mitchell, for instance, found in their online 2003 and 2005 studies of sexual Internet crimes against minors that 99 per cent of their sample Many forms of behaviour constitute child was male,58 and similar patterns have been seen sexual abuse. The range may include adults in later research.59 More recently, examples who sexually exploit their own or others’ have surfaced of women being implicated in the children for the production of images; who online/offline sexual abuse of children. In 2009, download images for their own personal several women in the United Kingdom were use; who exploit children by creating and discovered to be abusing young children offline, distributing images, but not necessarily for photographing the abuse and then distributing their own use; and who seek children online the images online to a ‘male friend’.60 During in order to abuse them. 2010, 23 people in Sweden were arrested for exchanging abusive images of children; 20 of them were women, 40 to 60 years old, who Numbers of offenders met on an Internet dating site, according to the media and a police spokesperson.61 The number of people who offend via electronic media is unknown. Most of The Internet makes the development of offender the data currently available relate to the networks easier, which in turn can exacerbate production, distribution and viewing of abuse by providing incentives for producing child abuse images. Although conviction more extreme images. CEOP has observed rates provide some indicators, they reflect more offenders meeting online via Facebook only the countries with relevant legislation and other social networking sites. Joining regarding possession and distribution a network also allows novice offenders to of abusive images and online grooming, overcome inhibitions and develop offending and with the resources and resolve to behaviour among like-minded individuals.62 investigate and prosecute such acts.56 The limited research data available to date Recent data from authorities in Norway, indicate that the majority of known offenders a country with a population of less than are Caucasian and Western.63 One analysis of 5 million, where access to known sites offenders in the United Kingdom found that with child abuse images is blocked, reveal Internet-related offenders were predominantly that there are as many as 15,000–18,000 Caucasian compared with the broader offence daily attempts to access such images; of child molestation, which was committed by however, this does not represent 18,000 persons from a wider range of ethnic groups.64 different individuals.57 These figures need Some 86 per cent of Australian Internet sex to be interpreted with a degree of caution offenders were identified as Caucasian, with since, for example, they include ‘hits’ that Asian, Mediterranean and Aboriginal ethnic come from web crawling robots, which groups minimally represented.65 It is not clear, are generated by an automated process however, whether these offender characteristics rather than an individual ‘visitor’. They are a result of socio-demographic patterns of nevertheless indicate the scale of interest in Internet use, and therefore may change as use and viewing of child abuse images. begins to extend more broadly into all sections
16 Child Safety Online of society, or whether they reflect differences countries is perpetrated by children, mainly associated with cultural patterns of behaviour. during adolescence.70
The research also points to relatively high Key message levels of education and professional status among abusers. In the New Zealand sample Perpetrators of online abuse are not cited above, students were the largest group; restricted to the popular image of the two thirds were studying at the tertiary level, of which around 38 per cent were studying ‘paedophile as pervert’. Significant subjects related to information technology. numbers of (mostly) men download In the Australian research, the offender was typically a professional or in an administrative child abuse images on a regular basis. role, was minimally competent on a computer, The available evidence indicates that and did not employ sophisticated technology or security measures.71 the vast majority of perpetrators are male, Caucasian, employed, reasonably Research conducted in the United States in 2005 indicates that 73 per cent of the sample well-educated and span a wide age range. population was in full-time employment, with 82 per cent having an income greater than $20,000.72 Similarly, in a 2007 study conducted in the United Kingdom, just more than half had The available evidence on offenders’ ages received tertiary education and some 75 per provides a more varied picture. Research in cent were in a full-time occupation; unlike the the United States in 2005 indicates that 45 per New Zealand group, this study indicated that cent of individuals arrested who possessed nearly 93 per cent had not received any formal child abuse images were aged 40 or older,66 training in Internet use.73 An NSPCC survey of and this is similar to other more recent court cases in the United Kingdom found that reported findings (in Australia, for example).67 one in four held positions of trust, including However, data gathered in 2005 by the New teachers, clergy, medical personnel and Zealand Censorship Compliance Unit found police officers.74 a significant level of offending behaviour among younger men.68 Of the 201 cases in its Overall, the picture that emerges is that 2005 analysis, the largest single age group those who view child abuse images online was 15 to 19 years old, which accounted for are typically male, white, reasonably well- just over 24 per cent. More than half were educated and employed, and span a wide under 30 at the time of the investigation. age range, including young people.75 However, subsequent updates (2007 and 2009) Certainly, the evidence does not reflect the have shown an increase in the mean age of stereotype widely portrayed in the media. offenders. A United Kingdom analysis of 100 Public perceptions of paedophiles as socially convictions from September 2008 to March marginal sexual predators may blunt the reality 2010 for possessing, making and distributing of the sexualization of children, particularly child abuse images found that the number of girls, in various cultures and the prevalence offenders was relatively evenly distributed of sexual abuse and exploitation among the across the age range of 20 to 59, with the general population.76 number of convictions decreasing among offenders aged 60 and older.69 Links between online and It is difficult to determine the extent to which children are engaged as perpetrators of online offline abuse abuse. Criminal statistics refer only to offenders over the age of criminal responsibility and cover The available evidence on the link between only reported offences, but much abuse goes online and offline abuse is somewhat unreported or is not recognized and dealt with contradictory. A study published in 2005 in as such. Various studies have tried to estimate the United States found that 40 per cent of the extent of sexual abuse by children. In terms people arrested for possessing child abuse of sexual abuse offline, previous evidence images were ‘dual offenders’ who had sexually from the United Kingdom and United States victimized children and possessed child abuse indicates that 20 to 30 per cent of abuse in those images,77 suggesting there may be a correlation
Child protection in the online/offline environment 17 between possession and committing sexual planning their treatment and supervision in abuse of a child. the community.82
Research undertaken in the United States This evidence points to a cohort of ‘child and published in 2008 based on a review pornography’ offenders who appear not to seek of official records and self-reports made by to make contact with children offline. While 155 imprisoned child pornography offenders the Internet has created new opportunities enrolled in an intensive residential treatment for them to express their sexual interest in programme, found considerable similarities children, without that ‘expression’ they would between those who had a documented history not have become known to the criminal justice of hands-on sexual abuse (26 per cent) and system. Nevertheless, there is need for caution those who did not (74 per cent). Both types of in assessing potential risk. Offenders who offenders had previously undetected contact have accessed child abuse images online have sexual offences, and 85 per cent of all the demonstrated a sexual interest in children offenders in the programme admitted to and may therefore eventually seek contact having at least one offline sexual contact with with them even if they have not yet done so. a child. In total, they victimized 1,777 children Child abuse images legitimize contact child – an average of 14 victims per offender. The abuse: children are sexualized; masturbation to vast majority of offenders reported that they sexualized images of children and child sexual committed offline abuse prior to seeking child abuse reinforces the association between abuse images via the Internet,78 suggesting children and sexual gratification; child sexual that the online environment may provide abuse images normalize the notion of sex with an additional outlet for criminal behaviour. children; and images suggest types of sexual The findings in this research are consistent abuse to the viewer. with evidence from the United Kingdom, which indicates that offenders frequently Images therefore provide the motivation switch between the Internet and the offline for contact sexual abuse and facilitate the environment in order to target young victims, overcoming of inhibitors to commit it. At the with the ‘virtual’ environment providing very least, such offenders have contributed potential opportunities for extending existing to sustaining demand for the production of offending behaviour.79 images that involve the physical sexual abuse of children by others. However, other research on individuals who possess child abuse images differs in that a Many individuals downloading child abuse significant majority has never been associated images were previously seen as responsible with or prosecuted for contact crimes of sexual members of their communities. A starting abuse.80 This leads to the question of whether point, therefore, in seeking to protect children the Internet is creating a new form of sexual from sexual abuse must be to recognize that offender, one that views abusive images of it is perpetrated by a wide range of adults children but does not go on to sexually abuse a and children, often opportunistically. This child offline. A recent study by David Middleton awareness needs to inform any strategic suggests that, in relation to offenders serving investment in developing more protective sentences for viewing child abuse images, environments for children. there is “a population of Internet offenders who do not share the psychological vulnerabilities typically displayed by sex offenders.”81 Chapter 3: Children’s
Another study, published in 2010, explored the activities using Internet sexual activity of two groups of adult male ‘child pornography offenders’ (contact information and and non-contact child pornography offenders) and sought to identify potential risk factors communication associated with those offenders who also sexually abused children. It concluded that technology possessing child abuse images is not of itself a causative factor in the perpetration of offline child sexual abuse and that other factors need To better understand children’s and young to be considered when evaluating the level people’s activities and behaviours online, and of danger these offenders present, and when the extent to which they place them at risk, it is
18 Child Safety Online important to appreciate the degree of access to generally more than 90 per cent, compared to the Internet and other new media in children’s Cyprus and Greece, at 50 per cent.87 lives and the varying ways they are used across different parts of the world. In recent years, for This phenomenon has moved beyond the example, the opportunities for communication industrialized world as Internet access is have expanded from email and websites to increasing globally. Children’s and young social networking sites, mobile phones, blogs, people’s online access has mushroomed in chatlines, gaming and digital cameras. These some countries, but the degree and forms of modes of communication influence the speed access vary across regions and are usually and frequency of access as well as the nature of different within countries according to socio- children’s interactions. Although the developing economic background. In Brazil, for example, world is rapidly catching up, there remains wide the number of people aged 10 and older who variation in access to electronic media as well logged onto the Internet between 2006 and as in how and where it is accessed. 2009 increased by more than 75 per cent, to 56 million users. Access to technology among Given the speed of change is this field, available children aged 10 to 15 increased from 53 per data on the rates of Internet and mobile cent to 63 per cent between 2008 and 2009. phone usage are likely to be outdated quickly. Access from Internet cafes (Lan Houses), both This is particularly true with the emergence free and paid, among Internet users of the same of smartphones, which increasing numbers age group, increased from 33 per cent in 2006 of young people use to access the Internet. to 61 per cent in 2009.88 A review of the main studies available, however, reveals valuable information on A study of 10,000 girls and young women aged emerging patterns. 14 to 21, living in 10 cities across India, found that more than two fifths of them were aware of the Internet. Awareness varied significantly Levels of Internet access across the cities, however, with only 10 per cent aware in Patna and Varanasi, compared with and usage more than 74 per cent in Hyderabad. The same study shows that only 4 per cent of the girls A high percentage of children in the who lived or worked on the street knew about industrialized world have Internet access. An the Internet.89 ITU statistical compilation published in 2008 found that, with few exceptions, children and A 2009 survey in Nepal provided anonymous, youth are more likely to use computers and the self-administered questionnaires to Internet than the general population.83 In 2006, 1,430 children aged 12 to 18, some from 65 per cent of children aged 10 to 14 and 90 per private and public schools and others out of cent of young people aged 15 to 19 were going school. It was complemented by focus groups online in Japan.84 A 2009 survey conducted in which 106 children participated. The study in schools and on the Internet of 4,338 boys found that, on average, 82 per cent – 74 per and girls aged 14 to 17 from 17 regions across cent of girls and 91 per cent of boys – used the the Russian Federation found that nearly all Internet and tended to spend one to four hours schoolchildren had access to the Internet. per week online. Of those, 63 per cent were More than 50 per cent of students spent using Internet cafes, while 51 per cent also had several hours on the Internet each time they access at home.90 accessed it.85 In sub-Saharan Africa, overall Internet In the United States, a survey of 800 penetration remains low, at just less than adolescents aged 12 to 17, conducted in 2009, 11.5 per cent as of 30 June 2011, but the found that Internet access is almost universal, growth rate over the past decade has been with 93 per cent going online. During the past extraordinary: more than 2,500 per cent.91 In 10 years, teenagers and young adults have been South Africa, for example, less than 5 per cent consistently the two groups most likely to go of all households had a working connection online.86 Across Europe in 2009, 75 per cent of in 2008, but the Internet was being accessed children between 6 and 17 years of age (85% of through cybercafes, mobile phones, at work children between 11 and 17) used the Internet, and at school.92 In a study of 934 questionnaires although there were wide variations between completed by adolescents aged 13 to 17 living in countries. The highest levels of access were South Africa’s urban areas, 52 per cent reported in Northern European countries, where it was accessing the Internet at home, with 37 per cent
Child protection in the online/offline environment 19 also having access at school and 23 per cent at cent of those older than 17.101 The study in India public venues.93 found that among young women aged 18 to 21 there was slightly higher access, at 18 per cent, Although there are regional and country compared to 13 per cent among girls aged differences, gender and Internet access have 14 to 17.102 little correlation across the vast majority of the world. In 2009, EU Kids Online examined findings from countries in the European Union Key message on children’s use of online technologies and identified limited variance in access and Children’s use of the Internet, their behaviour 94 use between boys and girls. The 2008 ITU online and their vulnerabilities within the statistical review found that the number of boys and girls aged 5 to 14 who used the Internet was online environment are different at different similar in both industrialized and developing ages. Recognition of children’s evolving countries for which data were available; the exception was the Occupied Palestinian capacities is needed, with corresponding Territory, where boys used the Internet twice protection strategies that are appropriate as much as girls. In Azerbaijan, among youth aged 15 to 24, a significantly higher number to their age and level of understanding. of young men used the Internet compared to young women, whereas in Cyprus the trend was reversed.95 No analysis is available of why these patterns exist. A survey in South Africa found The 2011 EU Kids Online survey found that, a slight gender difference, with 56 per cent of across 25 countries, one third of 9- and 10-year- boys compared to 49 per cent of girls accessing olds who use the Internet do so on a daily basis. the Internet.96 The average age of first-time Internet use is 7 years old in Sweden and 8 years old in other Socio-economic factors, on the other hand, Northern European countries.103 Another report impact access significantly. This is seen in reveals that the age of first use of the Internet Europe, where social inequalities persist and among children in Sweden has dropped from 76 per cent of children of highly educated parents 13 in 2000 to 4 years old in 2009; the report have Internet access, compared to 61 per cent concludes that at least half of all 4-year-olds of those from the lowest educational group.97 In use the Internet at least occasionally.104 The ITU the United States, white teenagers are somewhat survey found that little data are available for more likely (39 per cent) to use the Internet children aged 5 and under, with the exception several times a day than African American of the Republic of Korea and the United States. adolescents (33 per cent) or those from Latin In the Republic of Korea in 2007, 34 per cent America (26 per cent), possibly reflecting of 3-year-olds, 47 per cent of 4-year-olds and patterns of socio-economic differences.98 69 per cent of 5-year-olds used the Internet, though it is hard to know how significant this is Age is another factor that affects Internet without knowing what is counted as an ‘Internet access, and, generally, access increases along user’ and what the figures would be from with a child’s age. But younger children are other countries.105 going online in greater numbers, and the age of first-time Internet use is declining. In addition to children and young people In the European Union, based on parental gaining more access to the Internet, they perceptions, an estimated 60 per cent of are also spending considerably more time children aged 6 to 10 were using the Internet in online. The EU Kids Online study found that 2008, compared to 86 per cent of those aged 93 per cent of 9- to 16-year-olds go online at 15 to 17.99 Similarly, the 2008 ITU statistical least once a week and 60 per cent do so every report found that the 5 to 14 age group was far day or almost every day.106 In 2007, British less likely to use the Internet at least once a day children aged 12 to 15 spent an average of – and far more likely to have access less than 13.8 hours per week on the Internet, nearly once a week – than the population as a whole twice as much time as in 2005, when they were or young people aged 15 to 24. Hong Kong was online for 7.1 hours per week.107 Further data on the exception, with only a marginally lower the pattern and extent of children’s access to number of 5- to 14-year-olds using the Internet the Internet were generated by a 2008 global regularly.100 The opposite pattern is found in online poll conducted by the International South Africa, where 54 per cent of children aged Youth Advisory Congress (IYAC) and coordinated 13 to 16 access the Internet, compared to 45 per by CEOP.108 The poll recorded the views of
20 Child Safety Online 1,277 children and young people, the majority 9 of 27 countries surveyed had more children of whom were 11 to 14 years old; 54.6 per cent online than parents, and then only marginally.117 were female (the poll respondents were overwhelmingly European, despite efforts to get global perspectives; specific countries from Use of mobile phones which children responded are not provided in the documentation).109 While the survey The explosion in mobile phone use is significant results indicate that respondents were using in two ways. The first is that communication many different means for online access, just with peers is of fundamental importance to over 28 per cent reported using the Internet many teenagers. The mobile phone provides between one and two hours per day and nearly an almost unlimited opportunity to remain 21 per cent between two and three hours each in continuous contact, by text as much as by day; nearly one quarter of respondents said voice, and for this reason is now considered they use the Internet from three to more than to be a necessary social tool for young people five hours per day.110 in many industrialized and middle-income countries. The second is that mobile phones are A 2006 study in South Africa discovered that becoming more sophisticated and increasingly 48 per cent of high school students accessed enable Internet access. the Internet less than once a week and 53 per cent spent less than an hour per week Globally, total mobile phone connections online.111 A study in Bahrain, on the other hand, reached 4.98 billion in the second quarter of determined a high level of Internet access, with 2010, with the world’s population then standing young people using it on average two and a half at 6.8 billion.118 The number of active mobile to three and a half hours a day.112 subscriptions in Africa reached 506 million at the end of September 2010. Africa was one One of the most striking facts to come out of the fastest growing regions in the world, of a 2009 survey by the ITU of 9,000 adult with an 18 per cent increase of subscriptions and child Internet users in 12 countries is the between January and September 2010. difference between the amount of time that Africa’s largest mobile market is Nigeria, which parents believe their children are spending accounts for 16 per cent of African mobile online and the amount of time children say they subscriptions, followed by Egypt and South spend online. The survey found children were Africa. Of the 54 million new subscribers in spending on average 39 hours per month on the Africa’s total mobile subscriptions during the Internet, twice as much time as their parents first nine months of 2010, Egypt, Morocco, believe. As stated in the survey, “The Internet is Nigeria, the United Republic of Tanzania and kids’ new backyard.”113 Zimbabwe accounted for 48 per cent. Best estimates suggest that the strongest growth Where children and young people access the rates in mobile subscriptions will occur in the Internet varies. Most Internet access in the East and Central African markets, including industrialized countries and advanced Asian the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Eritrea, economies is from home, whereas young Ethiopia and Madagascar, with a projected people in the developing countries are more increase of more than 100 per cent by 2015.119 likely to access the Internet from school or These data are not disaggregated to provide Internet cafes.114 In the United States, 84 per a clear picture of the scale of child ownership cent of children have access to the Internet at or mobile phone use, but, undoubtedly, this home.115 In the European Union, 87 per cent growth is having an impact on children’s access of children aged 9 to 16 access the Internet at to mobile phones. home, 63 per cent at school and 33 per cent via a mobile phone or handheld device.116 A similar pattern of growth has taken place in South Asia. Data show that by March Within the European Union, one of the biggest 2010, Bangladesh had 54.7 million mobile changes in recent years has been the level subscribers120 among a national population of of parental access to the Internet. In 2008 an 156 million.121 In India, the number of mobile average of 84 per cent of parents throughout the subscriptions reached 508 million by the end region had used the Internet compared to 66 per of 2009. According to market estimates, the cent in 2005. Far more children were online number of active mobile subscriptions in India in 2005 than their parents, yet today this is no will reach 1.16 billion by the end of 2013, which longer true. With few exceptions, use by children would make it the largest mobile market in and parents is about the same. In Europe, only the world.122
Child protection in the online/offline environment 21 The total number of mobile phone subscriptions mobile phones for going online limits the ability in Latin America reached 580 million, according of parents to restrict, monitor or control how to information from March 2011. It should be and what their children access in cyberspace. noted, however, that this number includes mobile broadband subscriptions and the fact A 2009 study in the United States determined that people have more than one subscriber that the pattern of mobile phone usage was identity module (SIM) card. The largest and highly dependent on gender. A random sample most important mobile market in South of nearly 1,000 middle-school students asked America is Brazil, with 206 million subscriptions them to rate the different ways they use their and 105 per cent penetration by the end of cellphones. Boys scored higher than girls for December 2010.123 playing games, sharing pictures and videos, listening to music or sending email, whereas Mobile phone ownership among children has girls scored higher for using the phone as a also jumped during recent years. By 2008, on phone book or contact list. These findings were average more than two thirds of children across explained in terms of gender socialization, Europe aged 6 to 17 had a mobile phone, with with boys being taught to explore and be more the proportion increasing to 94 per cent among creative with technology and not to be afraid those aged 15 to 17.124 According to the Pew to take things apart, leading to more advanced Internet & American Life Project, which tracks cellphone use and perceptions of the phone as teen cellphone use, 45 per cent of children in a ‘gadget’.130 the United States aged 12 to 17 owned a mobile phone in 2004; this figure rose to 71 per cent in In more traditional types of mobile phone use, 2008, including 52 per cent of children aged 12 to such as calling to talk with another person and 13 and 84 per cent of 17-year-olds.125 Cellphone text messaging, little difference by gender ownership among teenagers in the United was detected; girls averaged 2 hours on the States was found to be positively correlated with cellphone each day, and boys averaged 1.8 parental income; 62 per cent had a cellphone hours.131 A study in China, India, Japan, Korea among those whose parental income was less and Mexico found that children who frequently than $30,000, increasing to 79 per cent where communicate via mobile messaging (mobile parental income is more than $75,000.126 email or short message service) consider their mobile phones to be essential; communication Moreover, the age at which children acquire with friends was the primary reason for children their first mobile phone is dropping. The Pew owning a mobile phone, and text messaging Research Center’s Internet & American Life was used more often than voice calls.132 Project confirms this trend, finding that 18 per cent of children aged 12 owned a cellphone As of 2008, the ITU global survey found that in 2004 and 58 per cent owned a device in among the 5 to 14 age group, computers were 2009.127 A 2004 survey of around 90 children still the predominant way for children to access in the United Kingdom, aged 11 to 16, found the Internet, with the exception of Japan.133 In that mobile phones are sometimes seen as a Japan nearly 60 per cent of children access key feature in their maturation: ownership is a the Internet through a mobile device.134 It is coming-of-age symbol.128 likely that children’s use of Internet-enabled smartphones will progressively increase Mobile phones can provide an illusion of in most countries, depending on socio- protection for both parents and their children. economic conditions. The mobile phone facilitates a far higher degree of contact with children, enabling parents to communicate whenever the child is outside Children’s online and their reach, and can maintain a safety line in the event of danger or risk. Yet smartphones cyberspace activities also offer children and young people virtually unlimited and unsupervised connection to the Social engagement online is now a fundamental Internet. A survey of about 20 girls in South part of children’s and young people’s lives. Africa, aged 16 to 17, confirmed this. Many Furthermore, as the functions are beginning to of the girls reported that their opportunities merge, the boundaries between chat rooms, to go out at night were restricted due to discussion forums, gaming, email, instant safety concerns; while kept at home for their messaging and social networking sites are protection, they are often participating in chat ceasing to have validity. Children move through rooms with numerous people unknown to them these environments without constraint, and in the physical world.129 The increased usage of electronic service providers offer all types of
22 Child Safety Online content within a single domain to capture larger countries in Europe, and for both girls and boys shares of the market. Facebook, for example, of all ages, the popular forms of Internet use are offers one-to-one chat and online gaming; looking for information on interesting topics, social networking sites, such as Netlog, give browsing for fun and playing online games.137 users the option to make their MSN Messenger And for many young people in the Republic ID publicly available. of Moldova, the Russian Federation and Ukraine, communicating through email, instant Mobile phones are now used to access the messaging and voice over the Internet is a part Internet, text message, instant message, email, of daily life.138 exchange images, take photos, and download music and videos – encompassing all the In Brazil, social networking has been found to functions that were previously available only be the favourite online activity for 80 per cent on a computer. Internet connectivity means of children and adolescents, followed by instant that online access is no longer limited to those messaging.139 And in 10 cities in India, nearly times when children and young people are all the girls and young women responding sitting at a computer. Rather, they have the to a survey identified school research as capacity to be connected when on the move, their primary use of the Internet, followed by in physical contact with friends, at night in entertainment.140 The pattern persists across all their rooms, at school and during all waking socio-economic categories and cities. hours. This merged environment has profound implications for the nature of risk, vulnerability EU Kids Online research in 2009 found that and potential harm. across the 21 countries studied, boys are generally involved in a wider range of online activities and have different preferences to Key message girls, particularly in types of downloads and gaming activities. Boys tend to go online for Many activities previously undertaken entertainment and are drawn to action games via computers in fixed locations are now and sports; girls usually access adventure, party and mind-challenging games, engage in self- being done on mobile phones with Internet expression and surf the Web for educational connectivity. When children have access purposes. Compared to boys, girls are more likely to use email, instant messaging and blogs; to such phones, parents are less able to publish photos of themselves; and access a 141 monitor their children’s activities, introduce wider range of user-generated content. filtering or blocking mechanisms or control the degree of access to the Internet. Online chat and social networking Probably the biggest change in the way people communicate has been brought about by the It is difficult to obtain an accurate and emergence of social networking sites, online comprehensive representation of activity utilities that allow users to create profiles and patterns across different groups of children and form networks of friends. There are several in different regions. However, the ITU’s 2008 social network sites, and their popularity varies global survey identified some general patterns across the world: Facebook and Twitter are that indicate, for example, greater use of the popular in the United States and Europe, Orkut Internet by children aged 5 to 14 for education in Brazil and India, QQ in China, VKontakte in the and playing games than among other age Commonwealth of Independent States and the groups, and heavier use for communication Russian Federation, and hi5 in Latin America. among youth (aged 15 to 25) and the general population.135 The visibility of a user’s profile (basic information about the user, often including a Children and young people are major users and picture) varies by site and according to her or creators of web content, although a significant his discretion. Sites such as Myspace allow gender gap exists, with fewer young females users to choose whether they want their profile engaged in these activities. In the United States, to be public or ‘friends only’. Facebook takes a 2006 survey of 12- to 17-year-olds found that a different approach; by default, anyone with girls were more likely than boys to post photos a Facebook account can view other people’s or to write blogs and online journals, and boys profiles, unless a profile owner has decided to were more likely to post videos.136 Across all deny permission.
Child protection in the online/offline environment 23 registered;145 the top five countries are the Key message United States (155 million users), Indonesia (40 million), India (38 million), Turkey and the Social networking sites and other online United Kingdom (both 30.4 million).146 The forums deconstruct traditional boundaries number of Facebook users in India grew by 10 million between April and November 2011. of privacy. They create a situation in which children engaged in ‘chat’ or ‘conversation’ In the United States, 73 per cent of teenagers online in 2010 used social networking websites, in the apparently private space of their up from 55 per cent in 2006.147 Also in 2010, it own rooms can expose themselves, was estimated that 10.5 million people aged 13 to 17 were using Facebook, representing wittingly or unwittingly, to an unknown 11 per cent of the total usage.148 In India, the worldwide audience. Warning signs 13 to 17 age group represents 12 per cent of all Facebook users; the total male-to-female user that can serve to protect children in the ratio is 72 per cent to 28 per cent.149 In Brazil, the physical world are largely absent online. number of Facebook users reached 30 million by December 2011, of which 54 per cent were male and 46 per cent were female; 13 per cent were aged 13 to 17.150 In early 2011, VKontakte These services allow people to come together had more than 100 million users registered online around shared interests or causes. It across the Russian-speaking world, though it is can be argued that social networking sites unclear how many are children.151 have radically challenged our understanding of territorial networks. Traditionally, it had For children, and for young people in particular, been estimated that in industrialized societies, the peer group is enormously important and the average social network comprised around can explain the enthusiasm and speed at which 150 individuals, and that once established, it they have exploited and pushed the boundaries tended to change little over time.142 With social of virtual social networks. Children must be at networking sites, social success and status least 13 to register with social networking sites are often defined in terms of the breadth of such as Bebo, Facebook or Myspace, yet there networks, resulting in an interest in seeing has been widespread concern about enforcing them grow.143 this age limit – even though social networking sites have introduced safeguards to prevent Furthermore, within the culture of openness young children from joining.152 promoted by social networking sites, it can be socially awkward to refuse when an offer of A 2010 report found that 19 per cent of children friendship is made; it is sometimes easier to in the United Kingdom aged 8 to 12 who used accept, irrespective of whether that person is the Internet at home said they had a Facebook liked or known by the recipient of the request. page or profile, 11 per cent said they were on Thus, one’s ‘friends’ on social networking sites Bebo, and 4 per cent on Myspace; 25 per cent may comprise people only met online and of this age group had a profile on at least one loosely connected contacts on the periphery of these three sites, up from 15 per cent in of a person’s life as well as close longstanding 2008.153 Across the European Union, 59 per cent friendships. While this does not mean that of children aged 9–16 have a social networking children cannot or do not differentiate within profile, with the percentage increasing as they personal relationships, it does mean that get older, from 26 per cent for age 9 to 10 to there can sometimes be no formal distinction 82 per cent for age 15 to 16.154 between online ‘friend’ relationships in terms of access to personal information, postings or In response to young children’s attraction to types of communication. social networking, a growing number of sites are being designed specifically for them, and These sites have proved to be enormously some are adding protection mechanisms. popular with young people. Since their Habbo Hotel, for example, has 162 million introduction in 2003, the participation rate registered avatars and provides automatic has grown at phenomenal speed. Facebook, blocking of personal information and offensive launched in 2004, is one of the most popular language – along with police-vetted supervisors networking sites, with 774 million users who are online 24 hours a day and can globally as of December 2011.144 Europe has the offer referrals to a child protection agency most Facebook users, with 219 million people or specialist.155
24 Child Safety Online Social networking sites are increasingly viewed Another survey suggests that 25 per cent of by children and young people as an integral MMORPG players are under age 18.161 part of their social lives. They are redefining the way relationships are conducted, changing the concept of friendship, and facilitating high levels Blogging of interaction and information exchange about every aspect of daily life. Research shows that Blogs became popular in the years immediately these sites provide children and young people following the turn of the century. Typically, they with emotional support as well as far greater combine text, images, and links to other blogs, opportunities for social exchange than are web pages and media related to their topics. available to them in traditional social forums. Since 2006, blogging in the United States has dropped among teenagers and young adults In a 2006 survey in the United Kingdom, young significantly, while simultaneously rising among people described the key attractions of social older adults. In the United States, networking as facilitating social relationships, 14 per cent of teenagers who went online in providing an economical (free) means of 2009 said they blog, compared to 28 per cent communication, access to entertainment such in 2006.162 Where teenagers are engaged in as humour and games, and allowing a means of blogging, they do not appear to have a high expression not available offline.156 In addition, level of interaction with strangers and are they said that social networking encourages unlikely to be exposed to pornographic or abuse creativity, enables choices and opinions to images or to be sexually solicited.163 There may be informed by peer preferences, facilitates be a greater risk, however, of online harassment discussion of matters that are hard to handle among young people who use blogs because face-to-face and provides a platform for self- of the prevalence of peer-to-peer interaction; expression with the network as the audience.157 little data are available on such activities among The Internet has also become a vital link for young people outside the United States. lesbian, gay and transgender youth who might otherwise be isolated.158 However, filtering classifications are often insensitive to non- Twitter heterosexuals, creating greater restriction for such groups and increasing vulnerability in their Up to now there is little evidence to suggest search for social contacts and information. that children and young people have embraced Twitter, a social networking and microblogging service that enables users to send and read Online gaming other user messages called ‘tweets’, on a significant scale. A survey conducted in 2009 Online gaming has grown enormously during in the United States indicates that participation recent years. Most gaming platforms, including rates increase during the teenage years but, personal computers, the latest generation of on average, only 8 per cent of children aged game consoles and mobile phones, offer online 12 to 17 were using Twitter. Older teenagers connectivity. Games can range from simple use Twitter more than younger teens: some text-based to those incorporating complex 10 per cent of 14- to 17-year-olds compared to graphics and virtual worlds populated by many 5 per cent of 12- and 13-year-olds. Among high- players simultaneously. These are known as school-aged children, girls are more likely than Massively Multiplayer Online Role Playing boys to use Twitter, at 13 per cent and 7 per Games (MMORPGs). Many online games have cent, respectively.164 associated Internet communities, making them a form of social activity. Twitter’s drawback for young people appears to be that it is less secure, more public and too The online element of gaming is still relatively condensed. The public nature of Twitter may new, but its popularity is increasing with serve as a disincentive to younger users, either Internet access and readily available broadband because they wish to hide their activities from technology and is predicted to expand their parents or because their parents may dramatically during the next few years.159 wish to restrict their access to strangers on the Research in the United Kingdom indicates that Internet. Furthermore, social networking sites video games are among the top favourite online already offer children the opportunities for activities for children and young people across communicating with their peers, and Twitter all age groups. Console access increases with provides no added value. Also, teenagers age; among boys aged 11 to 16, some 34 per largely use social networking sites for cent have online access via a games console.160 communication with friends, whereas Twitter
Child protection in the online/offline environment 25 is mainly used to broadcast ideas or questions Electronic communication and children’s and answers to the outside world, and for usage are constantly changing – and children professional purposes and marketing – needs are active agents in that process. Adults are not felt by most teenagers.165 not always able to translate their ‘wisdom’ in understanding the nature of risks faced by children offline into successful strategies Chapter 4: Risk, to protect them, or help them to protect themselves, in the online environment. vulnerability and harm Second, it assumes that responsible adults understand the risks and are well equipped to While there is a growing body of evidence on educate and advise children on their nature. the nature of risk for children and young people In fact, many adults know little about the risks online, it is necessary to differentiate between associated with the Internet and the extent activities perceived as risky and the possible to which those risks lead to potential harm, harm associated with those risks. A child may especially if they themselves are not regularly take or encounter risks, but not experience online. Adults commonly lag behind children abuse or harm. Levels of harm are significantly and young people in understanding the new lower than levels of risk. Many children, for forms and opportunities for communication and example, may place personal information are therefore inadequately informed, not only as online, which many adults might characterize to what their children are doing online, but also as risk-taking behaviour, but only a minority are to the risks that they might encounter. likely to experience any consequential harm. Third, children are not merely victims, they As regards the Internet there is no easy line to have expertise in their own behaviours, what be drawn between activities leading to benefits places them at risk, how they act to protect and those leading to risks.166 It is important to themselves and how they can contribute to the recognize that there are developmental and safety of their peers. Conversely, they can be cultural benefits for children and young people actively engaged as perpetrators and abusers in their taking certain risks, and efforts to create online. External protection in such forms as risk-free environments can bring unintended laws, regulations, law enforcement, filters and negative consequences. In many industrialized reporting mechanisms is still evolving and countries, for example, considerable investment needs to be developed in partnership with has been made to reduce risks in recreation children and young people in light of their and play through such things as soft surfaces, own concerns and experiences in using the safety rails, and strengthened health and online environment. safety regulations. These measures, however, have restricted children from playing as Given the rapidly growing scale of usage they might wish, and an overly risk-averse and the centrality of online communication culture has led to a prohibition of children in children’s and young people’s lives, it is climbing trees or swinging on swings without important to understand how they behave onerous risk-assessments undertaken by online, the types of behaviour that can place supervising adults.167 them at risk, how they perceive and understand the potential risks to which they may be An analogy is sometimes made with teaching exposed, if there are certain children who may children to cross the road.168 It is necessary both be more at risk than others, and whether any to create a safe environment with speed limits, conclusions can be drawn about the potential safe crossing points and speed bumps and to degree of any consequent harm (this last is educate children in the behaviours they need to developed further in Part Two). adopt in order to avoid accidents. The child can then be introduced gradually to greater degrees of independence overseen by responsible Behaviour and activities adults. In the context of communication technologies, however, this analogy has carrying potential risk of harm significant limitations. To date, the research available on risk-taking First, it assumes a relatively static and behaviours derives predominantly from Europe familiar environment in which parents can and the United States, where, overall, the teach their children a concrete set of skills. degrees of risk seem positively correlated with But the Internet is not a static environment. levels of usage. In other words, the more that
26 Child Safety Online children use the Internet, the more likely they In addition to the studies from Europe and the are to encounter risks. United States, research on young people’s usage and behaviour online has been In their study of online activity in the European conducted in Australia, Bahrain, Brazil, Nepal, Union, Sonia Livingstone and Leslie Haddon the Philippines and South Africa. From the of EU Kids Online have provided a useful evidence to date, it appears that most young classification of the risk and behaviours from people who use the Internet are doing so in the perspective of children, which can be similar ways, particularly in respect to the summarized as: role of social networking sites in their lives. The studies reveal a remarkably common Content – child as recipient of general pattern of social activities, perhaps indicating information such as advertising or spam; that factors relating to child and adolescent violent, gruesome or hateful content; development are more significant than pornographic or harmful sexual content. social or cultural dimensions as the driver of In this context, the child has no active role online communication. in the process. Merely by being online through the computer or mobile phone, There is not yet sufficient evidence, however, to she or he receives content that has been provide clear indications as to whether the risks disseminated widely and opportunistically; associated with these activities are the same or this content is not targeted to reach that have the same implications for children across particular child, he or she simply happens different regions of the world. In many African to ‘stumble across’ it. and Asian countries, for example, widespread poverty and weak state structures undermine Contact – child targeted as participant in social and legal protection for children and one-on-one activity by another child or enhance potential victims’ vulnerability.170 an adult, e.g. being bullied, harassed or Children in poorer countries who have access stalked; tracking or harvesting personal to the Internet may be particularly vulnerable information; unwelcome persuasion or to online solicitation because their economic encouragement to commit self-harm; situation may pressure them into accepting being groomed online for sexual abuse an ‘offer’ that includes payment. So far, the offline or being sold online for sexual evidence of grooming and solicitation mainly abuse both online and offline; being made comes from the industrialized world, but this the subjects of child abuse images; being may be an artefact of the available research and abused through prostitution, using the patterns of policing. Internet and mobile phones to contact their abusers; or being targeted to engage in cybersex. Key message
Conduct – child as actor initiating abusive The nature and patterns of online activity or risky behaviour, e.g. creating or seem to be broadly similar across different uploading pornographic material; bullying or harassing another person; sharing regions of the world. As they gain access personal information online; downloading to the electronic media, children and young sexually abusive images of children or placing images of themselves or other people of similar ages are making use of young people online; making ‘friends’ and engaging in comparable activities. known only online. In this context, it is the child who is the initiator of risk-taking or What differs is the nature of risk and harm in 169 abusive behaviours. the context in which young people access It is necessary to distinguish between these and participate in those environments. different forms of activity. First, there are some online behaviours that involve solely the child or young person, for example, choosing to download adult pornographic images. Second, Furthermore, although there are some data children can and do willingly share personal disaggregated by age, gender and socio- details and images, not only among individual economic status, there remains scarce friends, but also in the public domain on social knowledge of how children are behaving on the networking sites. This information can trigger Internet for many groups, including children the attention of potential abusers. with disabilities; gay, lesbian and transgender
Child protection in the online/offline environment 27 young people; and children in rural or to ‘private’. The study also found that young urban communities. people aged 14 to 18 were more likely to place personal data online than those aged 11 to 13.176 Personal information can also be Placing information and posted by someone else. For example, ‘tagging’ as a means of linking individuals to their images online digital photos, locations and events is now a widespread practice and children do not need Children and young people commonly place permission from the concerned third parties highly personal and detailed information (although the person who is tagged does have and images of themselves on their ‘page’ on the option to remove the link). social networking sites. What they consider acceptable to post varies among cultures. Online gaming sites pose new and additional risks for children. For example, children or Research in the United Kingdom discovered young people who are in contact with anyone that children’s perceptions of what constitutes through a social networking site profile must personal information may not correlate with ‘friend’ the newcomer, and before doing so the perceptions of adults. A 2009 study in the have the opportunity to scan the newcomer’s United Kingdom, involving 1,800 children aged profile. They may look for personal data, 11 to 16, found that while some children would photos, or the existence of common friends withhold telephone numbers and addresses, or networks. By contrast, when accessing they would readily post pictures of themselves or posting information on an online gaming in their school uniforms. More than one third site or a chat room, children and young of young people say they have shared their people only have access to the most basic age and email address with someone they only level of information or no information know online, and more than one in five have whatsoever about other players. In other shared their full name, where they go to school words, on social networking sites, most and photos of themselves.171 young people are interacting with friends within a given network, whereas on gaming Another United Kingdom survey of 695 communities they are communicating with secondary school pupils found that around a complete strangers.177 quarter of the respondents had either disclosed personal information online or had sent images Significant numbers of young teenagers to someone they met online.172 The study of 1,800 are uploading visual representations of children found that girls use social networking themselves that are sexual in tone without sites and instant messaging more and are completely understanding the perpetual somewhat more inclined to post personal nature of any image or video that is information and engage with strangers than distributed online – or the ways in which these are boys.173 In Brazil, recent evidence indicates can be subsequently accessed and exploited that 46 per cent of children and adolescents by adult audiences for the purposes of sexual consider it normal to regularly publish photos gratification. In a survey of young people online, 30 per cent believe it is normal to publish in Nepal, 11 per cent claimed to have talked their full family name, and 34 per cent think it is about sex with people they did not know, 36 common to share private information about their per cent said they had done or said things daily online and offline habits.174 over the Internet that they would not normally do or say, and 5 per cent admitted to exposing A study from the United States found that themselves through a webcam.178 up to 80 per cent of children had posted their photographs online, and 93 per cent of In some places, children and young people children listed their home town.175 However, are going beyond merely placing information the same study revealed that only a small and images of themselves online. In Denmark, minority (5–11 per cent) would post more Norway and Sweden, for instance, websites sensitive information such as their telephone have been created that solicit male and female number. Recent research among 2,600 young teenagers to film themselves and submit people aged 7 to 18 in Bahrain indicates that the images to these sites. The teens are young people there commonly place personal enticed by promises of financial reward or the information online and had little understanding ‘opportunity’ to have their images judged and of the concept of privacy. A significant number awarded points by the website visitors; these have their social networking site profile set websites have reportedly drawn in hundreds to ‘public’ with no knowledge of how to set it of thousands of users in Scandinavia.179
28 Child Safety Online Online chat with ‘strangers’ The limited evidence from developing countries points to similar patterns. In Nepal, a recent The most recent EU Kids Online survey found survey by ECPAT International reveals that that a significant proportion of children and 26 per cent of girls and 73 per cent of boys young people say they have contact with admitted to giving out personal information someone online who they did initially know to people online they did not know. Sixty per offline, ranging from 19 per cent of respondents cent also claimed to have met virtual friends in aged 11 to 12, to 23 per cent of those aged 13 to person, of whom 15 per cent reported having 14 and 33 per cent for the 15 to 16 age group.180 had a bad experience in doing so.186 In Brazil, Research in Brazil indicates that 32 per cent of despite a majority in one survey indicating they children and young people online have more had learned about online dangers (60 per cent), than 30 ‘friends’ that they only know online.181 nearly half of the girls said they would meet offline with someone they had met online.187 In According to a survey of a representative another Brazilian survey, 11 per cent claimed sample of 8- to 19-year-olds across the United to have already met someone in person who Kingdom, 27 per cent of young people have they had met online, 90 per cent of them doing become acquainted with someone online whom so alone. In the same group, 42 per cent said they have not met before in person. This most that they had a friend who had already met frequently happens via social networking sites; someone under those circumstances.188 91 per cent of children aged 14, for example, who had met someone online said it occurred By contrast, research in South Africa found via a social networking site.182 The study also that girls are using chat rooms as a substitute found that of the 27 per cent of children who for face-to-face interaction, which has been had met someone online, 28 per cent went on restricted by their parents ostensibly for their to meet that person face-to-face. Broken down own protection from violence and risk in the by age, 15 per cent of 8-year-olds, 15 per cent their local environment. As a result, the girls are of 12-year-olds, 25 per cent of 14-year-olds and spending hours in their bedrooms in chat rooms 37 per cent of 17- to 19-year-olds met an online with large networks of people, usually unknown acquaintance in person. to them in the real world. The content of the ‘chat’, however, is generally characterized by the In another study in the United Kingdom, it girls as advice sharing and gossip.189 was reported that as many as 24 per cent of 695 students polled had met someone offline Surveys conducted in 2000 and 2005 in the who they only knew previously from online.183 United States with samples of around 1,500 While the circumstances of such meetings or children aged 10 to 17 reveal some changing whether they occurred with parents’ consent patterns in experiences on the Internet. The are unknown, such behaviour has the potential number of children using the Internet to chat, to place children at risk of abusive behaviour. email or instant message with strangers There is little reason to believe that children in decreased from 40 per cent to 34 per cent. the United Kingdom are unique in respect to Similarly, the percentage of respondents saying this behaviour. they had formed close friendships with people they met online declined from 16 per cent to In a survey of 2,600 young people in Bahrain, 11 per cent. There was also a considerable 43 per cent admitted to having met with an decline in chat room use; from 56 per cent to online contact whom they had not known 30 per cent (although this trend may reflect the before in person.184 This research also indicated fact that social networking sites are more often that children in public schools were more including a chat function).190 likely than those in private schools to meet people online whom they had not met offline. It was also found that unwanted sexual Specifically, girls in public schools appeared solicitations decreased since the first survey, to take greater risks than their counterparts from 19 per cent to 13 per cent. This decrease in the private education sector. The research seems partly due to young people being more also revealed that there is a growing pattern cautious about interacting with strangers of young girls interacting with boys online, online, with fewer talking face-to-face to people behaviour that is restricted in the offline they did not know. Regarding solicitations, environment. In this context, the risks 41 per cent took place when children were not associated with this behaviour may result from alone, indicating that they are more likely to discovery by parents; in April 2010, there were engage in risky behaviour within the apparent seven confirmed suicides as a consequence of safety of a group of friends. Nonetheless, fear of, or actual, extreme parental reactions.185 awareness of dangers on the Internet appears
Child protection in the online/offline environment 29 to have grown among young people in the ●● Fifteen per cent of cell-owning 12- to United States, and that this may be behind their 17-year-olds said they had received changed behaviour.191 sexually suggestive nude or nearly nude images of someone they know via text It would be helpful to have a better messaging on their cellphone. understanding of how such changes have come about – whether as a consequence of external ●● Older teenagers were much more likely messages and information provided by adults to send and receive these images. about the risks, the imposition of boundaries from parents, exposure to media coverage ●● Eight per cent of 17-year-olds with of high-profile cases of abuse and danger, or cellphones had sent a sexually the internal networking and communication provocative image by text and 30 per mechanisms among groups of young people cent had received a nude or nearly nude themselves. It would also be interesting to image on their phone. Focus group find out whether there is an evolutionary discussions suggest that sexually explicit process at work. It may be possible that the images are being forwarded to others, first generations of children and young people for example, ex-boyfriends sharing experimenting with technology and the online the images with their friends, which environment were pushing its boundaries could explain the difference between without the benefit of experience regarding its the percentages of those who send and implications. Subsequent cohorts may learn receive these images. from their peers, older siblings and others about the consequences of these behaviours and begin ●● Teenagers who pay their own phone bills to evolve new codes of behaviour, protective are more likely to send ‘sexts’; 17 per strategies and greater understanding of privacy. cent of teenagers who pay for all the costs associated with their cellphones send sexually suggestive images via text, Exchanging images via mobile but just 3 per cent who do not pay for or only pay for a portion of the cost of the phones cellphone send such images.193
Texting has become an increasingly common Other surveys from the United States indicate practice among teenagers during recent years. higher rates. One study from 2009 showed Of growing concern to many parents, teachers that one in five of 13- to 19-year-olds had and professionals working with young people, sent a sexually suggestive message or nearly at least as reflected by evidence from the United nude photo,194 and another that 24 per cent of Kingdom and United States, is the extent to 14- to 17-year-olds reported they had “been which more and more teenagers are using their involved in some type of naked texting.”195 A phones as a means of sexual communication, 2009 Internet survey in the United Kingdom exploration and sharing. In particular, concern of more than 500 children aged 9 to 13 has focused on ‘sexting’, the creating, sharing found that: and forwarding of sexually suggestive nude or nearly nude images by teenagers. ●● Twenty-seven per cent of children said that sexting happens regularly or all the time. A 2009 survey of 800 young people in the United States, aged 12 to 17, found that there are three ●● Forty per cent said they had friends who main scenarios for sexting: exchange of images took part in sexting. solely between two partners in a romantic relationship; exchanges between partners that ●● Fifty-six per cent were aware that images are shared with others outside the relationship; had been distributed further than the and exchanges between people who are not yet intended recipient although only 23 per in a relationship, but where at least one person cent felt that this was done to cause hopes to be.192 The survey found that: upset.196
●● Four per cent of 12- to 17-year-olds who This research does not provide a breakdown own mobile phones said they had sent of the data by sex or age, but clearly indicates sexually suggestive nude or nearly nude that, overall, young people are well aware images of themselves to someone else via of the concept of sexting and a significant text messaging. proportion is actively engaged in the practice.
30 Child Safety Online In Latin America, there is no directly in more violent and extreme forms, in live time comparable available data, but the SaferNet and on demand. Brasil survey indicates that 22 per cent of all participants (aged 10 to 17) said that they were ‘flirting online’ and another 12 per cent had Key message already sent ‘sensual’ pictures of themselves either by cellphone or posted online.197 Information communication technologies have created an environment in which Constructing avatars access to pornography has become relatively easy. Many sites display extreme Another emerging Internet phenomenon is the growing number of sites where the user can forms, which are accessed, intentionally construct an avatar, a self-rendered, digital or unintentionally, by countless young representation of the user and, in many social networking sites, the fundamental avenue people. There is, to date, limited evidence by which virtual identities are presented to on the implications of exposure. others. Avatars provide an opportunity to present oneself in whatever guise is desired and are widely adopted in a number of online games such as World of Warcraft, the An almost certainly new phenomenon created Sims and Habbo (the latter being aimed to by the Internet is the degree of unwanted teenagers and having more than 100 million exposure to pornography. Prior to the Internet, avatars as of 2008).198 it was unlikely that young people would come across pornography without actively seeking it There is limited research available on the out. The evidence on exposure to both wanted extent to which young people engage in and unwanted images indicates that levels of constructing avatars or the implications when both experiences are consistently high, though they do, although there are indications that patterns vary in different countries. avatar choices may affect the nature of online interaction. A survey in the United States of girls Although a number of studies document aged 14 to 17, for example, found that those prevalence rates of children’s exposure to who presented themselves provocatively in pornography, a degree of caution is necessary terms of body and clothing choices were more in interpreting the data, partly because of likely to engage in higher rates of disclosure inconsistent definitions of pornography. If and to have had online sexual advances. The nudity in any form is viewed as pornography, survey results also indicated that adolescents for example, prevalence rates are likely to be who had experienced high levels of online higher than a study that defines pornographic sexual advances were more likely to agree to content as a more explicit representation of offline meetings and, in some cases, girls were sexual activity. These differing definitions aware of the potential sexual nature of the may apply not only across countries, but also offline meeting.199 across communities or groups within a country. Additionally, the age of children involved in the studies is not consistent, making it impossible Exposure to pornography to draw meaningful comparisons. Finally, in societies where sexuality is openly discussed, A great deal of concern has been expressed in children might be more likely to admit having the media about the extent to which the Internet viewed nudity.200 provides increased access to or exposure of children and young people to pornography. Overall, surveys seeking information on The growth of Internet usage has undoubtedly exposure to nudity or pornography might be transformed the experience of both wanted and influenced by the nature of the subject, which unwanted access. In the past, young people’s is generally sensitive among adults and even (predominantly boys) access to pornography more so among teenagers. However, with the would have been limited primarily to magazines qualifications noted above, it is possible to that provide static images. The pornography gain a preliminary understanding of the levels to which children can be exposed online is of exposure. of a fundamentally different nature to that previously generally available. Not only is it far In a telephone survey of a nationally more readily accessible, it is available on video, representative sample of 1,500 boys and girls
Child protection in the online/offline environment 31 aged 10 to 17 conducted in the United States, contact was cited as the primary disadvantage in 2005, 42 per cent of the respondents stated of using the mobile phone by two thirds of that they were exposed to online pornography the girls.206 However, as the next section within the past year; of those, 66 per cent discusses, such unwanted exposure to sexually encountered unwanted exposure. Teenagers in explicit messaging could be also interpreted general, young people who had been harassed as harassment. or sexually solicited online or bullied offline, and borderline or clinically depressed teenagers In Pakistan, Internet penetration remains were more likely to experience unwanted relatively limited but is spreading to small exposure. Rates of wanted exposure were towns, where children can access it through higher among file-sharing programme users Internet cafes that have individual workstations who downloaded images and teens who talked for each computer terminal, which is commonly online about sex to people they had not met enclosed in a wooden or cardboard cubicle offline, accessed the Internet at friends’ homes to afford the web-surfer some privacy.207 A or were inclined to be rule-breakers. On the survey conducted there found that 50 per positive side, the risk of unwanted exposure cent of boys who responded had accessed to pornography was reduced by filtering and pornographic material, usually in an Internet blocking software, and by attendance at an cafe, while more than 80 per cent could name a Internet safety presentation conducted by law pornographic website.208 enforcement personnel.201 A survey in Nepal involving 1,430 boys and A study supported by the Council of the girls aged 12 to 18, from both public and Baltic Sea States – which drew evidence private schools in Bhaktapur, Kathmandu from a questionnaire responded to by 20,000 and Lalitpur Districts, also indicated high young people around 18 years old in Estonia, levels of exposure to pornography. Again, Lithuania, Norway, Poland, the Russian the majority of the young people were Federation and Sweden – found high levels accessing the Internet in cybercafes. More of use of online pornography, although there than two thirds of respondents said that they were wide differences between countries had come across sexually explicit images or and between boys and girls. Around 25.1 per films online. Of those who had encountered cent of Norwegian boys said they accessed pornography, about 35 per cent had done so pornography on a weekly basis, compared with intentionally and nearly 20 per cent reported 10.4 per cent of those in Lithuania. Among girls, that they viewed such materials on a regular the levels were far lower, ranging from 0.3 per basis. Pornographic images are downloaded cent in Norway to 1.7 per cent in Lithuania.202 In onto mobile phones or pen drives and a separate survey of more than 4,000 children distributed among friends. Thus, younger aged 14 to 17 in the Russian Federation, nearly boys who have not accessed the Internet have 80 per cent of the 16- to 17-year-old participants nonetheless viewed pornographic material indicated that exposure to pornography on their friends’ or brothers’ ICT devices. The was a risk for young people associated with respondents observed that, even if they had the Internet, but it is not clear from the data no intention of visiting pornographic sites, whether this was a perceived risk or one they they encountered pop-ups when downloading had actually experienced.203 music or on other non-pornographic sites. They also received junk email with In Brazil, the SaferNet survey revealed that pornographic images.209 31 per cent of 10- to 17-year-olds had received sexually explicit images or films.204 A 2010 Findings of a study involving learners aged study of online behaviours of thousands of 13 to 17 in schools in Cape Town, Durban children aged 9 to 16 across Europe found that, and Johannesburg revealed that 64 per cent overall, 14 per cent said they had seen sexual of students reported that they had seen images online during the past 12 months; the pornographic images on the Internet, with percentages increased with age and were 70 per cent inadvertently connecting to somewhat higher for boys than girls.205 In India, pornographic sites, mainly through pop-ups one third of 10,000 girls and young women and typing search words while surfing.210 A who responded to a survey reported having columnist’s study of Internet cafes in Ghana received obscene calls or messages on their noted that they were full of 13- to 17-year- mobile phones. The pattern varied across olds during school break times and after cities, with nearly 75 per cent of girls from school, using their pocket money to pay for Bhubaneswar and 65 per cent from Hyderabad browsing the Internet where they are exposed having received such calls. This kind of to pornography.211
32 Child Safety Online In 2005, the Republic of Korea reported or intended to harm, occurs repeatedly and growing complaints about online pornography involves an imbalance of power that prevents and stated that “young Internet users are the victim from challenging or ending the increasingly exposed to pornography, whether behaviour.216 Typically, it might take place face- they wished to see it or not. The rise in the to-face on route to or at school. However, ICTs number of complaints is said to be due now provide new ‘opportunities’ for children largely to the popularity of peer-to-peer sites, and young people to bully others. In survey where Internet users can share personal after survey, children identify this as a serious files without having to go through an age issue, even if, in Europe at least, more bullying authentication process.”212 still takes place offline than online.217
The 2008 IYAC Global Online poll found that Based on research with children, bullying while 10.2 per cent of respondents perceived online – cyberbullying or online harassment – coming across inappropriate content as a is an important issue for them. Bullying online threat, 42.6 per cent said they had actually or ‘cyberbullying’ can take different forms, experienced it.213 including threats and intimidation; harassment or ‘cyberstalking’, such as repeatedly Many young people tended to attribute their sending unwanted texts or instant messages; unwanted exposures to letting their guard vilification and defamation; exclusion or down, for example, explaining that the incident peer rejection; impersonation; unauthorized happened because “I spelled a word wrong,” publication of private information or images; “I guess I wasn’t being careful,” “I was not and manipulation. Bullies can also engage in clear enough doing the search,” “I was dumb taking what are sometimes referred to in the enough to click on the link” and “I didn’t read UK as ‘happy slapping’ images, acts of physical the information underneath the link.” In other or sexual violence filmed and then uploaded words, they appear to be blaming themselves.214 and disseminated. However, some unwanted access may be a consequence of operators of pornography websites who make deliberate attempts to lure Key message young people to them through aggressive and unethical marketing of online pornography, Cyberbullying is a major concern for through pop-up and banner ads, spam, many children and young people. malicious software, spyware, advertising- supported software, ‘pornware’, malicious From the perspective of the bully, it is installers, hijacking and unauthorized links. relatively risk free because it can be Pornography may be so pervasive that done anonymously and at a distance, almost any kind of search might dredge it and lacks sanction or supervision. up. Technological changes may also account for the increase, including higher capacity Cyberbullying can also involve a lack of real of computers to receive, store and transmit awareness of the severity of its impact. images; the size of hard drives and the amount of memory they have available for storing data; digital subscriber lines that enable high- speed transmission over standard phone lines; and such applications as digital photography, webcams and streaming video.215 That said, A number of characteristics of online it is important to recognize that much of the technologies facilitate abusive or harmful research was undertaken a number of years ago activities.218 Unlike in the physical world, and that many of the major search engines have electronic bullies are able to remain virtually since become more sensitized to the problem anonymous, using temporary email and now include more sophisticated screening accounts, pseudonyms in chat rooms, instant and filtering mechanisms to limit the likelihood messaging programmes, cellphone text of such unwanted access. messaging and other Internet venues to mask their identity. This anonymity appears to lead to fewer constraints and inhibitions, and Bullying and harassment thwart supervision over bullying behaviour.219 It may also take less effort to act hurtfully Bullying has traditionally been defined as a child in cyberspace than when face to face with a being the target of behaviour that is harmful potential victim.
Child protection in the online/offline environment 33 While some cyberbullying is clearly deliberate or threatened. Of the total respondents, 41 per and aggressive, sometimes it is unintentional cent told a friend about experiencing abuse, and the result of simply not thinking about 28 per cent did not tell anyone, 24 per cent the consequences. Behaviours experienced told a parent, and 14 per cent told a teacher. as bullying by the victim are often not The survey suggests that some young people recognized as such by the perpetrator; the may be reluctant to report such abuse because online environment sometimes serves to they fear that their parents will take the phone desensitize young people to the consequences away.222 These findings were similar to those of their behaviours.220 What may be sent as of an ECPAT International report in 2005, which a joke may not be received as one, and the pointed out that children were concerned that distance technology allows in communication disclosing bullying might result in losing access means the sender may not see the impact of to their phones or computers.223 the message on the receiver. There is also less opportunity for either party to resolve any However, although cyberbullying is highlighted misunderstanding or to feel empathy. as an issue of considerable concern to children and young people, some larger more recent Cyberbullying allows bystanders to become studies suggest that actual prevalence rates perpetrators by passing on or showing others are lower than those reported in earlier images designed to humiliate, or by taking part surveys. The nationwide Australian Covert in online “polls” or discussion groups with Bullying Prevalence Survey in 2009, for similar intent. They may not recognize this example, found that rates ranged from 4.9 per behaviour as bullying, but it may nevertheless cent of students in Year Four (aged 8 to 9) cause harm to the recipient. There is conflicting and 7.8 per cent in Year Nine (aged 13 to 14) evidence from different parts of the world of the reporting cyberbullying.224 A meta-analysis levels of bullying and harassment of children from European Union countries in 2011 found taking place online, but research repeatedly that 6 per cent of 9- to 16-year-olds reported indicates that it is an important issue for experiencing cyberbullying, with a nearly equal significant numbers of children. A 2008 study representation of boys and girls.225 undertaken in the United States analysed the responses of 1,378 adolescents under age 18 In Brazil, a 2009 online survey with a nationally about cyberbullying victimization and offending representative participation of 2,525 boys and and found that: girls aged 10 to 17 indicated that more than 48 per cent had a friend who was victim of ●● Almost 33 per cent of the boys and more cyberbullying, 30 per cent expressed a fear than 36 per cent of the girls reported that of being cyberbullied, and 7 per cent had they had been a victim of cyberbullying, themselves been a victim at some time.226 predominantly through chat rooms. Recent research in Bahrain found that children aged 7 to 18 reported that cyberbullying was ●● Some 18 per cent of the boys and almost a major problem, particularly in private as 16 per cent of the girls admitted to taking opposed to public schools, and this concern part in cyberbullying, again primarily through was reaffirmed as a serious issue by teachers.227 chat rooms. The ‘Digital Manifesto’ published by the United Kingdom-based Children’s Charities’ Coalition ●● No statistically significant differences on Internet Safety underscores the fact that of appeared among perpetrators or victims in the recognized risks to children on the Internet, terms of race or gender. Boys and girls as “the most prevalent form of problematic well as white and non-white children were behaviour online that children and young equally likely to engage in or suffer from people have to face is bullying.”228 cyberbullying.221 Evidence on the behaviours of girls and boys According to a 2005 United Kingdom survey is inconsistent. Some studies have found of 770 youths aged 11 to 19, 20 per cent of that girls are more likely to bully, others have respondents revealed that they had been bullied found the opposite. A United Kingdom 2008 via electronic means. Almost three quarters survey of 2,094 secondary school pupils on stated that they knew the bully, while 26 per behalf of Beatbullying found that there was cent stated that the offender was a stranger. an equal division between boys and girls, but Additionally, 10 per cent of respondents that they tended to adopt different ways of indicated that another person had taken a bullying.229 This survey also revealed that a picture or video of them via a mobile phone, significant number of children had both bullied which made them uncomfortable, embarrassed and been bullied online and that cyberbullying
34 Child Safety Online incorporated considerable social interaction developing countries – common themes can be not intended to be or not interpreted as acts of extracted from the data available to date: bullying by young people. In other words, much behaviour reflects a lack of awareness about the ●● Cyberbullying is a significant concern for nature of bullying and a lack of understanding children and young people. as regards its consequences. ●● Unlike traditional bullying, cyberbullying The same survey indicated that in relationship is not limited by time or space and can to persistent cyberbullying, the risk was be anonymous. more prevalent among certain traditionally ‘vulnerable’ groups of children. Minority ethnic ●● Many children do not consider such groups were found to be more vulnerable than behaviour as saying hurtful things or sharing white British. Nearly one quarter of young humiliating images to constitute bullying people (24 per cent) from ethnic groups, because it took place online rather than face- including Roma, Traveller of Irish Heritage, to-face. European and East European, were persistently cyberbullied compared to 11 per cent of those in ●● Cyberbullying can rapidly draw in a the ‘white British’ category. Young people who larger audience than is ever possible with described themselves as ‘mixed’ (19 per cent) offline bullying. or ‘Chinese’ (15 per cent) were also more likely to be persistently cyberbullied. The majority ●● Cyberspace is a domain that offers both (62 per cent) of those children who were being public interaction and perceived anonymity. persistently cyberbullied said they experienced This creates greater opportunity for young it as an extension of offline bullying. These people to engage with their peers, often findings lend weight to the ‘migration theory’ doing things they would not do in person according to which bullying tends to originate and attempting to do so under the cover of a in traditional settings and then follow the username (the ‘public’ name used to identify victim online.230 each person online, and required for access to networks and services, but not necessarily The relationship between bullying and being related to the individual’s given name). bullied is complex. A 2008 study in the United States found that respondents who had already ●● Cyberspace widens the opportunity for a experienced offline bullying or problems greater range and intensity of bullying and at school were more likely to experience can create an environment in which victims cyberbullying, both as a perpetrator and a of child-on-child violence may also be harder victim. Equally, those respondents who bullied to reach. others or were bullied offline during the past six months were 2.5 times more likely either to cyberbully or be cyberbullied.231 Perceptions of risk, vulnerability and harm Evidence from the United States also confirms high risks among already vulnerable groups and suggests that high levels of How children and young people cyberbullying are experienced by lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender young people. define risk STOPtechNObullying.org, for example, cites department of health statistics that 54 per cent Adolescence is a period in life when risk- of young people in these groups have been taking behaviour tends to be more common. subjected to such abuse. Furthermore, there The extent to which this takes place, however, appears to be a sense of helplessness among varies across cultures. In many industrialized the victims: 49 per cent said that their parents countries, in particular, adolescents may engage would not believe the abuse happened, 55 per in socially disapproved behaviours that entail cent thought that their parents were unable to risks to their long-term well-being.233 The online do anything about it, and 25 per cent felt that medium provides different opportunities, and they had to deal with cyberbullying alone.232 consequences, for such risk-taking behaviour. Information and communication technology Although the data reveal varying and creates far wider access to information, sometimes contradictory results – and there exchange and social contact. It also affords the are currently significant gaps in research, for capacity for self-producing erotic material, such example, on the prevalence of cyberbullying in as images and video, participating in sexually
Child protection in the online/offline environment 35 themed chat and engaging in sex acts while and adults were engaging in sexually explicit using webcams. These behaviours may not be conduct with their ‘chat-mates’ and were perceived as risky by young people themselves, used as a forum for widespread consumption, although parents and other adults in their lives voluntarily or involuntarily, of pornographic may very well see them as perilous. materials by children and young people.237 In Brazil, many adolescent girls said that there It is also important to recognize that when it were no risks in accessing the Web at home comes to being online young people are likely or in a cybercafe, but others perceived a to have a different definition of a ‘stranger’ than wide range of dangers, including cellphone their parents. Young people do not consider theft, passwords or online profiles being those they have communicated with online over copied, illegal drugs, rape, kidnappings and time as strangers; instead they view them as shootings.238 Both studies, however, pointed to their online or virtual friends.234 Hence, young the fact that young people feel safer in public people are often willing to share information places when they are with people they can trust or talk to people who are only known online. and who can protect them. Educational messages that warn children about the risks associated with meeting strangers may In a survey undertaken by SaferNet Brasil, therefore be skewed. with 1,502 students aged 10 to 17 participating, the top two major risks of being online were In the physical world, a range of barriers – perceived as data or identity theft (65 per geographical constraints, parental supervision, cent) and encountering violent/adult content law enforcement, the physical persona or cues (56 per cent).239 In a study in India with 10,000 of a potential ‘friend’ – serve to protect children girls and young women aged 14 to 21, nearly from abuse or provide warning triggers. In the two thirds reported fraudulent use of personal virtual world, these barriers are absent. The information as a potential consequence of many mechanisms that have been developed online use, while others named access to to safeguard children in the offline environment pornographic sites, harassment and misuse are absent or not fully implemented in the of webcams in cybercafes. They also reported online world.235 pop-up sites as being potentially harmful and identified webcams at cybercafes as dangerous, with the possibility of their Children’s overall level of photograph being taken during a webcam perceived vulnerability online chat session and later passed around; only a very small percentage, however, had personal Children and young people’s perception of knowledge of actual instances of such harm.240 their vulnerability to harm is related to the In South Africa, in a survey of more than context in which they experience the online 900 teenagers, 73 per cent stated that they environment. A survey on online safety and recognized that exposure to pornography can security undertaken by the IYAC found that be harmful, with 13- and 14-year-olds more nearly 52 per cent of respondents reported concerned about negative effects than those that they felt safe online and able to cope with aged 15 to 17.241 threats or nuisances. Computer viruses and spyware (software that allows users to retrieve Internet use can give the appearance that the information covertly from another person’s person online is safe and in control. But some hard drive) were perceived to be the biggest young survivors of Internet-related abuse have threat online, selected by nearly 38 per cent of likened the experience to a staircase where each respondents.236 In much of the lower income step leads to new dangers – and the normal world, however, cybercafes are the primary warning signs to alert the young person to the route through which many children and young increasing risk, such as the age of a ‘friend’, are people access the Internet. These environments absent. Based on work with children in Sweden pose additional forms of risk and potential harm. who have experienced Internet-related abuse, Children who rely on Internet cafes are likely Anders Nyman has identified the following to identify it as an environment where they are steps to potential harm: exposed to unregulated pornography, a lack of any filters or blocking mechanisms and where, in ●● Revealing personal data, such as name, some cases, cafe owners provide private rooms passwords, phone number, address or for customers to engage in sexual activity. special secrets;
A study in the Philippines found that some ●● Chatting about sexual matters with an Internet cafes were venues where children unknown person;
36 Child Safety Online ●● Uploading or sharing sexually suggestive or ●● Exposure to an unwanted audience – young explicit pictures of oneself or one’s friends; people felt visible to a large audience that was unknown to them. ●● Becoming involved in live webcam sex with an unknown person; ●● Unfamiliarity with people they are connecting with – some young people found ●● Dating someone offline who was met online; it difficult to foster trusting relationships online with people they did not know offline ●● Knowingly dating adults offline who were and were concerned because they could not met online; authenticate the identity of those they were communicating with. ●● Sending pictures for payment; ●● Exposure to unwanted information such as ●● Posing live on the webcam or having pop-ups and banners.245 webcam sex for payment; It is not clear, however, how far these concerns ●● Dating offline someone met online and actually influenced their behaviour. Most users having sex for payment; stated that they would continue to use social networking sites regardless of whether the ●● Offering sex offline and online for sites dealt with reported abuses unless they payment.242 directly experienced a serious problem. They further stated that they were willing to overlook In a 2006 consultation with boys and girls potential risks because of the numerous aged 10 to 15 undertaken by CEOP, the general benefits of social networking sites, their perception was largely that ‘other’ groups of dependency on interacting through these sites young people were at risk but not themselves. and the inconvenience of creating new profiles. In particular, the respondents felt that ‘weak’ The majority felt that they could adequately or ‘vulnerable’ children – particularly young, protect themselves online.246 inexperienced users and girls – were most at risk of victimization.243 Girls aged 10 to 14 in Overall, there are widely differing perceptions the Brazil survey pointed to a broad range of among children and young people about the potential online dangers, including child abuse, dangers associated with the Internet. Although harassment, deception, threats, violence, the dearth of comparative research makes it paedophiles, videos and blackmail. But they difficult to ascertain how these differences had a much more limited view of the risks they arise, they seem to relate to the availability themselves faced, identifying only people not of information, awareness of safe-reporting being who they say they were, photos being mechanisms and location of use. Internet spread around and false social networking cafes, for example, are likely to present site pages.244 greater risks along with the likelihood that, in the countries where children are reliant In a survey by CEOP on risk-taking, young on Internet access through cybercafes, there people in the United Kingdom did identify is less regulation, opportunity for reporting downsides associated with social networking problems, parental awareness and, in many sites, which most of them had experienced. cases, overall investment in building a They had a reasonably high level of awareness protective environment. of potential risks associated with information sharing. As reported by the survey, their concerns included: Parents’ perceptions of risk and vulnerability ●● Insecurity of information – younger users felt that information they posted on sites, In many industrialized countries, there is a particularly ‘private’ images and personal high level of anxiety about children’s Internet information, was not secure, confidential and activity among parents, and the perceived ‘gets put on the Web’. level of risk appears to be increasing. In a 2006 Eurobarometer public opinion survey across the ●● Pressure to share information – many said European Union, 18 per cent of parents said that they often felt compelled by other group their child had encountered illegal or harmful members to hand out personal information, material online, but 66 per cent felt that their especially email addresses, when they did children would know what to do if faced with a not feel comfortable in doing so. situation that made them feel uncomfortable.247
Child protection in the online/offline environment 37 The 2009 Eurobarometer survey found that well The extent to which these strategies are applied over half of parents who had a child aged 6 to 17 may generally be culturally determined. Nordic were worried about their child seeing explicitly parents, for instance, tend not to fret about sexual or violent images online, being groomed their children’s online behaviour, possibly or being bullied. Parents were worried more because they have a less hands-on approach to about girls and younger children, despite the monitoring the Internet or greater confidence fact that boys and older children take greater in their children. Danish and Swedish parents risks in online conduct, largely through seeking are less likely to keep track of their children’s out pornographic content, giving out personal Internet use than parents in Germany, Greece, information or meeting someone offline that Ireland, Italy, Portugal, Spain and the United they have met online.248 Kingdom.252 In Southern Europe, parents tend to adopt more restrictive approaches, and in parts Research in the United Kingdom, published of the Middle East the conventional view is that in December 2009, found that parents were parents should be very controlling. In Yemen, consistently more anxious than their children for example, education specialists maintain that about the degree of risk. For example, parents should ensure that their children use 47 per cent of parents with a child aged 12 to 17 scientific and educational websites only and were worried about their child being exposed that parents should keep constant vigilance over to inappropriate contact on the Internet, and their children’s Internet use, beginning from an 42 per cent worried about inappropriate or early age, as they believe that children cannot harmful content. For children in this age distinguish between right and wrong and may group, the figures were 30 per cent and be unduly influenced.253 9 per cent, respectively.249 There is considerable variance between those The EU Kids Online research, however, paints parenting models that place more reliance on an even more nuanced picture, with perceptions children’s own resilience and competence to of risks that children may encounter on the act safely and protect themselves and those Internet being similar between children and that see the necessity for protection exclusively their parents. This level of agreement, however, provided by adults. The challenge for those appears to apply only where children have not who place the emphasis on protection by actually encountered such risks: 40 per cent of adults is whether in reality such a model can parents whose child had seen sexual images be effective in the context of the fast-changing online said that he or she had not seen such online environment, especially where parents images, and 56 per cent of parents whose child lack understanding of the Internet and the role had received nasty or hurtful messages stated it plays in their children’s lives. Conversely, that their child had not received these types the challenge for those who place trust in their of messages.250 children is ensuring that this trust is well placed and that children are socially and technically Parental approaches to mediating children’s empowered and supported to be able to look activity online vary significantly across cultures. after themselves and others. Parents throughout Europe, for example, adopt a range of strategies to protect their A significant disparity exists between children, including: children’s and parents’ reporting of the extent of parental mediation, with children ●● Imposing rules and restrictions on access, consistently reporting that it is lower than such as limiting the hours of usage or claimed by parents. The ITU, for example, moving computers used by children out reported in 2009 that 92 per cent of parents of their bedrooms and into communal state they have established rules for their areas in the home, where parents and children’s online activity, yet 34 per cent of other family members can observe their children say their parents have not.254 Of online behaviour; the respondents to the IYAC global online poll, 74.4 per cent said they had no parental ●● Engaging with their children by restrictions regarding forbidden sites or sharing online experiences, talking and time spent on the Internet. Additionally, watching together; 40.5 per cent stated that what they did online was rarely discussed and of little interest to ●● Introducing barrier technology such their parents, but 30.5 per cent said they were as filters and monitoring that create open about the sites they frequented and boundaries on the sites that children regularly discussed their concerns with their can access.251 parents or guardians.255
38 Child Safety Online Where parents monitored online behaviour, Key message nearly 39 per cent of children claimed to favour their parents’ intervention and understood their motivation, whereas Placing personal information online is 28 per cent saw such parental controls as a becoming normal behaviour among young lack of trust.256 In the 2010 Voices of Youth survey, 68 per cent of respondents said that people. The research evidence, however, their parents did not restrict their Internet is that it is willingness to communicate with usage. Of the 32 per cent who had some restrictions, most accepted their legitimacy.257 unknown individuals rather than the placing More recently, the EU Kids Online survey of information per se that leads to harm. found a growing number of children who talk with their parents when upset by something that has happened online, although there is a significant difference in what they are willing to discuss: 25 per cent of children As described above, the placement of personal who were bothered by seeing sexual images material on social networking sites is commonly online discussed the experience with identified as risk-taking behaviour. There is, parents, but 42 per cent of those affected by however, considerable debate about the issue online bullying discussed it with their father of placing information online. It can be argued or mother.258 that posting personal information online is becoming normal behaviour.261 Basically, if a young person is not posting personal Vulnerability to sexual information, peers are not going to regard an SNS page as lively or interesting. They may solicitation even regard the child as being a little odd or stand-offish. Putting information online is part Children and adolescents are not simply of the cultural mix and therefore commonplace the targets of adult Internet creations; they and the majority of young people do not appear are active participants in creating their to be harmed by it.262 Research from the United own cybercultures.259 The Internet is a States, for example, has found that there is little useful tool for children and young people evidence that the placement of information or who are developing their sense of identity, images online itself leads to harm; this research including testing out their sexuality. They suggests that harm occurs only in the context are able to search out relevant sources of of other forms of online risk-taking behaviour.263 information and to discuss their emerging In other words, it is not the placement of sexuality anonymously. material but the willingness to communicate with unknown individuals responding to that Although sharing information online, information that has the potential to place a including sexualized material, has become child at risk. commonplace behaviour for young people, and the risks of having potentially Other evidence from the United States suggests dangerous contacts offline are perceived that most teenagers there have a fairly clear by many children as real, they seem to understanding of the potential dangers be able to deal with these risks and avoid online. The risks they take appear not to be being harmed.260 But it is certainly possible a consequence of innocence, but rather that that many children and young people are as they get older they become more sexually operating on the Internet with concepts curious and experimental. Whereas in the of boundary and privacy derived from past, the expression of this behaviour would the physical world, which cannot and take place in the physical world, the Internet do not apply in the online environment. now offers new and exciting opportunities to Behaviours that would not expose them explore online. It is the isolation and secrecy to risk in the physical world can take on of these contacts, without oversight by peers different implications when shared online. or family that can lead to relationships quickly For example, sharing your name, address, intensifying and transferring to face-to-face telephone number and photo with a group contact. The challenge in many of these of friends at school is very different from relationships is neither innocence about posting that information on the Internet sex nor that they involve violence or force. where potentially it can be accessed by a But rather, they draw young people into wide audience of unknown people. premature sexual engagement with persons,
Child protection in the online/offline environment 39 including sexual abusers, with whom they phenomena have led to new terms in the want a romantic relationship – without having literature surrounding violence against children the maturity to understand or handle such in cyberspace, such as compliant victimization relationships safely.264 and self-sexual exploitation.270
Few studies have been carried out regarding The degree of risk for potential abuse can be the number of children who are abused compounded by the fact that abusers who use through grooming online. One Swedish study new technologies are resorting to different examined the number of 15-year-olds across strategies to silence or co-opt children. The the country who had received requests for abuser may show them images of other children sexual online meetings and offline encounters. being abused in order to normalize the activity, Of the 7,500 respondents,265 48 per cent of the show them the children’s own images, and girls and 18 per cent of the boys claimed that encourage them to place images of themselves they had received such a request from an adult, online, or encourage them to introduce their including requests to strip or to watch an adult friends or be proactive in abusing other masturbating in front of a webcam. These children. These strategies serve to make victims incidents were reported as common, that they feel responsible for their own abuse and less happened constantly when using chat sites, and likely to seek help because they fear they will be that the adult would make requests for such seen as complicit and positively engaged in the activities at the onset of the conversation.266 abuse activities.271
In the same study, police reports of crimes Overall, the publicity about online ‘predators’ against children committed via new luring innocent children through lies about age technologies were examined. Fifty per cent or gender misrepresents the overall picture of the reported crimes only occurred online, of online predatory behaviour. Rather, the mostly involving requests for images or for evidence indicates that Internet sex crimes webcam contacts; the other reported crimes involving adults and children are more likely to were committed offline, but contact was fit a model of statutory rape – involving adult established on the Internet. In half of the offline offenders who meet, develop relationships with crimes, the victim met with the perpetrator and openly seduce underage teenagers, rather knowing that the meeting would lead to than a process of forced sexual assault, age sex; the remainder were crimes where the deception or paedophilic child abuse. This is victim thought that the meeting would be of a a serious issue and one that requires different completely different character.267 approaches from current prevention messages, which emphasize parental control and the In another study about online grooming in dangers of divulging personal information.272 Sweden, involving more than 100 girls who had gone on to meet men offline, all knew they Thus far, the research findings as to which were meeting the man in order to have sex, children are particularly vulnerable to online although none of the girls would admit to being grooming or solicitation provide mixed fully aware of what this would imply. It appears messages. Some evidence points to particular that something in the chat conversations with groups of children being vulnerable as a the girls made the perpetrator aware that they consequence of difficult socio-economic had vulnerabilities, ranging from loneliness to circumstances or because they have already suicidal thoughts.268 experienced sexual abuse or exploitation. Other contributory factors include alienation Examinations of computers and mobile from parents, low self-esteem and lack of phones that belonged to offenders in the confidence. Gender is also relevant, with more United Kingdom have identified changes in the girls than boys appearing to be harmed through manner in which some victims engage with online communication, although boys are their abusers. Young people have sometimes beginning to feature more often in child abuse required the minimum of grooming and have images online.273 themselves been sexually ‘upfront’ with their contact, holding conversations in which they Extreme poverty is likely to be a factor are quite explicit regarding sexual matters.269 encouraging children to respond to sexual In other cases, there appears to be little solicitation, particularly when combined with evidence of sexual inhibitions on the part of the likelihood of parents’ lacking the information the young person. Victims often report that and understanding of the online environment they found their online ‘friends’ to be normal necessary to offer effective guidance, support and felt that they knew them. These emerging or protection. In South Africa, for example, it
40 Child Safety Online was found that there was some indication that through a range of social networking sites, chat children without adult supervision, like those rooms and online gaming.279 living and working on the street, are particularly vulnerable to online sexual exploitation.274 As There is increasing evidence from criminal has already been described, children using investigators and those assisting children who Internet cafes – which are an important access have been abused online with their recovery point for poorer children – can be exposed that there is no typical victim and that the most both to a more sexually explicit, unregulated striking thing about children abused online is environment and to direct approaches by men their heterogeneity. This finding aligns with using pornographic sites in the cafes. what is known about the perpetrators and victims of sexual abuse offline: perpetrators Vulnerability cannot be reduced to economics come from all walks of life, and their victims are alone, and research in Brazil points to the a similarly heterogeneous group, often related importance of considering social factors or well known to their abuser. as well. Girls from favelas (low income neighbourhoods) – who appear to become Research by Tink Palmer in the United more sexualized at a younger age than their Kingdom appears to confirm these findings. peers in private school – were more likely to In her study of young women aged 14 to 15 socialize with older age groups, whom they years who had been victims of grooming, perceived as raising their social status, and to none could be perceived as vulnerable in their engage in risky behaviour with little regard for offline world. They came from stable families immediate consequences. Whereas the middle- reflecting a wide range of socio-economic class girls attending private school tended to circumstances, were of average or above have computers and cellphones at home and intellectual ability, had no physical or mental lived in an environment where they described disabilities or history of mental disturbance, their activities online as being focused to some enjoyed the company of their peers and extent on education, the girls in the favelas cited were seen as capable students within their using the Internet to visit sexually oriented sites school settings. Despite the lack of offline and to meet boys.275 vulnerability indicators, they became online prey to males and took risks that led to all of A 2007 study in South Africa found that exposure them being abused online, and in the case of to online contact with predators was more likely half the sample, offline as well.280 to occur when children’s self-esteem is low and they are in need of comfort. Abusers detected There is also increasing evidence that risky these signs and manipulated the child as part of behaviours online tend to commence with the grooming process.276 It also found that the the onset of puberty. All of the girls in children most likely to be involved as subjects in Palmer’s study, for example, began their on- the production of child abuse images were those line relationships with predatory men when who had formed an established relationship they were 12 to 14 years old. This would im- with an abuser as well as those who lacked ply that some children may be more vulner- supervision.277 A 2004 survey conducted by able to online risks during particular stages of UK Children Go Online found that children and their development.281 teenagers who had online skills but were less satisfied with their lives than other young people, felt more confident online than offline and were Key message more likely to give out personal information, seek personal advice, make friends online and go to The risks associated with the online 278 offline meetings with these new friends. environment are different based on the Research from the United Kingdom and other socio-economic status of children and industrialized counties points to a complex their families. Poverty can serve as a pattern in which individual vulnerability is not neatly associated with measures of deprivation. driver to respond to approaches from A CEOP analysis of children who had been predatory sexual abusers for financial victimized online found that some children had already been sexually abused offline (lending gain, but middle-class children from well- credence to the ‘migration’ theory discussed off backgrounds can also be vulnerable. previously), while others shared no apparent negative prior life circumstances and appeared to have been randomly targeted by offenders
Child protection in the online/offline environment 41 Potential impact for rape victims and to ingrain gender stereotypes.284 There appears to be consistent There is only limited evidence to date evidence that exposure to or consumption regarding the impact of online behaviours. Our of pornography, particularly violent understanding of the damage of sexual abuse pornography, is linked with male aggression on children’s emotional and psychological well- towards women.285 being, for example, has grown rapidly during the past 20 years; yet corresponding knowledge Questions have been raised as to whether on how children are affected by online sexual Internet pornography influences how abuse remains sparse.282 A consideration is boys view girls, and their expectations or whether the effects are different for children assumptions about girls’ bodies and how girls when they are victims of sexual abuse in which should behave sexually. A growing demand the new technologies are the conduit. From among young women for vaginal surgery, for our current knowledge, the traumatic nature of example, has been linked to their boyfriends’ sexual abuse per se does not change if a child expectations of ‘normality’ as defined through has been sexually abused online. Instead, it their online experience of pornography.286 takes on a new dimension, partly because of There is anecdotal evidence of abusive the very nature of the Internet – for example, behaviours associated with Internet exposure the fact that images may remain online for to pornography among children. In Cambodia, perpetuity – and partly because children for example, two boys in their early teens were become far less inhibited in what they say and reported to have raped a 7-year-old girl in 2003 do online than they tend to be offline and may after seeing a pornographic video.287 A study therefore feel that they are responsible for of young people aged 14 to 19, conducted placing themselves in harm’s way (this topic is in Italy, found an association between using considered more fully in Part Two). pornography, sexually harassing a peer or forcing someone into having sex.288 Other studies show that some users and traders of Impact of exposure to pornography child abuse images are under age 18 or in their early adulthood.289 The impact of exposure to Internet pornography is not clear from the evidence available to date, Examples exist of children creating but some researchers have expressed concern pornographic images of themselves and that exposure to online pornography during disseminating them in cyberspace.290 In adolescence, given that it is both quantitatively 2003, in Australia, 90 per cent of 101 children and qualitatively different from most other under age 10 and attending a hospital child- sources of access available to teenagers, may at-risk assessment unit for sexually abusive lead to a variety of negative consequences. behaviour were reported to have had regularly These may include undermining accepted social seen sexually explicit images online.291 In values and attitudes about sexual behaviour, New Zealand two studies of adolescent earlier and promiscuous sexual activity, sexual boys referred for treatment following their deviancy, sexual offending and sexually arrest for possession and distribution of child compulsive behaviour. abuse images reported that half the sample said they first used the Internet to view Several factors will influence how pornography adult pornography.292 affects children and young people. Individual characteristics such as age, gender, levels Recent developments in understanding trauma of parental involvement and the emotional and other stimuli on the brain development state of the viewer at the time of watching of children and young people have some are all relevant. In addition, the character and relevance to the debates on children’s exposure circumstances of exposure will have influencing to pornography. Work undertaken by Norman effects. Thus, the amount of time spent viewing, Doidge states that the brain is not ‘hardwired’ whether the young person is alone or with but can change its own structure and function others and the cultural environment in which through thought and activity. He suggests that she or he lives are all likely to determine the the neuroplasticity of the brain leads to brief use, impact and meaning of pornography.283 windows of time, including puberty, when new brain systems and maps develop with the High levels of usage of pornography by help of stimulation from the people in one’s children and young people have been shown environment and that this needs consideration to desensitize them to violence and sexually when measuring the impact of pornography aggressive acts, to diminish their sympathy on adolescents.293 Clinicians appear to be
42 Child Safety Online dealing with growing numbers of cases of impact may be greater. In Nepal, for example, young adults concerned about their viewing 39 per cent of surveyed 12- to 18-year-olds of pornography. In recent years, cases of reported being shocked when they first young men (aged around 20 to 22) have arisen encountered sexually explicit materials.297 that require assistance due to inappropriate In addition, many are using Internet cafes, sexual expectations regarding their partners where they are exposed to other users viewing or inappropriate behaviours relating to pornography, which can cause them extreme pornography viewing within the family home.294 distress. The lack of filtering and blocking mechanisms in many cybercafes increases There is little adequate research on children the risk of unwanted exposure. Other research or adults regarding the effects of unwanted or in Nepal found that 92 per cent of cybercafes unexpected exposure. What research has been allowed visitors to browse any website they done relates largely to voluntary and anticipated wished, even though 39 per cent of users exposure. The nature of the potential risk are under age 19.298 However, 67 per cent of with inadvertent exposure is that the material cybercafes in Nepal did block adware and received may be inappropriate, distressing pop-ups. Among 13- to 17-year-olds who and disturbing for the child. The degree of responded to a questionnaire in South Africa, harm will depend on how frequently they are 52 per cent reported that, when coming exposed to such images; whether they receive across pornography online, they looked at the them when alone or with groups of friends; the images before exiting the site, and 38 per cent environment in which the child receives such reported that they were ‘not bothered’ by the images, for example, whether at home or in an pornographic images they came across.299 Internet cafe; and how extreme or unpleasant However, 73 per cent agreed that watching the content is to the child. It will also depend pornography has harmful effects on people, on the extent to which the child feels able to arguing that it exposes children to something control the online environment to limit their they are not emotionally ready for and indirectly exposure to such images. encourages them to become sexually active at a young age. Younger children (aged Exposure to unwanted pornography appears 13 to 14) felt more strongly about the possible to have varying effects in different cultural harmful effects.300 environments, with children in more socially conservative cultures being more negatively Overall, young people report comparatively affected. Studies in the United Kingdom and low levels of concern when faced with the United States, for example, found that the unwanted pornography, but it is possible majority of young people do not appear to be that it has a greater impact on some young particularly upset by exposure to unwanted people than voluntary exposure. Some may sexual images, possibly because many are be psychologically and developmentally inured by high-level exposure to related images unprepared for unwanted exposure, and online in other contexts such as magazines, films images may be more graphic and extreme than and television. pornography available from other sources.
Ven-hwei Lo and Ran Wei, in their 2005 study of Exposure to adult pornography can form Taiwanese adolescents, found that 38 per cent part of an abuser’s repertoire of tactics for had some exposure to pornography online grooming children online. By introducing the and that this was associated with greater child to adult pornography, the abuser seeks likelihood of sexually permissive behaviours to lower the child’s inhibitions about sex, and acceptance of such behaviours.295 In the including inhibitions the child might have about EU Kids Online survey of 9- to 16-year-olds being used to make pornography. There is in 25 countries, 32 per cent of those who had often a progression from ‘mainstream’ adult encountered unwanted sexual images online pornography to hard-core pornography and reported being upset by the experience. There on to encouraging the child to view abusive was some variation across countries, however, images of children. Grooming in these with the percentage of children who said circumstances has two aims: to desensitize they were disturbed by these images ranging the young person to sexual activities that may from 15 per cent in Greece and Slovenia to become increasingly abusive; and to feed the 49 per cent in Estonia and Turkey.296 groomer’s fantasies of introducing a child to this material, while encouraging the child to In developing countries, where children develop masturbatory fantasies fuelled by the and young people may have less exposure images. Adult pornography is also used by the to pornography in the physical world, the abuser as a way of demonstrating ‘preferred’ or
Child protection in the online/offline environment 43 fantasized sexual activity to the child and as a difficulty with academic performance and demonstration of the activity the child is being emotional distress.305 groomed to perform. Young people harassed online are more likely than traditional victims of bullying to Impact of cyberbullying have social problems, leading to general psychological distress and poor psychosocial An abundance of research has been undertaken adjustment. As a study from the United States regarding the harmful effects of bullying on found, 31 per cent of victimized students children.301 Targets of bullying will commonly reported being ‘very or extremely upset’, experience distress, anxiety, confusion, anger, 19 per cent were ‘very or extremely afraid’, insecurity and lowered self-esteem. In addition, and 18 per cent were ‘very or extremely they may have somatic symptoms as well embarrassed’ by online harassment. The study as physical injuries.302 Children may suffer highlighted that cyberbullying contributed to academically, possibly as a consequence of school failure and dropping out, increased poor attendance at school or because their depression and anxiety, and in some rare psychological reactions prevent them from instances led to suicide.306 A different study learning or concentrating at school. found that young people who harass others online are more likely to have problems with Cyberbullying has the potential to harm in breaking rules and aggression.307 profound ways. Physical bullying usually takes place when the child is in a public space and More recently, a study across 25 countries exposed to other children. The existence of of the European Union found that, although cyberspace and the fact that many children the actual levels of cyberbullying were low, it keep their mobile phones on constantly means is widely experienced as harmful, with only that public space is redefined to invade the 15 per cent claiming not to have been at all child’s home and gives the bully potential upset by the experience. However, there are access 24 hours a day. Because the child has no considerable variations by gender and socio- place to escape, the sense of intimidation and economic status: 37 per cent of girls report vulnerability is therefore significantly enhanced. being ‘very upset’, compared to 23 per cent of boys; and 42 per cent of children from lower Furthermore, the possibility of the abusive socio-economic households said they were very information being distributed through social upset when cyberbullied, compared to networking sites and other platforms means 22 per cent of those in the high socio- that countless people can have access to the economic group.308 There is also evidence hurtful, abusive or insulting messages being that cyberbullying, as with traditional forms sent, causing the victim a far wider sense of of bullying, hurts both the victims and bullies, humiliation and exposure. Electronic bullying with neither performing well in school because may therefore be more damaging to children’s of lower self-esteem, personal insecurities and emotional development and well-being than a heightened sense of paranoia that prevents traditional bullying. There is a greater power them from concentrating in the classroom. imbalance, with victims sometimes not knowing their bully’s identity, and with the Overall, it is clear that cyberbullying is a bully having an all-pervasive reach in both significant issue in the lives of some young space and time.303 people. While all forms of bullying can be damaging for children, the nature of the A Youth Internet Safety Survey conducted in experience in cyberspace or via mobile 2005 found that 38 per cent of 10- to 17-year- phones increases the potential for harm olds in the United States who experienced as it can infiltrate their daily lives without cyberbullying reported feeling distressed by allowing refuge. the incident. Among the survey respondents, pre-adolescents, those who were victims of aggressive harassment offline (such as Chapter 5: Sources receiving telephone calls or being visited at home by the harasser), and those who were of support and help harassed by adults were significantly more likely to report being upset.304 There is also a growing understanding that, like traditional Children and young people use a range of bullying, it can negatively affect the students’ strategies to protect themselves online. In functioning at home and at school, including general, young people report that they usually
44 Child Safety Online turn to an online or offline friend for help, the incidents among their friends, but barely block unwanted messages or change privacy 10 per cent were aware of the proper authority settings. A comparison of representative to report cybercrime.314 surveys conducted among children in Ireland, Norway and the United Kingdom found that the frequency of exposure to perceived online Key message risks, especially regarding content, is fairly high, but most children adopt positive strategies to Children and young people frequently do deal with the situation. They may seek help not see their parents as the first resource to from friends or, more commonly, use neutral strategies such as ignoring the experience. A turn to if they experience online abuse. They minority exacerbate the risks through actions often feel their parents do not understand the such as passing on sexual or violent content to friends.309 world in which the abuse arises. Yet evidence from the industrialized world indicates that The 2011 EU Kids Online study found that 64 per cent of 11- to 16-year-olds said they informed and actively engaged parents know how to find safety advice online or how who share Internet experiences with their to block messages from those they do not want to contact; 56 per cent are able to change children are the strongest protective factor privacy settings themselves and compare for ensuring a safer online experience. websites to judge quality and 51 per cent are able to block spam.310 Research among young people in Bahrain found that the majority of children took action to protect themselves by Parents are not the primary source of help for blocking unwanted approaches or information, many children. Although young people in some or by closing the Web window.311 Overall, they countries say they would turn to teachers and were reluctant to seek adult help, emphasizing parents, others state they would not seek help a strong preference to keep their Internet from these adults because they have even less activities private. understanding than young people themselves and therefore would not be in a position to help. In research in Ireland, Norway and the United Key message Kingdom, most strategies adopted by young people tended to exclude adult involvement.315 Children are less confident about keeping Across Europe, there may be wide disparities safe in countries where Internet safety in the numbers of children who would turn to their parents for help. For example, 28 per cent information is not widely available. of parents in the Netherlands and 24 per cent of parents in the United Kingdom who participated in the 2008 Eurobarometer survey said that their children asked for help when contacted According to one survey, Brazilian teenagers’ by a stranger online, found sexually explicit advice to other young people included declining images or were bullied or harassed, compared to add strangers to friend lists, blocking to only 3 per cent in Bulgaria, Cyprus, Italy and unwanted ‘friends’ and being careful what Portugal.316 These differences may correlate clothes are worn when opening a webcam.312 with the extent to which their parents are The list of advice that South African girls had online themselves and therefore have an for their peers, as documented in another understanding of the context. survey, included: do not give personal information to anyone you met online, do not The IYAC global survey supports the findings send pictures of yourself, tell someone you of other studies by showing that as many as can trust if somebody threatens you or uses 40 per cent of children do not discuss their abusive language.313 activities online with their parents.317 It is worth noting that research conducted among There seems to be less knowledge on how to adolescents and youth who experience keep safe in countries where Internet safety problems connected with alcohol or drug information is not widely available. In a survey use or with reproductive health issues also of girls and young women in India, for example, state that they would turn first to their friends those who were aware of incidents of misuse before seeking out parents and specialists – of photos and videos on the Internet reported adolescence tends to be a developmental
Child protection in the online/offline environment 45 stage that involves exploratory behaviour unprepared and unable to protect themselves. and pulling away, to a degree, from parents. Instead, it finds that accurate, comprehensive The lack of primacy given to parents as a information and guidance on how to assess and source of help may well be consistent with reduce the risks enables children to understand similar patterns associated with other forms the benefits of the Internet, take a critical of risky behaviour or exposure to potential view of what they see and browse safely. In risk or harm among young people. Whatever other words, parental fears that the Internet parents may wish, some adolescents do not will expose children to sexual abuse in social want adults ‘interfering’ in their social space networking sites can result in children not and interactions online. However, additional receiving “the information they need to behave explanations of why parents are not looked safely and sensibly online,” which may lead to to for protection from online harm include ignoring the more frequent dangers of using the children’s beliefs that their parents do not Web.323 Dialogue and communication seem to understand the world in which the abuse takes provide the best protectve environment. place, their fear of having mobile phones taken away or Internet access restricted, threats by the abuser, or shame and humiliation.318 Key message
Nevertheless, research also suggests that many Messages from an exclusively adult children and young people would like parents perspective about the need for protection to be more involved. For example, the IYAC survey cited above also found that 30 per cent and the nature of risk are likely to fail. of respondents said they spoke openly and Children are unlikely to have a positive regularly with parents and guardians about sites they visited and their concerns.319 Children’s response to messages that fail to address or exclusion of parents seems not to inevitably take account of their perspectives. Messages derive from reluctance for their support, but rather recognition of limited parental capacity need to be informed by evidence from young to provide support effectively from the child’s people themselves as to the nature of risks perspective.320 Research among girls in Brazil found that they expressed “a clear desire to and their experience of vulnerability. have parents more involved in monitoring their actions on-line, providing advice and helping them determine what is safe and unsafe.”321 Research by Chang-Hoan Cho and Hongsik The SaferNet Brasil survey found that John Cheon reveals that it is not simply parents’ 50 per cent of respondents have no parental Internet knowledge and skill that enables them limits on their Internet access, but almost to positively influence their children’s online 52 per cent of those who did have parental activities, but rather it is both the quality and limits reported that they accepted such quantity of emotional bonding and shared monitoring because they knew that it was for Web activities.324 Parents’ engagement and their own safety. The survey also found that family cohesion are the keys. The importance 39 per cent of respondents only block and of the family is further reinforced in research report when they experience some harm or undertaken by Mia Lorenz and Julia Davidson, aggression online, 22 per cent ask parents for which found parental advice to be more help, and nearly 14 per cent simply turn off the effective if there is a close parent-child computer and try to forget what happened. relationship.325 Research findings in the United Only 23 per cent identify the family as one of Kingdom, in 2009, also suggest that young the primary sources for learning more about people are more willing to learn about digital cyberspace safety, well behind the media, which technology use via friends, family and trial and was cited by 48 per cent of young people as error326 – again affirming the importance of their major source of information about online strong parental support and information-giving risks and safety; 21 per cent said that they had in the provision of Internet safety advice. never searched for this kind of information.322 In various studies, young people report that Emerging evidence has shed light on effective they would tell the police if there were a ways for parents to protect their children. serious assault or attack offline. In the United Research from London University’s Institute Kingdom research, young people stated of Education, for example, asserts that blanket that they would also utilize online reporting restrictions on Internet use leave children facilities to seek help.327 Respondents to the
46 Child Safety Online Voices of Youth survey in 2010 indicated that online behaviour. Particularly for younger they knew the police had access to all sites children, while the programme did raise their for surveillance purposes and were aware of awareness of risks and made them more such strategies as blocking lists and banning careful online, the import of the messages or removing troublesome users. Young tended to fade fairly quickly, with safety people were also familiar with advertising advice having little effect on past or planned and awareness-raising strategies such as risk-taking behaviour, including willingness to posters, notices, ad campaigns, police talks interact with strangers.330 and training programmes.328 From the research that does exist, it appears There is limited evidence available as that many countries are not providing to whether children globally are being information to children on any systematic basis. provided with consistent, accurate and Recent evidence from Bahrain, a country with useful information to inform their online high Internet usage, reveals that the majority choices. Positive examples of investment by of children had not received training at school governments to develop such programmes regarding Internet safety, and of the minority include CEOP’s ‘thinkuknow’ in the United that had, provision of such training tended to Kingdom, which has been provided be ad hoc.331 In the study of 10,000 girls and throughout schools, reaching up to 7 million young women in India, the vast majority had schoolchildren aged 5–16.329 ‘Thinkuknow’ received no guidance or information at all is designed to encourage young people concerning Internet safety.332 Clearly, more to have fun with new technology, while work can be done to strengthen outreach staying in control of the risks. Of course, programmes that deliver education and training providing information does not necessarily on Internet safety. There is also a need for impact on behaviour. A recent evaluation of research to ascertain the most effective means ‘thinkuknow’ found that children and young of ensuring that such programmes achieve people understand online safety messages, the goal of enabling young people to make but this may not necessarily change their informed choices.
Child protection in the online/offline environment 47 48 C hild S afety O nline
© Penny Tweedie / Panos Pictures PART TWO:
ONLINE/OFFLINE PROTECTION
The ultimate goal of building a protective and programmes that address the online online/offl ine environment for children and environment that affects them. young people must be to create the greatest possible opportunity, without discrimination Part Two of this report starts with an or exclusion, to take advantage of the benefi ts overview of key international instruments and offered by the online environment, while commitments. It then makes an assessment simultaneously minimizing risks and potential of critical challenges facing law enforcement harm in that environment. and child protection, and concludes with recommendations for a policy response for Building a protective online/offl ine environment building a protective environment. requires understanding and addressing the ways that children and young people of General recognition of the prevalence and different ages are at risk to different forms of severity of the sexual abuse and exploitation abuse. As Part One has described, online sexual of children, and the need for strengthened abuse images mainly involve young children legislation to challenge it, only began during who have little or no power over being abused. the 1990s after the adoption and widespread In this situation, law enforcement is critical ratifi cation of the Convention on the Rights and must mesh with wider child protection of the Child. Since then, there has been services. Combating child abuse images is consolidation and development of further diffi cult enough, as Part Two of this report will international human rights standards that discuss, but grooming is even more challenging address sexual exploitation and abuse. to address. In turn, these have been translated by many governments around the world into Grooming is inherently characterized by the national legislation designed to strengthen power imbalance between adult and child. But child protection. it is also necessary to consider the implications of adolescent experimentation, sexuality and The Convention on the Rights of the Child, drive towards independence as well as their however, was drafted well before the computer expertise. Preventing and responding emergence of the Internet as a potential to grooming needs to include adolescents as environment for abuse and exploitation. well as law enforcement agencies, parents and Similarly, national legislation, regulations, the ICT industry. guidelines, policies and codes of conduct drafted prior to the Internet’s emergence do International human rights standards and other not take adequate account of the new forms legal instruments provide a basic framework. of communication, with its scope, speed Strategies must be rooted in the realization and capacity for dissemination, and the of human rights for every child – their right consequent opportunities it provides to access to protection from all forms of violence, and potentially harm children. Nor do such exploitation and abuse without discrimination; instruments address new crimes such as online their right to be heard and taken seriously; grooming or dissemination of manipulated child their right to access to child-friendly and age- abuse images. appropriate information, to privacy and respect for their evolving capacities; and the obligation There is much to be done in both industrialized as to ensure that their best interests are a primary well as lower income countries. A comprehensive consideration in all legislation, policies protection response involves action that
Online/Offline prOteCtiOn 49 will include a diversity of governmental and be transparent, accessible and enforceable. non-governmental actors across a range of If children are to use them, they must feel spheres. This includes putting the ‘architecture’ safe and effective. The active engagement in place – a legislative framework to define of children provides an essential source of criminal activity, the capacity to deter potential experience and expertise. abusers and prosecute offenders, and proactive measures to restrict and inhibit access to child Building parents’ abilities to support their abuse images by actual and potential offenders. children is also a vital component for online It also includes strengthening joint work and safety. This is not to place responsibility for intersectoral collaboration of the justice and protection on children and parents alone, but to social welfare sectors. It requires improving recognize reality. The nature of the social space the awareness of child protection services, provided by the Internet and the fact that young educating other professionals who work with people are pacemakers in its exploration and children, such as teachers, on the nature of use mean that they must be at the forefront in risk and harm in the merged online/offline solutions to risk, and parents are in one of the worlds and measures to support children to best positions to support them. Parents need to stay safe. It involves promoting strategies to be made aware of the nature of risk and to be empower children to avoid harm. Investment encouraged to improve their understanding of in welfare measures is required to address young people’s online activities. the needs of children who have been harmed and abused through sexual exploitation and In the industrialized world – country by country, abuse via the Internet and to build the capacity to a greater or lesser degree – some of these of professionals who work with them. In elements are coming together. Much more general, this should be within the framework coordinated work, however, is needed. In many of overarching child protection systems rather middle- and low-income countries, awareness than seeking to create ‘new’ services as if these of the nature of risk and the capacities to reduce forms of abuse were somehow divorced from or respond to it are nascent at best. By its that in other contexts. very nature, abuse over the Internet knows no borders and coordinated international action by Given its central role in designing and driving justice and welfare sectors is essential. the Internet, the private sector must recognize that intrinsic to expanding access and innovating content is contributing to the wider Chapter 6: International social goal of making the Internet safer for children and young people. As Livingstone and instruments and Haddon have pointed out, as use of the Internet becomes more personalized, the role of parents commitments or teachers becomes more difficult, which places even greater responsibility on industry to manage the risks that children may encounter.333 Like a number of other child protection issues, Failure to do this will expose the industry to risk the online related abuse and exploitation of of government or regional regulation that has a children is at the intersection of two sets of negative impact on the freedoms embodied in international standards, which together provide the Internet as it is today. a framework to address the phenomenon and inform the creation of a protective A broad response requires working directly environment for children. On the one hand, with young people in the design and some international instruments focus on abuse implementation of information and protection and exploitation as a child rights violation strategies. Children and young people need in the broader context of the promotion information about risk and how to avoid it and protection of children’s rights and their and the mechanisms and pathways to follow interdependence and indivisibility. On the other if they find themselves in situations they hand, several international instruments aim to judge to be dubious. They need skills to make address various forms of transnational crime, informed choices in their cyberspace activities and while taking into account the human rights and to provide support to each other. This of persons affected, tend to concentrate on is increasingly important as Internet usage response and prosecution. becomes more private (i.e. takes place in children’s private spaces, such as bedrooms Although there are numerous instruments in much of the industrialized world) and more that contribute generally towards the creation mobile. Child protection mechanisms must of a protective environment for children,334
50 Child Safety Online the five main international and regional legal Although under international law States have instruments that are relevant to the sexual the primary responsibility to ensure respect, exploitation and abuse of children in the online promotion and protection of children’s environment are: rights, the CRC and additional instruments have recognized that other actors – such as ●● Convention on the Rights of the Child;335 parents, civil society, private sector service providers and businesses – also have a critical ●● Optional Protocol to the Convention on the responsibility in this regard. Rights of the Child on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography In June 2011 the United Nations Human Rights (OPSC);336 Council endorsed the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights: Implementing ●● Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish the United Nations “Protect, Respect and Trafficking against Persons, Especially Remedy” Framework. These were developed Women and Children, supplementing by the Special Representative of the Secretary- the United Nations Convention against General on human rights and transnational Transnational Organized Crime (‘The UN corporations and other business enterprises in Trafficking Protocol’, 2000);337 six years of research and extensive consultation with governments, companies, business ●● Council of Europe Convention on associations, civil society, affected individuals Cybercrime;338 and groups, investors and others.340 The principles provide comprehensive guidance on ●● Council of Europe Convention on the the obligations of both States and businesses Protection of Children against Sexual aimed at contributing to enhancing standards Exploitation and Sexual Abuse.339 and practices with regard to business and human rights.341 Not only do these instruments provide guidance in addressing and responding to the They are all relevant to the ICT industry, sexual exploitation and abuse of children in but Principle 13 (b) is perhaps of particular the online environment, they also establish resonance, stating that the corporate a set of legally binding obligations for States responsibility to respect human rights requires Parties to these treaties to take specific that business enterprises “seek to prevent or measures in this respect. Together, they mitigate adverse human rights impacts that are elaborate a comprehensive framework of directly linked to their operations, products or children’s rights as well as contain specific services by their business relationships, even if definitions of offences and provisions that they have not contributed to those impacts”.342 require punishment for criminalized behaviour In other words, if the private sector provided and allow for more effective prosecution operations, products, and services that are of perpetrators. used to abuse children, businesses have an obligation to take action. The implication of The Convention on the Rights of the Child Principle 13 (b) would also be that this includes has a particular significance because it places preventative action if the characteristics protection alongside other rights particularly of such operations, products and services relevant to the benefits the Internet brings – could be reasonably predicted to carry risk of freedom of expression, freedom to seek such abuse. information, and freedom of association. The Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child and the Council of Europe Convention on the Rights Convention on the Protection of Children against Sexual Exploitation and Sexual Abuse of the Child also serve as comprehensive examples of legal mechanisms that require governments The Convention on the Rights of the Child, to implement and ensure provision of services adopted unanimously by the United Nations to assist child victims and their families. While General Assembly in 1989 and now nearly the regional instruments only have specific universally ratified, provides a clear set of application within the region in which they entitlements and obligations that must be are developed, they do establish standards or applied to frame understanding of children’s benchmarks for other countries to adopt and rights in the context of sexual abuse and comply with, and in some instances allow for exploitation in the online/offline environment. ratification by States from outside the region. A key element of the Convention is that it
Online/Offline Protection 51 demands that the child be viewed as a holder offenders, and the welfare, protection and of a comprehensive set of rights. In other recovery of the child. words, States must consider children’s rights holistically. Governments have obligations Article 6 requires States to ensure, to the to take action to ensure the greatest possible maximum extent possible, the development safety and protection for all children in every of the child. Legislation and policies in respect sphere of their lives. In doing so, they must to the online environment therefore must reflect an appropriate balance between the be directed to both promoting the optimum right to protection and the right of children to developmental opportunities possible via information, participation, rehabilitation and access to the Internet and ensuring that recovery, privacy and respect for their evolving children’s development is not harmed or capacities, and emerging autonomy. Within the hampered by exposure to inappropriate, context of child protection in a merged online/ dangerous or abusive content or contact online. offline environment, it is worth examining the implications of a number of these rights in Finally, article 12 calls upon States to ensure more detail. that all children, based on their capabilities, are enabled to express their views freely and to have those views given due weight in General principles accordance with their age and maturity. It also provides that children have the right to be heard The Committee on the Rights of the Child has in any judicial or administrative proceeding identified four rights in the Convention that also affecting them. In its General Comment on must be understood as general principles to article 12, the Committee on the Rights of the inform the realization of all other rights. All four Child makes clear that, in proceedings where a have relevance to the violence and sexual abuse child is a victim of a crime, not only is she or he and exploitation experienced by children in the entitled to be consulted on any matters relevant merged online/offline environment. to the case and on how she or he might be involved in the judicial process, but also to be Article 2 demands that all the rights in the fully informed about every stage of the process. Convention apply to every child without Furthermore, proceedings must be accessible discrimination on any grounds. Governments and child-appropriate, with attention paid to the must therefore take measures to ensure that the creation of child-friendly environments.343 More right to protection from sexual exploitation and broadly, it requires that children are consulted abuse is addressed in respect to all children, on the development of legislation, policy, recognizing that the forms of usage, the nature education and other measures that address all of risks and the degrees of vulnerability will forms of violence. be different for children according to their circumstances – including such factors as gender, social and economic context, rural Specific protection provisions or urban environment, personal experiences, disability, sexuality, degree of emotional The Convention on the Rights of the Child vulnerability or other circumstances that may contains a number of provisions specifically render them at risk. It is necessary to take focused on child protection. Article 19, into account how different groups of children for instance, requires that States take all access the Internet, whether at home, at school, appropriate legislative, administrative, social in Internet cafes, and through computers or and educational measures to protect the child mobile phones. from all forms of physical or mental violence, injury or abuse, neglect or negligent treatment, Governments must also ensure that primary maltreatment or exploitation, including sexual consideration is given to children’s best interests abuse, while in the care of parent(s), legal in all actions concerning them. Article 3 requires guardian(s) or any other person(s) who have that States ensure that in developing legislation, care of the child. The article does not limit operating law enforcement, and providing the application of this right to abuses that social welfare services and other protective are the result of state-sanctioned conduct, measures the best interests of the child remain nor does it narrow its scope to particular at the centre of the process. It is a mediating manifestations of abuse. As such, there is principle that needs to inform the way in which a positive obligation on the State to protect an appropriate balance is achieved, for example, children from exploitation committed in any between the policing objective of prosecuting space including cyberspace.
52 Child Safety Online The Committee on the Rights of the Child has ●● The importance of the Internet as a affirmed the scope of article 19 to address resource and a means of developing and violence through information communication strengthening the capacities of children; technologies, including the sexual abuse of children in order to produce and disseminate ●● Recognition of and respect for children’s child abuse images, exposure of children to capacities to make choices and take harmful material, bullying, harassment or increasing responsibility for their own being groomed for sexual activities.344 This protection, in accordance with their provision is reinforced by article 34, which evolving capacities; requires States to protect the child from all forms of sexual exploitation and sexual abuse. ●● Acknowledgement of adults’ More specifically, the Convention on the Rights responsibilities to remove both harm and of the Child explains that for these purposes, impunity from the online environment States must take all appropriate national, in view of children’s entitlement to bilateral and multilateral measures to prevent, protection as a consequence of their still among other things, the inducement or evolving capacities. coercion of a child to engage in any unlawful sexual activity. No limitations are placed on Additionally, children have a right to the terms of engagement. Thus, it implies privacy. Article 16 recognizes the child’s that if the engagement occurs electronically right to freedom from arbitrary interference it too would be a violation of the right; this with his or her privacy, family, home would include, for example, the offence of or correspondence. This provision has Internet grooming. implications for States to ensure that Internet provider services, and such online Additional protection is provided in access services as social networking sites, articles 35 and 36, which require States online gaming and Internet cafe owners, to take appropriate unilateral, bilateral ensure appropriate levels of privacy for and multilateral measures to prevent the users of these services. It also implies an abduction, sale or trafficking of children, and obligation to ensure that children who to protect children against all other forms are using the Internet have sufficient of harmful exploitation. These provisions information and guidance to enable them to introduce obligations to address a broad protect their own privacy effectively. spectrum of potential abuse in the online environment. States are also required, in Articles 13 and 17 place an obligation article 39, to take all appropriate measures on governments to ensure children’s to promote the physical and psychological freedom of expression to receive and recovery and social reintegration of a child impart information, regardless of frontiers, victim of exploitation and abuse, and to do through any media of the child’s choice – so in an environment that fosters the health, and to ensure that children have access self-respect and dignity of the child. This to information and material from diverse provision makes clear that States must go national and international sources. beyond prevention of exploitation and abuse States are also required to encourage the and prosecution of offenders; they also must development of guidelines for the protection invest in resources and services to support of children from harmful information and children who have suffered such abuse. material. Clearly, this provision extends to information and materials in both the online and offline environments. Participation provisions These human rights norms and Article 5 introduces the requirement that standards, together with the international guidance given to children by parents or other commitments that accompany them, should caregivers must consider the child’s evolving be applied in a way that provides societies capacities. In other words, as the child gradually with the framework and goals for building acquires the ability to take responsibility for environments in which children’s right to his or her own decisions, then the exercise of protection from all forms of violence, abuse rights transfers from the parent to the child.345 In and exploitation are respected and fulfilled. regard to children’s engagement with the online Simultaneously, the way they are applied environment, due consideration needs to be should give every child the opportunity to given to: achieve her or his optimum development.
Online/Offline Protection 53 Optional Protocol to the binding definition of ‘trafficking in persons’ and of child trafficking, including for the purpose of Convention on the Rights of the sexual exploitation. A child cannot consent to Child on the sale of children, being trafficked: an apparent ‘consent’ is not recognized as a justification for any form of child prostitution and child child exploitation. As the Internet has become pornography (OPSC) a means to locate and lure trafficking victims, the application of this Convention and its The OPSC, which entered into force in 2002 and optional protocols to the merged online/offline was ratified by 149 countries as of September environment is significant.347 2011, 346 strengthens the provisions of the Convention on the Rights of the Child in a number of ways relevant to online/offline sexual Council of Europe Convention exploitation. It defines child pornography to include any representation, by any means, of on Cybercrime a child engaged in real or simulated explicit sexual activities, or any representation of the The Convention on Cybercrime entered sexual parts of a child for primarily sexual into force in July 2004 and was ratified by purposes, and requires States to criminalize 32 States as of September 2011. It is the first child sexual exploitation offences, whether international treaty designed to address committed nationally or transnationally. It several categories of crimes committed via also requires States to adopt or strengthen, the Internet and other computer networks, implement and disseminate provisions to and binds countries in the same manner as a prevent sexual offences against children. Of treaty. The main goal of this convention is to particular relevance to children who are at risk establish a “common criminal policy” to better of grooming or other forms of exploitation combat computer-related crimes worldwide online is an obligation on States to keep current by harmonizing national legislation, enhancing with new technologies to ensure protection. The law enforcement and judicial capabilities, Protocol also clarifies that a State must exercise and improving international cooperation. extraterritorial jurisdiction and introduce Although developed by the Council of Europe, powers of extradition. the Convention on Cybercrime “increasingly serves as a global guideline for preparation of Finally, the OPSC elaborates on governments’ national legislation as well as a framework for responsibilities to create child-friendly legal international cooperation against cybercrime, proceedings, including protecting the rights of including combating sexual exploitation child victims and witnesses without prejudicing of children.”348 the right of the accused to a fair trial; informing child victims of their rights, and of the role and The Convention on Cybercrime defines ‘child scope, timing and progress of the proceedings; pornography’ to include material that visually and providing “appropriate support services to depicts children or persons appearing to be child victims,” including the protection of the children engaged in sexually explicit conduct. child’s privacy. This is not limited to materials involving a real or identifiable child, but also covers realistic images representing a minor, which may The Protocol to Prevent, enable the prosecution of pseudo-photographs and computer-manipulated photographs Suppress and Punish Trafficking of adults that, for example, make a young in Persons Especially Women adult appear to be a child. Child pornography acts that must be criminalized under this and Children, supplementing convention include all acts of producing, the Convention against offering or making available, distributing or transmitting child pornography when these Transnational Organized Crime acts are committed through a computer (the UN Trafficking Protocol) system. It also criminalizes the procurement of child pornography through a computer This Protocol came into force in December system for oneself or for another person 2003, and by September 2011 was ratified and the possession of child pornography in by 147 States and accepted by the European a computer system or on a computer data Community. The UN Trafficking Protocol storage medium, establishing them as criminal contains the first detailed and internationally offences when committed intentionally.
54 Child Safety Online Council of Europe Convention In addition to establishing conduct that must be criminalized, the Lanzarote Convention on the Protection of Children introduces several provisions relating to against Sexual Exploitation criminal justice procedures, with particular concern to how they affect victims, based and Sexual Abuse (the on the principle of the best interests of the Lanzarote Convention) child. Safeguards are placed on the victim’s identity and privacy, victim contact with The Council of Europe Convention, designed perpetrators is minimized, and intermediaries to protect children from sexual exploitation instead of victims may address courts and and abuse, was adopted and opened for present evidence. According to article 31, all signature in 2007. It is the first international information must be given to the victim in a instrument to tackle all forms of sexual “manner adapted to their age and maturity violence against children, including abuse and in a language that they can understand.” perpetrated within the family environment. Other provisions mandate that specially Apart from sexual abuse, child prostitution trained personnel conduct investigatory and and pornography (child abuse images) judicial interviews on child-friendly premises and coercing children into participating in (article 35). Finally, it introduces requirements pornographic performances, the Lanzerote to reduce victim trauma during trial by Convention also deals with grooming and permitting both closed hearings and the use sexual exploitation of children in tourism. It of appropriate communication technologies is open for ratification not only by Member for victim testimony and confrontation with States of the Council but also by other States the accused. that participated in its elaboration: Canada, the Holy See, Japan, Mexico and the United States. The convention is also open to Commitments by the accession by all other non-member states. Other states can accede to it with unanimous international community consent of the parties to it (articles 45 and 46). By September 2011, the Convention had Since the 1990s, in addition to the core been signed by 27 countries and ratified international and regional instruments that by 15. It came into force on 1 July 2010, strengthen child protection, the United Nations, following the fifth ratification.349 related bodies and various regional entities have made further commitments and adopted The aims of this Convention are to prevent guidelines and codes of conduct designed to and combat the sexual exploitation and abuse strengthen mechanisms for child protection. of children; to protect the rights of victims of Progress accelerated with the appointment sexual exploitation and sexual abuse; and to by the Commission on Human Rights of the promote national and international cooperation Special Rapporteur on the sale of children, child against sexual exploitation and sexual abuse of prostitution and child pornography (1990), the children. It defines child pornography as “any Commission’s adoption of a Programme of material that visually depicts a child engaged Action (1992), and the three World Congresses in real or simulated sexually explicit conduct against Sexual Exploitation of Children or any depiction of a child’s sexual organs (Stockholm 1996, Yokohama 2001, Rio de for primarily sexual purposes” (article 20) Janeiro 2008), which reaffirmed the human and encourages State Parties to criminalize rights-based goal of universal protection of child pornography possession, production, children from all forms of sexual exploitation. offering, making available and procuring, whether for oneself or another person. It The First World Congress against the further establishes an offence of knowingly Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children, obtaining access to child pornography held in August 1996, was a landmark event, through information and communication providing testimony that convinced the world technologies, and of corruption of children that sexual violations against children exist in through intentionally causing them to witness all nations, irrespective of cultural differences or sexual abuse or activities. In addition, it geographical location. It marked the first public introduces the offence of sexual solicitation recognition by governments of the existence of a child for sexual purposes using ICT of commercial sexual exploitation of children (grooming), and beyond domestic law, it is the and resulted in a global commitment to the only legal instrument that specifically speaks ‘Stockholm Declaration and Agenda for Action’, of grooming.350 adopted by 122 governments, as a guide to
Online/Offline Protection 55 the specific measures that must be taken to The UN Study on Violence against Children, protect children’s right to live free from sexual reported to the General Assembly in 2006, exploitation.351 Since then, a broad alliance of also recognized the need for specific action governments and non-government entities has to enhance the protection of children in the championed this agenda and has made gains online/offline environment. It recommends in protecting children from commercial sexual that governments: exploitation. The increasing sophistication of resources available to those who seek to exploit ●● “Strengthen efforts to combat the use of children, however, has grown in equal measure. information technologies, including the Internet, mobile phones and electronic The Second World Congress against the games, in the sexual exploitation of children Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children and other forms of violence. Support (December 2001) produced the Yokohama measures to educate and advise children and Global Commitment,352 which recommits their carers about the dangers involved in States to the Declaration and Agenda for Action this context. Criminalize and appropriately established by the first World Congress. It penalize those who make, distribute, possess further underscores that national agendas, or use child pornography.” strategies or plans of action, designated focal points and comprehensive gender- ●● “Encourage the information and disaggregated data collection must be communication industry to devise global developed, and that nations must implement standards for child protection, undertake child rights-based laws and law enforcement. research on protective hardware and As information communication technologies software solutions, and fund worldwide were not prevalent at the time of the first education campaigns on safe use of the World Congress, their emergence had to new technologies.”355 be specifically addressed in the Yokohama Commitment. It requires States to establish measures to confront the potential dangers of The Internet industry today and the new technologies such as Internet-based child complexity of regulation pornography and, simultaneously, to recognize new technologies’ potential for child protection, Fifteen years ago when people spoke about including from commercial sexual exploitation “the Internet industry” it generally meant through dissemination and exchange of simply and only Internet Service Providers information and networking among partners.353 (ISPs). In each country there tends to be a comparatively small number of them. ISPs Finally, the World Congress III against the continue to have a unique importance because Sexual Exploitation of Children and Adolescents they provide the key gateway to cyberspace. (November 2008) led to the Rio Declaration and They hold basic information about users’ Call for Action.354 Whereas the Internet was not activities, information which is often essential even mentioned in the Stockholm Declaration to law enforcement investigations or other legal and Agenda for Action, it is mentioned 13 times processes. However more recently it is other in the Rio Declaration. Specifically, the Rio kinds of online service providers, which have Declaration calls on States to undertake specific come to dominate the Internet value chain. and targeted actions to prevent and stop child abuse images, the use of the Internet and new Today the majority of Internet businesses have technologies for the grooming of children for only a marginal or no involvement at all in online and offline abuse, and the production providing primary connectivity. The Internet and dissemination of child abuse images and industry ranges from “Internet giants” such other materials. Further, it requires participating as Facebook and Google through to hundreds governments to conduct educational and of thousands of small businesses, perhaps awareness-raising campaigns that focus on being run by individuals in their spare time children, parents, teachers, youth organizations from their garage or the kitchen table. Then and others working with and for children, with there are hardware manufacturers who are a view to improving their understanding of the producing ever more inventive and interesting risks of sexually exploitative use of the Internet, ways of going online. Products such as Sony mobile telephones and other new technologies, Playstations, the Xbox, Nintendos, Android- including information for children on how based and other forms of smartphones, Apple’s to protect themselves, get help and report iPhone, iTouch and iPad constitute a major part incidences of child abuse images and online of the modern ecology of the Internet. Many sexual exploitation. companies not only make and supply hardware
56 Child Safety Online but are also moving down the value chain to For all of these complex and interlocking become direct service providers. sets of reasons there is a widespread acknowledgement and acceptance that The borderless nature of the Internet makes those private sector enterprises that it hard for both national governments and are actors in the Internet space need to inter-governmental agencies to speak embrace and discharge a wider set of directly to what has now become a highly social responsibilities. Around the world diffuse and widely dispersed set of interests. this has given rise to a range of self- One of the key global institutions responsible regulatory and co-regulatory models which for the ongoing overall management of are specifically designed to address the the Internet, the Internet Corporation for interests of children and young people Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), as users of the Internet. Some countries, has no direct representation from any such as the United Kingdom, have adopted government or inter-governmental agency on a position of allowing the ICT industry to any of its decision-making bodies, although self-regulate. Other governments, such as it does have a Governmental Advisory the United States, have not taken a formal Committee which provides governments and public position on the issue, instead relying IGOs with an opportunity to express their on the ‘corporate social responsibility’ views on matters within ICANN’s remit.356 model to motivate businesses to protect children. Standards bodies such as the Internet Engineering Taskforce and the World Wide That the industry steps up to the mark on Web Consortium have persons associated child safety and protection is in its interests. with them who work for governmental Failure to act promptly and with leadership or quasi-governmental agencies, but the on legitimate protection concerns, ones that narrow, essentially technical nature of the States are legally obliged under international remits of those bodies limits any scope law to ensure are addressed, risks for influencing a broader policy agenda. governments or regional bodies legislating For example, the technical standard for to compel compliance to restrictive laws delivering location data over the Internet within their jurisdiction. To some extent was formulated within the framework of the this is already happening. A number of IETF. This was a development of great social countries have introduced national laws and importance and it has obvious implications regulations which they feel suit their cultural, for child safety. Yet the engineers who legal and political traditions. However, many developed it regarded that aspect to be more governments have refrained from beyond their remit.357 such action in the belief that a co-operative approach will be better for everyone. But Within the industry and among many Internet should faith in cooperation be shown to users there can also be suspicion about be fruitless, a proliferation of new national the intent behind regulation. The freedom or regional laws and regulations could be of information and ease of interaction expected which would truly fracture the embodied in the Internet are for many idea of a single global system or a single users its most important features. These global network. freedoms have had significant social and political impact in many parts of the world, Despite examples of socially responsible and the Internet has facilitated challenges to practice, the lack of a single point of those in authority in many places, perhaps accountability or reference has at times most graphically in parts of North Africa spilled over into evident frustration at a and the Middle East during 2011. Inevitably, perceived lack of responsiveness to what conservative and authoritarian governments governments or independent bodies perceive the Internet as something over discharged with protecting privacy feel which they would like more control. are their legitimate concerns. The final However, seeking to impose local and highly communiqué of the 2011 G8 meeting made restrictive regulation on the Internet would express references to the position of children undermine it as a global system and inhibit as Internet users and as potential victims of much of the creativity that it has unleashed. trafficking or sexual abuse and exploitation Nevertheless, protecting the vulnerable from mediated through the Internet. It included exploitation and abuse is necessary. The a call for enhanced cooperation within and Internet is not divorced from the morals and between all international fora dealing with responsibilities of the wider world. the governance of the Internet.358
Online/Offline Protection 57 Multinational approaches children, arguing that while national legislation covers some of these issues, it does not address contributing to the protection of sexual abuse and exploitation of children children online through ICT nor is strong or consistent enough to provide an effective response and protection In 2008 the International Telecommunications to child victims.364 Union (ITU), the United Nations specialized agency for information and communication Accordingly, in November 2011, the EU adopted technologies, launched the Child Online the Directive of the European Parliament and Protection initiative (COP), bringing together the Council on combating the sexual abuse a broad spectrum of governmental and inter- and sexual exploitation of children and child governmental agencies, law enforcement pornography, and replacing Council Framework agencies, industry and civil society Decision 2004/68/JHA. Among other actions, representatives. These disparate interests the Directive will criminalize forms of child collaborated with ITU officials to promote a sexual abuse and exploitation not currently set of documents which present a series of covered by EU legislation, such as grooming, recommendations to policy-makers, to children, online pornographic performances and viewing industry, parents, guardians and educators.359 child pornography without downloading files; establish lower thresholds for applying In 2010 the ITU commissioned a survey of maximum penalties; ensure that offenders national governments where it asked them to who are EU nationals face prosecution for describe what they thought the major issues crimes committed outside the EU; provide were with online child protection in their country child victims of the offences covered with and what help they thought they needed in this assistance, support and protection, including area.360 In November, 2010, the ITU published the for claiming compensation; share data relating Child Online Protection Statistical Framework, to the criminal convictions of sex offenders presenting it as the “world’s first attempt to between relevant authorities in member provide the overall statistical framework related States; and introduce mandated removal and to the measurement of child online protection optional blocking of websites containing child with a particular emphasis on measures that are abuse material.365 suitable for international comparison”.361 Prior to the 2004 Framework Decision, the The ITU continues to attach a high priority to its European Commission established the Safer work on online child protection. It is particularly Internet Programme in 1999, with a particular active through regional seminars in all parts of emphasis on protecting children and the the world. Internally, the security standardization objectives of promoting safer use of the Internet study group, Study Group 17, was tasked in and other communication technologies, March 2011 to investigate child protection in the educating users and fighting against illegal online world with a view to determining what content. The current programme spans 2009– scope there is for developing technical standards 2013 and has a budget of €55 million; its original which can be offered for adoption.362 remit has been expanded to cover emerging online technologies and harmful conduct such Also within the framework of the UN, the Internet as grooming and cyberbullying.366 Governance Forum (IGF) provides a forum for multi-stakeholder policy dialogue. It attracts The EU was an early champion of self-regulation high level participation from global, regional and to keep young people safe online. In February national industry groups. Child protection issues 2007, leading mobile operators and content have become a regular feature at both its annual providers across the EU signed a European congress and at many of the regional IGFs which Framework for safer mobile use by children and have sprung up on all continents. For example, teenagers. As of June 2010, codes of conduct the protection of children was discussed at were in place in 25 EU member States, while plenaries in the IGF meeting in Hyderabad in under development in the remaining two. The 2008 and at Sharm el Sheikh in 2009.363 Framework commits signatories to principles and measures, including access control for adult content, awareness-raising campaigns European Union initiatives for parents and children, and the classification of commercial content according to national At regional level, the European Union has standards of decency and appropriateness. A recognized the need for collective action in June 2010 implementation report found that it combating the sexual abuse and exploitation of had been effective, with 83 mobile operators,
58 Child Safety Online serving 96 per cent of EU mobile customers, a pseudonym as well as the risks associated implementing the Framework through codes with Internet usage; recommends establishing of conduct.367 simple, speedy and easily accessible judicial processes based on tort law; and advocates Two years after the adoption of the code on for publishing case law related to Internet the safer use of mobile phones, in February, offences and the establishment of response 2009, the European Commission facilitated mechanisms for assisting the victims of abuse the production of a document entitled Safer in cyberspace.371 Although the Memorandum Social Networking Principles for the EU, is not binding on any Latin American national which was launched with 21 signatories from government, it acts as an important framework all of the largest SNS operational across the for countries that are seeking to protect 27 Member States. Privacy settings are a children’s personal information online. major focus of the Principles, but there are also important provisions in relation to education and awareness activities and reporting abuse Chapter 7: Challenges functions. The social networking principles have now been subject to a second appraisal, for law enforcement published in May 2011. Here the findings were more mixed, with the responses of 4 of the and child protection 14 SNS that replied to the survey about explicit information regarding the characteristics (e.g. age-appropriateness, availability, user- International treaties and other commitments friendliness, etc.) of privacy settings assessed provide the framework for action, but as unsatisfactory.368 governments must translate these into action at the national level. This requires policy In June 2011, the European Commission held development, preventive strategies (including its first Digital Assembly Agenda. This included the involvement of civil society, parents and a specific workshop entitled Every European children), appropriate laws, effective policing Child Safe Online where Digital Europe, the strategies, child protection measures and trade association for a broad spectrum of high response services for child victims. tech companies, presented a draft proposal to develop a new high-level framework of The new environment poses profoundly rights and responsibilities. Work on the draft is different challenges for law enforcement and expected to be completed by early 2012 when child welfare agencies, given the international the text will be released. dimension of much of the abuse, its hidden nature, and the speed of both the adoption of new social applications by young people and Other regional initiatives technological advances that offenders are able to exploit to evade prosecution. Although there are presently no inter-American protocols or instruments specific to the During recent years, new approaches have protection of children in the online/offline been developed on the international, regional environment, relevant regional materials and national levels to provide such protection. do exist. The Inter-American Children’s New ‘architecture’ to facilitate the successful Institute, based in Uruguay, has presented pursuit and prosecution of offenders has been numerous reports on the commercial sexual created. These include the definition of new exploitation of children, and the Memorandum crimes and penalties, partnerships with credit of Montevideo, developed in July 2009 by a card companies to track offenders, bilateral group of experts, provides a framework for and international collaborations, shared protecting children’s personal information in databases, and measures to address jurisdiction cyberspace.369 Designed to guide legislators, and extradition. A key point is that police and judges, policymakers, and law-enforcement protection services must work closely together officers on how to protect children’s to resolve sometimes differing imperatives in personal data online, the Memorandum of the child’s best interests. Montevideo provides recommendations concerning prevention and education, legal frameworks, law enforcement and public National legislation policy.370 It emphasizes prevention through education, stressing that children learn about Despite the increased focus on sexual the positive and negative aspects of using exploitation and abuse of children at the
Online/Offline Protection 59 international level, and the development of new legislation. The Centre focuses its evaluation on global and regional human rights instruments, whether national legislation: many nations have been woefully slow in implementing necessary legislation. A number ●● Exists with specific regard to of recent global reviews provide testimony to child pornography; the limitations of progress to date. ●● Provides a definition of child pornography; A common theme across the background reports on child abuse images for all three ●● Criminalizes computer-facilitated offences; World Congresses was the need to harmonize relevant laws. While reviewing State Party ●● Criminalizes possession of child reports, the Committee on the Rights of the pornography, regardless of the intent Child has consistently noted the need for to distribute; clear definitions and has recommended that States amend existing legislation or adopt ●● Requires Internet service providers (ISPs) to new legislation to bring them in line with the report suspected child pornography to law OPSC.372 The Committee has identified weak enforcement or another mandated agency.376 legislation, as demonstrated by low rates of identification and prosecution of cases, and The results are not encouraging. In 2010, of has highlighted the difficulties in extraditing the 196 countries reviewed, 45 have legislation and prosecuting crimes committed outside a sufficient to combat child abuse image offences State’s territory due to the requirement in many and 89 had no legislation at all that specifically countries for ‘dual criminality’, or extraterritorial addresses child pornography. Among the legislation that requires an act to be a crime 45 countries that have sufficient legislation, in both the country where it took place and 37 meet all but the last criteria, relating to ISP the country where the suspect resides. The reporting, and just 8 meet all the criteria. Of Committee systematically recommends the countries that have legislation, 52 do not abolishing this requirement.373 define child pornography in national legislation; 18 do not provide for computer-facilitated Najat M’jid Maalla, the Special Rapporteur offences; and 33 do not criminalize possession on the sale of children, child prostitution and of child pornography, regardless of the intent child pornography, expressed continuing to distribute.377 concern in her 2009 report that not only do some countries lack any legislation covering In 2009, the group of eight industrialized child abuse images but, even where such countries known as the G8 reaffirmed its laws exist, significant differences in national commitment to tackling child pornography responses to the phenomenon remain.374 ECPAT in the declaration ‘The Risk to Children International, working collaboratively with other Posed by Child Pornography Offenders’, partners, has produced 77 country reports which emphasized the need for international that seek to provide a baseline of information cooperation and noted that some countries had on actions taken and the remaining gaps for not adopted effective legislation to criminalize addressing sexual exploitation of children child pornography.378 The G8 has supported in each country. A common foreword to the several important initiatives recently, including reports notes that government “actions have the ‘G8 Wanted Child Sex Offender Initiative’ not been uniform and, as these country profiles website hosted by INTERPOL,379 a report attest, far more urgent work must be done to on international sexually motivated child protect children from such heinous violations, abduction, and a current project led by Japan as these are still perpetrated with impunity in that examines international efforts to support many countries.”375 The age at which a person child victims of sexual exploitation and abuse can consent to sexual activity also varies from and will make recommendations as to best country to country, presenting a significant practice in this area. challenge to the consistent and harmonized protection of children from sexual exploitation In addition to legislation on child pornography, on the international level. Australia, Canada, Singapore, the United Kingdom and the United States have introduced To gain a better understanding of existing legal measures to deal with offences related legislation and to gauge where the issue stands to online child grooming.380 The Australian and on national political agendas, the International Canadian legislation criminalizes electronic Centre for Missing & Exploited Children communication with a child or a person provides ongoing reviews of child pornography believed to be a child for the purpose of
60 Child Safety Online facilitating the commission of sexual offence. addition to these laws, the Cabinet Office This, in effect, means that even when a suspect together with 9 ministries and agencies, of a grooming offence establishes contact with including the National Police Agency and an adult pretending to be a child, as in cases the Internet Affairs and Communications of undercover police investigations, there is no Ministry, introduced general measures to impediment to a prosecution.381 eliminate child abuse images and establish a council with representation from the private Brazil’s Statute of the Child and Adolescent382 sector and civil society organizations to raise was amended in 2008 to address online sexual public awareness. abuse of children. As noted by the US Law Library of Congress, the modifications penalize “the enticement, harassment, instigation, or Law enforcement and child constraint, by any means of communication, of a child, with the purpose of practicing with the protection child lustful acts.” Punishment is also defined for those who facilitate or induce “the access of Legislation and political commitments, while a child to material containing an explicit sex or of fundamental importance, cannot achieve pornographic scene” and for “inducing the child change unless there are mechanisms in to expose herself in a pornographic or sexually place to implement and enforce them. Law explicit way.”383 enforcement agencies charged with the responsibility for ensuring that laws are applied In the United Kingdom, the Sexual Offences consistently and effectively and that offenders Act of 2003 established the legal framework are prosecuted and held to account, have to protect children from sexual exploitation, vital roles in challenging sexual exploitation including Internet child pornography and and abuse of children in the merged online/ grooming. Noteworthy elements of this act offline environment. And they must collaborate include the absolute prohibition of sexual with the social welfare agencies that have a activities with a child under age 13 and that no responsibility to promote and protect the best child under 13 can legally give consent. Sexual interests of children who have experienced activity with a child includes intercourse, sexual abuse. Their two agendas, however, can touching, encouraging a child to engage in sometimes come into conflict. The challenge is sexual acts with someone else, or forcing a to explore approaches that are both effective at child to strip or masturbate, even if the intended bringing successful prosecutions while ensuring activity does not take place. If an offender is that the interests of the individual children over 18 years old and has communicated with concerned remain paramount. a child under 16 at least twice, including via a phone or the Internet, it is an offence to meet or The online environment of the 21st century travel to meet the child, anywhere in the world, has transformed criminality in a number of with the intention of committing one of the ways. The Internet is an advanced vehicle for offences listed in the law.384 communication; it has created a transnational environment that provides new opportunities Japan has passed a series of laws to protect for harmful activities; and, finally, the virtual children in cyberspace. The Act on Punishment nature of the online environment means of Activities Relating to Child Prostitution and criminal activity can sometimes fall outside Pornography and the Protection of Children,385 the jurisdiction of the criminal justice originally passed in 1999, was designed to process.389 The advances in information and reduce the prevalence of child abuse images communication technologies have created and child prostitution and to protect children different demands on law enforcement from sexual exploitation and abuse. It was agencies in tackling abuse. They necessitate revised in 2004 to increase the statutory different and innovative approaches to penalties for these crimes. A 2008 attempt policing, requiring investigators to negotiate to amend the act to criminalize the “simple new barriers and technologies, and often to possession of child pornography” has yet enforce and apply laws in the merged online/ to be enacted.386 Two additional laws that offline sphere that were designed only for the deal specifically with the online environment offline environment.390 are the 2003 Online Dating Site Regulation Law387 and the 2008 Act on Development Cyberspace also introduces new challenges of an Environment that Provides Safe and in terms of the nature and scale of the crimes Secure Internet Use for Young People.388 In that are being committed against children, as
Online/Offline Protection 61 well as the sheer numbers of perpetrators. The A borderless crime challenges are compounded by the facts that online crimes require few resources relative The Internet has been described as borderless to the potential damage caused, and they can because it can be accessed by anyone with a be committed in a jurisdiction in which the network connection, regardless of location. criminal is not physically present.391 As noted Crime prevention may no longer be about in a 2009 report by the Kids’ Internet Safety surveillance and investigation within the Alliance, the Internet has created a crime immediate community but instead can cross environment in which there is an imbalance local, national and international geographical between “the capacity of offenders to offend, boundaries. It may not always be easy to assign and the capacity of law enforcement agencies a jurisdiction to a crime committed in the virtual to respond.”392 Finally, crimes committed environment. Particular crimes might also against children in the online environment involve many victims from different countries pose new challenges in relationship to rights thus complicating processes even further. to privacy and anonymity, as well as in Crimes of online sexual abuse and exploitation balancing the prosecution of offenders with might involve offenders who are planning them the best interests of the child who is a victim in locations thousands of miles away. of their crime. These factors lead to significant challenges for law enforcement. An effective response Inadequate understanding at the requires greater collaboration between police policy level of the implications forces in different countries – spanning very different jurisdictional protocols as well as of child agency and risk-taking social and cultural environments, political behaviours expectations, and levels of capacity, technical expertise and resources.394 Even in the most Globally, despite a growing body of evidence affluent nations, resourcing is a problem, with relating to children’s online behaviours, there police unable to afford many transnational is insufficient application of this learning to investigations. Further, legal instruments for policymaking responses. Interventions set seizing evidence abroad are often unwieldy in place to tackle the abuse of children in and cumbersome. Some countries have social networking sites, for example, have introduced legal instruments that seek to sometimes been based on an inadequate address the extra-territorial prosecution of understanding of the complexities of the their own citizens who commit offences, such phenomenon. Quick-fix interventions as the United Kingdom’s Sexual Offences Act designed to protect children by limiting their of 2003.395 But the solutions are complicated access to the Internet may result in harmful by the fact that what is illegal in one country unintended consequences for young people. could be legal in another. For example, only two countries in Africa have legislation deemed Flawed legislation quickly becomes irrelevant sufficient to combat child pornography,396 the in the face of technological developments. In age of consent to sexual activity varies widely the developing world, Internet expansion will across Europe,397 and online grooming is not likely be through mobile technology, so there universally criminalized.398 too, filtering in schools or libraries would not be an effective protection strategy. The key message of most research so far is that it is Determining when a crime has been behaviour – not technology – that puts young committed people at risk. As concluded by a consultation with young people and other key stakeholders Establishing that a crime of sexually exploiting in the United Kingdom, in 2006, the range of or abusing a child online has occurred is not a safeguards that had been established at that straightforward process. A unique characteristic time were “overbroad and under-specific, of the online environment is that physical based on a less-than-complete understanding contact between the child and the offender of the complexities of this phenomenon. does not need to occur for a child to become Consequently, these interventions have not a victim or for a crime to be committed. The had a visible impact on the risks faced by challenges for law enforcement agencies young social network users, perceptions of are particularly great when the law does not the prevalence of these risks, or dissuaded provide clear definitions of criminal activity in youth from engaging in online behaviours that regard to online sexual exploitation of children. can put them at risk of harm.”393 Such necessary definitions include whether
62 Child Safety Online ‘intent’ to lure a child is a crime without actual intention of meeting her. The trial judge found contact being made; what evidence of ‘intent’ him ‘not guilty’ because there was insufficient is required; what constitutes a ‘pornographic’ evidence that he had intended to lure the girl in image of a child; or whether simulated images order to commit an offence of sexual touching. of children engaged in sexual behaviour The prosecution appealed, and the case are criminalized. ultimately went to the Supreme Court, which found that it was not necessary for the offender In regard to grooming, for example, article to meet or even intend to meet the victim in 23 of the Council of Europe Convention on order to be found guilty of luring. Essentially, in the Protection of Children against Sexual cases where the accused and the victim have Exploitation and Sexual Abuse outlines the never met, the Supreme Court has eliminated obligations of States regarding “solicitation the defence that the accused had no intention of children for sexual purposes.” Countries of actually committing a sexual offence with the that are party to the convention have agreed child and was merely having a conversation.401 to criminalize any intentional proposal made through information and communication technologies by an adult to meet with a child – Barriers to effective reporting as defined by national law – for the purposes of engaging in sexual activities or producing Sexual abuse and exploitation in the merged child pornography when “this proposal has online/off line environment are characterized been followed by material acts leading to such by their hidden, unreported and under-recorded a meeting.”399 nature. In order for the police to respond to abuse, they first need a report that an offence To address the fact that grooming may not be has been committed. In the context of online followed by ‘material acts’, a number of jurisdic- exploitation, this can be challenging. Research tions have introduced legislation to criminalize indicates that children who are the subjects intent when plans have been made to meet a of child abuse images via new technologies child, even when no physical meeting has taken are often afraid to speak about the abuse. As place. In the United Kingdom, for instance, noted by Tink Palmer: “Children who have been section 15 of the Sexual Offences Act 2003 sexually abused seldom disclose their abuse. introduces three components to the crime of For children who are the victims of abusive grooming: (1) there must be communication images disclosure is even harder.”402 on at least two occasions; (2) those commu- nications must contain evidence of an illegal The process of silencing children is achieved sexual intent linked to arranging to meet; (3) the by the abuser’s actions to make the child person has to have travelled or begun travelling feel complicit in the activity. Many victims of to the meeting.400 It is not necessary, however, abusive images believe that the caring adults for actual contact to have been made. This around them, as well as the viewers of abusive definition of the ‘grooming’ offence is designed images, see them as willing participants and to protect children before they come into any therefore in some way culpable. This makes it physical or sexual contact with the abuser. extremely difficult for them to tell anyone what is happening or has happened to them. Most A noteworthy interpretation of intent was sexual abuse of children goes undisclosed. made by Canada’s Supreme Court in 2005. When that abuse takes place online, the level of The case involved a man who presented disclosure is even lower.403 himself as a 17-year-old and conducted two private online chats consisting of sexually Because of feelings of shame and complicity, explicit conversation with a 12-year-old girl many victims of Internet crime do not disclose who claimed to be 13. The man persuaded the their victimization until the pictures or girl to give him her telephone number and he images are most typically discovered by law called her twice in order to ‘talk dirty’ to her. enforcement agencies during an investigation. During the second call, he told her he wanted to In one sample of 14 children referred for perform a certain sexual act upon her at which therapeutic help in the United Kingdom, it was point she hung up. They had no further contact. found that none had reported the abuse. It was The child’s father subsequently found out and only discovered when: (a) police found images contacted the police. The man’s computer was while carrying out forensic examinations of seized and he was charged with luring a child. computers and mobile phones of suspects His defence was that he simply was engaging in who had raped women they had met online talking with the 12-year-old and nothing else; he and when the women had reported the rape; or had made no attempt to meet her and had no (b) close family members noted a change in the
Online/Offline Protection 63 well-being and behaviour of the young people denied therapeutic help pending the hearings. and suspected that something had happened It is important for these issues to be given via their online activity. All the children stressed appropriate priority in policing and prosecution that they would never have told anybody about strategies. One effective way of doing this is to their abuse if it hadn’t been discovered by some build cross-sectoral teams involving police and other means. The reasons for this reluctance social welfare officers from the outset of the to report included the highly sexual nature of investigation. (See box 3: Holistic and child- the language that the young people had used, centred investigations, page 82 .) the ‘complicity’ that they felt because they had often themselves been suggestive in language and willingness to be involved in sexual activity, Victim identification and the fact that they had lied about their age.404 The degree of anxiety children experience in A stronger focus on the child as a victim requires regard to exposure can mean that even when redoubling efforts to identify the children whose it is absolutely clear to investigating officers images of abuse have been posted online so that a child they are interviewing features in they can be protected and offered appropriate discovered images, the child will still deny it psychosocial support and rehabilitation. This is them.405 poses huge challenges. Images on the Internet can circulate for many years. Therefore, a picture Some children who have been abused of a 5-year-old girl may be 20 years out of date. perceive the persons they have formed a Interpol and some national law enforcement relationship with online as their boyfriends, agencies have produced databases of child whom they love and upon whom they are abuse images. By applying sophisticated image- emotionally dependent. Some children who analysis software, the police can assess whether are vulnerable to grooming may be less an image of a child contained within a collection supported socially, more isolated and less likely can be found in other images within the to report victimization to law enforcement. database, and whether other images of the child Furthermore, many children do not realize that at a different age are contained in the database. they have been victims of a crime because The police identify a picture of a 5-year-old innocent images of children can be digitally child, for example, and the database provides transformed into pornographic material and information of that child already documented distributed across the Internet without the in the database at age 8–10. The police can then victims’ knowledge.406 focus their energies on looking for an older child.
Finally, some reports are made by the private Although databases of victim photographs do sector, such as moderators of chat rooms. serve as valuable resources, until recently, they The private sector, however, needs a specific have necessitated repeated viewings of those point of contact in a law enforcement agency images. As observed by the United Nations in order to make a report, without which it may Special Rapporteur on the sale of children, not be referred to the correct department. The child prostitution and child pornography: question of who receives the report within the “While image banks have proven useful, the police is crucial, and effective routes of referral consequences of storing and exchange of are essential to a good response.407 images for the victims must not be ignored. Victims do not necessarily draw a distinction between the persons looking at their images or Promoting the best interests the reasons they are looking at them.”408 In other of the child words, as far as the victim is concerned, the image continues to be in circulation. Although In any investigation of online sexual exploitation the United Nations Special Rapporteur was or abuse, consistent with obligations of the not suggesting that image databases should State Party under the Convention on the Rights not be used, she was highlighting the need of the Child, the best interests of the child must for explicit ethical policies that clarify how the be a primary consideration. Law enforcement images are used, who has access to them, in agencies often need children who have been what circumstances, and the rights of victims to victims of crimes to be able to serve as credible information about where and how the images witnesses in court. The challenge is that are held. investigations and cross-examinations can in themselves effectively involve re-victimization New technology has been developed that of children, while requirements of courts in enables photographic images to be reduced to a criminal proceedings may lead to children being digital code, known as a ‘hash’, which can then
64 Child Safety Online be used to track, trace and compare images, this problem, but it needs careful consideration without the police needing to view the actual by law enforcement agencies, along with image.409 Typically, only when a new hash is appropriate guidance and training for those identified is it necessary to produce or look engaged in this work.412 at the image to check its content. In this way, the child’s privacy is protected, and the painful experience of knowing that even the route to Dealing with disclosure protection involves further exposure is, to an extent, avoided. The challenge of disclosure is often underestimated and misunderstood. Children There are, nonetheless, continuing issues need acknowledgement of their feelings and regarding image analysis and victim fears in order to cope with this experience. identification processes, including: It is not unusual for children to retract their allegations due to fears of repercussions on ●● Computer-assisted victim identification is them, their family, the perpetrator and others a highly specialized and rigorous process, who are important people in their lives. requiring time, expertise and cutting-edge By telling, the ‘nightmare’ becomes a reality. computer technology. Few, if any, developing Thus children are not only affected by the countries are likely to be able to afford it. abuse itself, but may also be traumatized by the disclosure or the consequences of disclosure.413 ●● Technology only provides part of the solution. Because victim identification is This has particular significance for children exceptionally detailed work that involves groomed online and made the subjects of examining the slightest of clues, many abusive images; in the majority of such cases, aspects of the analysis must be undertaken it is the professionals who make the initial by human investigators.410 disclosure to the child rather than the other way around. The handling of this initial engagement ●● The success rate remains relatively low. is critical. Without sensitive management In 2009, for example, the INTERPOL Child to enable the child to trust the professional, Abuse Image Database contained more the victim may close down emotionally and than 550,000 images; from this database, retreat into denial. Many child victims will 870 children were identified and rescued.4 11 deny the abuse even when confronted with the images. They will often minimize any Another ethical dilemma is whether individuals knowledge of being harmed and will remain who are now adults should be identified. It silent on the matter. When questioned, some could be argued that whenever a serious crime victims only provide information that they has been detected it should be investigated, think the interviewer already knows. Once the and that identifying and contacting a victim, child closes down, providing therapeutic help even as an adult, could prevent future abuse. to the child becomes more difficult, and the The victim may be able to lead the police to the opportunity to identify and pursue the offender abuser, who may still have access to children. is jeopardized.414 Nevertheless, the issue is controversial.
Maxwell Taylor and Ethel Quayle, for example, Anonymity have questioned the legitimacy of such contacts. They argue that some victims may The Internet is commonly perceived to offer not know they had been photographed or that users anonymity, enabling them to construct the images were in circulation until they were identities and determine when, how and to what contacted by the police. In other cases, they extent information about them is communicated may have hidden the abuse from their family, to others in the online environment.415 By so are afraid of being held complicit in the abuse doing, their personal identity or personally images or have resolved their feelings about identifiable information is not known, and the the past. In all of these instances, police contact presumed anonymity of Internet activities could result in significant trauma. On the other creates a sense of security and secrecy for both hand, it is possible that an approach from the the offender and the victim. This, of course, police would be welcomed, particularly if it includes potential offenders. As described by belatedly offered the chance to prosecute the a report in 2009, “relative anonymity enables offender. Law enforcement agencies, of course, individuals to behave in ways that they would cannot know the victim’s response until they consider to be unthinkable in the physical have made contact. There is no easy solution to world.”416 Traditionally, in order to find their
Online/Offline Protection 65 victims in an offline context, child sex offenders detection. One of the most important tactics needed to stalk public places where children is changing their choice of technology. For tended to gather, such as school playgrounds example, law enforcement agencies have or social clubs. Today, the high level of noted an increase in the use of “anonymising” social interaction by children online provides services. At the turn of the century, Web- or offenders with a new environment to target newsgroup-based circulation of images children, in which the risks that they previously was the primary method of distribution. faced when making contact in person are Recent analysis suggests that peer-to-peer apparently eliminated. distribution, which avoids the necessity of housing the images on machines owned by Once individuals use the Internet, however, third parties such as Internet service providers, they typically leave a ‘digital trail’, or electronic is now a major form of image distribution.421 footprint, that offers new tools for police Increasingly within peer-to-peer and other investigations of child sex crimes and allows environments, encryption techniques are law enforcement agencies to collect valuable used, which offer further security to the forensic evidence.417 The head of intelligence offender. This phenomenon is likely to grow at the Child Exploitation and Online Protection as such programmes become easier to use (CEOP) Centre, for example, has stated: “The and computer-processing speeds make them anonymity that the Internet offers is simply an quicker to process. illusion and we will continue to use technology against offenders and track their digital The growth of wireless technology has also footprint to hold them to account in order to created a new opportunity for offenders protect children from abuse.”418 to evade detection. An unsecured wireless connection allows anyone to gain access to it, A user’s footprint is created through an Internet and if illegal material is downloaded, it will be Protocol (IP) address that identifies a computer traced to the owner of the wireless connection on a network. Every computer connected to the and not the user.422 Criminal justice agencies Internet requires an IP address to ensure that are warning the public to encrypt their wireless data moves back and forth through the network connections to avoid being an unsuspecting to the correct destinations. An IP address is conduit for illegal online activities. Additionally, therefore a unique, digital signature and can be ‘pay and go’ wireless services that do not correlated with specific subscriber details. In require registration allow offenders to remain operations where a server has been seized, it is anonymous. With prepaid wireless cards, no possible to extract information pertaining to each forensic evidence can be linked to the offender. IP address from which images were accessed, Prepaid wireless services are more attractive which can lead to determining the identity of the than cybercafes, where offenders risk their individual behind it. This frequently identifies activities being viewed by others.423 thousands of suspect IP addresses. Law enforcement agencies are caught in Legislation providing authorization to release a constant game of catch-up, as offenders the identity of the individual behind the IP explore more creative means of evading the address will necessarily vary across different law and the police develop new techniques, jurisdictions. To date in the United Kingdom, for programmes and partnerships to overcome example, ISPs have failed to retain the necessary these evasions. Collaboration across data in as many as 50 per cent of all cases. CEOP jurisdictions and with the private sector (such has led operations in which thousands of IP as Internet service providers willing to provide addresses were identified, but many could not police with IP addresses) is critical in supporting be resolved without subscriber data. Privacy the role of law enforcement. This opportunity advocates and service providers defend their is strengthened by the Council of Europe reluctance to retain data on grounds that it is Convention on Cybercrime, in article 18, which costly and unnecessary because very little of this gives law enforcement authorities the power to data is ever used by law enforcement, and that compel service providers to monitor a person’s retaining such large volumes of data is a major online activities. security risk.419 This problem should have been addressed in the EU at least, as a 2006 directive requires ISPs to retain data for up to six months Police capabilities and not longer than two years.420 Investigations into online criminal activity are There is evidence that offenders are becoming complex and time-consuming, often involving more sophisticated in their strategies to avoid coordination across different jurisdictions and
66 Child Safety Online concerning a huge network of offenders. This are essential throughout the process. Police poses a number of challenges. need to deliver a child-centred response, which rarely happens when they investigate on their The first challenge is limited specialist own. Child protection specialists ensure that the expertise. Tackling online/offline child sexual child is adequately safeguarded and the child’s abuse and exploitation requires combined welfare is taken into account at each stage of expertise in policing, computer and Internet the investigation.425 technology, and child protection. There is a distinction between computer crime and A third obstacle is the status of child protection computer-related crime. Investigators in both work. In many police forces, building expertise types of crime need training in specialized in the field of child protection is viewed as sets of skills. Information on computer low-status work with limited career prospects, crimes is usually stored on the computer, rendering it difficult to recruit high-calibre requiring technical knowledge to retrieve any personnel. A number of countries – including incriminating evidence, while computer-related Australia, New Zealand, the United Kingdom crimes, such as grooming, require information and the United States – have responded by from the victim. The ability to present such data establishing specialist units that develop in court requires additional skills. expertise in sexual exploitation and abuse online and utilize the expertise and experience Effective work with online/offline abuse of trained officers effectively.426 In 2003 law and exploitation demands the acquisition, enforcement agencies from Australia, the development and retention of specialist staff. United Kingdom and the United States, along But in many developing countries, specialist with Canada and INTERPOL, formed the Virtual units are largely absent, meaning that staff Global Taskforce to develop a 24-7 online are unlikely to have the necessary training to capability to respond to online incidents. Since investigate online crime. And even if they do its foundation, police services from Europol, have the skills, the technology to investigate Italy, New Zealand, and the United Arab the crime may not be available. Consequently, Emirates have become members.427 many law enforcement officers are at a disadvantage in detecting, investigating The complexity of gathering evidence is also and prosecuting online crime. The problem challenging. Both the nature of evidence is compounded by the speed of change in required and the sources of that evidence will technology and by offenders’ abilities to exploit differ in the online and offline environments. new developments in access to children and in Successful investigations must access strategies for evading identification.424 information from both. To be effective, however, investigators who examine the Another challenge is the lack of multi-agency electronic crime scene need to know how to approaches. Law enforcement agencies do not handle, collate and store admissible computer always view online sexual exploitation as a child evidence.428 In the online environment protection issue. Rather, in many countries, investigators need to examine the number online/offline child sexual exploitation is of screen names used by the offender; know regarded as ‘cybercrime’. E-crime or cybercrime whether there is a screen profile that suggests police departments are often focused on fraud deviant behaviour; see whether there is a and organized crime and may therefore have photograph; and, even more importantly, little or no expertise, or professional interest, in ascertain whether the profile is accurate in child protection. While organized commercial terms of age or gender. Other considerations in child abuse websites may legitimately be relation to online behaviour include how long classified as organized crime or be investigated the offender has had access to the Internet, by police officers more accustomed to dealing when and how much time the individual with fraud or terrorism, much sex abuse image has spent online, how many people have exchange and grooming does not. Grooming communicated with the offender and how is not perpetrated by organized criminals in the many were regular contacts. Investigators also traditional sense and is more commonplace need to examine the offender’s activities in than organized, commercial child abuse image the physical world, such as their employment, distribution. Thus, cybercrime departments access to young children through volunteering do not prioritize grooming and many cases or other activities, and their record of travel. are not pursued. The categorization of online The police gathering this evidence must child sexual exploitation as cybercrime know where to look, may have to prove the misrepresents the nature of the offending. It identity of the offender and victim, coordinate also excludes child protection specialists, who investigative activities, and enhance the
Online/Offline Protection 67 exchange of information and intelligence they reflect the global picture. In the first between different agencies. study, professionals were interviewed from all the specialized institutions in Germany that Finally, forensic capability is also a challenge. offer recovery services to children who had The scale of offending behaviour in relation to been sexually abused. The authors’ objectives online abuse of children has grown exponentially were to ascertain how many of the children during recent years, placing major demands on with whom these professionals worked were police time. Real-time abuse creates volumes subjects of abusive images, and to raise of new abusive images. The growing capacity awareness of the needs of this particular cohort of computer hard drives to store increasing of children. The professionals recognized, in amounts of data means that the investigative hindsight, that they had failed to respond to or process of online sexual abuse can be extensive correctly interpret victims’ hints to them. The and protracted. The extraction and analysis professionals were simply not sensitized to the of the offending files, video clips and Internet risks of Internet abuse. The research highlighted cache from just one computer can take days, the need for children to feel confident that involving the analysis of the correspondence, the social worker or counsellor was aware of uploads and downloads in the chat room used to the issue of child abuse images as well as the distribute abusive images.429 Media storage has importance of building trusting relationships grown even further in size and sophistication. and being patient. It was clear, however, that the The amount of data that can be seized by the professionals lacked the knowledge on how to police is almost incomprehensible. It could take identify, approach and help such children.431 one officer the whole of his working career to thoroughly investigate the contents of a Similar conclusions were reached in a 2010 10-gigabyte hard drive.430 study carried out in Norway. The purpose of the research was to find out what child protective service workers knew about harmful online Lack of capacity among behaviours and how they incorporated the professionals working with children subject into their daily work. The researchers hypothesized that, for a number of reasons, There is limited evidence on how social welfare such workers shied away from addressing this professionals are responding to the new particular area of abuse, despite acknowledging challenges of child protection in the online/ that they were aware that children on their offline environment. In general, professionals caseload had been abused via the new who come into contact with children – technologies. Many of those interviewed schoolteachers, nursery and school nurses, reported that they were uncertain about how to health personnel, police officers, social workers, handle such cases, some questioned whether counsellors and psychotherapists – are not harmful and abusive online behaviour fell sufficiently aware of the issues regarding abuse within their purview, while others, on reflection, via the new technologies. If, for example, they believed that they or their co-workers should were concerned about changes in a 13-year- have “noticed something going on.” A cohort olds’ behaviour, they may not consider that of respondents did not recognize online the child might be the victim of online abusive “hazardous behaviour as a problem in itself, behaviour and therefore don’t ask the child and few of them routinely asked questions about his or her online life. Furthermore, or attempted to map out their clients’ online they are not always prepared or able to hear behaviour.” Nearly all the informants recognized what children want to tell them. The causes that they needed to be better informed about of such gaps range from lack of professional online harmful activities, and how children and confidence, inadequate training, work pressure, young people behave in this context.432 emotional barriers, their own values, attitudes and beliefs, insufficient knowledge of the issues and lack of support. Bearing in mind how ICT Developing appropriate recovery is progressively becoming more central to the services lives of increasing numbers of children across the world, this lack of awareness means that Appropriate reporting and referral systems some professionals are failing to pick up on an must be in place so that children at risk of harm increasingly important context for abuse. are recognized and referred to the relevant services. In some parts of the world, for This lack of awareness is well illustrated in example Canada and United Kingdom, child two recent reports, and although they both welfare/protection agencies and criminal justice come from northern Europe, it is likely that agencies have jointly drawn up procedures for
68 Child Safety Online investigating cases of child sexual abuse with out and others were of ongoing service the aim of safeguarding the children concerned delivery, such as hotlines. and holding the perpetrator responsible. There are assessment and intervention programmes ●● Nine of the 10 countries consulted do not in place to assist children in their recovery and have national systems in place for recording help them understand what has happened to the numbers and nature of Internet-mediated them. However, even in those countries where crimes against children. Within some such connected practice exists, availability of countries, there are pockets of information recovery services is limited. from sources such as helplines, CEOP and ad hoc recovery services. Iceland, however, was To gain an indicative overview of available the exception. Because of its small size and rehabilitation and therapeutic services for other demographic factors, it has one central children, an ad hoc survey of professionals and point-of-call through which child protection researchers from 20 countries with expertise in referrals are channelled. Known as Kinder the field of online/offline exploitation and abuse House (Children’s House), it offers a universal of children was conducted for the purpose of service to all children who have been this paper.433 Ten countries – Australia, Bahrain, victimized throughout the country and runs Denmark, Germany, Iceland, India, Latvia, a multidisciplinary model with police, social the Russian Federation, South Africa and the workers, lawyers and counsellors who work United Kingdom responded – produced the in partnership. It is able to provide relatively following findings: accurate information on the incidence rates of online child victimization in Iceland, but ●● In some countries, there is separate and it appears that no further data about the distinct guidance for police and social demographic factors regarding the victims workers; in others there is only guidance for is available. police. Some countries have guidance, but it is not adhered to and is out-of-date. ●● Four of the country respondents stated that there were no examples of their country ●● Staff centres that offer recovery services to working collaboratively on international children who experience trauma report that investigations; one did not know of any, they do not feel confident in working with while the remaining five described complex online-related child abuse. international operations, taking place over months, involving numbers of countries that ●● Funding for services varies across the resulted in children being safeguarded and countries. Some reported that there is their perpetrators being convicted. no funding at all for such services, while others stated that funding was totally from ●● Bahrain, which has little in place regarding the government. The remaining countries a strategic response to Internet-related reported that funding is from a variety of crimes against children, reported that it had sources, including the government, NGOs, conducted a State of the Nation Review of charitable trusts, the ICT industry (Internet Internet Safety in 2010. This review provides service providers and mobile network a comprehensive analysis of Internet safety operators) and private donors. issues among adults and children and makes recommendations to ensure the safety of ●● Although respondents from six countries young people and adults navigating the replied in the negative when asked if they information highway. knew of any research publications regarding recovery needs of children from online These findings clearly reveal a mixed pattern of abuse within their country, the other four provision. Although pockets of good practice were able to report that some papers had exist, there is a need for more systematic and already been written and there are more coordinated processes across government in the pipeline. Some of the current papers and involving all relevant agencies if effective can only be obtained in the native language protection of children is to be achieved. Indeed, of the country, limiting opportunity for the current paucity of therapeutic services and wider dissemination. poor referral networks have led to a concern among some child protection agencies as to ●● Six countries were able to describe examples whether the process – from recognition to of national/regional police and social workers reporting and subsequent interventions by child working together. Some examples were protection agencies – actually improves the specific investigations that had been carried lives of children.434
Online/Offline Protection 69 to those seeking to harm children that Chapter 8: Building a these behaviours are unacceptable and will protective environment: be prosecuted. 3. Reducing availability and access to harm – implications for In coordination with government, the private sector – including the information and policy responses communication technology industry, credit card companies and Internet cafe owners – The research findings available suggest must act to ensure that adequate measures that a comprehensive, multi-stakeholder are in place to protect children from approach to protection should address four inappropriate material, either by its removal, interlinked objectives: through simple-to-use security settings, or through measures that enable parents to limit 1. Empowering children and enhancing access to harmful sites. resilience to harm – It is imperative that children and young people are empowered 4. Promoting recovery and rehabilitation for both to make informed choices about their children exposed to harm – When children online behaviour and, if they do encounter are harmed through Internet offences, they risks, know how to respond and where to go should be provided the necessary support for help. Achieving this goal requires not just and counselling to promote their recovery working with children and young people but and rehabilitation. investment in parents and professionals who work with children to ensure that they are Governments should adopt overarching able to provide the best possible support for strategies for child Internet safety that focus children, and are aware of the range of tools on these four objectives, which should also that are available to assist them. inform collaboration at the international and regional levels. Developing a comprehensive 2. Removing impunity for abusers – National strategy requires multi-sectoral involvement governments must take responsibility for and coordination. An example of this in introducing the necessary legislation, backed practice is the UK Council for Child Internet by law enforcement, to send a clear message Safety, created in 2008 to develop and oversee
Building a protective online/offline environment
Involve children as active Introduce the necessary participants in making legislation and law informed choices, and in Empower enforcement environment developing policy and children and Remove to effectively prosecute legislation. young people impunity those who abuse and enhance for children and young their resilience abusers. people online. to harm.
Promote Increase recovery and protection for Provide children rehabilitation for children and and young people children exposed reduce their Ensure that the who have been to harm. exposure to Internet environment, abused with the harm. wherever children and necessary support and young people access it, opportunities for recovery. is as safe as possible.
70 Child Safety Online the implementation of a child Internet safety understanding and confidence, and it will strategy that brings together government help ensure more effective strategies for departments and stakeholders including empowering children to protect themselves. law enforcement, industry, and the civic and The nature of the Internet means that there public sectors.435 will always be risks. Children and their parents need to understand how to manage those risks as effectively as possible. Objective One: Empower children and enhance Providing information for children resilience to harm Investment in developing appropriate There are three distinct profiles of children who messages on Internet safety and identifying are potentially at risk of exploitation and abuse how to reach out to all children is a priority. in the online environment. The first and largest Information and guidance should be based category is composed of young children used on accurate analyses of actual risks, taking to produce sexual abuse images and videos by into account children’s perspectives and parents, caregivers or others with easy access experiences, and drawing where possible on to them. These children have not done anything the most recent research. Collaboration with of their own volition that may have contributed children and young people in information to their being at risk, which is the result of and dissemination design will allow for actions by people who are known to them. clear, effective messages. Young people Child protection strategies should therefore be better understand children’s realities and broadly in line with those for any other group experiences and can help craft messages that of children being harmed by their parents or will be taken seriously. In general, children other caregivers. need to know:
The second profile includes children and ●● Their rights online to information, privacy, young people who are engaged in activities protection and participation; and behaviours on the Internet that could potentially place them at risk. The fact of their ●● How to safely use the Internet in a agency needs to be built into the protection responsive and responsible way by response. The third profile is children for whom respecting the rights and privacy of others; it is others’ behaviour in the ICT environment (bullying and harassment) that exposes them ●● The nature of online risks and how to to harm. Effective strategies for empowering avoid them; and enhancing the resilience of the second and third groups should include: (1) providing ●● Where to go when they are concerned the best possible information about the nature or frightened. of risks associated with their online activities and how to take necessary action to prevent Information must be produced and presented being exposed to harm; (2) the support of key in ways that reach children in all situations and adults in their lives; and (3) helping children and speak to their differing ages and capacities. young people know where to go for help when It should also consider young people within they need it. Children themselves will be a key a country who do not speak the majority source of much of that help, drawing on their language and those engaged in electronic common culture of Internet usage and their own communication at home, in Internet cafes and direct experiences. via mobile phones.
Preventive and protective responses to A variety of outlets for information is needed. Internet-initiated abuse need to take into Introducing ‘e-safety’ to school curricula, for account the extent to which children’s online example, is an effective way of reaching large participation, while potentially incorporating numbers of children. There will, however, risk-taking behaviour, has an important role be children and young people out of school in their identity construction, self-efficacy who are nevertheless accessing the Internet and social networking, which should be and alternative ways to reach them need valued and respected. Responses need to to be developed. These might be delivered be developed in conjunction with children through the non-formal school sector, NGOs and young people themselves. Their working with children, public advertising and active participation will contribute to their radio messages.
Online/Offline Protection 71 The development of the Insafe network of with messages on such topics as grooming, national awareness centres across the European paedophilia, racism, and misuse of personal Union is an example of an initiative that information and photographs. These strengthens information and awareness. At the informative stories have been produced with end of 2010, 30 countries had Insafe centres English subtitles and in sign language as well responsible for providing information, advice as in Hungarian, Roma and Slovak.440 and support, running awareness campaigns and monitoring risks.436 In Venezuela, Manos por la Niñez y Adolecencia (Hands for Children and Many countries have developed innovative Adolescents) promotes Internet safety for materials to communicate with children that children, adolescents, adults and Internet can be adapted to different country contexts. cafe owners. Among the group’s activities is In 2009, SaferNet Brasil – in partnership disseminating information to children about with the federal attorney general, federal the law, risks and advantages of Internet use police, the Special Secretariat for Human and how to be safe online. It has organized Rights at the Office of the President of the workshops on safer Internet use, moderated Republic and the Brazilian Internet Steering by adolescents, which gather information Committee – developed an educational kit on children’s and parents’ knowledge on Internet safety. The kit contains booklets, about the Internet and give them tools to lesson plans, video animation, educational respond if they become a victim of online videos, comics, glossaries and tutorials to crime. Steps for the future recommended help educators improve their students’ online by participants include collaborating with a safely and to provide educational material to software company to develop a safer web ensure long-term inclusion within Brazilian page, creation of physical space for dialogue schools.437 Brazil has also launched the Nética and sharing experiences, and development of social network to strengthen education and cybercafe logos with messages about safer prevention of harm online. The network Internet use for children.441 is open to all teachers and social workers who have been trained in online safety by Governments must take the lead in SaferNet and its partners, and has become developing and disseminating information a virtual meeting place for discussions programmes to ensure that approaches are and exchanges of material and events on not piecemeal, inconsistent or fragmented. cyberspace safety.438 Furthermore, investment in systematic evaluation of these programmes is needed The ‘thinkuknow’ website developed by to assess their effectiveness in raising CEOP provides children and young people awareness of risk and reducing risk- with accessible information on how to stay taking behaviour. protected online. It features up-to-date news on sites children may wish to visit and the Peer-to-peer approaches to cybersafety latest mobile devices and technology – and programmes are particularly effective. Given explores what is safe, what is not and where the generation gap in both knowledge and children can go for help if they need it. understanding of the issues, children and The website offers a child-friendly forum, young people are more likely to accept including cartoons, questions and answers, information from their peers or young fact sheets, films and games. It also provides people slightly older than themselves. detailed resources about online safety for Research has also shown that children see parents and other caregivers. Perhaps most themselves as protectors of other children important, ‘thinkuknow’ has a place for online in cases of abusive contacts online. They visitors to report if they feel uncomfortable turn first to each other when in need of or worried about someone they are chatting help.442 Young people also demonstrate with online. It also runs a major training high levels of concern and awareness of programme for young people in secondary risks for younger peers perceived as more schools throughout the United Kingdom.439 vulnerable than themselves.443 These findings point to a potential role for children as peer In Slovakia, an awareness-raising resource educators, mentors and advisers, a role that in the form of animated stories has been needs to be acknowledged and supported produced by the Slovak Safer Internet Centre. in preventive strategies. Young people Using such characters as sheep, a shepherd should have a significant role in raising the and his helper, a hunter and a wolf, the resilience of online communities to provide cartoons combine traditional Slovak culture greater protection.
72 Child Safety Online Effective reporting mechanisms for sexual abuse images from the Web, reporting criminal activity to law enforcement agencies children for further investigation and alerting Internet service providers to criminal activities hosted Beyond general information about keeping safe, on their servers. Further evaluation of the there is a need for simple, accessible and well- level of usage and effectiveness of online publicized mechanisms for children and young ‘panic buttons’ linking websites to hotlines is people to report and obtain additional support. highly recommended. (See box 1: International The Committee on the Rights of the Child strongly Association of Internet Hotlines, below .) recommends that all countries should establish accessible and child-friendly reporting systems, with child-friendly helplines for protection.444 BOX 1: International Association of Yet many young people have no idea how to Internet Hotlines report abuse or distressing experiences, or even which agencies are responsible for tackling The International Association of Internet such concerns. In the Plan India report of 2010, Hotlines (INHOPE) represents and for example, less than 10 per cent of survey coordinates a worldwide network of hotlines participants knew where to report online sexual used to report child abuse images, online abuse and exploitation.445 In addition, even if they sexual images and abuse. As of August 2011, know of such resources, many vulnerable children there were 40 INHOPE members worldwide will not report abuse to anyone.446 in Asia, Australia, Europe and North America; 35 member countries have hotlines. For those It is important to raise awareness across the countries that do not have hotlines, reports entire online community about where to get of abuse are passed to the relevant law help with avoiding danger and with responding enforcement agency.447 to harmful experiences online. When access to such resources is provided, resilient children The operations of INHOPE have been can report grooming attempts and thereby described as having a signifi cant role in protect more vulnerable children. CEOP setting the standards of operation for all has referred to this as ‘raising community hotlines, demonstrating, for example, resilience’, encouraging social networking that groups of smaller countries can site users to report suspicious behaviours establish a shared service or work with an to site moderators in order to protect more existing hotline.448 vulnerable peers and cultivate a more positive online community. Offenders who groom The INHOPE network has been effective children often target very large numbers in in encouraging law enforcement agencies order to increase their chances of fi nding a to respond to reports of illegal content, vulnerable child susceptible to their advances. child abuse images and online grooming, If 100 children are solicited by an offender but and information from the public has been only one responds to the approach, there are crucial in identifying the location of child nevertheless another 99 potential chances for a abuse images on the Internet. Some of these report to be made to law enforcement. reports have led to substantial police action, occasionally on a global scale. If a reported A range of online support to pre-empt abusive image is found to be illegal and is housed situations is available – including hotlines, within a country’s jurisdiction, a notice can be ‘report abuse’ functions, and online pop-ups issued to the hosting company, requiring it to and videos with safety messages. In some remove the image. The police can also initiate social networking sites, an icon sits on the an investigation. In most jurisdictions, as long home page. If children are concerned at as the hosting company acts swiftly to take any time about the behaviour of someone down the image, it will not be held liable for communicating with them, one click on the icon having hosted the image.449 will take them to a page where they can identify the type of concern they have and can be linked to a law enforcement agency. Many major social network sites in the United Kingdom now carry the ‘ClickCEOP’ icon, which enables children to Strengthening parents’ capacities to report any concern instantly. protect children These forms of hotline-enabled websites As described in Part One, signifi cant numbers have been successful in removing child of children do not inform their parents
Online/Offline prOteCtiOn 73 when they encounter difficult or potentially which address online safety for children. harmful experiences online. Evidence, The Intel programme has been particularly however, indicates that close communication active in South-East Asia in Cambodia, between parents and children acts as a strong Malaysia, and Vietnam, and also in Pakistan protective factor. As adults lag further behind and Sri Lanka.451 In India the Data Security young people in the use of information and Council draws together a wide range of private communication technologies, initiatives to sector partners in India to promote greater improve their knowledge would serve to awareness of a range of online hazards, enhance parental understanding and awareness including hazards to children.452 Since 2003 a and help strengthen lines of communication group of Indian law schools and lawyers have with children. promoted information and awareness through an organization called Freedom from Abuse of Programmes are needed to provide parents Children through Technology (FACT).453 with information about:
●● Types of activities in which children and Building the capacities of young people are engaged; professionals to support children
●● Benefits and risks associated with the online The professionals in contact with children environment, based on the relevant research on a regular basis – teachers, youth workers, (if available) in their country; social workers, community development workers and school psychologists – need to ●● Strategies children and young people need be informed about the ways in which children to keep safe; are using the Internet, sensitive to both the benefits and risks associated with its use, and ●● How to support children and young people to able to provide consistent, constructive and make safe choices; positive guidance to children. They should understand the different types of harmful, ●● Mechanisms for filtering and blocking abusive and dangerous behaviours online, be harmful sites, while recognizing limitations able to recognize warning signs and identify of highly restrictive impositions on symptoms, and be able to talk to young people Internet use; about their behaviours online and the nature of their relationships. ●● Potential sources of help and guidance for parents and children; Given that children are unlikely to divulge what is happening in their online lives, professionals ●● Where to report in the event of problems; need to be confident in taking a proactive role in exploring with them whether any observed ●● Importance of dialogue and engagement behavioural changes or signs of emotional with their children; disturbance are a consequence of their online activities.454 Although children may initially ●● How to talk to their children about sexuality. deny any problem, the intervention opens a door for children who may seek assistance Such information is of particular importance later. Trained professionals already possess for families in communities or societies where many skills required to communicate with and parents are less likely to be online themselves assist children, but they need to be encouraged or to have any direct experience of the nature of to build on existing expertise and knowledge the Internet and the opportunities it offers and about abusive behaviours towards children and risks it presents. to incorporate the growing body of knowledge concerning online abusive and harmful Examples of initiatives in middle and lower behaviours. In general, the effective integration income countries include the South Africa of understanding of the issues surrounding Parents Corner, a website that focuses online related abuse and exploitation into specifically on safety issues in relation to existing child protection services is likely to be children and young people’s use of mobile more effective than considering the issues as phones. The resources for the site come from qualitatively different and requiring some form a company called BulkSMS.com.450 The global of a specialist stream. microchip manufacturer Intel sponsors a web site and associated resources available Professionals involved in parent education also in 24 languages, including specific resources need to be up to date on these same issues.
74 Child Safety Online Pre-service and in-service training needs to development of initiatives that promote a include components on Internet safety that commitment to zero tolerance of violence and will enable these professionals to provide abuse in schools, including cyberspace. ‘Whole appropriate support and guidance for children school’ approaches involving all members of and young people in the context of their the school community – including parents – are rights to information, freedom of expression, likely to be most effective. The components privacy, and protection from violence and all of programmes need to raise awareness of forms of exploitation and abuse. In Thailand, the nature, scale and impact of cyberbullying, for instance, a digital literacy initiative was principles and values of respect and non- established to ensure that ICT users can violence, mechanisms for reporting, sanctions safely use computers, the Internet, email, that encourage insight and understanding of smartphones and other new technologies by the problem, and monitoring and evaluation of understanding information technology security, outcomes. In addition, it is important to actively laws on human rights and general safety tips. implement educational measures that promote A training module was developed and some principles of acceptance, respect and decency 300 teachers were trained. Those teachers among students,456 and children need to have a subsequently delivered safety messages to primary role in all stages of this process. One more than 70,000 children.455 example of a national programme is highlighted in box 2, which describes interventions against cyberbullying in Croatia. Tackling cyberbullying in schools
Preventing cyberbullying is a priority for Involving young people as resources children and young people. Schools must and advocates for Internet safety be in the vanguard of adopting strategies to tackle this problem, but they require help Experience from ECPAT’s work with young from national programmes for guidance and people in Africa highlights the diverse strengths support. Governments need to support the young people can bring to the table. In addition
BOX 2: Cyberbullying – Intervening in Croatia The Government of Croatia, supported by UNICEF, has backed a national initiative to take on cyberbullying. The approach involves schools, parents and communities in promoting seven elements:
●● Awareness that cyberbullying exists;
●● Elements of the safety network defi ned. During this process, students agree on what behaviours they do and do not consider to be acceptable, they discuss what rules should be established and how violations can be handled with a focus on restitution rather than punishment;
●● Safety network established and working. This involves peer support, mailbox mechanisms to share concerns and training on how to cope with bullying when it occurs;
●● Cooperation across the local community, engaging parents and the wider community;
●● Students ask for help. If all the above steps are taken, children should feel more confi dent about seeking help;
●● The school reacts and follows the protocol;
●● School is a safer place. Schools that successfully achieve all seven steps are proclaimed ‘Violence-Free Schools’.
The programme involves hundreds of schools. An independent evaluation found signifi cant changes in the environment at participating schools. Students state that they notice violence more, are less afraid and adults react when violence occurs.457
Online/Offline prOteCtiOn 75 to their intellectual contributions, they added partnered with ECPAT to open an Internet cafe unique perspectives in planning the initiative operated by volunteers and young people.460 and skills in mobilizing support, and were This promotes guidelines to protect children far more in touch than adults with the latest from harmful material on the Internet and technological developments and activities in cautions them about risky contacts online or in the online environment. Furthermore, they cafes. Other EOL cybercafe franchisees joined had creative ideas for countering perpetrators’ the campaign, leading to a 2008 conference efforts to reach children on the Internet and organized with UNICEF that brought together were well placed to provide peer-to-peer senior government officials including those education on Internet safety.458 from public information and mass media, the Centre for Transnational Crimes, the National There are several examples of children and Bureau of Investigation, the private sector, young people becoming proactive in campaigns including business associations, civil society, to raise awareness of online risks. In the and children and young people. They identified Philippines, for instance, ECPAT and UNICEF in a series of safety problems confronted at 2006 supported 75 young people aged 2 to 24 in cybercafes and proposed solutions such developing the ‘make IT safe’ campaign.459 The as pornography site blockers, posted rules objectives were: prohibiting the surfing of pornography sites and guidance on how to communicate ●● Create a safe online environment for children effectively with troublesome customers. and young people; Among the many positive conference outcomes was the development of a code of ●● Get the information technology industry and conduct for Internet cafe operators and owners Government to make online and interactive in the Philippines to improve child protection technologies safe for children and young standards in the Internet industry.461 people; In Benin, the Gambia, Kenya, Mozambique, ●● Raise public awareness about the problem of Nigeria, South Africa and Togo, with ECPAT child abuse images; support, young people have created public awareness campaigns on the risks associated ●● Create a positive environment that enables with the online environment – and on the children and young people to confront the responsibilities of governments and Internet phenomenon of child abuse images. service providers to ensure better protection of children online.462 The campaign’s focus was to:
Key message ●● Lobby for codes of conduct in Internet cafes;
Children and young people see themselves ●● Share experiences on youth mobilization as protectors of other children. Children and partnerships; turn first to each other when in need of help. ●● Encourage youth partnership with both Young people demonstrate high levels of private and public sectors. concern and awareness of risks for younger As a result of these youth-led campaigns, siblings, friends and others perceived as more participating cybercafe owners in Kenya agreed to codes of conduct that strengthened child vulnerable than themselves. This suggests a protection online. In Benin, some cybercafe potential role for children and young people owners displayed notices warning customers that their businesses prohibited pornographic as peer educators, mentors and advisers. content. The success of these youth-led campaigns was grounded by the fact that young people are Internet cafe users and can relate to the movement’s objectives and that Everything Online (EOL), a local franchise cybercafe owners rely on young people as their that supported ‘make IT safe’, took concrete customer base. measures to prevent sexual abuse and exploitation of children via the Internet, The International Youth Advisory (IYAC) including the adoption of a code of conduct Congress on Internet Safety and Security, and the posting of online safety reminders launched by the Child Exploitation and Online in their Internet shops. In 2007, the franchise Protection (CEOP) Centre in London, in July
76 Child Safety Online 2008, provided a platform for young people However, local networks of key individuals, to express their concerns. In a forum with community-based organizations and agencies representatives from government, media, law working with children and young people are enforcement, education and industry, young also important for building safer communities. people made sure that adults would hear them This is particularly important in countries where and act on their concerns about the online national child protection systems are weak environment for children. During the congress, and law enforcement capacities limited. Local more than 140 youth delegates created the actors may include teachers, religious leaders, world’s first international charter related to parents’ groups, community and civil society children’s and young people’s experiences organizations, and representatives of the private in the online environment: the IYAC Children sector such as cybercafe owners, and mobile and Young Persons’ Global Online Charter.463 phone and credit card vendors. Crucial aspects The charter was intended to serve as a policy for building the capacities of local networks proposal for ‘Child Protection in the Converged include: enhancing their understanding of Environment’ and to be presented for risk and vulnerability online; helping them consideration in the 2009 Omnibus Resolution to recognize their roles, responsibilities and of the Convention on the Rights of the Child.464 required actions to reduce risk; and providing guidance on how to respond to children’s and It is important to ensure that youth participation young people’s concerns. is not a one-shot event. Rather, their involvement needs to be institutionalized to enable them to influence and bring about Objective Two: Remove change. Young people can contribute their expertise and experience in respect of: impunity for abusers
●● The nature of the risks and abuses they face; Removing impunity for abusers is essential for preventing and responding to sexual ●● Patterns of online activity; abuse of children in the merged online/offline environment. When abusers are confident that ●● Levels and forms of needed protection; they can act without either social condemnation or risk of prosecution, the problem continues ●● Potential strategies for introducing and escalates. Combating abuse and removing greater protection; impunity requires consistent legislation across nations backed by collaboration with law ●● Vulnerabilities of particular groups enforcement. The sexual abuse and exploitation of children; of children online is a global issue, which must be dealt with by action at the national, regional ●● Principles governing confidentiality and global levels. There is a grave risk that and privacy. child sex abusers will concentrate efforts in countries that offer the least protection and Several countries in the European Union have where they can more easily exploit children. As developed youth panels to raise awareness outlined by the International Centre for Missing and share good practices. By sharing their & Exploited Children in 2010, building a “holistic perspectives on experiences online, and on and uniform” approach across jurisdictions wider protection issues, the youth panels is the most effective way to combat sexual helped those charged with building a protective exploitation because it: environment to test materials on their intended audience prior to release, and to fine-tune ●● Promotes consistency in criminalization and direct their campaigns and resources and punishment; more effectively.465 ●● Builds public awareness of the problem;
Strengthening community capacity ●● Enhances services available to assist victims; to provide protection ●● Bolsters law enforcement efforts at the Governments, including state institutions such national and international levels.466 as police, social welfare agencies and local government bureaucracies, are ultimately The huge differences among existing legal responsible for ensuring that effective policies frameworks across the world’s jurisdictions and mechanisms to protect children exist. create daunting challenges. Drafting legislation
Online/Offline Protection 77 to protect children in a merged online/ deemed to violate the First Amendment right offline environment is complex. Establishing to free speech.468 Conversely, South Africa’s a coherent global approach intensifies that legislation bans such virtual representations challenge significantly. of children. There is no universally accepted definition of child pornography or child The international instruments that establish abuse images, and it is incumbent upon each human rights standards and obligations in jurisdiction to ensure specificity and clarity respect to preventing sexual exploitation and in the language of its legislation. Specifically, abuse of children in the online environment action is needed to clarify: must be incorporated into national laws that address the need to criminalize harmful ●● Definition of child and age of consent – behaviour and ensure effective enforcement – In order to provide effective protection, and to respect the rights of victims. A national laws must introduce an appropriate holistic approach is required for building an definition of a child. Although a person under environment that removes abusers’ impunity age 18 may be able to freely consent to to prosecution and challenges the ‘cost-benefit’ sexual relations, such an individual should that is generally weighted in the abuser’s not legally be able to consent to any form of favour. This approach must also seek to secure sexual exploitation, including the creation the indivisible nature of children’s human rights of child abuse images. Accordingly – and within the process of global implementation consistent with the definition of a child in the of international standards and collaboration Convention on the Rights of the Child, article and communication among governments. The 1 – for the purposes of child abuse images, a fundamental building blocks for establishing the child should be defined as anyone under the legislation and law enforcement framework that age of 18 years. are required to remove impunity from abusers are described below. ●● Definition of child pornography or child abuse images – At a minimum, the definition should include ‘the visual Effective national legislation representation of a child involved in real or simulated sexual acts or the depiction Every country needs to introduce national of a child’s sexual organs for the purposes legislation to bring into force the agreed upon of sexual gratification’. The Committee on international standards required to protect the Rights of the Child, consistent with children from exploitation and abuse in the the provisions of the Council of Europe online/offline environment. The dimensions that Convention on Cybercrime, has advised need to be considered in drafting legislation, governments that legislation be amended which should be grounded in an explicit to prohibit ‘cartoon’ representations of commitment to the best interests of the child, children.469 Moreover, the legislation must include the following: explicitly address all forms of child abuse images as well as the ways they can be distributed and possessed. Clear definitions Specific definitions in legislation are important Criminalizing sexual activities 467 in promoting child protection. In countries with children where ‘child pornography’ or ‘child abuse images’ are not defined, law enforcement and In line with the Council of Europe Convention courts have generally failed to include imagery on the Protection of Children against that would otherwise meet the definition Sexual Exploitation and Abuse, article 18, intended by international law. The United States legislation needs to criminalize engaging in Supreme Court case Ashcroft versus Free sexual activities with a child under the age Speech Coalition, for example, determined that of sexual consent, or where “use is made of virtual representations of children engaged coercion, force or threats; or abuse is made in sexually explicit activity would not be of a recognised position of trust, authority considered child pornography. Definitions of or influence over the child, including within child pornography as sexually explicit material the family; or abuse is made of a particularly depicting a person who ‘appears to be a minor’ vulnerable situation of the child, notably or ‘is advertised as conveying the impression because of a mental or physical disability or a that the person is depicted as a minor’ were situation of dependence.”
78 Child Safety Online Criminalizing sexual exploitation and and to prevent the would be offender from 470 abuse of children having any direct contact with the child. Legislation needs to elaborate a range of offences in order ensure explicit and rigorous Introducing effective sanctions: protection of children consistent with their penalties and sentencing human rights, including: If sexual exploitation and abuse of children via ●● Possession of child abuse images, regardless the Internet are to be addressed effectively, of the intent to distribute; and impunity removed, it is necessary to ensure that the penalties for committing ●● Downloading or viewing of child abuse such crimes are commensurate with the level images on the Internet and using the Internet of harm experienced by the child. Tough to distribute child abuse images; sanctions promote a clear message that abusive behaviours are not acceptable, will ●● Provision of information on where to find not be tolerated and will be punished. The child abuse images, for example, providing Council of Europe Conventions on Cybercrime website addresses, offering advice or taking (article 13) and on the Protection of Children actions necessary to facilitate the possession against Sexual Exploitation and Abuse (article or downloading of illegal content; 27) reflect the requirement that sanctions for those found guilty of offences of sexual ●● Actions of parents or legal guardians who exploitation must be “effective, proportionate acquiesce to their child’s participation in and dissuasive,” taking into account child abuse images (such actions should their seriousness. be recognized as commissioning multiple crimes including rape, sexual exploitation, One aspect of this is defining the level of sexual assault, sexual abuse and the penalties, and there are useful examples from manufacture of child abuse images); efforts to combat abuse offline. In the United States, for example, the National Center for ●● Grooming offences that involve actions Missing & Exploited Children has advocated taken by the abuser to ‘prepare’ the child that all legislation against child prostitution and for a sexual relationship (for example, the child-sex tourism should carry strict sentences Council of Europe Convention on Protection that will be enforced against violators, thereby of Children against Sexual Exploitation and promoting a deterrent effect. They maintain that Abuse, in article 23, clearly affirms that fines and misdemeanour classifications are not countries should criminalize any intentional enough. Legislation should enable aggravating proposal of an adult to meet a child under circumstances to be taken into account in the age of consent for sexual purposes – and determining the response to offences. In provides a useful model that can be adopted addition, some countries have introduced or adapted by countries in other regions of legislative measures subjecting convicted the world); defendants to forfeiture provisions that allow for the confiscation of property, proceeds or ●● Sexual abuse without contact, e.g., assets that resulted from child pornography criminalization of activities by child-sex activities.471 Such elements could well be offenders that encourage children and applied to sexual abuse and exploitation via young people to participate in sexual the Internet. activities online.
●● Attempt crimes – It is now possible to obtain Avoiding criminal liability evidence of an intention to commit a crime of children against a child in ways that were rarely available previously, for example, from email National legislation must clearly state that exchanges, instant messaging logs and text there should be no criminal liability for messages. Where such evidence is linked children involved in online sexual offences. to acts that are preparatory to committing Children should be acknowledged as victims, a crime against a child, law enforcement regardless of whether they were considered to agencies should have the power to make an be ‘compliant’ with their abuse or are currently arrest or otherwise intervene to prevent the non-cooperative witnesses. Criminal liability intended substantive crime from taking place must focus on the adult offender, who is
Online/Offline Protection 79 responsible for the exploitation of the child, impact assessments to ensure that all children and on the crimes he or she committed against are protected. that child.
Legal provisions must allow for the protection Codified timelines of the child as a witness in any judicial proceedings that may occur, including In the criminal justice system, it can take permitting closed-circuit testimony in certain months, if not years, after a child is exploited circumstances and establishing guidelines or abused before an investigation is complete, for the presence of victim advocates in the an alleged offender is arrested, a hearing takes courtroom. The United Nations ‘Guidelines in place and a verdict is rendered. Similarly in the Justice Matters involving Child Victims and civil courts, if a victim is suing the offender for Witnesses of Crime’ offers internationally compensation, the process can take many years acknowledged standards and principles, to come to fruition. During this time the child including the right of the child to be ages, the technology becomes obsolete and the protected from hardship during the justice offender may continue the abuse.474 This could process. These should be extended to child be addressed by the introduction of timelines victims of offences committed in the online/ within relevant legislation. Such timelines can offline environment. In addition, where dictate limits on the number of days from the children under 18 are engaged in sexual filing of a complaint until a first appearance abuse or harassment online, and the child’s before a tribunal, the number of months from behaviour was deemed to be illegal, the the first hearing to a final hearing, and the government response should be through maximum time between a hearing and the the juvenile justice system in collaboration final verdict. Guidelines can also be introduced with the child protection system rather than for appeals. the criminal justice system, in line with international standards.472 Addressing jurisdiction and Consideration might also be given to the extradition issue of sexting. This increasingly widespread practice of young people flirting online and The merged environment is less and less exchanging sexualized or nude images can in constrained by borders, and in order to protect some countries result in the prosecution and children, governments must design legislation severe punishment of young people under that covers the actions of their citizens pornography laws. This response is usually a across the globe. Adopting ‘extra-territorial’ result of laws that have not been updated to criminal laws is essential. Clear guidance for respond to the evolution of technology, or that the legislative requirements to achieve this have a single-focus aim to protect children objective can be found in relevant international from sexual predators and, in so doing, instruments. The Optional Protocol on the fail to look comprehensively at children’s sale of children, child prostitution and child online behaviours. pornography recommends in article 4 that a State Party may establish jurisdiction over One approach to resolving this problem might offences of sexual exploitation and abuse be to amend legislation addressing child abuse committed outside their national borders when images, and other criminalized online actions, the victim is a citizen, and when the alleged to include a special provision for juveniles. offender is a citizen or habitually resides in This can also be achieved by introducing the State Party’s territory. However, article 5 police charging and prosecutorial guidelines states that the protocol does require that these accompanying such legislation, with mitigating offences be deemed as extraditable offences in and proportionate measures for young any current or future extradition treaty existing people whose online actions bring them into between State Parties. In article 25, the Council conflict with the law – for example, those who of Europe Convention on the Protection of ”sext” – so they are not prosecuted as adults Children against Sexual Exploitation and Sexual or forced to register as sex offenders.473 Legal Abuse goes further and requires that sexual responses to online child protection concerns exploitation offences, when committed by one can have negative unintended consequences of its nationals in other territories, must also be for children, and within the scope of effective criminalized. In addition, it requires legislation responses, must be carefully designed, to enable a person who has his or her habitual appropriate, and accompanied by child rights residence in the State’s territory (but is not
80 Child Safety Online a national) to be prosecuted for offences training, particularly on how to locate and committed abroad. identify the victim. It is unlikely this strategy would be adopted by many developing countries in the near future. Effective child-centred law enforcement In all policing approaches, it is imperative that the rights of the child remain at the centre To achieve the greatest possible protection of the investigative process, otherwise there for children, law enforcement interventions is a risk that she or he will be ‘re-victimized’. must cover a broad range of approaches. The best interests of the child need to be Some police forces, for example, have adopted recognized as a primary principle informing the intelligence-led, community-based, zero- entire law enforcement strategy. Collaboration tolerance or multi-agency partnerships capable between law enforcement agencies and of producing effective crime prevention and agencies with expertise in childcare, child- child protection outcomes.475 centred approaches and understanding children’s therapeutic needs are essential. In some countries, in order to arrest an Social workers, teachers and psychologists offender in the act of soliciting a child, law can provide valuable guidance on the use enforcement members go under cover, posing of appropriate interrogation and interview as teenagers to draw out sex offenders. In techniques and can help police maintain a clear such covert operations, the police are able to focus on the protection of victims during the exploit the same tool of anonymity used by prosecution of offenders. offenders, a strategy not possible in the offline environment.476 Awareness that police are Embedding the interests of the child as a central engaged in these proactive investigations of dimension of the process rather than keeping child abuse offenders can act as a deterrent it as a separate activity is crucial to ensure the to potential offenders. Such operations also best outcomes for children. A strong structural enable the police to obtain documentary relationship between agencies, recognizing the evidence through chat logs, which can be investigation as a joint activity, is needed from used as evidence in court proceedings and the outset. This will contribute to: avoid the requirement for children’s testimony. Offenders who attempt to download images ●● Establishing a principled framework, for are confronted by law enforcement, and example, ensuring that the investigative informed that they have committed a crime and tactics adopted do not place the child at that details have been passed to the relevant continuing or further risk. In surveillance national authorities for further investigation. operations, police should not actively participate in the abuse or exploitation of A study on covert investigations conducted children or the receipt of abusive images in between 2005 and 2008 by the United order to entrap potential offenders. Kingdom’s New Scotland Yard Paedophile Unit verified that 273 sexual abusers interacted ●● Ensuring a multi-agency focus, bringing in with undercover police officers and were all the relevant expertise needed to provide found to have committed sexual offences the best possible protection and support against children.477 In the United States, a for the child, including psychological 2006 survey of law enforcement agencies and counselling support, health care and found that 73 per cent of estimated arrests for social work. crimes involving social networking sites were cases that involved undercover operations.478 ●● Highlighting and safeguarding child welfare The results of a study in 2000 suggest that during the investigation and ensuring that 25 per cent of all arrests for Internet sex crimes relevant legislation – as well as advice and against minors were achieved through covert guidance for children and young people – are operations. Prosecutions in these cases led to fully understood. Depending on the nature high rates of guilty pleas and low rates of cases of the case, this may involve considering being dismissed or dropped.479 how to address past or ongoing abuse, making contact with suspects, strategies There are limitations, however. Although covert for undertaking the first contact with operations are undoubtedly a valuable tool children, medical examinations, interviewing for law enforcement agencies in industrialized strategies, therapeutic needs of the child and societies, they involve considerable time and advice regarding placement if a child cannot resources and require special investigative remain with his or her parents.
Online/Offline Protection 81 BOX 3: Holistic and child-centred investigations
The Child Exploitation Online Protection (CEOP) Centre, based in the United Kingdom, is dedicated to preventing and responding to sexual abuse and exploitation of children and young people. It is primarily a national law enforcement agency whose work includes intelligence gathering and dissemination, public protection through an offender management team, behavioural analysis, fi nancial investigation, victim identifi cation and covert Internet investigation. Additionally, CEOP has a child protection team responsible for ensuring a child-centred strategy for every investigation, developed by social work teams in close consultation with law enforcement staff.
CEOP acts as a single point of contact for sexual abuse and exploitation reports from the public, the Internet, children’s charities and law enforcement through its online reporting mechanism. By bringing together a broad range of expertise, the Centre is able to provide a more holistic approach to preventing sexual exploitation and abuse, law enforcement and recovery. Providing a model for adoption in any country, the commitment to child rights and child protection is central to CEOP’s investigations, and children are never coached in order to secure evidence.
●● Enhancing mutual understanding through enforcement agencies that work together to close cooperation that enables all agencies to fi ght child abuse online and protect children better appreciate the tensions and challenges from abuse.483 (See box 4: Operation Elm: An inherent in reducing online offences while international online child abuse investigation, protecting children’s best interests. Enhanced page 83 .) understanding will facilitate negotiated strategies for balancing those tensions. Law enforcement offi cials use a number of international tools that help gather evidence Some countries – including Australia, Canada, in criminal cases and facilitate data exchange New Zealand, the United Kingdom and the between national police forces. These include: United States, which work together as part of the Virtual Global Taskforce – have introduced ●● Moyen Automatisé de Recherche des specialist units that focus on online sexual Images Non Autorisées – the Unlawful exploitation and abuse of children, enabling Images Automatic Search, also known as different professionals to work collaboratively MARINA, a user-friendly tool that scans on cases. (See box 3 above: Holistic and child- suspects’ computers for fi les related to child centred investigations .) abuse images;484
●● The Investigator’s Dashboard – a tool Cooperation across law funded under the European Commission enforcement agencies Safer Internet Plus Programme and used to support law enforcement in investigations By serving as a central global point of contact that involve large quantities of child sexual for police, Interpol enables more effective abuse video material; investigations at the local, national and international levels.480 It also coordinates large- ●● The International Child Sexual Exploitation scale investigations involving multiple member Image Database – an INTERPOL database countries and utilizes the ‘Green Notice’, an that can be securely accessed by effective law enforcement tool that alerts the accredited investigators regardless of their international policing community to those geographical location and is used to share offenders who are likely to repeat the same data with law enforcement agencies via crimes in other countries.481 sophisticated image comparison software;
Other global cooperative efforts include: ●● United States Department of Justice CIRCAMP, the COSPOL Internet Related programmes – track and prosecute Child Abuse Material Project,482 which is a child abuse images offenders across European law enforcement network with a all jurisdictions, from local to federal to worldwide scope of preventing and detecting international, and includes the Child Victim online child sexual abuse material; and the Identifi cation Program,485 the world’s largest Virtual Global Taskforce, made up of law database of child abuse images;
82 Child Safety Online ●● CEOP’s International Child Protection ●● The European Financial Coalition’s Network – an inclusive approach that shares standards of investigation – deals with experience and pools knowledge and is commercial child abuse images, depending active in Cambodia, Romania, Thailand and on resources and levels of expertise Viet Nam, building a network of alliances and within law enforcement agencies, and partnerships to deliver a holistic approach, has produced a guidance document for spanning geographical borders;486 investigations into commercial sites sent to
BOX 4: Operation Elm – An international online child abuse investigation
International collaboration among law enforcement agencies can lead to identifi cation, evidence gathering and arrest of child sexual abusers who operate globally. This was the case in 2007, when an international network of child abusers ran into the long arm of the law, stretching across several country borders.
‘Operation Elm’ was run jointly by members of the Virtual Global Task Force: the Australian Federal Police, the Child Exploitation and Online Protection Centre (UK), Cleveland Police in the United Kingdom, the Metropolitan Police Service (New Scotland Yard’s Paedophile Unit), the Royal Canadian Mounted Police and the United States Department of Homeland Security. The investigation was one of the largest coordinated deployments of undercover offi cers in the United Kingdom within a child protection investigation.
New Scotland Yard’s Paedophile Unit received information through an Internet forum, where users posted ‘borderline-legal’ images of children and comments that clearly indicated a sexual interest in children. Law enforcement offi cers recognized the tactic of posting indicative images instead of more explicit child sex abuse images in an attempt to keep the site ‘below the radar’ of law enforcement and prevent the site from being shut down. After making initial contact through the forum, users would then meet other like-minded individuals and organize the exchange of illegal child abuse images in different online sites. Law enforcement identifi ed the principal offender as a senior administrator of the site living in the United Kingdom.
This online forum attracted offenders from around the world, requiring close cooperation among international law enforcement agencies during the investigation. CEOP (UK) coordinated the international investigation, attaching undercover Internet investigators to the operation to obtain more information and identify those suspects who had access to children and posed a risk of perpetrating contact sexual abuse. The Australian Federal Police, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police and the United States Department of Homeland Security took the lead within their jurisdictions. Law enforcement offi cers seized the server, and were able to identify individuals who accessed the site through their online footprint. Overall, there were 360 suspects, with 130 residing in the United Kingdom.
Given the multitude of suspects, it was crucial to obtain the necessary information to identify both children experiencing ongoing abuse or at risk of being abused, and the offenders. An internationally agreed child protection strategy was developed to guide all interactions between undercover law enforcement agents and suspects while at the same time ensuring compliance with relevant legislation, guidance and good practice standards. This strategy was designed to ensure that no child would be harmed as a result of the undercover deployment, and to maximize access to information relating to children at risk. Appropriate standards and procedures were implemented on discovery of a child victim. Alongside United Kingdom investigative teams was a child protection social worker who monitored and handled issues as they arose. This ensured that all operational decisions were made in the best interests of the child and, if necessary, appropriate referrals to local services would go smoothly. Some 15 children in the United Kingdom and 40 children from around the globe were safeguarded during this investigation.
Sources: Virtual Global Taskforce, ‘UK Police Uncover Global Online Paedophile Network’, 8 August 2008, available at: www.virtualglobaltaskforce.com/2008/uk-police-uncover-global-online-paedophile-network, accessed 2 September 2011; Child Exploitation and Online Protection Centre, ‘Annual Review 2008–9’, CEOP, London, 2009, p. 16, available at: http://ceop.police.uk/Documents/CEOP_Annual_Review_2008-09.pdf, accessed 2 May 2012.
Online/Offline prOteCtiOn 83 every national law enforcement agency in identified websites that traffic in commercial Europe.487 child abuse images. FACS was also designed to ensure coordination in law enforcement Greater investment is needed, however, in operations against commercial sites by refining and expanding tools that can help flagging those that were already the subject identify victims, including the development of of ongoing investigation, and identifying an international database of images. This would those that were not.491 contribute to more effective identification, reduce replication of work across law ●● Microsoft has partnered with law enforcement agencies, and prevent or minimize enforcement agencies and ISPs in various repeated viewing of images. Resources would countries to develop initiatives designed to be needed to accurately record incidents stop the exploitation of children over the of online victimization to better inform law Internet.492 enforcement strategies and to accurately gauge the level of threat. In particular, an international database would enhance the Mandatory reporting mechanisms capacities of middle- and low-income countries that otherwise might not have the resources for While the importance of safe and accessible effective action. reporting mechanisms has been established, the feasibility of mandatory reporting of child abuse cases should also be considered. None Cooperation with the private sector of the international instruments requires introduction of a system of mandatory Because the media and platforms that have reporting. The UN Study on Violence against been developed and are administered by the Children presented varying views on the private sector provide the infrastructures that issue and ultimately decided against such a are used by abusers, the private sector has recommendation. Rather, it concluded that an essential responsibility to support action governments should review existing reporting against those who abuse and exploit children. mechanisms – and involve children and young Effective law enforcement in the merged online/ adults who have recent experience with child offline environment requires the cooperation protection systems in the review process.493 of ISPs, the online payments industry and However, there may be a stronger case to be other private sector stakeholders. A number made for mandatory reporting in the context of of examples of private sector engagement and online exploitation and abuse, where a wider cooperation now exist: group of both witnesses and potential offenders are involved.494 ●● In the USA, the Financial Coalition against Child Pornography set up in 2006 by the The Committee on the Rights of the Child has National Center for Missing & Exploited continuously stressed that, at a minimum, Children and involving over 30 major reporting any instances of suspicion or risk of banks and other institutions in the online violence should be required of all professionals payments industry. It has produced a range working directly with children.495 This would of handbooks and guides specifically aimed include such individuals as health care and at combating the trade in online child abuse social services professionals, teachers, school images.488 In 2009, ICMEC launched the counsellors and law enforcement officers, who Asia Pacific – Financial Coalition against in their everyday, professional capacity come Child Pornography (APAC-FCACP) to create into contact with children and are responsible awareness around the potential use of formal for some aspects of their care. The Committee financial systems for such illegal transactions has also argued strongly that, where State in the Asia region.489 Parties have established an obligation for certain professional groups to report child ●● The European Financial Coalition (EFC), abuse it should be accompanied by appropriate funded by the European Union, involving professional training of such staff.496 20 members drawn from major international credit card companies, the online payments Concerns have been expressed by many in industry, law firms, software companies the child protection field about the efficacy and non-governmental organizations, led of mandatory reporting. As noted by the by CEOP during its initial 18 month pilot Joint Report of the Special Rapporteur on the phase.490 The EFC developed the Flagging and sale of children, child prostitution and child Co-ordination System (FACS), a database of pornography and the Special Representative
84 Child Safety Online of the Secretary General on Violence against the work, key performance indicators on child Children, the effectiveness of reporting is protection may need to be introduced against dependent on the quality of services available which chief police officers would be assessed. to address reports, and risks of over-reporting may increase the burden on child welfare systems and thus decrease capacities to Objective Three: Reduce provide assistance, increase adversarial relationships between families and child availability and access to harm protection authorities, and discourage families from seeking voluntary help.497 However, the Efforts are needed to introduce strategies report affirmed the view of the Committee on that both restrict opportunities for potentially the Rights of the Child and argued that reporting offending adults to access abusive material and by professionals who work with children is limit exposure of children and young people appropriate in all societies and has particular to sites, material and experiences likely to importance in respect to younger children who cause them harm. While the primary goal is are especially vulnerable and for whom early obviously the elimination of online/offline sexual intervention can help reduce the risk of repeated exploitation and abuse of children, the reality abuse and long-term harmful consequences.498 is that many millions of images continue to be available on the Internet and are likely to be there Some might additionally argue that mandatory for the foreseeable future. Strategies are needed reporting should also apply to individuals who to reduce the numbers of images being created, may potentially be exposed to child abuse stored and circulated, and to limit access for images as a result of their job responsibilities, both potential abusers and the children who may for example, photo developers and information encounter harmful sites in the course of their technology professionals, who discover child Internet use. The continued presence of child abuse images while processing film, repairing a abuse images encourages further exploitation computer or servicing a company computer in of children, leads to increased numbers of an employee’s office.499 This class of individuals abusers, and results in the children concerned should not be required to search for the illegal being exposed to repeated and indefinite abuse material, but instead only report it to the as a consequence of the unremitting circulation appropriate authorities if found. of their images. The best interests of children must be protected through the greatest possible effort to ensure that their images are removed as Training quickly as possible from further circulation, that access to commercial sites is blocked, and that Given the complexity of the field and the broad mechanisms are introduced to limit availability range of skills needed to remove impunity for and access. offenders while ensuring the best interests of children, law enforcement, criminal justice As active agents, some children will continue and child welfare systems personnel must be to behave in risky ways regardless of the afforded training. Practitioners need to have information provided to them – through their knowledge and skills in: spirit of exploration, lack of awareness of the implications of their actions both socially and ●● International, regional and national in terms of the nature and consequences of legislation relevant to the sexual exploitation technology, misplaced confidence that they are and abuse of children in the online/ in control and assumptions that it is others, not offline environment; themselves, who are at risk.
●● Application of policing techniques to the Both the government and the private sector online environment; have critical responsibilities in reducing availability and access to harm. As this report ●● New social media and how they can place identified in its introduction, the ICT industry children at risk of harm; has it in its powers to develop and introduce new tools to make the Internet safer for ●● Latest research findings on how offenders children. It also has the responsibility to respect groom and abuse children. human rights.
Furthermore, in order to improve standards There are several practical measures in of policing in this field and boost the status of which the industry can take a lead, providing
Online/Offline Protection 85 easy-to-use technology, implementation party acting as a monitor there may be little real and education. incentive for a business entity to observe the terms of the code.
Developing effective codes of Codes of conduct are relevant for all parts of the conduct Internet industry, large or small. For example, codes of conduct can be designed to protect Codes of conduct are a common tool of children who use Internet cafe services from business social responsibility, and this report exploitation, can reduce demand for child abuse has mentioned many in its review of initiatives images, or make it harder to access or purchase taken.500 They offer a mechanism through these materials. Internet cafe owners, in most which corporate social behaviours can express of the developing world, the primary source of and meet human rights standards by adopting Internet access for children and young people, voluntary, non-binding best practices as a guide can decide to use many different approaches for management and employees. Drafting codes to codes of conduct. Monitoring content can of conduct is a challenging exercise. Companies be done through fi ltering software or a set of may consider profi ts, public relations and rules that can guide how to monitor content human rights as mutually antagonistic. Some manually. This can be discussed and agreed ISPs, for example, belong to associations upon by cybercafe owners with the help of where they sign codes of conduct, are willing the Information Technology Ministry of the to explore solutions for protecting minors respective country. Many Internet cafes have while online and curb child abuse images. The rules advising patrons on how best to use their Internet Service Providers’ Association in South services while observing moral and ethical Africa, for instance, has a code of conduct conduct, but these are subjective and vary from which requires members to take reasonable one person to another based on individual steps to ensure that they do not offer paid values. These rules are not backed by the law content subscription services to minors without and carry no explicit punitive measures for written permission from a parent or guardian. anyone found violating them. More needs to be They must also provide Internet access done to draft codes of conduct that can guide customers with information about procedures Internet cafes in how to protect children online. and software applications that can be used to assist in the control and monitoring of minors’ access to Internet content.501 BOX 5: Promoting ethical standards in Brazil A positive example of industry’s self-regulation is the reaction in Japan to a campaign in 2009 In Brazil Internet Segura (Safer Internet) by the international NGO Equality Now to was established in 2005 initially through the ban production and sales of Japanese-made engagement of companies such as Microsoft, rape simulator video games. Soon after the American Express and McAfee, but now campaign began, a software company stopped with many more private sector members.504 selling the game on its own website and an Telefonica’s portal Educarede is provided online bookstore removed if from its shopping as a major source of advice and information list. Additionally, the Ethics Organization of aimed particularly at schools.505 ISPs have Computer Software called for its more than been encouraged to sign up to a set of 200 member companies to ban the production ethical codes established by the Código De of computer games that deal with sexual Auto-Regulamentação De Operadores De violence, such as rape, gang rape, incest or Rede e De Serviços Internet of 2007. Those sexual molestation and set guidelines for rating ISPs that agree to its terms undertake to adult-content games.502 protect individual’s private information, protect ISP end-users and abide by a set of While an important statement of corporate ISP responsibilities.506 intent, the experience of the UK suggests that codes of conduct which are not linked to demonstrably independent and effective means of monitoring performance will fail Blocking websites to inspire public confi dence.503 A confl ict of interest may arise if multinational companies Internet service providers can use blocking monitor themselves or are monitored by their tools to deny access to all or part of a website subcontractors. Without an independent third containing child abuse images. Blocking is a
86 Child Safety Online means of disrupting viewing and distribution Taking down illegal material of child abuse images. It is controversial as it raises fears about wider censorship. If used, A great deal of the newer material now available blocking should remain in place only until the online has been generated by users themselves. illegal material is removed from the source. In response to the fact that some of this material At that point, the need to obstruct access no contains harmful or inappropriate content, most longer exists because the illegal material is sites that host user-generated content have gone. In addition to Internet service providers, adopted policies on ‘acceptable use’, which the world’s large search engines also deploy they moderate by taking down material and blocking tools to specifically deny access warning or banning users who misuse the site. to known web addresses containing child The removal of undesirable content from the pornographic images. The European NGO Internet is described as a ‘notice and take-down Alliance for Child Safety Online recommends regime’.509 When a child abuse image site is the establishment of a single European list, identified and reported, the service provider and if possible a single global one, of sites that hosts the site is notified and must take the containing child abuse images that should illegal material down. be blocked.507 Given the volume of material involved – on the There is, however, debate about the utility video-sharing site YouTube, for example, 48 of blocking. For various reasons, blocking hours of footage are uploaded every minute510 – tools are not effective by themselves. First, moderating abusive activity is a remarkable as noted by the European Financial Coalition challenge, and the effectiveness of removal in 2010, there has been a significant decrease procedures varies widely. The moderation in the number of active commercial sites, the processes of many sites rely entirely on users images they contain are generally recycled ad reporting abuse to the moderators. This can infinitum, and organizers of commercial child lead to unmanageable volumes of reports, sexual abuse websites are distributing images which may result in the abuse being dealt but not producing them.508 In practice, the with slowly or not at all. Other approaches producers of abuse images are likely to use include professional moderators, software small, secure areas of the Internet, which are that automatically identifies content that may password-protected to share images for free. be inappropriate or systems whereby reports In other words, websites are not the primary from users ‘rated’ highly by their peers can route through which potential abusers access be flagged for attention with a higher priority. images. Second, removal at the source can The latter approach empowers children, young be difficult in practice and may be impossible people and adults to be active participants in in cases where illegal content is hosted in keeping themselves and others safe online, and different countries, and possibly being moved making their web communities the kind of place around and among countries on a daily basis. they want to be.511 Third, websites exist in which a user can simply input the ‘blocked’ page and will receive The ‘notice and take-down’ approach has immediate access. Alternatively, they can proved effective in some countries, and is search for one of the many instructional videos generally fairly feasible across the European online that easily explain how to bypass the Union.512 In the United Kingdom, for example, service provider’s equipment and any blocking the 1996 establishment of the Internet Watch that it has installed. Foundation (IWF), with its mandate to identify, report and have child abuse material removed, Outright prohibitions and mandatory filtering at has led to few abuse sites being hosted there. the Internet service provider’s level is generally The IWF operates a hotline for reports of child considered untenable in that protecting children sexual abuse images from the public, which are from harmful or inappropriate content would then checked and referred to the police if illegal result in an Internet entirely geared towards material is found. If the sites are in the United child safety. The resulting censorship of adult Kingdom, the police will act upon them directly. freedoms to access materials on the basis If they are hosted elsewhere in the world, a that they were deemed inappropriate for report will be submitted to the authorities in children could inadvertently result in excessive the host country. The IWF states that sites are limitations on basic freedoms. Nevertheless, generally removed within weeks, and sites that the role of appropriately calibrated blocking are traced to hosting in the United Kingdom measures in targeting child abuse materials are removed “within hours.” During 2007, remains an important issue for consideration. internationally, 71 per cent of websites hosting
Online/Offline Protection 87 sexually abusive images of children were on. Parental control software is extensively operating for less than 50 days during the year, available, often as a free download, as part indicating two ongoing trends: websites were of another programme, such as an Internet frequently changing servers to avoid detection security programme, or integrated into a and removal, and “the effectiveness of efforts computer’s operating system. In the United to make operations diffi cult, transient, costly Kingdom, for example, the major consumer and risky for offenders.”513 Internet service providers – covering 90 per cent of the country’s Internet subscriptions in Research into takedown regimes, however, 2008 – offered fi ltering products as part of shows that despite the fact that child abuse Internet access packages, and most broadband images are illegal across many jurisdictions, subscriptions came with free fi ltering which might be thought to facilitate effective programmes.516 However, evidence shows takedown, their removal is dealt with less that despite this availability, just over half of speedily than other kinds of illegal Internet parents actually activate the fi ltering software activity.514 Other fi ndings also point to the limited on their computers.517 Some think it is activated effectiveness of legal frameworks on takedown automatically, while others feel that their speeds. Another limitation is that the authorities children could bypass the controls anyway. (See in individual countries have no say over whether box 6 below: Parental control, child protection – images hosted on servers in another country are A lesson from Hong Kong.) taken down or not. Without effective global or regional legislation, takedown can lead to sites Certain parental control technologies can being transferred to other jurisdictions rather provide detailed reports on children’s online than actual removal of child abuse material.515 usage. And schools and libraries are monitoring Part of the challenge lies with inadequate police children’s online behaviour more often as resources and the priority often given to pursuit part of a cybersafety strategy.519 These tools of offenders rather than preventive measures, effectively place children under surveillance in such as removal of sites. Despite limitations, the name of protection, and some see this as takedown and removal of child abuse material an invasion of their right to privacy. Children are preferable to blocking as it better protects have a similar need for privacy online as they both children’s safety and adults’ right to do offl ine, such as being able to socialize with Internet access. peers online without constant supervision by parents and other guardians. Filters and parental control software Safe searching There is a wide range of parental control software available to manage children’s Most search engines include a ‘safe search’ access. Parents can set different controls for option that excludes results containing each family member by assigning individual inappropriate images or keywords, but they are personal usernames and passwords for logging not foolproof and cannot ensure that children
BOX 6: Parental control, child protection – A lesson from Hong Kong The Hong Kong Council of Social Service is raising awareness of effective ways to use online fi ltering services and software. The ‘Internet Filtering for Junior Internet Users’ campaign will protect young Internet users by: (1) helping parents and the community maintain a list of inappropriate and unsafe websites; (2) providing free fi ltering services from Internet service providers; (3) educating parents on how to subscribe to and use fi ltering services.518
A parents’ group will maintain and update the website blacklist and specially trained members will review reported websites’ content and assign ‘decency’ levels to each site. The information on the websites – hosted either locally or overseas – will be passed along to the local service providers and, in turn, these companies will provide households with free fi ltering services that will be added to children’s and young people’s accounts. The fi ltering service will block the sites blacklisted by the parents’ group. The primary Internet account holder, usually a parent, is responsible for determining the level of ‘decency’ suitable for their children.
88 Child Safety Online will be entirely sheltered from such material.520 ●● Parents engaging in more open dialogue Limitations include: about online activity with their children. Many adults lack understanding and ●● The default mode of many search engines confidence to do this because their children is set at a low threshold of safety, requiring are often more technologically advanced the user to actively switch to a higher level of than they are. Gaps can be bridged, however, safe search. if parents demonstrate interest, engage in honest discussion about the risks, and show ●● Not all users are aware that this function a willingness to respect children’s exploration exists or how to activate it. of the Internet, which may lead children to encounter inappropriate material. The aim ●● Even when a parent is able to set the ‘safe should not be merely to restrict access, but search’ option, many children have the to support children to take responsibility in technological sophistication to turn off the ways that keep them safe. setting to access inappropriate material.
●● The capacity to utilize such settings only Action by the online payments extends to computers in a fixed location, industry not mobile phones, which children are increasingly using as the route to Historically, credit cards played a major part the Internet. in developing the trade in online child abuse images.521 A substantial part of the total online ●● Many children access the Internet from trade in child abuse images was commercially cybercafes, where many users will not want driven. For this reason, the online payments the computers set to high levels of safety. industry has long accepted that it has a particular responsibility to engage closely ●● Many parents do not use the Internet and with law enforcement to combat this illicit have no idea of the type of information to traffic. Although there continues to be an which their children may be exposed. important element of commerce involved in the exchange of child abuse images, at a There is no simple solution to these challenges recent high level meeting between EU-US and, while industry has responsibilities to officials it was common ground among the enable safe searching, technical solutions alone police forces represented that financial gain will be insufficient. Parents must be empowered was no longer the driving force in relation to minimize actual harm and to support their to the larger part of the exchange of child children in making safe choices and behaving abuse images. This trade is now principally wisely online. Additionally, search providers mediated through highly organized, need to offer more accessible, straightforward technically literate groups of child sex abusers instructions on how to use safe searches, who exploit Peer2Peer networks.522 backed up by information and guidance to parents on the importance of these tools and Through the financial coalitions mentioned how to activate them. earlier and in other ways, major credit card companies and banks in the United States, While fail-safe search engine protection may Europe and the Far East have been collaborating seem unattainable, there are ways to improve with law enforcement to close down their effectiveness. They include: systems to this type of crime. There is no doubt that the efforts of the financial services ●● Search providers creating a ‘locking’ safe industry have helped to drive child sex abuse search option on a particular computer, thus images off websites and have made it difficult preventing children from switching off the for large scale commerce in these images to safe search, and developing parental control be sustained in the way it was in the past. software that automatically communicates However, means of making anonymous or with search engines to ensure that the safe difficult-to-trace payments online are still search is always on when the child uses the available. Pre-paid credit cards and other forms computer. Where children are accessing of stored value cards provide a way to transact the Internet through home computers, business online anonymously with little or no this would enable parents, particularly risk of being traced.523 Any anonymous method when their children are young, to exercise of skirting the law adds to the difficulty of more control of the risk of exposure to protecting children and young people from inappropriate material. online abuse.
Online/Offline Protection 89 protection are sensitized to and understand the BOX 7: Visa and Action against particular risks, vulnerabilities and implications Exploitation in South East Europe of child abuse and exploitation in the online environment and that they acquire the Since 2009, Visa has funded a project in capacities to respond appropriately. South East Europe to raise awareness of child exploitation – sharing knowledge about offender behaviour, best practice in Establishing child-sensitive protecting children and locating offenders, approaches to discovery during and improving intelligence fl ows across borders. This project aims to boost the criminal investigations region’s capacity to combat this crime. It provides training for professionals Children who have been groomed, leading to from government, law enforcement, the the production and subsequent distribution judiciary and local NGOs. To date over of abusive images online – as well as children 300 child protection professionals have who have been coerced into such activities by been trained across Bulgaria, Poland and parents or other trusted adults – will usually Romania. The project has also led to the have great diffi culty disclosing what has creation of educational resources in Bulgaria happened to them. When child abuse images and Romania and the development of are ‘discovered’, the investigating police new legislation in Poland relating to the offi cers and child protection social workers distribution of indecent images of children. have access to exactly what has happened to the child: the images provide proof of the abuse. Unlike other forms of sexual abuse, there is no requirement to build the evidence base regarding whether a crime has been committed. The diffi culties faced by children Objective Four: Promote are signifi cantly greater when they are brought into treatment after pictures of abuse have recovery and rehabilitation for already been exposed by others. children exposed to harm Law enforcement and child welfare agencies Systems need to be in place to address the need to acknowledge the implications of these reality that – regardless of legislative, policy differences in the approaches they develop for and protective mechanisms introduced to interviewing. The process must not become prevent sexual abuse and exploitation – some yet another experience of abuse for the child. children already have experienced harm in Important issues to consider include: the evolving world of cyberspace and its interface with the offl ine environment and ●● Children should not be expected to repeat others will continue to experience such harm. the details of the abuse they have been The available research on effective strategies subjected to when the images already for minimizing the impact and supporting provide that evidence. Instead, the focus children’s recovery and rehabilitation in this needs to be on such areas as identifying the context is still in its infancy, and what exists perpetrator, if not already known, whether has almost exclusively been undertaken in other children were involved and where the the industrialized world. Nonetheless, there abuse took place. is suffi cient experience of the implications of online abuse and its links with children’s offl ine ●● Timing and pace of the interview affect experiences to begin to identify key strategies children. When child victims are fi rst for providing necessary psychosocial support informed that images of their abuse have and therapeutic help for children once their been discovered, they may experience panic abuse has been discovered or disclosed. Such and fear as well as feelings of shame. They strategies need to be developed within the need to feel supported and be given time to wider context of child protection work and adjust to having become a ‘known victim’. cannot be addressed independently. They The pace of the disclosure must be aligned need to be incorporated at an early stage into with the needs of the child and not be criminal investigations. Critically, it is necessary determined by the demands of the criminal to ensure that professionals involved in child justice system.524
90 Child Safety Online ●● The method of recording interviews needs disclosure process, she or he can recover the to be considered. Interviews with abused sense of agency and control that has been children are often recorded through audio denied during the experience of abuse.526 visual equipment – the same conduit that recorded their abuse. Careful thought needs ●● Address the perpetuity of the abuse. Efforts to be given to how such interviews are need to be made to help the child live with recorded, bearing in mind that the process the reality that the abusive images may not intended to protect them may cause further be removed from the Internet quickly, or at trauma. Children should always be consulted all. Therapeutic interventions that have been regarding how they feel about being developed to help victims who have regular recorded, and serious consideration must fl ashbacks to their abuse or some traumatic be given to their concerns. event in their lives have been found to have some success with children facing ●● Disclosure is a process. As with offl ine sexual this possibility, although the work is still in abuse, disclosure needs to be understood its infancy. as a process, not a one-time event. Victims of abuse and traumatic events rarely reveal Families, friends and professionals vary greatly all that happened to them in one interview – in how they respond to a disclosure. Some many need weeks, months and sometimes believe the child, are supportive and take years to be able to talk about and recover protective steps; others are disbelieving, and from what they have experienced. Children the child may end up distressed and isolated. who feel ashamed and silenced may fear that Disbelief, lack of support or family pressure may those asking the questions condemn them result in a retraction of the allegation. Children or hold them responsible for their abuse. and adult survivors who have been able to talk Recognition of these emotions must be given about the sexual abuse they have suffered have by those conducting the interviews.525 said that they want, and wanted, the adults in their lives to be proactively protective of ●● Empower the child. The victim needs to be them, and they wanted to be able to tell of their able to decipher the exploiter’s manoeuvring experiences in their own way and to be heard in order to understand what has happened and listened to. and why. This can help the child reconstruct the experience and transfer responsibility for All professionals working with children need to what occurred to the offender. By enabling know how children who have been the subject the child to have an active role in the of child abuse images are likely to feel and to
BOX 8: Preventing system-induced trauma
In response to the need to protect abused children from further trauma during the investigative process, some countries have adopted ‘one-stop’ centres where child protection expertise and law enforcement know-how are meshed. Begun in the United States in the 1980s, Child Advocacy Centres are designed to assuage the inevitable strain on children and families during the investigation of a child abuse crime.527 Ideally, child abuse investigations take place in a child- friendly, comfortable setting that employs a multidisciplinary team of trained personnel from law enforcement, mental health, victim advocacy and health care. The goal is to prevent causing additional trauma while gathering forensic information.
In Canada, for instance, the Edmonton Zebra Child Protection Centre utilizes trained forensic workers who interview child abuse crime victims while police and child welfare workers observe.528 This process lessens trauma for the child, because he or she is interviewed by one person and therefore does not have to repeat the details of the experience.
The Sexual Assault Referral Centres in the United Kingdom have a similar model, but generally work with adults.529 Although young people and children have used the services of Sexual Assault Referral Centres, there is a push in the United Kingdom for special programmes for children because their recovery needs and processes are different to those of adults and adolescents. Investigations related to child sexual abuse in the United Kingdom utilize ‘ABE’ (Achieving Best Evidence) interviews, which are designed to minimize trauma and maximize evidence and are based on the Criminal Prosecution Service guidelines.530
Online/Offline prOteCtiOn 91 take the appropriate action to safeguard them. counselling or therapy, the greater the likelihood The child needs to: the child will develop reinforced inappropriate responses and behaviours. ●● Feel believed; In reality, sexually abused children who must ●● Be in a safe place; give testimony in court against their abuser are frequently denied therapy pending the ●● Be protected from contact with outcome of the criminal trial. The prosecutor the perpetrator; fears that therapy may taint their evidence and the case could be lost, and the therapist worries ●● Be offered therapy at the earliest time; that the unique and confidential nature of their work will be jeopardized and their case notes ●● Be supported through the process of being will be demanded by the court. In the United a witness. Kingdom, a five-year pilot scheme offering pre-trial therapy to children who had been sexually abused was evaluated. It found that Treatment interventions for with the right protocols in place none of the abused children children’s confidential records was demanded by the court nor was any case dropped due to Globally, it is safe to say that there is a history therapeutic interventions.532 of poor service provision for children who have been sexually abused prior to the onset of the Internet. The situation for those whose Informed assessment abuse has been perpetrated through the new information technologies is worse. Furthermore, Assessment of a child needs to address the there is relatively little knowledge available to known consequences of sexual abuse on date regarding which treatment interventions children, with a view towards analysing how the work for children who have experienced sexual recovery work should be directed. The effects abuse online. There is, however, a considerable of sexual abuse include grief, guilt, fear, inability body of evidence relating to sexual abuse to trust, cognitive confusion, lack of mastery more broadly that should be used to inform and control, repressed anger and hostility, the design of therapeutic services for these blurred boundaries and role confusion, pseudo children. Services need to be: maturity, failure to complete developmental tasks, depression and poor social skills.533 ●● Holistic – focusing on children’s needs across all dimensions of their lives and development; Helping children make sense of their experience ●● Systemic – involving family, parents and caregivers in order to improve The overarching approach when assisting children’s social environments and children with their recovery from sexual abuse attachment relationships; and exploitation needs to help them make sense of what has happened to them. It is important ●● Goal specific – addressing specific to help them understand how they feel and issues relating to the child’s sexually think and how that affects their behaviour. In harmful behaviour. therapeutic terms, this is known as a ‘cognitive behavioural approach’ and is often accompanied The approaches that need to be incorporated by other therapies such as drama and art, which in all services are described in the assist the child in expressing emotions and being following paragraphs. able to ‘move on’ from their victim status.
This process needs to take account of children’s Early intervention own perceptions of what has happened to them. One way of addressing self-perception The earlier therapeutic intervention takes has been put forward by BUP-Elefanten, a child place for an individual after trauma has been and adolescent psychiatric unit in Sweden experienced, the better the chance of healing that treats sexually and physically abused and ameliorating the effects.531 The longer children. It is investigating therapeutic models between disclosure and commencement of for assisting children abused via the Internet.534
92 Child Safety Online BUP-Elefanten has identified three categories the witness experience. The United Nations of experience: Guidelines on Justice in Matters involving Child Victims and Witnesses of Crime provides ●● The fooled – those who were lured into detailed guidance on the principles and something unexpected; standards that need to be respected when children are attending court.537 Young people ●● The risk-takers – those who take risks to and children need information about their role meet emotional needs and secure attention; in the proceedings, what they will be expected to say and do, the court process, how to cope ●● The self-destructive – those who, for when giving evidence, what support will be example, sell sex or knowingly engage in available, who will be there, what to do if they abusive relationships. do not understand something and how to protect their confidentiality.538 The way in which The degree of shame and complicity felt by the the information is explained is also important. victims will inevitably rise from ‘those fooled’ to All information provided for children must be in those seen as ‘self-destructive’, the latter group a format appropriate to their age. Child-friendly tending to see themselves as having autonomy information packages should be developed and control, and therefore not recognizing that address questions children are likely to themselves as victims in need of assistance with have. But written materials alone may not be recovery.535 The status of this group has parallels sufficient; it is often necessary to talk the issues with that of children abused through prostitution through with the child directly. who, because of the trauma bond they have with their pimp, are unable to accept that they are Court staff need to be sensitized to the not in control of their situation. It is essential to vulnerabilities and challenges child witnesses maintain a dialogue with this emotionally hard- face in such cases and to understand the need to-reach group and allow them the space and to proceed at the child’s pace, clearly explain time to come to terms with their predicament. the procedures in language that he or she can When working with any child who has been understand, and take all possible measures groomed online for sexual abuse, it is essential to to protect the child’s privacy. Child witnesses understand that most children abused in this way should also be offered debriefing after the court live a conflicting dynamic: They see themselves experience, which can be traumatic. acting like adults online yet continue to assume their role as a child or young person offline.536 Treatment interventions for children who have abused Supporting and involving parents Finally, young people who display sexually Parents of victims of grooming and sexual abusive behaviours online also need treatment. abuse are often perplexed about what has This should be rooted in the same approaches happened to their child and are unable to used for those who commit sexually harmful comprehend that their child has been caught acts offline. Additional issues have been up in this type of activity. It is not unusual identified that need consideration and are for mothers, in particular, to show distress described in the following paragraphs. and sometimes anger towards their child for ‘getting themselves into the situation’. Similarly, they commonly blame themselves Information-gathering for not knowing what their child was doing online. Therefore, immediate support for the A comprehensive assessment of the child parents is essential if they are going to be able and how to effectively intervene through to support their child, and needs to include rehabilitation and counselling requires specific explanations regarding grooming behaviours information.539 Essential facts include: online. Current practice around the world too often leaves parents in limbo and feeling ●● How children accessed their contacts and impotent to assist. any child abuse images – what sites were accessed via the Internet, what peer-to-peer and social networking sites have been used Preparation for court and what chat rooms were utilized.
Children who are required to give evidence ●● The motivation of the child – determining in court should be properly prepared for whether the process was self-generated, the
Online/Offline Protection 93 child was encouraged to become involved in in addressing their sexual arousal and attitude illegal behaviour by peer groups or the child towards children involved in the abuse images. was groomed by adults. Online relationships, and the ongoing influence of such, should not be dismissed.”540 The ●● Materials accessed by the child – including victim/perpetrator status of young people who whether he or she visited adult pornography have accessed abusive images online needs sites, how many images were downloaded if careful consideration. What might appear to sites with child abuse images were accessed, be a straightforward case of a child accessing the nature of the images and the time frame illegal material might turn out to be a case of a involved. Knowing the nature of the images child who is at risk and has been the victim of may indicate sexual preferences and would an adult abuser online. therefore provide insight into the child’s sexual orientation. The attitudes and behaviours that need to be addressed when a child has been abusive ●● Transcripts of email and online chats – to online include: gain an understanding of the relationships and dynamics between the children and ●● Sexual attitudes towards other children – others they have been communicating with. They may have distorted attitudes regarding victims’ consent and their pleasure in It is only by doing such investigation at the the abusive experience, which need to outset that informed decisions can be made be challenged. regarding how best to support and help the child. The ability to obtain this necessary ●● Empathy – They need help in understanding information may, however, be obstructed by the production of images, their role in this, scarce police resources. Forensic examination the fact that the child in the image is real of computers takes time and money, and the and has been abused and that it is likely need for child protection workers to have this to have had a damaging impact on the information as quickly as possible may conflict child concerned. with policing priorities. ●● Denial – The fact that the abuse has not involved contact often leads to greater Assessment of the child’s detachment from the victim and a denial by development and motivation the perpetrator that it constitutes abuse. This view is often backed by parents. Work may Serious consideration needs to be given to what be needed to raise awareness that viewing influenced the child to commit offences online, of and masturbating to abusive images is for example, the child’s level of developmental abusive behaviour. understanding, the possibility that she or he has been groomed by someone else, the ●● Positive peer relationships – Some young child’s understanding of how indecent images people gain their sense of society and are produced and the abuse inherent in the relationships from other abusive Internet production of those images, the strength users. Young people will need help in and significance of online relationships and replacing that peer group with one rooted in any other sexual behaviours, and the risk of positive and appropriate behaviours.541 contact offending. Ultimately, an assessment will need to balance Recognition needs to be given to the potential the benefits of supporting the young person to complexity of the relationship between be integrated within the community against the victim and perpetrator. Denise Moultrie, in risk of re-offending. her research with adolescents convicted of possession of child abuse images, concluded: “Young people in this sample have undoubtedly Working with parents been victimized, in that adults have sent them abuse images and communicated with them As with all interventions with children who about the sexual abuse of younger children. have displayed sexually harmful behaviours, However, to regard these young people solely it is essential to work with their parents and as victims may result unintentionally in the caregivers. Although they need information neglect of the needs we would identify for them and support, many are ill-informed about their
94 Child Safety Online children’s behaviour online and are unaware of globally relevant, or soon will be. For example, the activities that may take place and how they researchers are already learning that children evolve. Parents and caregivers need information from virtually all countries use SNS in largely about the nature of children’s behaviour similar ways, creating easy opportunities for online, how the new technology works and potential groomers to interact with them. what abusive images actually are. Many of Children from low- and middle-income the young people and their families have had countries are less likely to use the Internet no previous contact with children’s services. from home, and are more likely to go online Parents often want to deny and minimize the from cybercafes, where they are at greater seriousness of the offence, particularly if there risk of encountering inappropriate images and is no evidence of contact offending. They online and offline solicitation. Lack of parental need to understand the implications if the awareness and knowledge, difficult economic child’s behaviour leads to a conviction. Some conditions and under-developed regulatory view their child solely as a victim of the adults frameworks can further exacerbate potential with whom they have become involved and risks and the likelihood of harm. Hence, it cannot accept that their child may have been seems that the gaps in protection for children proactive. This is sensitive and difficult work, and young people in the online environment but essential, because parents’ involvement may be greater in low- and middle- income in monitoring and supervising their children is countries, where gaps in overall child protection vital if the behaviours are to change. Effective already exist. interventions with this group of young people should, whenever possible, actively involve Globally, the evolution of information and their families in the process. communications technology usage is at a challenging juncture. Only a small proportion of contemporary adults had access to ICT when Conclusions they were children, particularly the tools that have facilitated the revolution in interaction and communication. This has likely affected the The powerful impact of the Internet on the lives ability of adults to understand and empathize of children throughout the world will continue with the ways children and young people use to grow and evolve. While Internet access the Internet, mobile phones and other new and child usage are highest in industrialized technologies. This may be true particularly countries, the global pace of web access, in societies where children’s social activity, broadband penetration and the exponential especially adolescents, has been under fairly uptake of mobile phone technologies, coupled direct parental observation or control. Over with increasing capacities and decreasing costs, time that situation may change, as today’s means that the rest of the world is beginning to computer-literate, social-networking young catch up. In the next few years, it is anticipated people become parents themselves. They may that the most dramatic changes will occur in have less anxiety about the risk of exploitation low- and middle-income countries. and abuse because they will have been part of the generation that developed ways of handling At the moment, most of the evidence related it. On the other hand, the nature of the creativity to certain kinds of abuse comes from the unleashed by ICT means there will always be industrialized world. Likewise, most of the new elements that pose new avenues for risk evidence of the ways young people use the that require new strategies for response. Internet and associated technologies, and the risks they face therein, comes from the same Where access is widespread, ICT has in a very regions. Yet even there, major knowledge gaps short time span revolutionized the way people exist. There is little information, for example, live their lives and interact with each other. about online use by children with disabilities, In those places where access is expanding, cyberbullying and the challenges faced by these changes are currently unfolding. We lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender young know that considerable developments are still people. The gaps in knowledge about risk and to come, but we do not know yet what they Internet usage in Africa, in most parts of Asia will be. Cyberspace throws into sharp relief and the Middle East are significant and require the social roles and responsibilities of actors urgent research. beyond the State, namely the private sector and individuals themselves. It has the potential The limited research available from low- and to enrich individuals and society alike, middle-income countries, however, indicates helping to remove barriers between people, that the issues raised in this report are paving the way for interaction, education,
Online/Offline Protection 95 and development, but also presenting increasingly systemic approaches to child opportunities for wrong-doing. Children are at protection are being put in place, both in terms the forefront of this dilemma. of prevention and response. Policymakers need to integrate awareness of online-related For the moment children and young people abuse and exploitation into this broader child are pioneers in what many adults might feel to protection agenda. Building Internet access for be uncharted territory. The territory, however, all children and young people means building is not completely uncharted. Over the past 20 safer Internet access. While children and young years there has been increasing recognition people are intrinsic to building a safer Internet, of the global existence of child sexual abuse the onus is on governments and the private and exploitation in other areas of life. Virtually sector to ensure that protection is integrated all societies have struggled through the phase into promoting expansion of access and the of ‘sexual abuse of children doesn’t happen positive benefits the Internet brings. here’ to the recognition that it does, and
96 Child Safety Online Glossary
Terms relating to sexual abuse and exploitation of children child – Every human being below the age of eighteen years unless under the law applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier (Convention on the Rights of the Child, article 1). child abuse images – Any representation, by whatever means, of a child engaged in real or simulated explicit sexual activities or any representation of the sexual parts of a child for primarily sexual purposes (see ‘child pornography’ below). Although there is no internationally agreed definition of ‘child abuse images’, this report uses the term as defined above and is preferred over child pornography because it leaves no doubt that abuse and exploitation are involved. child pornography – Any representation, by whatever means, of a child engaged in real or simulated explicit sexual activities or any representation of the sexual parts of a child for primarily sexual purposes (Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography, article 2(c)). In this report, ‘child pornography’ is only used in direct quotes or when it refers to specific legislation, judgements or other documents that use this term. Otherwise, the term ‘child abuse images’ is preferred. child prostitution – Use of a child in sexual activities for remuneration or any other form of consideration (Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography, article 2(b)). child sexual abuse – As defined in article 18 (1) of the Council of Europe Convention on the Protection of Children against Sexual Exploitation and Sexual Abuse (CETS No. 201, also known as ‘the Lanzarote Convention’):
(a) Engaging in sexual activities with a child who, according to the relevant provisions of national law, has not reached the legal age for sexual activities;
(b) Engaging in sexual activities with a child where: • use is made of coercion, force or threats; or • abuse is made of a recognized position of trust, authority or influence over the child, including within the family; • abuse is made of a particularly vulnerable situation of the child, notably because of a mental or physical disability or a situation of dependence. The provisions of paragraph 1.a are not intended to govern consensual sexual activities between minors (article 18.3). child sexual exploitation – Child prostitution, child pornography and the participation of a child in pornographic performances, including recruiting, coercing or causing a child to participate in pornographic performances, or profiting from or otherwise exploiting a child for such purposes and knowingly attending performances involving the participation of children; intentionally causing a child who has not reached the legal age for sexual activities to witness sexual abuse or sexual activities, even without having to participate; and the solicitation of children for sexual purposes (Council of Europe Convention on the Protection of Children against Sexual Exploitation and Sexual Abuse, articles 18–23).
Glossary 97 online child sexual abuse – Production, distribution, downloading or viewing of child abuse material (both still and video images), also known as child pornography; online solicitation of children and young people to produce self-generated child abuse material, to engage them in sexual chat or other online sexual activity, or to arrange an offline meeting for the purposes of sexual activity, also known as grooming or luring; and facilitation of any of the above. There is no agreed definition of online child sexual abuse in international law; for the purposes of this report, the term is defined as noted above. online grooming – Defined by various authors and used in this report to describe a process intended to lure children into sexual behaviour or conversations with or without their knowledge, or a process that involves communication and socialization between the offender and the child in order to make him or her more vulnerable to sexual abuse. The term ‘grooming’ has not been defined in international law; some jurisdictions use the term ‘luring’. online/offline environment – The interface between computer-mediated communication and face-to-face communication. ‘Online’ entails non-physical communication and ‘offline’ involves physical interaction. paedophile – A diagnostic category referring to an exclusive sexual orientation towards prepubescent children. It does not accurately portray those who sexually abuse children via the Internet and mobile technologies, many of whom are married or in long-term sexual relationships with adults. Therefore, in this report, the terms ‘child abuser’ or ‘sexual abuser’ are used. sale of children – Any act or transaction whereby a child is sold by any person or group of persons to another for remuneration or any other consideration (Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography, article 2 (a). sexual abuser – Anyone who sexually offends against children or engages in any sexual activity with a child, commonly called a ‘paedophile’, but as noted above, the terms ‘child abuser’ or ‘sexual abuser’ are more appropriate. There is no internationally agreed definition of this term. solicitation of children for sexual purposes – The intentional proposal, through information and communication technologies, of an adult to meet a child who has not reached the legal age for sexual activities, for the purpose of engaging in sexual activities or the production of child pornography (adapted from Council of Europe Convention on the Protection of Children against Sexual Exploitation and Sexual Abuse, article 23).
Terms relating to the online environment blog – Websites that have entries, or ‘posts’, including text and images, typically displayed in chronological order. Entire blogs or particular posts can be public and available to everyone online, or private and available only to users who are authorized by the blog owner/author. broadband – A high-capacity digital connection that facilitates a faster Internet connection and enables a more rapid exchange of larger files such as videos, games and software applications. browser – A software program that is selected by the consumer and used to locate and display pages on the World Wide Web (web pages). Popular browsers include Microsoft’s Windows Internet Explorer, Firefox, Google Chrome, Safari and Opera. bulletin boards – Electronic communication forums that host messages and articles connected to a common subject or theme. Bulletin boards work in a similar way to electronic mail (see ‘email’). Participants choose to join a bulletin board, and messages are posted on a news server for all participants to see. Users participate by reading the messages and responding to them. chat room – Virtual ‘meeting rooms’ where people can communicate by typing in messages to each other, or chat, in real time. Most chat rooms focus on a particular topic, but some are more general and are created to provide a forum for individuals to meet other people.
98 Child Safety Online cyberspace – The virtual shared universe of the world’s computer networks. The term was created by William Gibson in his 1984 novel Neuromancer. It is often used interchangeably with ‘the Internet.’ download – The process in which data are copied to a computer from the Internet or another source such as an external drive, a disk, a phone or other devices. Data that are typically downloaded onto a computer for viewing, storage and future access include text files, photographs, videos and music. e-groups – A group that is centrally controlled and communicates collectively by email; may offer services on an ‘opt-out’ or ‘opt-in’ basis in which an individual chooses to participate after being asked to join the group. electronic service provider (ESP) or online service provider (OSP) – Any company, organization or individual that provides a service over the Internet. Usually this term is used to distinguish an ESP or an OSP from an Internet Service Provider (ISP) which, historically, provided only access or connectivity to the Internet. email – Short for ‘electronic mail’, a tool that allows someone to send a message, or ‘email’, to another person’s electronic mailbox over a communications network such as the Internet. encryption – A process by which data are converted into a format or code that cannot be read or accessed by a person or a computer without the proper key to decode it. filter – A mechanism to sift out and block access to certain material. Most child-safety software packages use a filtering component; the program may be designed to operate on an individual personal computer or it may be applied to a network of computers. Often a filtering component is provided ‘free’ as an integral part of a computer’s operating system, or it will come as part of a connectivity package from a user’s ISP. Customised filters have also been developed for mobile phones and consoles. games console – A device used to play electronic games, especially video games, such as Sony PlayStation or Nintendo Wii. The player typically interacts with the game through a handheld device; newer consoles allow the user to connect directly to the Internet. information and communication technology (ICT) – Any communication device or application, encompassing radio, television, cellular phones, satellite systems, and computer and network hardware and software, as well as associated services and applications such as video-conferencing and distance learning. instant messaging (IM) – Text-based communications service similar to a chat room. The key difference is that chat rooms are usually public spaces where anyone can participate, while IM systems generally rely on a ‘buddy list’ or some other list of people predetermined by the user. Only people on the list can communicate with the user, hence each user has control over whom he or she includes in instant messaging. Google Chat, MSN and Twitter are examples of IM services; most social networking sites (see definition below) have an IM function.
(the) Internet – Worldwide network of hundreds of thousands of interconnected computer networks, using a common set of communication protocols and sharing a common addressing scheme. The Internet facilitates the transmission of email messages, text files, images and many other types of information between computers.
Internet service provider (ISP) – A commercial enterprise that provides users with direct access to the Internet, usually for a fee, or a business that provides Internet services such as website hosting or development.
Internet Protocol address (IP address) – A string of digits used to represent a computer on the Internet. It can be compared to a telephone number. IP addresses can either be temporary or fixed. Either way they will be directly traceable to a specific machine which was connected to the Internet at a particular time. For this reason IP addresses are of fundamental importance in almost every online child protection or other type of criminal investigation. IP addresses do not tell necessarily
Glossary 99 who was using a computer on the Internet at a given time but they normally tell whose Internet account was being used. massively multiplayer online role playing games (MMORPG) – Online games that can be played by large numbers of players simultaneously. Also sometimes referred to as massively multiplayer online (MMO) or massively multiplayer online games (MMOG), some are free, but others have fees to join and ‘virtual’ goods can be bought using ‘real’ money. newsgroups – Online forum or discussion groups. There are thousands of newsgroups on the Internet, covering a vast variety of topics. online – Controlled by or connected to a computer network or the Internet, and any activity or service that is available on or carried out via the Internet. A person is ‘online’ when she or he has logged into a network of computers, or has connected a computer or other device to the Internet. The term ‘offline’ describes activity that is not carried out online as well as the condition of being disconnected from the Internet. online service provider (OSP) – see definition under ‘electronic service provider’ (ESP), above. peer-to-peer (P2P) – Software that allows transmission of data directly from one computer to another over the Internet, usually without needing to involve a third-party server. penetration – How widely a technology gets adopted among people to whom the technology is available. photo sharing – An application that enables users to upload, view and share photos; users can allow either public or private access. sexting – A form of text messaging/texting (see definition below) in which people send pictures of a sexual nature or sexually explicit text. This is especially common among teenagers. short message service (SMS) – The common text messaging service available on mobile lphones, other handheld devices and computers. smartphones – Mobile phones that incorporate a complete operating system and are able to access the Internet. In many ways, they are like tiny computers, with more memory and bigger screens than ordinary phones. social media – Primarily Internet- and mobile-based tools for sharing and discussing information. ‘Social media’ most often refers to activities that integrate technology, telecommunications and social interaction, and are used to share words, pictures, videos and audio. social networking sites (SNS) – Online utilities that enable users to create profiles, public or private, and form a network of friends. SNS allow users to interact with friends via private and public means, such as messages and instant messaging, and to post user-generated content, such as photos and videos. Examples of SNS include Facebook, MXit, Myspace and Orkut. text messaging/texting – Short text messages sent using mobile phones, wireless handheld devices (such as Sidekick) and personal digital assistants (basic handheld computers known as ‘PDAs’). upload – The process of transmitting data from a user’s machine to a server.
Usenet – An Internet service where thousands of newsgroups are located. user-generated content – Material and media created by users of the Internet, rather than by companies. Wikipedia is an example of a user-generated encyclopedia. Videos on YouTube are normally also user-generated. video sharing – Like photo sharing (see above) but for videos. These videos are often user- generated; the largest video sharing website is YouTube.
100 Child Safety Online virtual worlds – Online simulated three-dimensional environments inhabited by players who interact with each other via avatars (movable icons representing a person in cyberspace). Second Life, or more popular with young people, Teen Second Life, are examples of virtual worlds. webcam – A video camera that is built into or connected to a computer that is connected to the Internet.
World Wide Web (WWW) – A hypertext-based system for finding and accessing data on the Internet. The Web hosts documents, called web pages, which may be linked with other documents or information systems. The Web is a portion of the Internet and not all servers on the Internet are part of the Web.
Glossary 101 notes
1 European NGO Alliance for Child Safety Online, 9 Mead, Margaret, Culture and Commitment: A study ‘The Right Click: An agenda for creating a safer of the generation gap, Wiley, New York, 1970. and fairer online environment for every child’, European NGO Alliance for Child Safety Online, 10 Byron, Tanya, Safer Children in a Digital World: eNACSO, Copenhagen, June 2010, pp. 2, 5, 8, 17, The Report of the Byron Review, Department available at: www.enacso.eu/images/stories/ for Children, Schools and Families, Annesley, Documents/manifesto/afafinal6may.pdf, accessed UK, March 2008, p. 1, available at: http://media. 22 August 2011. education.gov.uk/assets/files/pdf/s/safer%20 children%20in%20a%20digital%20world%20 2 Lobe, B., et al. (with members of the EU Kids Online the%202008%20byron%20review.pdf. network), Cross-National Comparison of Risks and Safety on the Internet: Initial analysis from the EU 11 Ibid, p. 2. Kids Online survey of European children, EU Kids Online, London School of Economics and Political 12 See, for example: Waterhouse, Ronald, Margaret Science, London, August 2011, p. 13. Clough and Morris le Fleming, Lost in Care: Report of the Tribunal of Inquiry into the abuse of children 3 United Nations General Assembly, Report of the in care in the former county council areas of Special Representative of the Secretary General Gwynedd and Clwyd since 1974, Department of on the issue of human rights and transnational Health, London, 16 February 2000. corporations and other business enterprises, John Ruggie, Guiding Principles on Business and Human 13 ‘In the News: Child pornography Belgium’ Rights: Implementing the United Nations “Protect, (collection of related articles), Los Angeles Times, Respect and Remedy” Framework, A/HRC/17/31, 1996, http://articles.latimes.com/keyword/child- United Nations, New York, 21 March 2011, Guiding pornography-belgium; and Brand, Constant, ‘Court Principles 11 and 13 (b). Hearing Finally Starts into Child Murders that Scandalised Belgium’, The Independent, 1 March 4 Livingstone, S., et al., ‘Risks and Safety on the 2004,www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/ Internet: The perspective of European children, Full court-hearing-finally-starts-into-child-murders- Findings and policy implications from the EU Kids that-scandalised-belgium-757170.html, accessed 23 Online survey of 9–16 year olds and their parents August 2011. in 25 countries’, EU Kids Online, London School of Economics and Political Science, London, 2011. 14 Megan’s Law is an amendment to the Jacob Wetterling Crimes Against Children and Sexually 5 The Voices of Youth website, www.voicesofyouth. Violent Offender Registration Act of 1994 and org, is a forum hosted by UNICEF to enable youth has become an informal name for legislation to engage in the top international issues facing in the United States requiring law enforcement them today and allowing them to share their authorities to make information available to the opinions and listen to the stories of others. public regarding registered sex offenders. Full text available at: http://www.personal-injury-info.net/ 6 Australia, Bahrain, Denmark, Germany, Iceland, megans-law-text.htm. India, Latvia, Russian Federation, South Africa and the United Kingdom. 15 Quayle, Ethel, ‘Child Pornography‘, Chapter 17 in Jewkes, Yvonne and Majid Yar, eds., Handbook of 7 International Telecommunication Union, ‘Use Internet Crime, Willan Publishing (Taylor & Francis of Information and Communication Technology Group), London January 2010, pp. 343–368. by the World’s Children and Youth: A statistical compilation’, ITU, Geneva, June 2008, p. iii. 16 Snyder, Howard N., and Melissa Sickmund, available at: http://i-gov.org/images/articles/7806/ Juvenile Offenders and Victims: 2006 National Youth_2008.pdf Report, U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Office of Juvenile Justice and 8 For a discussion of commercialization and Delinquency Prevention, Washington, D.C., 2006, sexualisation of childhood in the UK (but with p. 27, available at: http://www.ojjdp.gov/ojstatbb/ much wider implications) see Bailey, R., Letting nr2006/downloads/nr2006.pdf. Children be Children . Report of an Independent Review of the Commercialisation and Sexualisation 17 Cassell, Justine, and Meg Cramer, ‘High Tech of Childhood, Department for Education (UK), or High Risk: Moral panics about girls online‘, in June 2011. McPherson, Tara ed., Digital Youth, Innovation,
102 Child Safety Online and the Unexpected, Massachusetts Institute of The Lolita Effect: The sexualization of young girls Technology, Cambridge, MA, 2008, p. 70. and what we can do about it, The Overlook Press, Woodstock, NY, 2008, available at: www.apa.org/ 18 Ibid., p. 60. pi/wpo/sexualizationrep.pdf.
19 Lobe, B., S. Livingstone, K. Ólafsson and H. Vodeb, 30 Papadopoulos, L., Sexualization of Young (2011) Cross-national comparison of risks and People Review, UK Home Office, 2010, available safety on the Internet: Initial analysis from the EU at: http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov. Kids Online survey of European children, EU Kids uk/20100418065544/http://homeoffice.gov.uk/ Online, LSE, London. documents/Sexualisation-of-young-people2835. pdf?view=Binary. 20 See, for example: Karsten, Lia, and Willem van Vliet, ‘Increasing Children’s Freedom of Movement: 31 See Phoenix, A.,‘The commercialisation and Introduction’, Children, Youth and Environments, premature sexualisation of childhood. A review vol. 16, no. 1, 2006. by the Childhood Wellbeing Research Centre’. January 2011.www.cwrc.ac.uk/projects.html. 21 Beunderman, Joose, Celia Hannon and Peter Bradwell, ‘Seen and Heard: Reclaiming the 32 Buckingham, David, and Sara Bragg, Young People, public realm with children and young people’, Sex and the Media: The facts of life?, Palgrave Demos, London, 2007, available at: www.demos. Macmillan, Basingstoke, UK, 2004. co.uk/files/070928_DEMOS_S&H_Pamphlet. pdf?1240939425, accessed 23 August 2011. 33 Taylor, Max, Gemma Holland and Ethel Quayle, ‘Typology of Paedophile Picture Collections’, 22 See, for example: Furedi, Frank, Culture of Fear The Police Journal, vol. 74, no. 2, 2001, pp. 97–107, Revisited, Continuum, London, 2007, p. 122; Stokes, available at: www.popcenter.org/problems/child_ Mary Anne, ‘Stranger Danger: Child Protection pornography/PDFs/Taylor_etal_2001.pdf. and Parental Fears in the Risk Society’, Amsterdam Social Science, vol. 1, no. 3, 2009, p. 20, available 34 Internet Watch Foundation, ‘Annual and Charity at: http://www.socialscience.nl/application/ Report’, 2006 and 2010, IWF, Cambridge, UK, upload/files/ASS%201(3)%20stokes.pdf, accessed 2007 and 2011, available at: www.enough.org/ 8 December 2011. objects/20070412_iwf_annual_report_2006_web. pdf and www.iwf.org.uk/accountability/annual- 23 Ibahrine, Mohammad, ‘Mobile Communication and reports/2010-annual-report, respectively; accessed Sociopolitical Change in the Arab World’, Chapter 18 August 2011. 19 in Katz, James E. ed., Handbook of Mobile Communication Studies, Massachusetts Institute of 35 Internet Watch Foundation, ‘Annual and Charity Technology, Cambridge, MA, 2008, pp. 257–272. Report 2010’, IWF, Cambridge, UK, 2011, p. 8.
24 Jewkes, Yvonne, ‘Much Ado About Nothing? 36 Baines, Victoria, ‘Online Child Sexual Abuse: Representations and realities of online soliciting The law enforcement response – A contribution of children’, Journal of Sexual Aggression, vol. 16, of ECPAT International to the World Congress III no. 1, 2010, pp. 5–18. against Sexual Exploitation of Children and Adolescents’, ECPAT International, Bangkok, 25 Ibid. November 2008, p. 2.
26 Morrisey, Jerome, ‘E-society: Young people social 37 Carr, John, and Zoë Hilton, ‘Children’s Charities’ networking online, The Irish Independent, 18 April Coalition on Internet Safety: Digital Manifesto’, 2006, available at: http://www.ncte.ie/documents/ Action for Children, London, 2009, p. 29, available esociety.pdf, last accessed 8 December 2011. at: www.chis.org.uk/uploads/02b.pdf, accessed 22 August 2011. 27 Ibahrine, Mohammad, ‘Mobile Communication and Sociopolitical Change in the Arab World’, Chapter 38 National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to 19 in Katz, James E. ed., Handbook of Mobile Children, ‘People convicted of child abuse image Communication Studies, Massachusetts Institute offences’, NSPCC factsheet, NSPCC, August 2011, of Technology, Cambridge, MA/London, 2008, www.nspcc.org.uk/inform/research/questions/ pp. 257–272. people_convicted_of_child_abuse_images_ wda76295.html. 28 See, for example: Furedi, Frank,and Jennie Bristow, Licensed to Hug: How child protection policies are 39 Palmer, Tink, and Lisa Stacey, Just One Click: poisoning the relationship between the generations Sexual abuse of children and young people and damaging the voluntary sector, Civitas, through the Internet and mobile phone technology, London, 2008. Barnardo’s, Ilford, UK, 2004.
29 See, for example: American Psychological 40 European Financial Coalition against Commercial Association, Task Force on the Sexualization Sexual Exploitation of Children, ‘14 Months On: of Girls, ‘Report of the American Psychological A combined report from the European Financial Association Task Force on the Sexualization of Coalition 2009–2010, Child Exploitation and Online Girls’, APA, Washington, D.C., 2008; Durham, M. G., Protection (CEOP) Centre, London, 2010, p. 15,
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80 See, for example: John Grieve Centre for Policing 89 Plan India, ‘Girls in a Changing Landscape: Urban and Community Safety, Policing Paedophiles on and digital frontiers – The state of the girl child the Internet, McVean, Allyson and Peter Spindler, in India 2010’, New Delhi, September 2010, p. 30, eds., New Police Bookshop, United Kingdom, available at: http://plan-international.org/girls/ 2003; Baartz, D., ‘Australians, the Internet and static/docs/Plan%20India%202010%20BIAAG%20 Technology-Enabled Child Sex Abuse: A statistical Report.pdf, accessed 18 August 2011.
106 Child Safety Online 90 CWIN Nepal, ‘Protecting Children in Cyberspace’, Internet? available at: http://ec.europa.eu/public_ Kathmandu, 2009, available at: www.nta.gov.np/ opinion/flash/fl_248_en.pdf. articleimages/file/Protecting%20Children%20 in%20Cyberspace%20WTIS.pdf, accessed 100 International Telecommunication Union, ‘Use 21 August 2011. of Information and Communication Technology by the World’s Children and Youth: A statistical 91 Internet World Stats, ‘Usage and Population compilation’, ITU, Geneva, June 2008, p. 21. Statistics – World Internet Users and Population Statistics, March 31, 2011, available at: http:// 101 Chetty, Iyavar, and Antoinette Basson, ‘Report on www.Internetworldstats.com/stats.htm. The data Internet Usage and the Exposure of Pornography were collected from national statistical offices to Learners in South African Schools’, Film and by ITU or were compiled using other national Publication Board, Houghton, South Africa, statistical sources. November 2008, p. 23, available at: www.info.gov. za/view/DownloadFileAction?id=81355 92 Gillwald Alison, and Christoph Stork, ‘ICT Access and Usage in Africa’, Volume One, 2008, Policy 102 Plan India, ‘Girls in a Changing Landscape: Urban Paper Two, Research ICTAfrica, 2008, p.5, available and digital frontiers – The state of the girl child in at: www.researchictafrica.net/publications/ India 2010’, New Delhi, September 2010, p. 30. Towards_Evidence-based_ICT_Policy_and_ Regulation_-_Volume_1/RIA%20Policy%20 103 Livingstone, Sonia, et al., Risks and Safety on the Paper%20Vol%201%20Paper%202%20-%20ICT%20 Internet: The Perspective of European Children – Access%20and%20Usage%20in%20Africa%20 Full findings and policy implications from the 2008.pdf. EU Kids Online survey of 9–16 year olds and their parents in 25 countries, London School of 93 Chetty, Iyavar, and Antoinette Basson, ‘Report on Economics and Political Science, London, 2011, Internet Usage and the Exposure of Pornography p. 5, available at: http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/33731, to Learners in South African Schools’, Film and accessed 19 August 2011. Publication Board, Houghton, South Africa, November 2008, pp. 23, 27, available at: www.info. 104 Royal-Lawson, James, ‘Internet Usage and Young gov.za/view/DownloadFileAction?id=81355. Swedes in Sweden’, 20 May 2010, available at: http://beantin.se/post/616872465/Internet-use- 94 Livingstone, Sonia, and Leslie Haddon, ‘EU swedenyoung-swedes-children-age-group, Kids Online: Final report’, London School of accessed 25 August 2011. Economics and Political Science, London, June 2009, p. 1, available at: www2.lse.ac.uk/media@ 105 International Telecommunication Union, ‘Use lse/research/EUKidsOnline/EU%20Kids%20I%20 of Information and Communication Technology (2006-9)/EU%20Kids%20Online%20I%20Reports/ by the World’s Children and Youth: A statistical EUKidsOnlineFinalReport.pdf. compilation’, ITU, Geneva, June 2008, p. 24.
95 International Telecommunication Union, ‘Use 106 Livingstone, Sonia, et al., Risks and Safety on the of Information and Communication Technology Internet: The Perspective of European Children – by the World’s Children and Youth: A statistical Full findings and policy implications from the compilation’, ITU, Geneva, June 2008, p. 22. EU Kids Online survey of 9–16 year olds and their parents in 25 countries, London School of 96 Chetty, Iyavar, and Antoinette Basson, ‘Report on Economics and Political Science, London, 2011, p. 5. Internet Usage and the Exposure of Pornography to Learners in South African Schools’, Film and 107 Byron, Tanya, Safer Children in a Digital World: Publication Board, Houghton, South Africa, The Report of the Byron Review, Department for November 2008, p. 23, available at: www.info.gov. Children, Schools and Families, Annesley, UK, za/view/DownloadFileAction?id=81355. March 2008, p. 110, available at: http://media. education.gov.uk/assets/files/pdf/s/safer%20 97 Livingstone, Sonia, and Leslie Haddon, ‘EU Kids children%20in%20a%20digital%20world%20 Online: Final report’, London School of Economics the%202008%20byron%20review.pdf. and Political Science, London, June 2009, p. 1, available at: www2.lse.ac.uk/media@lse/ 108 International Youth Advisory Congress (A CEOP-led research/EUKidsOnline/EU%20Kids%20I%20 VGT initiative), ‘IYAC Children and Young Persons’ (2006-9)/EU%20Kids%20Online%20I%20Reports/ Global Online Charter Supplementary Document’, EUKidsOnlineFinalReport.pdf. Child Exploitation and Online Protection (CEOP) Centre, London, 2008, available at: www.ceop. 98 Lenhart, Amanda, et al., ‘Social Media & Mobile police.uk/Documents/iyac_charter_supp.pdf, Internet Use Among Teens and Young Adults’, Pew accessed 19 August 2011. Internet & American Life Project, Washington, D.C., 2010, p. 8. 109 Ibid., p. 4.
99 Gallup Organisation, ‘Towards a Safer Use of 110 Ibid., p. 5. the Internet for Children in the EU: A parents’ perspective’, Eurobarometer, Brussels, December 111 Chetty, Iyavar and Antoinette Basson, ‘Report on 2008, p. 12. Table 1: Does your child use the Internet Usage and the Exposure of Pornography
notes 107 to Learners in South African Schools’, Film and 120 Bangladesh Telecommunication Regulatory Publication Board, Houghton, South Africa, Commission, ‘Mobile Phone Subscribers in November 2006, p. 23, available at: www.info.gov. Bangladesh’, Dhaka, available at: www.btrc.gov. za/view/DownloadFileAction?id=81355. bd/newsandevents/mobile_phone_subscribers/ mobile_phone_subscribers_march_2010.php, 112 Davidson, Julia, State of the Nation Review accessed 26 August 2011. of Internet Safety 2010, Telecommunications Regulatory Authority, Kingdom of Bahrain, 121 U.S. Census Bureau, ‘International Data Base: Manama, 2010, p. 4, available at: www.tra.org. Bangladesh demographic indicators’, Washington, bh/en/pdf/SafeSurf_TRA_Report.pdf, accessed D.C., available at: www.census.gov/population/ 7 September 2011. international/data/idb/country.php, accessed 26 August 2011. 113 Symantec, ‘Norton Online Living Report 09’, Mountain View, CA, 2009, p. 4. The countries 122 Jotischky, Nicholas, Press Release: ‘India will surveyed were Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, overtake China as world’s largest mobile market France, Germany, India, Italy, Japan, Sweden, the in 2013’, Informa Telecoms & Media, 21 May 2010, United Kingdom and the United States. Available available at: http://blogs.informatandm.com/1475/ at: http://us.norton.com/content/en/us/home_ press-release-india-will-overtake-china-as- homeoffice/media/pdf/nofr/NOLR_Report_09.pdf, worlds-largest-mobile-market-in-2013, accessed accessed 27 April 2012. 26 August 2011.
114 See, for example: Alison Gillwald & Christoph 123 Tricarico, D., Press Release: ‘Latin America reaches Stork, ‘Towards Evidence-based ICT Policy and 100% penetration, yet over 170 million are still Regulation: ICT Access & Usage in Africa’ Volume without mobile services’, Informa Telecoms and One, 2008 Policy paper 2, p. 28, available at: http:// Media, 16 March 2011, available at: http://blogs. www.researchictafrica.net/publications/Towards_ informatandm.com/951/press-release-latin- Evidence-based_ICT_Policy_and_Regulation_-_ america-reaches-100-penetration-yet-over-170- Volume_1/RIA%20Policy%20Paper%20Vol%201%20 million-are-still-without-mobile-services/, accessed Paper%202%20-%20ICT%20Access%20and%20 10 June 2011. Usage%20in%20Africa%202008.pdf 124 ‘Towards a safer use of the Internet for 115 Rideout, Victoria J., Ulla G. Foehr and Donald F. children in the EU – a parents perspective’, Roberts, ‘Generation M2: Media in the lives of 8- to (2008) Eurobarometer, European Commission, 18-year-olds’, Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, Brussels, pp. 5, 19, available at: http://ec.europa. Menlo Park, CA, January 2010, p. 3, available at: eu/information_society/activities/sip/docs/ www.kff.org/entmedia/upload/8010.pdf, accessed eurobarometer/analyticalreport_2008.pdf 26 August 2011. 125 Lenhart, Amanda, ‘Teens and Mobile Phones Over 116 Livingstone, Sonia, et al., Risks and Safety on the the Past Five Years: Pew Internet looks back’, Pew Internet: The Perspective of European Children – Internet & American Life Project, Washington, Full findings and policy implications from the D.C., August 2009, pp. 1, 5, available at: www. EU Kids Online survey of 9–16 year olds and pewInternet.org/~/media/Files/Reports/2009/ their parents in 25 countries, London School of PIP%20Teens%20and%20Mobile%20Phones%20 Economics and Political Science, London, 2011, p. 5. Data%20Memo.pdf, accessed 26 August 2011.
117 Notably Estonia, Hungary, Lithuania, Malta, 126 Ibid., p. 7. Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia and Slovenia. Livingstone, Sonia, and Leslie Haddon, ‘EU 127 Lenhart, Amanda, ‘Teens and Sexting: How and Kids Online: Final report’, London School of why minor teens are sending sexually suggestive Economics and Political Science, London, June nude or nearly nude images via text messaging’, 2009, p. 5, available at: www2.lse.ac.uk/media@ Pew Internet & American Life Project, Washington, lse/research/EUKidsOnline/EU%20Kids%20I%20 D.C., 15 December 2009, p. 2, available at: www. (2006-9)/EU%20Kids%20Online%20I%20Reports/ pewInternet.org/Reports/2009/Teens-and-Sexting. EUKidsOnlineFinalReport.pdf. aspx, accessed: 21 August 2011.
118 The data presented on mobile phone subscriptions 128 Vincent, Jane, ‘ “11 16 Mobile”: Examining mobile refer to the number of active subscriber identity phone and ICT use amongst children aged 11 to 16’, module (SIM) cards. Given that many people have Digital World Research Centre, University of Surrey, taken out more than one SIM card, it does not mean Guildford, UK, December 2004, p. 2, available at: that each subscription indicates a different user. www.6283.ch/igas/docs/allgemein/Medizinisch/ Handy_Schluesselrolle_im_Entwicklungsprozess. 119 Mbongue, Thecia, Press Release: ‘Africa pdf crosses 500 million mobile subscriptions mark, 10 November 2010’, Informa Telecoms & Media, 129 Bosch, Tanja E., ‘Wots ur ASLR? Adolescent girls’ 10 November 2010, available at: http://blogs. use of cellphones in Cape Town’, Paper submitted informatandm.com/1388/press-release-africa- to e/merge 2008, University of Cape Town, Centre crosses-500-million-mobile-subscriptions-mark, Educational Technology, Cape Town, South Africa, accessed 26 August 2011. 2008, p. 7
108 Child Safety Online 130 Cotten, Sheila R., William A. Anderson and Zeynep national comparisons for EU Kids Online, 2nd ed., Tufekci, ‘Old Wine in a New Technology, or a London School of Economics, London, 2009, p. 28. Different Type of Digital Divide?’, New Media & Society, November 2009, pp. 1163–1186. 142 Hill, R .A., and R. I. M. Dunbar, ‘Social Network Size in Humans, Human Nature, vol. 14, no. 1, 2003, 131 Ibid., p. 10. pp. 53–72, available at: http://courses.washington. edu/ccab/Hill%20and%20Dunbar%202003%20-%20 132 Aviles, Judith Mariscal,‘Children’s Use of Mobile Group%20size.pdf. Phones: An international comparison’, GSM Association and NTT DOCOMO, London and 143 Boyd, Danah, ‘Friends, Friendsters, and MySpace Tokyo, February 2009, pp. 2, 3, available at: http:// Top 8: Writing community into being on social www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&cd=1 network sites’, First Monday, vol. 11, no. 12, &ved=0CD8QFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww. 4 December 2006, available at: http://www. gsmworld.com%2Fdocuments%2FFinal_report. google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&cd=1&v pdf&rct=j&q=Children%E2%80%99s%20 ed=0CBYQFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww. use%20of%20Mobile%20 danah.org%2Fpapers%2FFriendsFriendsterTop8. Phones%3A%20An%20International%20 pdf&rct=j&q=Friends%2C%20Friendsters%2C%20 Comparison&ei=PtZXTtrKKZKtgQfD_ and%20MySpace%20Top%208&ei= bmuDA&usg=AFQjCNGepEljEVLiq7T71_ hyBYTr39A5LVgAe80fm-DA&usg=AFQjCNGtByt FBA2oJmeS7xw&cad=rja mj35ynXhK4z9gRzm8B0ZxHA&cad=rja, accessed 26 August 2011. 133 International Telecommunication Union, ‘Use of Information and Communication Technology 144 Socialbakers.com, ‘World Continents Facebook by the World’s Children and Youth: A statistical Statistics’, Socialbakers Ltd., available at: www. compilation’, ITU, Geneva, June 2008, p. 19. socialbakers.com/countries/continents, accessed 7 December 2011. 134 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, ‘The Protection of Children Online: 145 Socialbakers.com, ‘Europe Becomes the Largest Risks faced by children online and policies to Continent on Facebook’, Socialbakers Ltd., www. protect them’, OECD Publishing, Paris, May 2011, socialbakers.com/blog/180-europe-becomes- p. 10, available at: www.oecd-ilibrary.org largest-continent-on-facebook, accessed 7 December 2011. 135 International Telecommunication Union, ‘Use of Information and Communication Technology 146 Socialbakers.com, ‘Top5 Countries on Facebook’, by the World’s Children and Youth: A statistical Socialbakers Ltd., www.socialbakers.com, compilation’, ITU, Geneva, June 2008, p. 33. accessed 7 December 2011. Children refers to individuals in the age group 5–14 or younger; and Youth refers to individuals in the 147 Lenhart, Amanda, et al., Social Media & Mobile age group 15–24. Internet Use Among Teens and Young Adults, Pew Internet & American Life Project, Washington, D.C., 136 Ibid., p. 38. 3 February 2010, available at: http://pewresearch. org/pubs/1484/social-media-mobile-Internet- 137 Optem, ‘Safer Internet for Children: Qualitative use-teens-millennials-fewer-blog, accessed study in 29 European countries – Summary report, 26 August 2011. Eurobarometer, Brussels, May 2007, pp. 22–23, available at: http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/ 148 Burbary, Ken, ‘Dispelling Youth Myth: Five useful archives/quali/ql_safer_Internet_ Facebook demographic statistic’, Web Business, summary.pdf 13 January 2010, available at: www.kenburbary. com/2010/01/dispelling-the-youth-myth-five- 138 ECPAT International, ‘Regional Overview on Sexual useful-facebook-demographic-statistics, accessed Abuse Images through the Use of Information and 26 August 2011. Communication Technologies in Belarus, Moldova, Russia and Ukraine’, ECPAT International, Bangkok, 149 Socialbakers.com, ‘India Facebook Statistics, September 2008, p. 30, available at: http://www. Penetration, Demography’, Socialbakers Ltd., www. ecpat.net/ei/Publications/Journals/Regional_ socialbakers.com/facebook-statistics/india#chart- Overview.pdf intervals, accessed 7 December 2011.
139 Data provided by SaferNet Brasil based on the 150 Socialbakers.com, ‘Brazil Facebook Statistics, national survey with children from 2008, http:// Penetration, Demography’, Socialbakers Ltd., www. www.safernet.org.br/site/prevencao/pesquisas/ socialbakers.com/facebook-statistics/brazil/last- jovens week#chart-intervals, accessed 7 December 2011.
140 Plan India, ‘Girls in a Changing Landscape: Urban 151 Digital Statistics at: http://digital-stats.blogspot. and digital frontiers – The state of the girl child in com/2011/02/russian-social-network-vkontakte- India 2010’, New Delhi, September 2010, p. 30. has.html
141 Hasebrink, Uwe, et al., Comparing Children’s Online 152 Office of Communications, Social Networking: Opportunities and Risks across Europe: Cross- A quantitative and qualitative research report into
notes 109 attitudes, behaviours and use, Ofcom, London, Online Sexual Solicitation or Harassment?’,Child 2 April 2008, p. 12, available at: http://news.bbc. Abuse & Neglect, vol. 32, 2008, pp. 277–294, co.uk/1/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/02_04_08_ofcom.pdf. available at: www.unh.edu/ccrc/pdf/CV149.pdf, accessed 21 August 2011. 153 Office of Communications, UK Children’s Media Literacy, Ofcom, London, 26 March 2010, p. 5, 164 Lenhart, Amanda, et al., ‘Social Media & Mobile available at: http://stakeholders.ofcom.org.uk/ Internet Use Among Teens and Young Adults’, binaries/research/media-literacy/ukchildrensml1. Pew Internet & American Life Project, Washington, pdf, accessed 26 August 2011. D.C., 2010, p. 3.
154 Livingstone, Sonia, et al., Risks and Safety on the 165 St. George, Donna, ‘Twitter Not All that Internet: The Perspective of European Children – Popular Among Teenagers, Report Finds’, The Full findings and policy implications from the Washington Post, 3 February 2010, available at: EU Kids Online survey of 9–16 year olds and www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/ their parents in 25 countries, London School of article/2010/02/03/AR2010020302591.html, Economics and Political Science, London, 2011, p. 5, accessed 27 August 2011. available at: http://www2.cnrs.fr/sites/en/fichier/ rapport_english.pdf. 166 Lobe, B., S. Livingstone, K. Ólafsson and H. Vodeb Cross-national comparison of risks and safety on 155 Wray, Richard, ‘Creating the Next Dotcom Boom the Internet: Initial analysis from the EU Kids Online Could Be Child’s Play’, The Observer, 25 April 2010, survey of European children, London: EU Kids available at: www.guardian.co.uk/business/2010/ Online, LSE, 2011. apr/25/boaki-social-networking-child-safety-online, accessed 26 August 2011. 167 Gill, Tim, No Fear: Growing up in a risk averse society, Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation, London, 156 Child Exploitation and Online Protection Centre, 2007. ‘Understanding Online Social Network Services and Risks to Youth: Stakeholder perspectives – 168 Byron, Tanya, Safer Children in a Digital World: A preliminary report on the findings of CEOP’s The Report of the Byron Review, Department social network seminar series’, CEOP, London, for Children, Schools and Families, Annesley, 2006, p. 11, available at: http://www.childcentre. UK, March 2008, p. 4, available at: http://media. info/projects/Internet/dbaFile13680.pdf education.gov.uk/assets/files/pdf/s/safer%20 children%20in%20a%20digital%20world%20 157 Ibid., p. 7. the%202008%20byron%20review.pdf
158 See, for example: eHow, ‘How to Find Gay Youth 169 Livingstone, Sonia, and Leslie Haddon, ‘EU Kids Resources Online’, Demand Media Inc., Santa Online: Final report’, London School of Economics Monica, CA, available at: www.ehow.com/ and Political Science, London, June 2009, p. 10, how_17072_find-gay-youth.html; Advocates for available at: http://www2.lse.ac.uk/media@lse/ Youth, ‘Amplify’, Washington, D.C., available research/EUKidsOnline/EU%20Kids%20I%20 at: www.amplifyyourvoice.org/youthresource, (2006-9)/EU%20Kids%20Online%20I%20Reports/ accessed 27 August 2011. EUKidsOnlineFinalReport.pdf
159 Franco, Claudio, ‘Popular Online Games: 170 See, for example: UNICEF Regional Office for West New insight from European research’, Warc, and Central Africa, ‘Promoting Synergies between February 2010. Child Protection and Social Protection: West and Central Africa’, Overseas Development Institute 160 Ulicsak, Mary, Martha Wright and Sue Cranmer, and United Nations Children’s Fund, London and Gaming in Families: A literature review, Futurelab, Dakar, 2009, available at: http://www.odi.org.uk/ Bristol, UK, August 2009, p. 6, available at: http:// resources/download/3477-briefing-paper-english. archive.futurelab.org.uk/projects/gaming-in- pdf families, accessed 27 August 2011. 171 Davidson, Julia, Elena Martellozzo and Mia Lorenz, 161 Byron, Tanya, Safer Children in a Digital World: ‘Evaluation of CEOP ThinkUKnow Internet Safety The Report of the Byron Review, Department for Programme and Exploration of Young People’s Children, Schools and Families, Annesley, UK, Internet Safety Knowledge’, Centre for Abuse & March 2008, p. 156, available at: http://media. Trauma Studies, Kingston University, London, education.gov.uk/assets/files/pdf/s/safer%20 2009, p. 25. children%20in%20a%20digital%20world%20 the%202008%20byron%20review.pdf 172 Bryce, Joanne, Internet Years Project, Orange, UK, 2009. 162 Lenhart, Amanda, et al., ‘Social Media & Mobile Internet Use Among Teens and Young Adults’, Pew 173 Davidson, Julia, Elena Martellozzo and Mia Lorenz, Internet & American Life Project, Washington, D.C., ‘Evaluation of CEOP ThinkUKnow Internet Safety 2010, p. 2. Programme and Exploration of Young People’s Internet Safety Knowledge’, Centre for Abuse & 163 Mitchell, Kimberly J., Janis Wolak and David Trauma Studies, Kingston University, London, Finkelhor, ‘Are Blogs Putting Youth at Risk for 2009, pp. 3–4.
110 Child Safety Online 174 Data provided by SaferNet Brasil based on the 184 Davidson, Julia, State of the Nation Review national survey with children from 2008, available of Internet Safety 2010, Telecommunications at: http://www.safernet.org.br/site/prevencao/ Regulatory Authority, Kingdom of Bahrain, pesquisas/jovens. Manama, 2010, p. 4, available at: www.tra.org. bh/en/pdf/SafeSurf_TRA_Report.pdf, accessed 175 Internet Safety Technical Task Force, Enhancing 7 September 2011. Child Safety & Online Technologies: Final report of the Internet Safety Technical Task Force to the 185 Ibid., pp. 4, 159. Multi-State Working Group on Social Network of State Attorney General of the United States, 186 ECPAT International cited by CWIN Nepal, Berkman Center for Internet & Society, Harvard ‘Protecting Children in Cyberspace’, Kathmandu, University, Cambridge, MA, 31 December 2008, 2009, available at: www.nta.gov.np/ Appendix C p. 40, available at: http://cyber.law. articleimages/file/Protecting%20Children%20 harvard.edu/sites/cyber.law.harvard.edu/files/ in%20Cyberspace%20WTIS.pdf, accessed ISTTF_Final_Report.pdf. 21 August 2011.
176 Davidson, Julia, State of the Nation Review 187 Van der Gaag, Nikki, Because I Am a Girl: The State of Internet Safety 2010, Telecommunications of the World’s Girls 2010 – Digital and urban Regulatory Authority, Kingdom of Bahrain, frontiers: Girls in a changing landscape, Plan Manama, 2010, p. 4, available at: www.tra.org. International, Brussels, 2010, p. 19, available at: bh/en/pdf/SafeSurf_TRA_Report.pdf, accessed http://plan-international.org/girls/static/docs/ 7 September 2011. BIAAG_2010_EN2.pdf
177 Interviews with Child Exploitation and Online 188 Data provided by SaferNet Brasil based on the Protection (CEOP) Centre, London, conducted national survey with children from 2008, available between October 2010 and April 2011. at: http://www.safernet.org.br/site/prevencao/ pesquisas/jovens. 178 CWIN Nepal, ‘Protecting Children in Cyberspace’, Kathmandu, 2009, available at: www.nta.gov.np/ 189 Bosch, Tanja E., ‘Wots ur ASLR? Adolescent girls’ articleimages/file/Protecting%20Children%20 use of cellphones in Cape Town’, Paper submitted in%20Cyberspace%20WTIS.pdf, accessed to e/merge 2008, University of Cape Town, Centre 21 August 2011. Educational Technology, Cape Town, South Africa, 2008, p. 8. 179 Jones, Vernon, and Ethel Quayle, ‘Protecting Children from Online Sexual Exploitation’, 190 Finkelhor, David, ‘The Second Youth Internet Save the Children Denmark, Copenhagen, Safety Survey’, Crimes against Children Research September 2005, p. 11, available at: http://www. Center, and National Center for Missing & childoscope.net/2009/httpdocs/publications/ Exploited Children, Durham, NH, and Arlington, VA, cddea67ce2be65c6c725b6513e782bcf.pdf 2005–2006.
180 Livingstone, Sonia, et al., Risks and Safety on the 191 Ibid. Internet: The Perspective of European Children – Full findings and policy implications from the 192 Lenhart, Amanda, ‘Teens and Sexting: How and EU Kids Online survey of 9–16 year olds and why minor teens are sending sexually suggestive their parents in 25 countries, London School of nude or nearly nude images via text messaging’, Economics and Political Science, London, 2011, Pew Internet & American Life Project, Washington, p. 41. D.C., 15 December 2009, p. 2.
181 Brazil Surveys (2009). Accessible online at: http:// 193 Ibid. www.safernet.org.br/site/prevencao/pesquisas/ 194 Cox Communications Teen Online & Wireless 182 Eynon, Rebecca, Harnessing Technology: Safety Survey, in Partnership with the National The Learner and their context – Mapping young Center for Missing & Exploited Children (NCMEC) people’s uses of technology in their own contexts: and John Walsh, May 2009, available at: www.cox. A nationally representative survey, British com/takecharge/safe_teens_2009/media/2009_ Educational Communications and Technology teen_survey_Internet_and_wireless_safety.pdf Agency, Department for Children, Schools and Families, Government of the UK, March 2009, 195 MTV and Associated Press, ‘A Thin Line: 2009 MTV- p. 7, available at: http://dera.ioe.ac.uk/1528/1/ AP Digital Abuse Study – Executive summary’, becta_2009_learner_context_survey_report.doc AThinLine.org, 2009, p. 2, available at: http://www. athinline.org/MTV-AP_Digital_Abuse_Study_Full. 183 Bryce, Joanne, Internet Years Project, Orange, UK, pdf and the landing page ‘A Thin Line’ ishttp:// 2009, cited in National Foundation for Education www.athinline.org/about. Research, ‘Children’s Online Risks and Safety: Review of Available Evidence’, London 2009, 196 Phippen, Andy, ‘Sharing Personal Images and available at: http://www.ngfl-cymru.org.uk/ukccis_ Videos among Young People’, South West Grid for draft_report.pdf Learning, Sowton, UK, 2009.
notes 111 197 Data provided by SaferNet Brasil based on the berspace_ENG.pdf&rct=j&q=muhammad%20 national survey with children from 2008, available ecpat%20Danger%20for%20children%20at%20 at: http://www.safernet.org.br/site/prevencao/ Pakistan%E2%80%99s%20cafes&ei=eLtbTvPZNMa pesquisas/jovens. ugQfsyaW5DA&usg=AFQjCNH5C1nQcPnezcBRnHk fwpN_asm5Cg&cad=rja 198 Nicole, Kristen, ‘100,000,000 Avatars Created on Habbo’, Mashable, New York, 26 June 2008, 208 Pakistan Pediatric Association and Save the available at: http://mashable.com/2008/06/26/ Children Sweden, ‘Exposure of Children to habbo-100-million-user, accessed 29 August 2011. Pornography’, Peshawar and Stockholm, 2001, p. 4, available at: http://www.childtrafficking.com/ 199 Noll, Jennie G., et al., ‘Childhood Abuse, Avatar Docs/pakistan_2001_exposure_of_children_to_ Choices, and Other Risk Factors Associated with pornography_3.pdf Internet-Initiated Victimization of Adolescent Girls’, Pediatrics, vol. 123, no. 6, June 2009, pp. e1078– 209 CWIN Nepal, ‘Protecting Children in Cyberspace’, e1083, available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ Kathmandu, 2009, available at: www.nta.gov.np/ pmc/articles/PMC2966308/?tool=pubmed. articleimages/file/Protecting%20Children%20 in%20Cyberspace%20WTIS.pdf, accessed 200 See, for example: Dooley, Julian J., et al., ‘Review 21 August 2011. of Existing Australian and International Cyber- Safety Research’, Child Health Promotion Research 210 Chetty, Iyavar, and Antoinette Basson, ‘Report on Centre, Edith Cowan University, Perth, Australia, Internet Usage and the Exposure of Pornography May 2009, p. 93, available at: www.dbcde.gov.au/__ to Learners in South African Schools’, Film and data/assets/pdf_file/0004/119416/ECU_Review_ Publication Board, Houghton, South Africa, of_existing_Australian_and_international_cyber- November 2008, p. 31, available at: http://www. safety_research.pdf, accessed 21 August 2011. info.gov.za/view/DownloadFileAction?id=81355
201 Wolak, Janis, Kimberly Mitchell and David 211 Ayiku, Charles Nii, ‘The Ghanaian Youth and Finkelhor, ‘Unwanted and Wanted Exposure to Pornography’, GhanaWeb, 11 March 2006, available Online Pornography in a National Sample of Youth at: www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/ Internet Users’, Pediatrics, vol. 119, no. 2, February features/artikel.php?ID=100813, accessed 2007, pp. 247–257, available at: http://pediatrics. 21 August 2011. aappublications.org/content/119/2/247.full. pdf+html. 212 Muir, Deborah, ‘Violence against Children in Cyberspace: A contribution to the United Nations 202 Mossige, Svein, Mare Ainsaar and Carl Göran Study on Violence against Children’, ECPAT Svedin, eds., The Baltic Sea Regional Study on International, Bangkok, September 2005, p. 55, Adolescents’ Sexuality, NOVA, Norwegian Ministry available at: http://www.ecpat.net/ei/Publications/ of Education and Research, Oslo, 2007, p. 37, ICT/Cyberspace_ENG.pdf available at: http://www.childcentre.info/projects/ abused/dbaFile15312.pdf 213 International Youth Advisory Congress (A CEOP led VGT initiative), ‘IYAC Children and Young Persons’ 203 Soldatova, Galina, ‘Russian Schoolchildren as Global Online Charter Supplementary Document’, Internet Users: Types and risk groups’, Internet Child Exploitation and Online Protection (CEOP) Development Foundation, Moscow, 2009. Centre, London, 2008, p. 6, available at: www. ceop.police.uk/Documents/iyac_charter_supp.pdf, 204 Data provided by SaferNet Brasil based on the accessed 21 August 2011. national survey with children from 2008, available at: http://www.safernet.org.br/site/prevencao/ 214 Information provided by the Child Exploitation pesquisas/jovens. and Online Protection (CEOP) Centre, London. Interviews with CEOP were conducted between 205 Livingstone, Sonia, et al., Risks and Safety on the October 2010 and March 2011. Internet: The Perspective of European Children – Full findings and policy implications from the 215 Ibid. EU Kids Online survey of 9–16 year olds and their parents in 25 countries, London School of 216 See, for example: Shariff, Shaheen, Cyber-Bullying: Economics and Political Science, London, 2011, Issues and solutions for the school, the classroom p. 51. and the home, Routledge, London and New York, 2008. 206 Plan India, ‘Girls in a Changing Landscape: Urban and digital frontiers – The state of the girl child in 217 Livingstone, S., L. Haddon, A. Görzig, and K. India 2010’, New Delhi, September 2010, p. 32. Ólafsson, Risks and safety on the Internet: The perspective of European children . Full Findings. 207 Muhammad, Tufail, ‘Danger for Children at LSE, London: EU Kids Online, 2011. Pakistan’s Cafes’, ECPAT Newsletter, Bangkok, no. 48, July 2004, p. 5, available at: http://www. 218 Patchin, Justin W. and Sameer Hinduja, ‘Bullies google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&cd=1&v Move Beyond the Schoolyard: A preliminary look at ed=0CBkQFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww. cyberbullying’, Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, ecpat.net%2Fei%2FPublications%2FICT%2FCy vol. 4, no. 2, April 2006, pp. 148–169.
112 Child Safety Online 219 See, for example: Englander, Elizabeth, and Amy at: www.chis.org.uk/uploads/02b.pdf, accessed M. Muldowney, ‘Just Turn the Darn Thing Off: 22 August 2011. Understanding cyberbullying’, in Hamilton Fish Institute, Proceedings of Persistently Safe Schools: 229 Cross, E.J., B. Richardson, T. Douglas, and The 2007 National Conference on Safe Schools, J. Vonkaenel-Flatt, Virtual violence: protecting George Washington University, Washington, D.C., children from cyberbullying. London: Beatbullying, 2007, pp. 83–92, available at: http://www.ncjrs. 2009, available at: http://www2.beatbullying.org/ gov/pdffiles1/ojjdp/grants/226233.pdf; Gerson, pdfs/Virtual%20Violence%20-%20Protecting%20 Ruth, and Nancy Rappaport, ‘Cyber Cruelty: Children%20from%20Cyberbullying.pdf Understanding and preventing the new bullying’, Adolescent Psychiatry, vol. 1, 2011, pp. 67–71, 230 Ibid, p. 28. available at: www.benthamscience.com/aps/ sample/aps1-1/12-Gerson_APS.pdf, accessed 231 Hinduja, Sameer, and Justin W. Patchin, 29 August 2011. ‘Cyberbullying: An exploratory analysis of factors related to offending and victimization’, Deviant 220 Gerson, Ruth, and Nancy Rappaport, ‘Cyber Behavior, vol. 29, 2008, pp. 129–156. Cruelty: Understanding and preventing the new bullying’, Adolescent Psychiatry, vol. 1, 2011, 232 Long Island Network of Community Services/ pp. 67–71, available at: www.benthamscience.com/ BiasHELP, ‘STOPtechNObullying: LGBTQ – Lesbian, aps/sample/aps1-1/12-Gerson_APS.pdf, accessed gay, bisexual, transgender and questioning 29 August 2011. youth’, Hauppauge, NY, 2011, available at: http:// stoptechnobullying.org/lgbtq.php, accessed 221 Hinduja, Sameer, and Justin W. Patchin, 22 August 2011. ‘Cyberbullying: An exploratory analysis of factors related to offending and victimization’, Deviant 233 Arnett, Jeffrey Jensen, ‘Adolescent Storm and Behavior, vol. 29, 2008, pp. 129–156. Stress, Reconsidered’, American Psychologist, vol. 54, no. 5, May 1999, pp. 317–326, available 222 National Children’s Home and Tesco Mobile, at: http://uncenglishmat.weebly.com/ ‘Putting U in the Picture: Mobile bullying survey uploads/1/4/3/4/1434319/arnett.pdf 2005’, NCH, United Kingdom, n.d, available at: www.filemaker.co.uk/educationcentre/downloads/ 234 Davidson, Julia, Elena Martellozzo and Mia Lorenz, articles/Mobile_bullying_report.pdf, accessed ‘Evaluation of CEOP ThinkUKnow Internet Safety 22 August 2011. Programme and Exploration of Young People’s Internet Safety Knowledge’, Centre for Abuse & 223 Muir, Deborah, ‘Violence against Children in Trauma Studies, Kingston University, London, July Cyberspace: A contribution to the United Nations 2009, p. 3, available at: http://cats-rp.org.uk/pdf%20 Study on Violence against Children’, ECPAT files/Internet%20safety%20report%204-2010.pdf, International, Bangkok, September 2005, p. 61, accessed 21 August 2011. available at: http://www.ecpat.net/ei/Publications/ ICT/Cyberspace_ENG.pdf 235 Child Exploitation and Online Protection Centre, ‘Understanding Online Social Network Services 224 Cross, Donna, et al., Australian Covert Bullying and Risks to Youth: Stakeholder perspectives – Prevalence Study, Child Health Promotion Research A preliminary report on the findings of CEOP’s Centre, Edith Cowan University, Perth, Australia, social network seminar series’, CEOP, London, pp. 171, 184. November 2006, p. 7, available at: http://www. childcentre.info/projects/Internet/dbaFile13680. 225 Livingstone, et al., Risks and Safety on the Internet: pdf The Perspective of European Children – Full findings and policy implications from the EU Kids 236 International Youth Advisory Congress (A CEOP led Online survey of 9–16 year olds and their parents VGT initiative), ‘IYAC Children and Young Persons’ in 25 countries, London School of Economics and Global Online Charter Supplementary Document’, Political Science, London, 2011, pp. 6, 61. Child Exploitation and Online Protection (CEOP) Centre, London, 2008, p. 5, available at: www.iyac. 226 Data provided by SaferNet Brasil based on the net/corporate/index.htm, accessed 1 September national survey with children from 2008, available 2011, available at: http://www.iyac.net/iyac_ at: http://www.safernet.org.br/site/prevencao/ charter_supp.pdf pesquisas/jovens. 237 “A study in the Philippines” Prepared by Aleli 227 Davidson, Julia, State of the Nation Review Bawagan, independent consultant, and Anjanette of Internet Safety 2010, Telecommunications Saguisag, Child Protection Specialist, UNICEF Regulatory Authority, Kingdom of Bahrain, Philippines Country Office, unpublished. Manama, 2010, p. 5, available at: www.tra.org. bh/en/pdf/SafeSurf_TRA_Report.pdf, accessed 238 Van der Gaag, Nikki, Because I Am a Girl: The State 7 September 2011. of the World’s Girls 2010 – Digital and urban frontiers: Girls in a changing landscape, Plan 228 Carr, John, and Zoë Hilton, ‘Children’s Charities’ International, Brussels, 2010, p. 130, available at: Coalition on Internet Safety: Digital manifesto’, http://plan-international.org/girls/static/docs/ Action for Children, London, 2009, p. 16, available BIAAG_2010_EN2.pdf
notes 113 239 Data provided by SaferNet Brasil based on the (2006-9)/EU%20Kids%20Online%20I%20Reports/ national survey with children from 2008, available EUKidsOnlineFinalReport.pdf at: http://www.safernet.org.br/site/prevencao/ pesquisas/jovens. 249 Synovate (UK) Ltd., ‘Staying Safe Survey 2009: Young people and parents’ attitudes around 240 Plan India, ‘Girls in a Changing Landscape: Urban Internet safety’, Department for Children, Schools and digital frontiers – The state of the girl child in and Families, Government of the United Kingdom, India 2010’, New Delhi, September 2010, p. 31. Runcorn, UK, December 2009, p. 15, available at: https://www.education.gov.uk/publications/ 241 Chetty, Iyavar, and Antoinette Basson, ‘Report on eOrderingDownload/DCSF-RR192.pdf Internet Usage and the Exposure of Pornography to Learners in South African Schools’, Film and 250 Livingstone, Sonia, et al., Risks and Safety on the Publication Board, Houghton, South Africa, Internet: The Perspective of European Children – November 2008, p. 32., available at: http://www. Full findings and policy implications from the info.gov.za/view/DownloadFileAction?id=81355 EU Kids Online survey of 9–16 year olds and their parents in 25 countries, London School of 242 Nyman, Anders, ‘Risky Behaviour on the Economics and Political Science, London, 2011, p. 7. Internet’, Presentation in ‘Children and Young Persons with Abusive and Violent Experiences 251 Livingstone, Sonia, and Leslie Haddon, ‘EU Kids Connected to Cyberspace: Challenges for Online: Final report’, London School of Economics research, rehabilitation, prevention and and Political Science, London, June 2009, p. 18. protection’, Swedish Children’s Welfare Foundation, Stokholm, 2006, p. 31, available at: 252 Ibid., pp. 18–19. http://www.allmannabarnhuset.se/data/files/ Internetrelatera_eng_barnhuset.pdf 253 Al-Omari, Moneer, ‘Search for Pornographic Material on Rise: Children are most vulnerable’, 243 Child Exploitation and Online Protection Centre, Yemen Post, 12 January 2009, available at: www. ‘Understanding Social Networking Services yemenpost.net/63/Reports/20084.htm, accessed and Risks to Youth: Stakeholder perspectives – 29 August 2011. A preliminary report on the findings of the CEOP Centre’s Social Network Seminar Series’, CEOP, 254 International Telecommunication Union, ‘What’s London, 2006, p. 12, available at: http://www. Happing Online’, ITU, Geneva, available at: www. ceop.police.uk/Documents/socialnetwork_serv_ itu.int/osg/csd/cybersecurity/gca/cop/happening. report_221206.pdf html, accessed 29 August 2011.
244 Data provided by SaferNet Brasil based on the 255 International Youth Advisory Congress (A CEOP led national survey with children from 2008, available VGT initiative), ‘IYAC Children and Young Persons’ at: http://www.safernet.org.br/site/prevencao/ Global Online Charter Supplementary Document’, pesquisas/jovens. Child Exploitation and Online Protection (CEOP) Centre, London, 2008, p. 5. 245 Child Exploitation and Online Protection Centre, ‘Understanding Social Networking Services 256 Ibid. and Risks to Youth: Stakeholder perspectives – A preliminary report on the findings of the CEOP 257 Voices of Youth, ‘Survey on Internet Use, 2010’, Centre’s Social Network Seminar Series’, CEOP, survey conducted for UNICEF, available at: www. London, 2006, p. 11, available at: http://www. voicesofyouth.org ceop.police.uk/Documents/socialnetwork_serv_ report_221206.pdf 258 Livingstone, Sonia, et al., Risks and Safety on the Internet: The Perspective of European Children – 246 Ibid., p. 12. Full findings and policy implications from the EU Kids Online survey of 9–16 year olds and 247 TNS Opinion & Social, ‘Safer Internet’, their parents in 25 countries, London School of Eurobarometer, Brussels, May 2006, p. 4, available Economics and Political Science, London, 2011, at: http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source= pp. 59, 70. web&cd=3&sqi=2&ved=0CCwQFjAC&url=htt p%3A%2F%2Fec.europa.eu%2Finformation_so 259 Quayle, Ethel, and Max Taylor, ‘Young People Who ciety%2Factivities%2Fsip%2Fdocs%2Feur Sexually Abuse; The role of the new technologies’, obarometer%2Feurobarometer_2005_25_ in Erooga, Marcus and Helen Masson, eds., ms.pdf&rct=j&q=Eurobarometer%20Safer%20 Children and Young People Who Sexually Abuse Internet%202005&ei=ittWToG7GqrL0QH- Others: Current developments and practice iMzMDA&usg=AFQjCNGYs0rKBJCUI5hnkOcaBTTG responses, 2nd. ed., Routledge, London, 2006, HtGEgw&cad=rja pp. 115–128.
248 Livingstone, Sonia, and Leslie Haddon, ‘EU Kids 260 Optem, ‘Safer Internet for Children: Qualitative Online: Final report’, London School of Economics study in 29 European countries – Summary report, and Political Science, London, June 2009, pp. 18–19, Eurobarometer, Brussels, May 2007, p. 46, available available at: http://www2.lse.ac.uk/media@lse/ at: http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ research/EUKidsOnline/EU%20Kids%20I%20 quali/ql_safer_Internet_summary.pdf
114 Child Safety Online 261 Wolak, J., K.J. Mitchell, and D. Finkelhor, How available at: http://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/ Risky Are Social Networking Sites?, available releases /amp-632111.pdf at: http://www.journals.elsevierhealth.com/ periodicals/jah/article/PIIS1054139X04001715/ 273 Muir, Deborah, ‘Violence against Children in fulltext; Ybarra, M.L., K. J. Mitchell, D. Finkelhor, Cyberspace: A contribution to the United Nations J. Wolak, Internet Prevention Messages: Targeting Study on Violence against Children’, ECPAT the Right Online Behaviors, JD Archive of Pediatric International, Bangkok, September 2005, p. 9, Adolescent Medicine 2007, 161:138–145. available at: www.ecpat.net/ei/Publications/ICT/ Cyberspace_ENG.pdf 262 OPTEM, Safer Internet for children, qualitative study in 29 European centres, European 274 Dawes, Andy, and Advaita Govender, ‘The Use of Commission, Brussels, 2007. Children in Pornography in South Africa’, Human Sciences Research Council, Pretoria, 2007, p. 8, 263 Ybarra, M.L., K. J. Mitchell, D. Finkelhor, J. Wolak, available at: http://www.hsrc.ac.za/Research_ Internet Prevention Messages: Targeting the Project-796.phtml Right Online Behaviors, JD Archive of Pediatric Adolescent Medicine 2007, 161:138–145. 275 Van der Gaag, Nikki, Because I Am a Girl: The State of the World’s Girls 2010 – Digital and urban 264 Wolak, Janis, et al., ‘Online “Predators” and their frontiers: Girls in a changing landscape, Plan Victims: Myths, realities and implications for International, Brussels, 2010, p. 132, available at: prevention and treatment’, American Psychologist, http://plan-international.org/girls/resources/digital- vol. 63, no. 2, February–March 2008, pp. 111–128, and-urban-frontiers-2010.php, accessed 27 August available at: http://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/ 2011. releases /amp-632111.pdf 276 Dawes, Andy, and Advaita Govender, ‘The Use of 265 Shannon, David, ‘The Online Sexual Solicitation of Children in Pornography in South Africa’, Human Children by Adults in Sweden’, English summary Sciences Research Council, Pretoria, 2007, available of Brå report No 2007:11, Brottsförebyggande at http://www.hsrc.ac.za/Research_Project-796. rådet, Stockholm, 2007, p. 7, available at: http:// phtml www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&cd=2 &ved=0CBwQFjAB&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww. 277 Ibid., p. 8. eucpn.org%2Fdownload%2F%3Ffile%3Dbra_ online_sexual_solicitation_children.pdf% 278 Livingstone, Sonia, and Ellen Helsper, ‘Taking Risks 26type%3D8&rct=j&q=Brottsforebyggan when Communicating on the Internet: The role de%20Radet%20Adults%E2%80%99%20 of offline social-psychological factors in young sexual%20contacts%20with%20children%20 people’s vulnerability to online risks’, Information, via%20the%20Internet&ei=4DFcTobVFIXEg- Communication & Society, vol. 10, no. 5, pp. 619– Qf4ob2hAg&usg=AFQjCNH_xamrNxaevHukMgD_ 643, available at: http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/4254/ PQECOXLsoQ&cad=rja 279 Livingstone, Sonia, e-Youth: (Future) policy 266 Quayle, Ethel, Lars Loof and Tink Palmer, ‘Child implications: Reflections on online risk, harm and Pornography and Sexual Exploitation of Children vulnerability, Presentation at ‘e-Youth: Balancing Online: A contribution of ECPAT International to between opportunities and risks’ (26–28 May 2010, the World Congress III against Sexual Exploitation Antwerp, Belgium), London School of Economics of Children and Adolescents’, ECPAT International, Research Online, London, June 2010, p. 8, available Bangkok, November 2008, p. 54. at: http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/27849/1/eYouth_(future)_ policy_implications_(LSERO_version).pdf 267 Ibid. 280 Palmer, Tink, ‘Sexual Abuse and Exploitation in the 268 Ibid., p.55. Converged Online/Offline Environment: Referral services and rehabilitation’, 2010 (unpublished 269 Personal communication with Tink Palmer, Marry paper for UNICEF). Collins Foundation, UK, March 2010. 281 Ibid. 270 Leary, Mary G., ‘Self-Produced Child Pornography: The appropriate societal response to juvenile self- 282 See, for example: Barnardo’s, ‘Bridgeway Project exploitation’, Virginia Journal of Social Policy and Annual Report 1997’, Ilford, UK, available at: the Law, vol. 15, no. 1, 2008. http://www.barnardos.org.uk; Bentovim, Arnon, et al., eds., Child Sexual Abuse within the Family: 271 Palmer, Tink, and Lisa Stacey, Just One Click: Assessment and treatment, Wright, London, Sexual abuse of children and young people 1988; Briere, John, Therapy for Adults Molested through the Internet and mobile phone technology, as Children: Beyond survival, Springer, New York, Barnardo’s, Ilford, UK, 2004. 1989; Finkelhor, David, A Sourcebook on Child Sexual Abuse, Sage Publications, London, 1986; 272 Wolak, Janis, et al., ‘Online “Predators” and their Jehu, Derek, Marjorie Gazan and Carole Klassen, Victims: Myths, realities and implications for Beyond Sexual Abuse: Therapy with women who prevention and treatment’, American Psychologist, were childhood victims, Wiley, Chichester, UK, vol. 63, no. 2, February–March 2008, pp. 111–128, 1988; Richardson, Sue, and Heather Bacon, Creative
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283 Flood, Michael, ‘The Harms of Pornography 292 Carr, Angela, Internet Traders of Child Pornography Exposure Among Children and Young People’, Child and Other Censorship Offenders in New Zealand, Abuse Review, vol. 18, 2009, pp. 384–400, available Department of Internal Affairs Te Tari Taiwhenua, at: www.xyonline.net/sites/default/files/Flood,%20 Wellington, 2004, available at: http://www.dia. The%20harms%20of%20pornography%20 govt.nz/Pubforms.nsf/URL/entirereport.pdf/$file/ exposure%2009.pdf entirereport.pdf; Moultrie, Denise, ‘Adolescents Convicted of Possession of Abuse Images of 284 Flood, Michael, ‘The Harms of Pornography Children: A new type of adolescent sex offender?’, Exposure Among Children and Young People’, Child Journal of Sexual Aggression, vol. 12, no. 2, Abuse Review, vol. 18, 2009, pp. 384–400, available July 2006, pp. 165–174. at: www.xyonline.net/sites/default/files/Flood,%20 The%20harms%20of%20pornography%20 293 Doidge, Norman, The Brain that Changes Itself: exposure%2009.pdf Stories of personal triumph from the frontiers of brain science, Penguin, London, 2007. 285 Flood, Michael, and Clive Hamilton, ‘Youth and Pornography in Australia: Evidence on the extent 294 Palmer, Tink, ‘Sexual Abuse and Exploitation in the of exposure and likely effects’, Discussion Paper Converged Online/Offline Environments: Referral no. 52, The Australia Institute, University of services and rehabilitation’, 2010 (unpublished Canberra, Bruce, Australia, February 2003, available paper for UNICEF). at: http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=we b&cd=1&ved=0CBkQFjAA&url=https%3A%2F% 295 Lo, Ven-Hwei, and Ran Wei, ‘Exposure to Internet 2Fwww.tai.org.au%2Ffile.php%3Ffile%3DDP52. Pornography and Taiwanese Adolescents’ Sexual pdf&rct=j&q=Youth%20and%20Pornography%20 Attitudes and Behaviour’, Journal of Broadcasting in%20Australia%3A%20Evidence%20on%20the%20 & Electronic Media, vol. 49, no. 2, June 2005, Extent%20of%20Exposure&ei=qYBmTreMJ- pp. 221–237, available at: http://www.google. TY0QHo4q2CCg&usg=AFQjCNHYi8- com/url?sa=t&source=web&cd=3&ved=0CC IHMmTJvhKBG-JuJAmXLM6quA&cad=rja 0QFjAC&url=http%3A%2F%2Fnccur.lib.nccu. edu.tw%2Fbitstream%2F140.119%2F38190%2 286 See, for example: Liao, Lih Mei, and Sarah M. F1%2F398.pdf&rct=j&q=lo%20Exposure%20 Creighton, ‘Requests for Cosmetic Genitoplasty: to%20Internet%20Pornography%20and%20 How should healthcare providers respond?’, British Taiwanese%20Adolescents%E2%80%99%20 Medical Journal, vol. 334, no. 7603, 24 May 2007, Sexual%20Attitudes%20and%20 pp. 1090–1092; Braun, Virginia, and Leonore Tiefer, Behaviour&ei=Ok5nTqm0Def50gG74uTACw&usg= ‘The “Designer Vagina” and the Pathologisation of AFQjCNGx3lnFk1SGZzFHuCjA25oldY1lFw&cad=rja Female Genital Diversity: Interventions for change’, Radical Psychology, vol. 8, no. 1, 2010, available 296 Livingstone, Sonia, et al., Risks and Safety on the at: www.radicalpsychology.org/vol8-1/brauntiefer. Internet: The Perspective of European Children – html, accessed 7 September 2011. Full findings and policy implications from the EU Kids Online survey of 9–16 year olds and 287 Muir, Deborah, ‘Violence against Children in their parents in 25 countries, London School of Cyberspace: A contribution to the United Nations Economics and Political Science, London, 2011, Study on Violence against Children’, ECPAT p. 56. International, Bangkok, September 2005, p. 53, available at: http://www.ecpat.net/ei/Publications/ 297 CWIN Nepal, ‘Protecting Children in Cyberspace’, ICT/Cyberspace_ENG.pdf Kathmandu, 2009, available at: www.nta.gov.np/ articleimages/file/Protecting%20Children%20 288 Bonino, Silvia, et al., ‘Use of Pornography and Self- in%20Cyberspace%20WTIS.pdf, accessed Reported Engagement in Sexual Violence among 21 August 2011. Adolescents’, European Journal of Developmental Psychology, vol. 3, no. 3, 2003, pp. 265–288. 298 Rauniar, Deepak, ‘Cyber Cafes of Nepal: Passage to cyber crime?’, South Asia Partnership International 289 Muir, Deborah, ‘Violence against Children in and Bellanet Asia, Lalitpur, Nepal, March 2007, Cyberspace: A contribution to the United Nations p. 13, 16, available at: http://www.sapint.org/ Study on Violence against Children’, ECPAT fileDownload.php?file=2008021314214615.f International, Bangkok, September 2005, p. 18, available at: http://www.ecpat.net/ei/Publications/ 299 Chetty, Iyavar, and Antoinette Basson, ‘Report on ICT/Cyberspace_ENG.pdf Internet Usage and the Exposure of Pornography to Learners in South African Schools’, Film and 290 CWIN Nepal, ‘Protecting Children in Cyberspace’, Publication Board, Houghton, South Africa, Kathmandu, 2009, available at: www.nta.gov.np/ November 2008, p. 31, available at: http://www. articleimages/file/Protecting%20Children%20 info.gov.za/view/DownloadFileAction?id=81355
116 Child Safety Online 300 Ibid., p. 48. 312 Bachan, Keshett, Sarah Stevenson and Nikki van der Gaag, ‘Girls in Cyberspace: Dangers 301 See, for example: Olweus, Dan, ‘Peer Harassment: and opportunities’, Plan International, Brussels, A critical analysis and some important issues’, in 2010, p. 10; available at: www.planusa.org/ Jaana Juvonen and Sandra Graham, eds., Peer becauseiamagirl/docs/girlsincyberspace.pdf, Harassment in School: The plight of the vulnerable accessed 26 August 2011. and victimized, Guilford Press, New York, 2001, pp. 3–20. 313 Van der Gaag, Nikki, Because I Am a Girl: The State of the World’s Girls 2010 – Digital and urban 302 Olweus, Dan, Sue Limber and Sharon F. Mihalic, frontiers: Girls in a changing landscape, Plan Bullying Prevention Program, Center for the Study International, Brussels, 2010, p. 127, available and Prevention of Violence, Boulder, CO, 1999. at: http://plan-international.org/girls/resources/ digital-and-urban-frontiers-2010.php, accessed 303 Raskauskas, Juliana, and Ann D. Stoltz, 7 December 2011. ‘Involvement in Traditional and Electronic Bullying among Adolescents’, Developmental Psychology, 314 Plan India, ‘Girls in a Changing Landscape: Urban vol. 43, no. 3, May 2007, pp. 564–575. and digital frontiers – The state of the girl child in India 2010’, New Delhi, September 2010, p. 31. 304 Ybarra, Michele L., et al., ‘Examining Characteristics and Associated Distress Related to Internet 315 Staksrud, Elisabeth, and Sonia Livingstone, Harassment: Findings from the Second Youth ‘Children and Online Risk: Powerless victims Internet Safety Survey’, Pediatrics, vol. 118, no. 4, or resourceful participants?’, Information, October 2006, pp. e1169–e1177, available at: http:// Communication & Society, vol. 12, no. 3, 2009, pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/118/4/e1169 pp. 364–387, available at: http://eprints.lse. ac.uk/30122/ 305 David-Ferdon, Corinne, and Marci Feldman Hertz, ‘Electronic Media, Violence, and Adolescents: 316 Gallup Organisation, ‘Towards a Safer Use of An emerging public health problem’, Journal of the Internet for Children in the EU: A parents’ Adolescent Health, vol. 41, no. 6, December 2007, perspective’, Eurobarometer, Brussels, December p. S1–S5, available at: http://www.jahonline.org/ 2008, p. 33, available at: http://ec.europa.eu/ webfiles/images/journals/jah/zaq112070000S1.pdf public_opinion/flash/fl_248_en.pdf
306 Raskauskas, Juliana, and Ann D. Stoltz, 317 International Youth Advisory Congress, ‘IYAC ‘Involvement in Traditional and Electronic Bullying Children and Young Persons’ Global Online among Adolescents’, Developmental Psychology, Charter Supplementary Document’, Child vol. 43, no. 3, May 2007, p. 564–575. Exploitation and Online Protection (CEOP) Centre, London, 2008, p. 5, available at: www.ceop.police. 307 Ybarra, Michele L., and Kimberly J. Mitchell, uk/Documents/iyac_charter_supp.pdf, accessed ‘Prevalence and Frequency of Internet Harassment 21 August 2011. Instigation: Implications for adolescent health’, Journal of Adolescent Health, vol. 41, no. 2, 318 Staying Safe Survey (2009): Key findings: pp. 189–195, available at: http://download.journals. Internet safety, Dept for Children, Families and elsevierhealth.com/pdfs/journals/1054-139X/ Schools, UK; Livingstone, S. and L Haddon, PIIS1054139X0700136X.pdf EU Kids Online: Final report, London School of Economics, London, 2009. 308 Livingstone, Sonia, et al., Risks and Safety on the Internet: The Perspective of European Children – 319 International Youth Advisory Congress, ‘IYAC Full findings and policy implications from the Children and Young Persons’ Global Online EU Kids Online survey of 9–16 year olds and Charter Supplementary Document’, Child their parents in 25 countries, London School of Exploitation and Online Protection (CEOP) Centre, Economics and Political Science, London, 2011, London, 2008, p. 5, available at: www.ceop.police. p. 69. uk/Documents/iyac_charter_supp.pdf, accessed 21 August 2011. 309 Staksrud, Elisabeth, and Sonia Livingstone, ‘Children and Online Risk: Powerless victims 320 See: Staksrud and Livingstone, ‘Children and or resourceful participants?’,Information, online risk’ [Draft,AoIR Copenhagen Oct.2008]. Communication & Society, vol. 12, no. 3, 2009, pp. 364–387, available at: http://eprints.lse. 321 Bachan, Keshett, Sarah Stevenson and Nikki ac.uk/30122/ van der Gaag, ‘Girls in Cyberspace: Dangers and opportunities’, Plan International, Brussels, 310 Ibid., 5. 2010, p. 13, available at: www.planusa.org/ becauseiamagirl/docs/girlsincyberspace.pdf, 311 Davidson, Julia, State of the Nation Review accessed 26 August 2011. of Internet Safety 2010, Telecommunications Regulatory Authority, Kingdom of Bahrain, 322 Data provided by SaferNet Brasil based on the Manama, 2010, pp. 4–5, available at: www.tra.org. national survey with children from 2008, available bh/en/pdf/SafeSurf_TRA_Report.pdf, accessed at: http://www.safernet.org.br/site/prevencao/ 7 September 2011. pesquisas/jovens.
notes 117 323 Oates, John, ‘Parental Internet Fears Put Kids at UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre, Florence, Risk: Proper awareness required, not hysteria’, Italy, 2008, available at: www.unicef-irc.org/files/ The Register, London, 7 June 2004, available at: documents/d-3563-Legal-frameworks-for-comb. www.theregister.co.uk/2004/06/07/kids_online_ pdf, accessed 30 August 2011. training, accessed 24 August 2011. 335 United Nations, ‘Convention on the Rights of the 324 Cho, Chang-Hoan, and Hongsik John Cheon, Child’, General Assembly resolution 44/25, New ‘Children’s Exposure to Negative Internet York, 20 November 1989, available at: www2.ohchr. Content: Effects of family context’, Journal of org/english/law/crc.htm, accessed 30 August 2011. Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 1 December 2005, pp. 488–509, available at: http:// 336 United Nations, ‘Optional Protocol to the findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m6836/is_4_49/ Convention on the Rights of the Child on the sale of ai_n25120984/ children, child prostitution and child pornography’, General Assembly resolution A/RES/54/263, New 325 Lorenz, Mia, and Julia Davidson, ‘CEOP and York, 25 May 2000, available at: www2.ohchr.org/ NAO Evaluation of TUK Programme and Young english/law/crc-sale.htm, accessed 30 August 2011. People’s Internet Safety Research: Report two – Survey findings’, National Audit Commission and 337 United Nations, ‘Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Kingston University, London, 2009. Punish Trafficking in Persons Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations 326 Davidson, Julia, Elena Martellozzo and Mia Convention against Transnational Organized Lorenz, ‘Evaluation of CEOP ThinkUKnow Internet Crime’, General Assembly resolution 55/25, New Safety Programme and Exploration of Young York, 15 November 2000, available at: www2.ohchr. People’s Internet Safety Knowledge’, Centre for org/english/law/protocoltraffic.htm, accessed Abuse & Trauma Studies, Kingston University, 30 August 2011. London, July 2009, p. 4. 338 Council of Europe,‘Convention on Cybercrime’, 327 Ibid. CETS no. 185, Budapest, 23 November 2001, available at: http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/ 328 Voices of Youth, ‘Survey on Internet Use, 2010’, Treaties/Html/185.htm, accessed 30 August 2011. United Nations Children’s Fund, available at: www.voicesofyouth.org 339 Council of Europe, ‘Convention on the Protection of Children against Sexual Exploitation and Sexual 329 Child Exploitation Online Protection (CEOP) Abuse’, CETS no. 201, Lanzarote, 25 October 2007, Centre, ThinkUknow programme, London, available at: http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/ available at: http://www.thinkuknow.co.uk treaties/Html/201.htm, accessed 30 August 2011.
330 Davidson, Julia, Elena Martellozzo and Mia 340 UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Lorenz, ‘Evaluation of CEOP ThinkUKnow Internet Rights, Guiding Principles for Business and Safety Programme and Exploration of Young Human Rights, available at: http://www.ohchr.org/ People’s Internet Safety Knowledge’, Centre for documents/issues/business/A.HRC.17.31.pdf Abuse & Trauma Studies, Kingston University, London, July 2009, p. 28–33. 341 Human Rights Council, (16 June 2011), Human rights and transnational corporations and other 331 Davidson, Julia, State of the Nation Review business enterprises, A/HRC/RES/17/4, available at: of Internet Safety 2010, Kingdom of Bahrain, http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/RESOLUTION/ Manama, 2010, p. 5, available at: www.tra.org. GEN/G11/144/71/PDF/G1114471.pdf?OpenElement, bh/en/pdf/SafeSurf_TRA_Report.pdf, accessed accessed 12 September 2011. 7 September 2011. 342 Report of the Special Representative of the 332 Plan India, ‘Girls in a Changing Landscape: Urban Secretary-General on the issue of human rights and digital frontiers – The state of the girl child in and transnational corporations and other business India 2010’, New Delhi, September 2010, p. 31. enterprises, John Ruggie. Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights: Implementing the 333 Livingstone, S., L. Haddon, A. Görzig, and United Nations “Protect, Respect and Remedy” K. Ólafsson, Risks and safety on the Internet: Framework, 21 March 2011, A/HRC/17/31. The perspective of European children . Full Findings.LSE, London: EU Kids Online 2011. 343 Committee on the Rights of the Child, ‘General Comment No. 12 (2009): The right of the child to be heard’, CRC/C/GC/12, United Nations, New York, 20 July 2009, available at: http://www.unhcr.org/ PART TWO: Online/Offline refworld/docid/4ae562c52.html Protection 344 Committee on the Rights of the Child, ‘General 334 For a comprehensive review of legal frameworks, Comment No. 13 (2011): The right of the child to see: Newell, Peter, ‘Legal Frameworks for freedom from all forms of violence’, CRC/C/GC/13, Combating Sexual Exploitation of Children’, United Nations, New York, 18 April 2011, pp. 8–18,
118 Child Safety Online available at: http://srsg.violenceagainstchildren. www.unicef.org/events/yokohama/outcome.html, org/document/crc-c-gc-13_368 accessed 7 September 2011.
345 Lansdown, Gerison, ‘The Evolving Capacities of 353 Ibid., section II. 5. the Child’, Innocenti Insight, no. 11, United Nations Children’s Fund and Save the Children Sweden, 354 Third World Congress against Commercial Florence, Italy, and Stockholm, 2005, p. x, available Sexual Exploitation of Children, ‘The Rio de at: www.unicef-irc.org/publications/384 Janeiro Declaration and Call for Action to Prevent and Stop Sexual Exploitation of Children and 346 United Nations Treaty Collection, ‘Databases’, Adolescents’, 2008, available at: www.ecpat.net/ New York, 2011, available at: http://treaties.un.org/ WorldCongressIII/PDF/Outcome/WCIII_Outcome_ Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_ Document_Final.pdf, accessed 7 September 2011. no=IV-11-c&chapter=4&lang=en, accessed 30 August 2011. 355 Pinheiro, Paulo Sérgio, ‘Report of the Independent Expert for the United Nations Study on Violence 347 Nagle, Luz Estella, ‘Selling Souls: The effect against Children’, A/61/299, United Nations, New of globalization on human trafficking and York, 29 August 2006, p. 30, para.114 (j), available forced servitude’, Wisconsin International at: http://www.unicef.org/violencestudy/reports. Law Journal, vol. 26, no. 1, 2008, p. 131, html available at: http://lawlib.wlu.edu/CLJC/ index.aspx?mainid=355&issuedate=2008-09- 356 For the time being the US Government maintains 11&homepage=no a residual role in the managementof the Internet through its continued engagement with the 348 Newell, Peter, ‘Legal Frameworks for Combating Internet Assigned Number Authority (IANA). Sexual Exploitation of Children’, UNICEF Innocenti ICANN “currently performs the IANA functions, on Research Centre, Florence, Italy, 2008, p. 16, behalf of the United States Government, through available at: www.unicef-irc.org/files/documents/d- a contract with United States Department of 3563-Legal-frameworks-for-comb.pdf, accessed Commerce’s National Telecommunications and 30 August 2011. Information Administration (NTIA)”, see: http:// www.ntia.doc.gov/files/ntia/publications/fr_iana_ 349 For an up-to-date list of signatories to the furthernoi_06142011.pdf. Convention on the Protection of Children against Sexual Exploitation and Sexual Abuse, 357 John Carr, personal communication, see: Council of Europe, available at: http:// September 2011. conventions.coe.int/Treaty/Commun/ChercheSig. asp?NT=201&CM=&DF=&CL=ENG, accessed 358 G8 Declaration, G8 Summit of Deauville, 7 September 2011. May 26–27, 2011, available at: http://www.g20-g8. com/g8-g20/g8/english/live/news/renewed- 350 Council of Europe,‘Convention on the Protection commitment-for-freedom-and-democracy.1314. of Children against Sexual Exploitation and Sexual html Abuse’, CETS no. 201, Lanzarote, 25 October 2007, available at: http://conventions.coe.int/ 359 Guidelines available at: http://www.itu.int/osg/csd/ Treaty/EN/treaties/Html/201.htm, available at: cybersecurity/gca/cop/guidelines/index.html. http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/Commun/ QueVoulezVous.asp?NT=201&CL=ENG, accessed 360 Survey available at: http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/CDS/ 30 August 2011. gq/COP/display_graphs.asp
351 First World Congress against Commercial 361 See statistics at: http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/ Sexual Exploitation of Children, ‘The Stockholm partnership/wsistargets/index.html Declaration and Agenda for Action’, Stockholm, 27– 31 August 1996, available at: http://www.google. 362 See: http://www.itu.int/ITU-T/newslog/Standards+ com/url?sa=t&source=web&cd=1&ved=0CBYQFj Need+To+Protect+Children+Online.aspx AA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unicef.org%2Flac% 2Fspbarbados%2FPlanning%2FGlobal%2FChild%2 363 See Internet Governance Forums, meetings and 520protection%2FThe%2520Stockholm%2520Dec documentation at: http://www.intgovforum.org/ laration%2520and%2520Agenda%2520for%2520A cms/aboutigf ction_1996.doc&rct=j&q=Declaration%20and%20 Agenda%20for%20Action%201st%20World%20 364 European Commission, ‘Proposal for a Directive Congress%20against%20Commercial%20 on Combating Sexual Abuse, Sexual Exploitation Sexual%20Exploitation%20of%20Children%20 of Children and Child Pornography, repealing Stockholm&ei=D4RnTqPiEIO00AHGtszwCw&usg= Framework Decision 2004/68/JHA’, European AFQjCNGznZQMa733hhJmcmEb3BIkRfrOHg&cad= Commission, Brussels, 29 March 2010, available rja at: http://europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction. do?reference=MEMO/10/107 352 Second World Congress against Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children, ‘The Yokohama 365 European Union, Legislative Acts and Other Global Commitment 2001’, available at: Instruments – Directive of the Parliament and of the
notes 119 Council on combating the sexual abuse and sexual Exploitation of Children, Bangkok, December 2006, exploitation of children and child pornography, and available at: www.ecpat.net/A4A_2005/index.html, replacing Council Framework Decision 2004/68/ accessed 30 August 2011. JHA, European Union, Brussels, 4 November 2011. See also: Council of the European Union, ‘EU takes 376 International Centre for Missing & Exploited action to combat sexual abuse of children and Children, ‘Child Pornography: Model legislation child pornography’, press release, Council of the & global review’, 6th ed., ICMEC, Alexandria, VA, European Union, Brussels, 15 November 2011. 2010, p. iii, available at: http://www.icmec.org/ en_X1/icmec_publications/English__6th_Edition_ 366 European Commission Information Society, FINAL_.pdf ‘Safer Internet Programme: The main framework’, Brussels, available at: http:// 377 Ibid. ec.europa.eu/information_society/activities/ sip/policy/programme/index_en.htm, accessed 378 G8 Justice and Home Affairs Ministers, ‘Ministers’ 7 September 2011. Declaration: The risk to children posed by child pornography offenders’, Rome, 30 May 367 GSMA, Mobilising Europe’s Digital Agenda, GSMA, 2009, available at: www.g8italia2009.it/static/ London, 2010, available at: www.gsmworld.com/ G8_Allegato/Ministerxs_delaration_on_child_ our-work/public-policy/gsma_europe/mobilising/ pornography,0.pdf, accessed 7 September 2011. downloads/GSMA_UmbrellaStory_A5Brochure. pdf; see also: GSM World, European Framework, 379 International Criminal Police Organization, available at: www.gsmworld.com/our-work/ ‘G8 Wanted Child Sex Offender Initiative’, public-policy/framework_mobile_use_younger_ INTERPOL, Lyon, France, 22 March 2010, available teenagers_children.htm. at: www.interpol.int/public/icpo/intliaison/ G8WCSO/default.asp, accessed 30 August 2011. 368 See: http://ec.europa.eu/information_society/ activities/social_networking/eu_action/ 380 Choo, Kim-Kwang Raymond, ‘Online Child implementation_princip_2011/index_en.htm Grooming: A literature review on the misuse of social networking sites for grooming children 369 Memorandum on the Protection of Personal for sexual offences’, Australian Institute Data and Privacy in Internet Social Networks, of Criminology, Canberra, Australia, 2009, Specifically in Regard to Children and Adolescents’, pp. 50–57, available at: http://www.aic.gov.au/ 2009, in Spanish, Portuguese, English and French, documents/3/C/1/%7B3C162CF7-94B1-4203-8C57- available at: www.iijusticia.org/esp_port_eng_fran. 79F827168DD8%7Drpp103.pdf pdf, accessed 30 August 2011. 381 Ibid., pp. 50, 52. 370 Gregorio, Carlos, ‘Sexual Abuse and Exploitation in the Converged Online/Offline Environment: 382 President of the Republic of Brazil, ‘Statute of the A point of view from Latin America’ (unpublished) Child and Adolescent’, Law no. 8,069, 13 July 1990, June 2010. available at: www.eca.org.br/ecai.htm, accessed 30 August 2011. 371 ‘Memorandum on the Protection of Personal Data and Privacy in Internet Social Networks, 383 Law Library of Congress, ‘Children’s Rights: Specifically in Regard to Children and Adolescents’, Brazil – Addendum: Amendment of the Child 2009, in Spanish, Portuguese, English and French, and Adolescent Statute’, Library of Congress, available at: www.iijusticia.org/esp_port_eng_fran. Washington, D.C., 4 April 2011, available at: www. pdf, accessed 30 August 2011. loc.gov/law/help/child-rights/brazil.php, accessed 6 September 2011. 372 Hodgkin, Rachel, and Peter Newell, Implementation Handbook for the Convention on the Rights of 384 Lansdown, Gerison, ‘Article 12: The right of the Child, fully revised 3rd ed., United Nations the child to be heard – A resource book for Children’s Fund, New York, 2007, p. 669–668, governments’, Office of the High Commissioner available at: http://www.unicef.org/publications/ for Human Rights, Save the Children and United index_43110.html Nations Children’s Fund, London, forthcoming.
373 Ibid, p. 672-673. 385 Government of Japan, ‘Act on Punishment of Activities Relating to Child Prostitution 374 Maalla, Najat M’jid, ‘Report of the Special and Pornography, and the Protection of Rapporteur on the sale of children, child Children’, Act no. 52, 26 May 1999, available prostitution and child pornography’, A/HRC/12/23, at: www.ictparliament.org/es/node/1695. See United Nations, New York, 13 July 2009, also: http://www.asianlii.org/jp/legis/laws/ p. 12, available at: www.unhcr.org/refworld/ aopoartcpacpatpoc1999an52om2619991176.txt/ docid/4ab0d35a2.html, accessed 1 September 2011. cgi-bin/download.cgi/download/jp/legis/laws/ aopoartcpacpatpoc1999an52om2619991176.pdf 375 Quoted from the foreword to all country reports for: ECPAT International, Global Monitoring Report 386 Government of Japan’s response to UNICEF on the Status of Action against Commercial Sexual questionnaire in preparation for the Third World
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391 McConnell International, ‘Cyber Crime... 401 Hecht, M. E., ‘Child Protection Legislation in the and Punishment?: Archaic laws threaten Converged Online/Offline Environment’, July global information’, MI, Washington, D.C., 2010 (unpublished background paper for UNICEF December 2000, pp. 1–2, available at: www.witsa. Innocenti Research Centre). org/papers/McConnell-cybercrime.pdf, accessed 7 September 2011. 402 Palmer, Tink, ‘Sexual Exploitation via the Internet’, Presentation in ‘Children and Young Persons with 392 Butt, David, ‘Investigating Internet Child Abusive and Violent Experiences Connected to Exploitation Poses Complex Challenges’, Kids’ Cyberspace: Challenges for research, rehabilitation, Internet Safety Alliance, Toronto, 2009, p. 2, prevention and protection’, Swedish Children’s available at: www.kinsa.net/widgetFiles/file/ Welfare Foundation, Stockholm, 2006, p. 9, Think%20Tank%20short%20version%20final%20. available at: http://www.allmannabarnhuset.se/ pdf, accessed 10 May 2012. data/files/Internetrelatera_eng_barnhuset.pdf
393 Child Exploitation and Online Protection Centre, 403 See, for example: Cooper, Sharon, ‘Victimology ‘Understanding Online Social Network Services of Child Sexual Abuse Images’, Presentation in and Risks to Youth: Stakeholder perspectives – ‘Children and Young Persons with Abusive and A preliminary report on the findings of CEOP’s Violent Experiences Connected to Cyberspace: social network seminar series’, CEOP, London, Challenges for research, rehabilitation, prevention November 2006, p. 8, available at: http://www. and protection’, Swedish Children’s Welfare childcentre.info/projects/Internet/dbaFile13680.pdf Foundation, Stockholm, 2006, pp. 18–21; Palmer, Tink, ‘Behind the Screen: Children who are the 394 Stephens, Gene, ‘Policing the Future: Law subjects of abusive images’ in Quayle, Ethel and enforcement’s new challenges’, The Futurist, Maxwell Taylor, eds., Viewing Child Pornography March-April 2005, pp. 51–57, available at: www. on the Internet: Understanding the offence, policefuturists.org/pdf/M-A2005Futurist_Stephens. managing the offender, helping the victims, Russell pdf, accessed 7 September 2011. House Publishing, Lyme Regis, UK, 2005; Palmer, Tink, and Lisa Stacey, Just One Click: Sexual 395 Government of the United Kingdom, ‘Sexual abuse of children and young people through the Offences Act 2003’, section 72, available at: Internet and mobile phone technology, Barnardo’s,
notes 121 Ilford, UK, 2004; Söderström, Bengt, ‘Experiences services and rehabilitation’, 2010 (unpublished From and Questions Raised in Clinical Practice’, paper for UNICEF). Presentation in ‘Children and Young Persons with Abusive and Violent Experiences Connected to 415 Nissenbaum, Helen, ‘The Meaning of Anonymity Cyberspace: Challenges for research, rehabilitation, in an Information Age’, The Information Society, prevention and protection’, Swedish Children’s vol. 15, 1999, pp. 141–144, available at: http://www. Welfare Foundation, Stockholm, 2006, pp. 14–17; nyu.edu/projects/nissenbaum/paper_anonimity. Von Weiler, Julia, Annette Haardt-Becker and html Simone Schulte, ‘Care and Treatment of Child Victims of Child Pornographic Exploitation (CPE) in 416 Fafinski, Stefan, ‘UK Cybercrime Report’, Garlik, Germany’, Journal of Sexual Aggression, vol. 16, Richmond, UK, September 2009, p. 15, available no. 2, July 2010, pp. 211–222. at: www.garlik.com/press/Garlik_UK_Cybercrime_ Report.pdf, accessed 31 August 2011. 404 Palmer, Tink, ‘Sexual Abuse and Exploitation in the Converged Online/Offline Environments: Referral 417 Wells, Melissa, et al., ‘Defining Child Pornography: services and rehabilitation’, 2010 (unpublished Law enforcement dilemmas in investigations of paper for UNICEF). Internet child pornography possession’, Police Practice and Research, vol. 8, no. 3, July 2007, 405 Ibid. pp. 269–282, available at: www.unh.edu/ccrc/pdf/ CV96.pdf, accessed 7 September 2011. 406 Ibid. 418 Child Exploitation and Online Protection Centre, 407 Interview with Child Exploitation and Online ‘“Significant” Jail Term for Child Sex Offender Protection (CEOP) Centre, London, March 2011. Identified through Abuse Images’, CEOP, London, 30 March 2010, available at: www.ceop.police.uk/ 408 Maalla, Najat M’jid, ‘Report of the Special Media-Centre/Press-releases/2010/Significant-jail- Rapporteur on the sale of children, child term-for-child-sex-offender-identified-through- prostitution and child pornography’, A/HRC/12/23, abuse-images, accessed 7 September 2011. United Nations, New York, 13 July 2009, p. 17, available at: www.unhcr.org/refworld/ 419 National Telecommunications and Information docid/4ab0d35a2.html, accessed 1 September 2011. Administration, ‘Youth Safety on a Living Internet: Report of the Online Safety and Technology 409 For description of Hash Technology see: Working Group’, NTIA, Washington, D.C., 4 June http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/usc_ 2010, p. 107–110, available at: http://www.ntia. sec_18_00002258–-C000-.html doc.gov/legacy/reports/2010/OSTWG_Final_ Report_070610.pdf 410 Holland, G., ‘Identifying Children Who Are Victims of Child Abuse Images: An analysis of successful 420 European Parliament and Council of the identifications’ in Quayle, Ethel and Maxwell Taylor, European Union, ‘Directive 2006/24/EC on the eds., Viewing Child Pornography on the Internet: retention of data generated or processed in Understanding the offence, managing the offender, connection with the provision of publicly available helping the victims, Russell House Publishing, electronic communications services or of public Lyme Regis, UK, 2005. communications networks and amending Directive 2002/58/EC’, 15 March 2006, article 6, available at: 411 Maalla, Najat M’jid, ‘Report of the Special http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do Rapporteur on the sale of children, child ?uri=OJ:L:2006:105:0054:0063:EN:PDF prostitution and child pornography’, A/HRC/12/23, United Nations, New York, 13 July 2009, 421 Baines, Victoria, ‘Online Child Sexual Abuse: p. 15, available at: www.unhcr.org/refworld/ The law enforcement response – A contribution docid/4ab0d35a2.html, accessed 1 September of ECPAT International to the World Congress III 2011. In March 2009 the database was replaced by against Sexual Exploitation of Children and the Interpol-managed International Child Sexual Adolescents’, ECPAT International, Bangkok, Exploitation image database. November 2008, p. 2.; Quayle, Ethel, Lars Loof and Tink Palmer, ‘Child Pornography and Sexual 412 Taylor, Max, and Ethel Quayle, Child Pornography: Exploitation of Children Online: A contribution An Internet crime, Brunner-Routledge, Hove, UK, of ECPATInternational to the World Congress III 2003. against Sexual Exploitation of Children and Adolescents’, ECPAT International, Bangkok, 413 Quayle, Ethel, Lars Loof and Tink Palmer, ‘Child November 2008, p. 32. Pornography and Exploitation of Children Online: A contribution of ECPAT International to the World 422 Ibid, p. 32. Congress III against Sexual Exploitation of Children and Adolescents’, ECPAT International, Bangkok, 423 Gillespie, Alisdair A., Child Pornography: Law and November 2008, pp. 46–50. policy, Routledge, Abingdon, UK, 2011, pp. 326–327.
414 Palmer, Tink, ‘Sexual Abuse and Exploitation in the 424 See for example: Police Commissioners’ Converged Online/Offline Environments: Referral Conference Electronic Crime Working
122 Child Safety Online Party, ‘The Virtual Horizon: Meeting the law www.saferInternet.org/web/guest/about-us, enforcement challenges – Developing an accessed 31 August 2011. Australasian law enforcement strategy for dealing with electronic crime’, ACPR-RS-134.1, 437 SaferNet Brasil, ‘Nética: Ethics and education for Australasian Centre for Policing Research, developing cyber-citizenship in Brazil’, 2010, p. 2, Payneham, Australia, 2000; Rees, Andrew, available at: http://files.eun.org/insafe/blog/Netica. ‘Technology Environment Scan’, ACPR-RS-133.1, doc, accessed 31 August 2011. Australasian Centre for Policing Research, Payneham, Australia, 2000, available at: http:// 438 See: Nética, website, http://netica.org.br, accessed anzpaa.org.au/anzpire/acpr-publications 31 August 2011.
425 Interview with Child Exploitation and Online 439 thinkuknow, Child Exploitation and Online Protection (CEOP) Centre, London, March 2011. Protection (CEOP) Centre, London, available at: www.thinkuknow.co.uk, accessed 31 August 2011. 426 Akullo, M., ‘Law Enforcement Policy and Practice: Protecting children from sexual abuse and 440 Insafe, ‘Annual Report 2009–2010: Promoting exploitation in the converged online/offline safe and responsible use of online technology’, environments’, October 2010 (unpublished Brussels, October 2010, p. 19, available at: www. background paper for UNICEF IRC). saferInternet.org/web/guest/about-us, accessed 31 August 2011. 427 See: http://www.virtualglobaltaskforce.com 441 Information provided by UNICEF Venezuela, 428 Ibid. Caracas, 2010.
429 See, for example: Jewkes, Yvonne, and Carol 442 Staksrud, Elisabeth, and Sonia Livingstone, Andrews, ‘Policing the Filth: The problems of ‘Children and Online Risk: Powerless victims investigating online child pornography in England or resourceful participants?’, Information, and Wales’, Policing and Society, vol. 15, no. 1, Communication & Society, vol. 12, no. 3, 2009, March 2005, pp. 42–62. pp. 364–387, available at: http://eprints.lse. ac.uk/30122/ 430 Hi-Tech Crime Unit spokesman quoted in Jewkes, Y. and C. Andrews, 2005:52. Policing the filth: the 443 See, for example: Child Exploitation and Online problems of investigating online child pornography Protection Centre, ‘Understanding Online Social in England and Wales. Policing and Society, 15(1), Network Services and Risks to Youth: Stakeholder pp. 42–62. perspectives – A preliminary report on the findings of CEOP’s social network seminar series’, CEOP, 431 Von Weiler, Julia, Annette Haardt-Becker and London, November 2006, p. 12, available at: http:// Simone Schulte, ‘Care and Treatment of Child www.ceop.police.uk/Documents/socialnetwork_ Victims of Child Pornographic Exploitation (CPE) in serv_report_221206.pdf; Optem, ‘Safer Internet Germany’, Journal of Sexual Aggression, vol. 16, for Children: Qualitative study in 29 European no. 2, July 2010, pp. 211–222. countries – Summary report, Eurobarometer, Brussels, May 2007, p. 44. 432 Berggrav, S., ‘Omsorg på nettet: Er det mitt ansvar? – Barnevernets utfordringer i å møte 444 Committee on the Rights of the Child, ‘General overgrepp på Internett’ (Care on the Internet: Is it Comment No. 12 (2009): The right of the child to my responsibility? – The challenges of the Child be heard’, CRC/C/GC.12, United Nations, New York, Welfare Services in meeting online abuse), Save 20 July 2009, pp. 26–27, available at: http://www. the Children Norway, Oslo, 2010, p. 3. unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4ae562c52.html.
433 Survey conducted by Tink Palmer, in October 2010, 445 Plan India, ‘Girls in a Changing Landscape: Urban for the purposes of this paper. and digital frontiers – The state of the girl child in India 2010’, New Delhi, September 2010, p. 31. 434 Allnock, Debra, et al., Sexual Abuse and Therapeutic Services for Children and Young 446 Palmer, Tink, ‘Sexual Abuse and Exploitation in the People: The gap between provision and need, Converged Online/Offline Environments: Referral National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to services and rehabilitation’, 2010 (unpublished Children, July 2009, available at: http://www.nspcc. paper for UNICEF). org.uk/Inform/research/findings/sexual_abuse_ therapeutic_services_report_wdf68558.pdf 447 International Association of Internet Hotlines (INHOPE), Amsterdam, available at: www.inhope. 435 UK Council for Child Internet Safety, available org/gns/about-us/about-inhope.aspx, accessed at: www.education.gov.uk/ukccis, accessed 31 August 2011. 7 September 2011. 448 Carr, John, ‘Online Child Protection 2010’, 436 Insafe, ‘Annual Report 2009–2010: Promoting Commonwealth Internet Governance Forum, safe and responsible use of online technology’, London, 2010, available at: www.commonwealthigf. Brussels, October 2010, p. 5, available at: org/resources, accessed 31 August 2011.
notes 123 449 International Association of Internet Hotlines 462 Odhiambo, Victoria, ‘Youth Mobilization to Promote (INHOPE), Amsterdam, available at: www. Codes of Conduct in Internet Cafes in Africa’, inhope.org/gns/about-us/about-inhope.aspx, Presentation for Corporate Engagement in IT accessed 31 August 2011. Companies Seminar, ECPAT World Congress III, Rio de Janeiro, 27 November 2008, p. 7, 450 See: http://www.parentscorner.org.za/home- available at: www.ecpat.net/WorldCongressIII/ corner-blog/about-us PDF/Publications/T4_WS3c.pdf, accessed 31 August 2011. 451 See: http://www.intel.com/about/ corporateresponsibility/education/programs/ 463 International Youth Advisory Congress, ‘IYAC intelteach_ww/index.htm Children and Young Persons’ Global Online Charter’, Child Exploitation and Online Protection 452 See: http://www.dsci.in/taxonomypage/1 (CEOP) Centre, London, 2008, available at: http:// www.iyac.net/corporate/index.htm. The IYAC 453 See: http://www.asianlaws.org/fact/index.htm brought together youth delegates from Argentina, Australia, Canada, Denmark, Egypt, Greece, 454 Palmer, Tink, ‘Behind the Screen: Children who Iceland, India, Ireland, Italy, Namibia, Netherlands, are the subjects of abusive images’ in Quayle, New Zealand, Poland, Spain, Sweden, United Ethel and Maxwell Taylor, eds., Viewing Child Kingdom, United States and Zimbabwe. Pornography on the Internet: Understanding the offence, managing the offender, helping the 464 International Youth Advisory Congress, ‘IYAC victims, Russell House Publishing, Lyme Regis, Children and Young Persons’ Global Online Charter UK; Quayle, Ethel, Lars Loof and Tink Palmer, Supplementary Document’, Child Exploitation and ‘Child Pornography and Sexual Exploitation Online Protection (CEOP) Centre, London, 2008, of Children Online: A contribution of ECPAT p. 3, available at: www.iyac.net/corporate/index. International to the World Congress III against htm, accessed 1 September 2011. Sexual Exploitation of Children and Adolescents’, ECPAT International, Bangkok, November 2008. 465 See for example Insafe Youth Panel participating in Safer Internet Forum, 455 Child Protection Partnership (CPP) Digital available at: http://www.saferInternet. Literacy Initiative, in Collaboration with org/web/guest/blog?p_p_id=homeBlog_ IICRD Trend Microsystems and Certiport WAR_insafeportlet&p_p_lifecycle=0&p_p_ Implementation by The Aspire Group Company state=normal&p_p_mode=view&p_p_col_ (TAGC), 2010. id=column-1&p_p_col_count=1&_homeBlog_ WAR_insafeportlet_tag=youth+panel&_ 456 Shariff, Shaheen, Cyber-Bullying: Issues and homeBlog_WAR_insafeportlet_folksonomy=true& solutions for the school, the classroom and the home, Routledge, London and New York, 2008. 466 International Centre for Missing & Exploited Children, ‘Child Pornography: Model 457 UNICEF Croatia, ‘For Safe and Enabling legislation & global review’, 6th ed., ICMEC, Environment in Schools: Prevention and Alexandria, VA, 2010, p. 7, available at: combating violence in school’, United Nations http://www.icmec.org/missingkids/servlet/ Children’s Fund, Zagreb, April 2008. PageServlet?LanguageCountry=en_ X1&PageId=4381 458 Odhiambo, Victoria, ‘Youth Mobilization to Promote Codes of Conduct in Internet Cafes in 467 Schauer, Frederick, ‘New Perspectives on Statutory Africa’, Presentation for Corporate Engagement Interpretation: The tyranny of choice and the in IT Companies Seminar, ECPAT World rulification of standards‘, Journal of Contemporary Congress III, Rio de Janeiro, 27 November 2008, Legal Issues, vol. 14, 2005, p. 803. available at: www.ecpat.net/WorldCongressIII/ PDF/Publications/T4_WS3c.pdf, accessed 468 Ashcroft v . Free Speech Coalition, 535 U.S. 234 31 August 2011. (2002), available at: http://www.law.cornell.edu/ supct/html/00-795.ZS.html 459 Bawagan, Aleli, and Anjanette Saguisag, ‘ The Role of the Private Sector, Particularly ISPs 469 Newell, Peter, ‘Legal Frameworks for Combating and Internet Café Owners, as Active Partners Sexual Exploitation of Children’, UNICEF Innocenti in Protecting Children from Sexual Abuse and Research Centre, Florence, Italy, 2008, p. 16, Exploitation in the Philippines: An on-going case available at: www.unicef-irc.org/files/documents/d- study by UNICEF Philippines’ UNICEF, Makati 3563-Legal-frameworks-for-comb.pdf, accessed City, Philippines, available at: www.unicef-irc. 1 September 2011. org/files/documents/d-3600-Working-with- Internet-ser.pdf, accessed 21 August 2011. 470 These proposals are based on: International Centre for Missing & Exploited Children, ‘Child 460 Ibid. Pornography: Model legislation & global review’, 5th ed., ICMEC, Alexandria, VA, 2008, 461 Ibid. available at: http://www.icmec.org/missingkids/
124 Child Safety Online servlet/PageServlet?LanguageCountry=en_ 480 International Criminal Police Organization, ‘Crimes X1&PageId=4381 against Children’, INTERPOL, Lyon, France, 14 June 2011, available at: www.interpol.int/public/ 471 Klain, Eva J., ‘Prostitution of Children and Child-Sex Children/Default.asp, accessed 2 September 2011. Tourism: An analysis of domestic and international responses’, National Center for Missing & 481 International Criminal Police Organization, Exploited Children, Alexandria, VA, April 1999, ‘Notices & Diffusions’, INTERPOL, Lyon, France, p. 47, available at: https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/ 22 June 2011, available at: www.interpol.int/Public/ Digitization/189251NCJRS.pdf Notices/default.asp, accessed 2 September 2011.
472 United Nations Economic and Social Council, 482 COSPOL Internet Related ChildAbuseMaterial ‘Guidelines on Justice Matters involving Child Project, ‘CIRCAMP Overview’, Oslo, available at: Victims and Witnesses of Crime’, Resolution http://circamp.eu, accessed 2 September 2011. 2005/20, United Nations, New York, 22 July 2005, available at: http://www.unodc.org/documents/ 483 See: Virtual Global Taskforce, available at: justice-and-prison-reform/UNODC_UNICEF_ www.virtualglobaltaskforce.com, accessed Model_Law_on_Children.pdf 2 September 2011.
473 Ostrager, Bryn, ‘SMS. OMG! LOL! TTYL: 484 Organization for Security and Co-operation in Translating the law to accommodate today’s Europe, ‘Portal on Combating Sexual Exploitation teens and the evolution from texting to sexting’, of Children on the Internet: List of projects’, OSCE, Family Court Review, vol. 48, no. 4, October 2010, Vienna, available at: http://polis.osce.org/portals/ pp. 712–726. cseci/projects, accessed 2 September 2011.
474 Hecht, M. E., ‘Child Protection Legislation in the 485 National Center for Missing & Exploited Children, Converged Online/Offline Environment’, July ‘The Child Victim Identification Program: 2010 (unpublished background paper for UNICEF Assistance to law enforcement’, Office of Innocenti Research Centre). Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, U.S. Department of Justice, Washington, D.C., 475 Research, Development and Statistics, ‘Policing 2006, available at: www.missingkids.com/ Methods and Approaches’, Home Office, en_US/publications/NC166.pdf, accessed London, 2008, available at: http://webarchive. 2 September 2011. nationalarchives.gov.uk/20110220105210/http:// rds.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/police-methods.html, 486 International Child Protection Network, ‘Working accessed 7 September 2011. in Partnership... Working Across Borders’, Child Exploitation and Online Protection Centre, 476 Urbas, Gregor, ‘Protecting Children From Online available at: http://ceop.police.uk/icpn, accessed Predators: The use of covert investigation 2 September 2011. techniques by law enforcement’, Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, vol. 26, no. 4, 487 For information on the European Financial November 2010, pp. 410–425, available at: http:// Coalition, see: www.ceop.police.uk/EFC, accessed ceps.anu.edu.au/events/criminal_investigations_ 23 August 2011; although the ‘Law Enforcement workshop/papers/Gregor%20Urbas-%20 Best Practice Document’is not publicly available, Protecting%20Children%20From%20Online%20 a description is available in: European Financial Predators.pdf Coalition against Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children, ‘14 Months On: A combined report 477 Martellozzo, Elena, ‘Understanding On Line from the European Financial Coalition 2009–2010’, Grooming in the 21st Century: A case study of Child Exploitation and Online Protection (CEOP) the London Metropolitan Police’, Paper presented Centre, London, 2010, p. 26, available at: http:// at the American Society of Criminology annual www.ceop.police.uk/Documents/EFC%20Strat%20 meeting, Philadelphia, PA, 4 November 2009. Asses2010_080910b%20FINAL.pdf
478 Mitchell, Kimberly J., et al., ‘Use of Social 488 See: www.icmec.org/missingkids/servlet/ Networking Sites in Online Sex Crimes Against PageServlet?LanguageCountry=en_ Minors: An examination of national incidence and X1&PageId=3064, accessed 13 September 2011. means of utilization’, Journal of Adolescent Health, manuscript accepted 9 January 2010, pp. 1–8, 489 See: www.virtualglobaltaskforce.com/2011/ available at: http://unh.edu/ccrc/pdf/CV174.pdf disrupting-the-flow-of-funds-that-support-the- child-pornography-business/?source=rss, accessed 479 Mitchell, Kimberly J., Janis Wolak and David 13 September 2011. Finkelhor, ‘Police Posing as Juveniles Online to Catch Sex Offenders: Is it working?’, Sexual 490 European Financial Coalition, ‘Background’ and Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, ‘Members’, available at: www.ceop.police.uk/efc, vol. 17, no. 3, July 2005, pp. 241–267, available accessed 23 August 2011. at: www.unh.edu/ccrc/national_juvenile_online_ victimization_publications.html, accessed 2 491 European Financial Coalition against Commercial September 2011. Sexual Exploitation of Children, ‘14 Months On:
notes 125 A combined report from the European Financial 503 Few of the codes of good practice developed Coalition 2009–2010, Child Exploitation and Online within the UK under the auspices of the Home Protection (CEOP) Centre, London, 2010, p. 25, Secretary’s Task Force on Child Internet Safety available at: www.ceop.police.uk/Documents/ had any monitoring provisions attached to them. EFC%20Strat%20Asses2010_080910b%20FINAL. This approach was expressly rejected in a review pdf conducted in 2008 by Professor Tanya Byron, available at: http://www.education.gov.uk/ukccis/ 492 Microsoft, ‘Citizenship Report: Protecting children about/a0076277/the-byron-reviews. This rejection online – Government partnerships’, Redmond, was endorsed by the Bailey Review, available WA, 5 October 2005, available at: www.microsoft. at: http://www.education.gov.uk/inthenews/ com/about/corporatecitizenship/citizenship/ inthenews/a0077662/bailey-review-of-the- Internetsafety/protectingchildren.mspx, accessed commercialisation-and-sexualisation-of-childhood- 2 September 2011. final-report-published.
493 Pinheiro, Paulo Sérgio, ‘Report of the Independent 504 See: http://www.Internetsegura.org/institucional/ Expert for the United Nations Study on Violence institucional.asp against Children’, A/61/299, United Nations, New York, 29 August 2006, p. 21, available at: http:// 505 See: http://www.educared.org/educa/ www.unicef.org/violencestudy/reports.html 506 Presidência da República, Casa Civil, Subchefia 494 International Centre for Missing & Exploited para Assuntos Jurídicos. “LEI Nº 8.069, DE 13 DE Children, ‘Child Pornography: Model legislation JULHO DE 1990” (16 July 1990), available at: www. & global review’, 5th ed., ICMEC, Alexandria, VA, planalto.gov.br/ccivil/LEIS/L8069.htm 2008, p. 4–5, available at: www.icmec.org/en_X1/ icmec_publications/English__6th_Edition_FINAL_. 507 European NGO Alliance for Child Safety Online, pdf ‘Using Blocking to Combat Online Child Abuse Images: Questions & answers’, eNASCO, 495 Hodgkin, Rachel, and Peter Newell, Implementation Copenhagen, April 2009, p. 4, see: ‘Briefing on Handbook for the Convention on the Rights of Blocking’, available at: http://www.enacso.eu/ the Child, Fully revised 3rd ed., United Nations index.php?option=com_rokdownloads&view=fold Children’s Fund, New York, 2007, p. 266–267, er&Itemid =11 available at: http://www.unicef.org/publications/ index_43110.html 508 European Financial Coalition against Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children, ‘14 Months On: 496 Committee on the Rights of the Child, ‘General A combined report from the European Financial Comment No. 13 (2011): The right of the child to Coalition 2009–2010, Child Exploitation and Online freedom from all forms of violence’, CRC/C/GC/13, Protection (CEOP) Centre, London, 2010, p. 5, United Nations, New York, 18 April 2011, available available at: http://www.iwf.org.uk/assets/media/ at: http://srsg.violenceagainstchildren.org/ annual-reports/IWF%202009%20Annual%20 document/crc-c-gc-13_368 and%20Charity%20Report.pdf
497 Human Rights Council, ‘Joint Report of the 509 Moore, Tyler, and Richard Clayton, ‘The Impact of Special Rapporteur on the Sale of Children, Child Incentives on Notice and Take-Down’, In Managing Prostitution and Child Pornography, and the Information Risk and the Economics of Security, Special Representative of the Secretary General Springer, New York, 2009, pp. 199–223, available at: on Violence against Children’, A/HRC/16/56, United www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~rnc1/takedown.pdf, accessed Nations, New York, 7 March 2011, p. 13, available at: 5 September 2011. http://srsg.violenceagainstchildren.org/document/ a-hrc-16-56_204 510 YouTube, ‘Statistics: Traffic’, San Bruno, CA, available at: www.youtube.com/t/press_statistics, 498 Ibid., p. 13. accessed 5 September 2011.
499 International Centre for Missing & Exploited 511 Moore, Tyler, and Richard Clayton, ‘The Impact of Children, ‘Child Pornography: Model Incentives on Notice and Take-Down’, In Managing legislation & global review’, 5th ed., ICMEC, Information Risk and the Economics of Security, Alexandria, VA, 2008, p. 4, available at: Springer, New York, 2009, pp. 199–223, available at: http://www.icmec.org/missingkids/servlet/ www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~rnc1/takedown.pdf, accessed PageServlet?LanguageCountry=en_ 24 September 2011. X1&PageId=4381 512 See, for example: European NGO Alliance for 500 Hecht, M E, (2010), Child Protection Legislation Child Safety Online, ‘Using Blocking to Combat in the Converged Online/Offline Environment, Online Child Abuse Images: Questions & answers’, (unpublished paper for UNICEF). eNASCO, Copenhagen, April 2009, p. 3, available at: http://www.enacso.eu/index.php?option=com_ 501 See: http://ispa.org.za/code-of-conduct/ rokdownloads&view=folder&Itemid=11
502 See: http://equalitynow.org.rste057vlmp01. 513 Internet Watch Foundation, ‘2007 Annual and blackmesh.com/take_action/japan_action332 Charity Report’, IWF, Oakington, UK, 2008, pp. 6, 8,
126 Child Safety Online available at: http://www.iwf.org.uk/assets/media/ 527 Office of the Federal Ombudsman for Victims IWF%20Annual%20Report%202007.pdf of Crime, ‘Every Image, Every Child: Internet- facilitated child sexual abuse in Canada’, 514 Moore, Tyler, and Richard Clayton, ‘The Impact Department of Justice, Government of Canada, of Incentives on Notice and Take-Down’, In Ottawa, 2009, p. 30, available at: http://www. Managing Information Risk and the Economics of victimsfirst.gc.ca/pdf/childp-pjuvenile.pdf; Security, Springer, New York, 2009, pp. 199–223, see also: “Full Record”, available at: http:// available at: www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~rnc1/takedown. amicus.collectionscanada.ca/aaweb-bin/ pdf, accessed 5 September 2011. aamain/itemdisp?sessionKey=131414547305 5_142_78_200_11&l=0&v=1&lvl=3&rt=1&rsn 515 Internet Watch Foundation, ‘2008 Annual =S_WWWbaaOUquOU&all=1&dt=NN+J84- and Charity Report’, IWF, Oakington, UK, 1%2F2009E-PDF%3F+&spi=- 2009, pp. 7–8, available at: www.iwf.org.uk/ accountability/annual-reports/2008-annual- 528 Ibid., p. 32. report, accessed 5 September 2011. 529 Rape Crisis England and Wales, available at: http:// 516 Byron, Tanya, Safer Children in a Digital World: www.rapecrisis.org.uk/Referralcentres2.php The Report of the Byron Review, Department for Children, Schools and Families, Annesley, UK, 530 Ministry of Justice, ’Achieving Best Evidence in March 2008, p. 94. Criminal Proceedings: Guidance on interviewing victims and witnesses, and guidance on using 517 Ibid, p. 95. special measures, London, March 2011, available at: http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/+/http:// 518 Dynamic Coalition on Child Online Safety, www.justice.gov.uk/guidance/docs/achieving-best- ‘Activity Report of the Dynamic Coalition on evidence-criminal-proceedings.pdf Child Safety Online’, Internet Governance Forum, Geneva, n.d., p. 5, available at: http://www. 531 See, for example: Bentovim, Arnon, et al., eds., intgovforum.org/September08_IGF_meeting/ Child Sexual Abuse within the Family: Assessment Activity%20report%20of%20the%20Dynamic%20 and treatment, Wright, London, 1988; Briere, John, Coaltion%20on%20Child%20Safety%20online. Therapy for Adults Molested as Children: Beyond doc survival, Springer, New York, 1989; Finkelhor, David, A Sourcebook on Child Sexual Abuse, Sage, 519 Marwick, Alice E., Diego Murgia Diaz and London, 1986; Jehu, Derek, Marjorie Gazan and John Palfrey, ‘Youth, Privacy, and Reputation: Carole Klassen, Beyond Sexual Abuse: Therapy Literature review‘, Berkman Center for with women who were childhood victims, Wiley, Internet & Society, Harvard University, Chichester, UK, 1988; Jones, David, and Paul Cambridge, MA, 21 April 2010, pp. 4, 15, 16, Ramchandani, Child Sexual Abuse: Informing available at: http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/ practice from research, Radcliffe Medical Press, Delivery.cfm/SSRN_ID1629244_code555131. Abingdon, UK, 1999. pdf?abstractid=1588163&mirid=1 532 Webster, A., T. Palmer and M. Hughes, 520 Byron, Tanya, Safer Children in a Digital World: 2001, ‘Children Who Have Been Sexually The Report of the Byron Review, Department for Abused: Therapy before evidence’ Journal of Children, Schools and Families, Annesley, UK, Clinical Psychiatry. March 2008, p. 97. 533 Palmer, Tink, ‘Pre-Trial Therapy for Children 521 See, for example: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/ Who Have Been Sexually Abused’, Chapter 9 in uk_news/2445065.stm on Operation Avalanche. Richardson, Sue and Heather Bacon, eds., Creative Responses to Child Sexual Abuse: Challenges and 522 See: http://johnc1912.wordpress.com/2011/07/05/ dilemmas, Jessica Kingsley Publishers, London, microsoft-attacks-online-child-pornography-3/ 2003, p. 152–166; Finkelhor, David, and Lucy Berliner, ‘Research on the Treatment of Sexually 523 Baines V, Child Pornography and Sexual Abused Children: A review and recommendations’, Exploitation Online, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Journal of the American Academy of Child and 25–28 November 2008. Adolescent Psychiatry, vol. 34, no. 11, 1995, pp. 1408–1423, available at: http://www.jaacap. com/article/S0890-8567(09)63959-9/abstract 524 Palmer, Tink, ‘Sexual Abuse and Exploitation in the Converged Online/Offline Environments: Referral services and rehabilitation’, 2010 534 BUP-Elefanten, Centre for treatment of child (unpublished paper for UNICEF). sexual and physical abuse: http://www.lio. se/Verksamheter/Narsjukvarden-i-centrala- Ostergotland/BUP-kliniken-i-Linkoping/BUP- 525 Ibid. Elefanten/In-English/ 526 Soderstrom, B., ‘Internet-Related Violence’, 535 Nyman, Anders, Abused Online, BUP-Elefanten Paper presented at ‘Building a Europe for and (Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Unit) and the with Children: Towards a strategy for 2009–2011’, Country Council of Östergötland, n.d., available Council of Europe, Stockholm, September 2008.
notes 127 at: http://www.childcentre.info/projects/Internet/ for Human Rights, Save the Children and United dbaFile15618.pdf Nations Children’s Fund, forthcoming.
536 Palmer, Tink, ‘Sexual Abuse and Exploitation in the 539 Palmer, Tink, ‘Sexual Abuse and Exploitation Converged Online/Offline Environments: Referral in the Converged Online/Offline Environments: services and rehabilitation’, 2010 (unpublished Referral services and rehabilitation’, 2010 paper for UNICEF). (unpublished paper for UNICEF).
537 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime and 540 Moultrie, Denise, ‘Adolescents Convicted of United Nations Children’s Fund, ‘Justice in Matters Possession of Abuse Images of Children: A Involving Child Victims and Witnesses of Crime: new type of adolescent sex offender?’, Journal Model law and related commentary’, United of Sexual Aggression, vol. 12, no. 2, July 2006, Nations, New York, 2009, available at: www.unodc. pp. 165–174. org/unodc/en/frontpage/unodc-and-unicef-partner- to-help-child-victims-.html, accessed 6 September 541 Quayle, Ethel, Lars Loof and Tink Palmer, ‘Child 2011. Pornography and Sexual Exploitation of Children Online: A contribution of ECPAT International to 538 Lansdown, Gerison, ‘Article 12: The right of the World Congress III against Sexual Exploitation the child to be heard – A resource book for of Children and Adolescents’, ECPAT International, governments’, Office of the High Commissioner Bangkok, November 2008.
128 Child Safety Online Abbreviations and Acronyms
CEOP Child Exploitation and Online Protection Centre (London) CETS Child Exploitation Tracking System CHIS Children’s Charities’ Coalition on Internet Safety CIRCAMP COSPOL Internet Related Child Abuse Material Project COE Council of Europe COSPOL Comprehensive, Operational, Strategic Planning for the Police (European Police Chiefs Taskforce) ECPAT End Child Prostitution, Child Pornography and the Trafficking of Children for International Sexual Purposes (Bangkok)
EFC European Financial Coalition (against Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children Online) e-NASCO European NGO Alliance for Child Safety Online (Copenhagen) EOL Everything Online EU European Union G8 Group of Eight, a forum for the governments of: Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, the United Kingdom and the United States. ICMEC International Centre for Missing & Exploited Children (Virginia, United States) ICT information and communication technology INHOPE International Association of Internet Hotlines (Amsterdam, the Netherlands) INTERPOL International Criminal Police Organization IRC Innocenti Research Centre (UNICEF) ITU International Telecommunication Union IWF Internet Watch Foundation IYAC International Youth Advisory Congress Lanzarote Council of Europe Convention on the Protection of Children against Sexual Convention Exploitation and Sexual Abuse
LGBT lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender make-IT-safe ECPAT campaign in the Philippines campaign MXit a social network and instant messaging service with millions of users; it is the largest in South Africa NGO non-governmental organization NSPCC National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (London)
Abbreviations and Acronyms 129 OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development OPSC Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography Orkut a social networking and discussion service operated by Google SIM subscriber identity module UKCCIS UK Council for Child Internet Safety UN Trafficking Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Protocol Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime VGT Virtual Global Taskforce
130 Child Safety Online Front cover photo: © UNICEF/NYHQ2010-3011/Pirozzi
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