Control of Anticarsia Gemmatalis Hubner with Recommended And

CONTROL OF Anticarsia gemmatalis hubner with recommended AND EXPERIMENTAL CHEMICAL AND MICROBIAL PESTICIDES AND THEIR EFFECTS ON THE PREDATORY SPECIES IN SOYBEAN AGROECOSYSTEMS

YUSOH BIN SALLEH

A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE COUNCIL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA

1980 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am very grateful to my chairman, Dr. G. E. Allen, and

co-chairman. Dr. D. C. Herzog, and committee members, Drs. D. H.

Habeck and E. B. Whitty for their assistance and guidance throughout

my program. Other faculty members whose council has been invaluable

are Drs, R. L. Lipsey, S. H. Kerr, and W. H. Whitcomb.

My most sincere thanks are extended to Dr. D. C. Herzog for

his invaluable guidance in my field work. Thanks are also due to

Mr. Andrew Brown for his help in the field; Mr. Skip Choate for

his help in identifications of some of my specimens; and Mr. P. J.

d'Almada for his help in statistical analysis. Thanks are also

due to MARDI for financial support which made this study possible.

A very special gratitude is extended to my family in

Malaysia for their encouragement and understanding; and to dear

friends Ms. Thelma Carlysle and Ms. Frances Ward for their encour-

agement and comforts.

Last but not least, my love and appreciation goes to my wife Rohani and my daugthers Sharila and Melissa who always

flower me with love, patience, and encouragement.

ii TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS , j_i

LIST OF TABLES V

LIST OF FIGURES "^^^

ABSTRACT

INTRODUCTION 1

LITERATURE REVIEW 5

The Velvetbean Caterpillar (VBC) Antiaarsia germatalis Hubner 5 Predaceous Arthropods in Soybeans 7 Effects of Pesticides on Beneficial species 12

MATERIALS AND METHODS 15

General Experimental Procedures 15 General Experiments 1977 and 1978 15 Toxaphene Experiments 19 Yield Measurement 22 Statistical Analysis 22 General Experiments 1977 and 1978 22 Toxaphene Experiments 24

RESULTS 26

Control of Velvetbean Caterpillar (VBC) Antioarsia germatalis Hubner 26 Effects of Treatments on Predatory Species 47 Effects on Nabids 47 Effects on Geocorids 62 Effects on Spiders 76 Effects on Other Predators 88 Yield Data 97

iii Page

DISCUSSION 102

CONCLUSIONS 112

LITERATURE CITED 114

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH 129

iv LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1 Treatments applied to control Antioarsia germatalis Hubner on soybeans at the University of Florida AREC,

Quincy, Fla. , 1977 and 1978 17

2 Means of logg numbers of large [1/2 inch or longer] Antioarsia germatalis Hubner larvae per 4 row-feet of Centennial variety soybean, sampled by shake-cloth method, following applications of selected chemical and microbial pesticides at the University of Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla., 1977 30

3 Means of logg numbers of small [< 1/2 inch] Antioarsia gemmataUs Hubner larvae per 4 row-feet of Centennial

variety soybean , sampled by shaJce-c loth method, following applications of selected chemical and microbial pesticides at the University of Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla., 1977 35

4 Means of loge numbers of large [1/2 inch or longer] Antioarsia germatalis Hubner larvae per 4 row-feet of Bragg variety soybean, sampled by shake-cloth method, following applications of selected chemical at the ^ University of Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla., 1978 . 40

5 Means of log^ numbers of small [< 1/2 inch] Antioarsia germatalis Hubner larvae per 4 row-feet of Bragg variety soybean, sampled by shake-cloth method, following applications of selected chemical pesticides at the Uni- versity of Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla., 1978 43

Means of logg numbers of nabids per 4 row-feet of Centennial variety soybean, sampled by shake-cloth method, following applications of selected chemical and microbial pesticides at the University of Florida

AREC, Quincy, Fla. , 1977 ^-^

V Table Page

7 Means of logg niimbers of nabids per 45 row-feet of Centennial variety soybean, sampled by D-Vac method, following applications of selected chemical and microbial pesticides at the University of Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla., 1977 56

8 Means of log^ numbers of nabids per 4 row-feet of Bragg variety soybean, sampled by shake-cloth method, following applications of selected chamical pesticides at the University of Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla., 1978 ... 60

9 Means of log^ numbers of geocorids per 4 row-feet of Centennial variety soybean, sampled by shake-cloth method, following applications of selected chemical and microbial pesticides at the University of Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla., 1977 66

10 Means of logg numbers of geocorids per 45 row-feet of Centennial variety soybean sampled by D-Vac method, following applications of selected chemical and microbial pesticides at the University of Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla., 1977 70

11 Means of logg numbers of geocorids per 4 row-feet of Bragg variety soybean, sampled by shake-cloth method following applications of selected chemical pesticides

at the University of Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla., 1978 . . 73

12 Means of logg numbers of spiders per 4 row-feet of Centennial variety soybean, sampled by shake-cloth method, following applications of selected chemical and microbial pesticides at the University of Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla., 1977 80

13 Means of logg numbers of spiders per 45 row-feet of Centennial variety soybean, sampled by D-Vac method, following applications of selected chemical and microbial pesticides at the University of Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla., 1977 . . 84

14 Means of logg nvunbers of spiders per 4 row-feet of Bragg variety soybean, sampled by shake-cloth method, following applications of selected chemical pesticides at the University of 87 Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla., 1978 . .

15 Yield of Centennial variety soybean in plots treated with selected chemical and microbial pesticides at the University of Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla., 1977. . . . ?8

VI Yield of Bragg variety soybean in plots treated with selected chemical pesticides at the University of

Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla. , 1978

Yield of Bragg variety soybean following foliar and soil applications of toxaphene each at the rate of 3.0 lb AI/A at the University of Florida AREC,

Quincy, Fla. , 1978

vii > J -

LIST OF FIGURES figure Page

1 Pitfall trap used to sample ground-dwelling arthropod predators in soybean fields at the University of Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla., 1978 21

2 A, B, C. Fluctuations of large [1/2 inch or ' longer] Antioarsia gerrmatalis Hubner larvae following one application of selected chemical , and microbial pesticides at the University of Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla., 1977 28

3 A, B, C. Fluctuations of small [< 1/2 inch] " Antioarsia gemmatalis Hubner larvae following one application of chemical and microbial pesticides at the University of Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla., 1977 33

4 A, B. Fluctuation of large [1/2 inch or longer Antioarsia gerrmatalis Hubner larvae following one application of selected chemical pesticides at the University of Florida AREC, Quincy Fla., 1978 38

5 A, B. Fluctuations of small [< 1/2 inch or longer] Antioarsia gemmatalis Hubner larvae following one application of selected chemical pesticides at the University of Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla., 1978 42

e Fluctuations of large [1/2 inch or longer] ' <: Antioarsia gemmatalis Hubner larvae following one soil application of toxaphene at 3.0 lb AI/A at the University of Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla., 1978 45

7, ;. FluctTaations of^large [1/2 inch or longer] Antioarsia gemmatalis Hubner larvae following ^- one foliar application of toxaphene at 3.0 lb ' AI/A at the University of Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla., 1978 45

viii Figure Page

8 Fluctuations' of small [< 1.2 inch] Antioarsia germatalis Hvibner larvae following one foliar application of toxaphene at 3.0 lb AI/A at the

University of Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla. , 1978 46

9 A, B, C. Effects of selected pesticides on nabids in soybean at the University of Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla., 1977. Samples collected by shake- cloth method 49

10 A, B, C. Effects of selected pesticides on nabids in soybean at the University of Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla., 1977. Samples collected by D-Vac method 54

11 A, B. Effects of selected pesticides on nabids in soybean at the University of Florida AREC, Quincy,

Fla., 1978. Samples collected by shake-cloth method. . . 59

12 Effects of one foliar application of toxaphene at 3.0 lb AI/A on nabids in soybean at the University of Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla., 1978. Samples col-

lected by shake-cloth method . 61

13 A, B, C. Effects of selected pesticides on geocorids in soybean at the University of Florida AREC, Quincy,

Fla., 1977. Samples collected by shake-cloth method. . . 64

14 A, B, C. Effects of selected pesticides on geocorids in soybean at the University of Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla., 1977. Samples collected by D-Vac method 68

15 A, B. Effects of selected pesticides on georocids in soybean at the University of Florida AREC, Quincy,

Fla., 1978. Samples collected by shake-cloth method. . , 72

16 Effects of one application of toxaphene at 3.0 lb AI/A on geocorids in soybean at the University of Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla., 1978. Samples collected by shake-cloth method 74

17 A, B, C. Effects of selected pesticides on spiders in soybean at the University of Florida AREC, Quincy,

Fla., 1977. Samples collected by shake-cloth method. . . 78

ix 18 A, B, C. Effects of selected pesticides on spiders in soybean at the University of Florida AREC,

Quincy, Fla. , 1977. Samples collected by D-Vac method 82

19 A, B. Effects of selected pesticides on spiders in soybean at the University of Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla., 1978. Samples collected by shake-cloth method 86

20 Effects of one foliar application of toxaphene at 3.0 lb AI/A on foliage inhabiting spiders in soybean at the University of Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla., 1978. Samples collected by shake- cloth method ' 89

21 Effects of one soil application of toxaphene at 3.0 lb AI/A on ground-dwelling spiders in soybean at the University of Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla., 1978. Samples collected by pitfall traps 91

22 Effects of one foliar application of toxaphene at 3 . 0 lb AI/A on ground-dwelling spiders in soybean at the University of Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla., 1978. Samples collected by pitfall traps . . . . 91

23 Effects of one soil application of toxaphene at 3.0 lb AI/A on Calosoma spp. in soybean at the University of Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla., 1978. Samples collected by pitfall traps 93

24 Effects of one soil application of toxaphene at 3.0 lb AI/A on Calosoma spp. in soybean at the University of Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla., 1978. Samples collected by pitfall traps. 94

25 Effects of one soil application of toxaphene at 3.0 lb AI/A on Harpalus spp. in soybean at the University of Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla., 1978. Samples collected by pitfall traps 94

26 Effects of one soil application of toxaphene at 3.0 lb AI/A on Lahidura spp. adults in soybean at University of Florida, AREC, Quincy, Fla., 1978. Samples collected by pitfall traps 96

27 Effects of one soil application of toxaphene at 3.0 lb AI/A on Lahidura spp. numphs in soybean at the University of Florida, AREC, Quincy, Fla. 1978. Samples collected by pitfall traps. 96

X ,

Abstract of Dissertation Presented to the Graduate Council of the University of Florida in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy

CONTROL OF Anticapsia gemmatalis hubner with recommended AND EXPERIMENTAL CHEMICAL AND MICROBIAL PESTICIDES AND THEIR EFFECTS ON THE PREDATORY SPECIES IN SOYBEAN AGROECOSYSTEMS

Yusoh Bin Salleh

March 1980

Chairman: Dr. George E. Allen Co-chairman: Dr. Don C. Herzog Major Department: Department of Entomology and Nematology

Nine chemical pesticides, a commercial preparation of

Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner (B.t.)(Dipel TM) and a nuclear polyhedrosis virus (NPV) isolated from velvetbean caterpillar (VBC)

Antioarsia gemmatalis Hubner, were used at their recommended rates to control VBC on soybean during 1977 and 1978 in Quincy, Florida.

The chemical pesticides included acephate, dif lubenzuron, carbaryl, fentin hydroxide, methyl parathion, methomyl, permethrin, toxaphene, and an experimental carbamate UC51762. Mixtures of dif lubenzuron with B.t., carbaryl, and virus; and carbaryl with B.t. were also used during 1977. Pesticide combinations applied exhibited no sign of incompatibility, and except for one case, were no more effective than when applied alone. Plots treated with virus plus dif lubenzuron produced significantly higher yields than those treated with virus

xi alone. Mixtures were used at one-half the rate of each pesticide, except for virus and virus plus dif lubenzuron. The rate for virus

in both cases was 3 larval equivalents (LE)/A.

Resurgence of VBC populations occurred in plots treated

with Methyl parathion, B.t., carbaryl plus B.t. , acephate, and methomyl. However, this did not result in yield reduction since the VBC populations were then suppressed by the naturally occurring fungus Nomuraea rileyi (Far low) Samson which appeared late in the season. Virus applied at 3 LE/A, like other treatments, maintained the VBC populations below economic threshold levels.

Although all treatments, chemical and microbial, increased yield, this was not always significant.

Results indicated that methyl parathion, of the treatment evaluated, was the most toxic to nabids, geocorids, and spiders.

Toxaphene was toxic to nabids, geocorids, and spiders. Toxaphene

also increasec activity of Calosoma spp. and Labidura spp. , which resulted in higher catches after the first 2 weeks following treatment. However, there were indications that toxaphene reduced

Calosoma and Harpalus populations up to 2 weeks following treat-

ment .

Diflubenzuron, carbaryl, B.t., fentin hydroxide, and

UC51762 allowed excellent survival of nabids. Acepahte, methomyl and permethrin were toxic to nabids although less so than methyl parathion. Virus reduced nabid numbers, but significant reductions were observed only twice. Acephate, methomyl, permethrin, and UC51762 seemed to be toxic to spiders, even though reductions in their numbers were not always significant. Acephate reduced the geocorid populations which survived all other treatments except methyl parathion and toxaphene.

In general, the more toxic compounds to these predator species were methyl parathion, toxaphene, acephate, methomyl, and permethrin. Dif lubenzuron, carbaryl, UC51762, fentin hydroxide,

B.t., and virus exhibited reduced toxicity for these predators.

xiii INTRODUCTION

The increasing human population throughout the world requires

the production of more high protein food. Since soybean, Glyovnemax TlJ

Merrill, has become established as a plant of multiple uses, it is becoming a major world food source. Production of soybean in the

United States has doubled from 1960 to 1973, with the greatest rate

of increase in southern latitudes (Turnipseed and Kogan 1976) . In

Florida, for example, soybean acreage has increased 25 fold since 1948, to 450,000 in 1979 (Anonymous 1979).

Soybean is now the third leading crop in both acreage and value in the United States, exceeded only by corn and wheat. Of the

16 major world food crops (F.A.O. 1977), soybean ranks sixth in acreage, exceeded only by wheat, rice, corn, barley, and millet. A continuous and rapid expansion of soybean acreage has been predicted, particularly for subtropical and tropical latitudes (Amer. Soybean

Assoc. 1972, 1974).

As the soybean acreage has expanded, the freguency and the severity of insect infestations have also increased. And due to the length of growing season and the nature of the crop, there are probably as many or more insects associated with soybean than any other major crop produced in the United States. Balduf (1923) reported approximately 172 species of insects collected from soybean fields in Ohio.

1 .

Kretzschmar (1948) identified more than 80 species from soybean fields in Minnesota. Blickenstaff and Huggans (1962) over a 3-year period collected more than 540 species of soybean insects in Missouri. In

Arkansas, Tugwell et al. (1973) identified a total of 267 species, and in North Carolina, Deitz et al. (1975) identified approximately

447 insect species collected from soybean fields. Elsewhere,

Turnipseed and Kogan (1976) indicated that more or less extensive lists of soybean insects are available for Argentina, Brazil, China,

Colombia, India, Japan, Mexico, Surinam, Tanzania, and Venezuela.

A program to establish a world collection of arthropods associated with soybean has been initiated in 1969 by personnel of the

Illinois Natural History Survey and the University of Illinois. The collection now contains more than 1500 identified species, with the majority of them from the United States, Mexico, Colombia, and Brazil

(Turnipseed and Kogan 1976)

Within the United States, it is evident that the variety of soybean insects and the severity of attack increase southwards

(Turnipseed 1973). This increase in the south is' due primarily to less severe winters and longer growing seasons. Although beans are planted at about the same time in the north and south, many southern varieties are in late bloom or just beginning to fill pods when northern varieties have matured.

Insect infestations on soybean have been combated primarily with pesticides. However, there are disadvantages or limitations to the use of pesticide chemicals. Smith (1970) listed the limitations of pesticide usage as follows: (1) development of strains of pests that are resistant to pesticides, (2) temporary effects on populations

necessitating repeated treatment, (3) hazards from pesticide residues

in the harvested crop, (4) direct hazards to the applicators, (5) out-

breaks of secondary pests resulting from destruction of their natural

enemies, (6) undesirable side effects on non-target organisms includ-

ing parasites, predators, honey bees, fish, birds and other wild life,

the crop plant, man and his domestic animals, and (7) reduction and

simplification of the biotic components of the agroecosystem.

Despite those disadvantages and limitations, the chemical

pesticides remain the most powerful tool in pest management when

populations approach or exceed economic levels. Hence, chemical

pesticides will continue to play a major role in pest management

system. Turnipseed (1972) stated that insecticidal research on

soybean should be encouraged and directed to the areas of minimum

rates, use of selective chemical alone, and use of selective chemi-

cals in combination with microbial pathogens. Each of these areas

should be designed to conserve natural enemies of pest species.

The purposes of this 2-year study include (1) evaluation of

the effectiveness of several selected chemical and microbial pesticides

for the control of velvetbean caterpillar (VBC) , Antioarsia germatalis

Hubner, the most important soybean insect pest in Florida, and (2) evaluation of the effects of these treatments on beneficial species inhabiting the soybean fields such as Geoooris and Nobis bugs;

Cdlleida, Calosoma^ Earpalus, and Notoxus beetles; Labidura and

Euborellia earwigs; and spiders. 4

It is hoped that this study will contribute to sounder use of pesticides in relation to beneficial insects in future management programs for Florida soybean production.

\ ,

LITERATURE REVIEW

The Velvetbean Caterpillar (VBC ) A nt-icarsia germatalis Hubner

Soybean is attacked by a large number of insect pests. Some

of the more recent literature on soybean dealing with the management

of these pests include Turnipseed (1970, 1972, 1973), Strayer (1973),

Strayer and Greene (1974) , Kogan (1976) , Turnipseed and Kogan (1976)

Newsom (1978) , and Johnson and Herzog (1979) . Godfrey (1974) compiled

several selected publications on soybean entomology. The seasonal

abundance of insect pests of soybean was observed by Garner et al. (1974).

The main references to soybean insects of major economic importance in

the United States are cited by Turnipseed (1973).

In Florida, the velvetbean caterpillar , Anticarsia

genmatalis Hubner, is the most important pest of soybean. Strayer

(1973) indicated that the estimated cost of controlling this pest in

the state exceeds 1.2 million dollars annually. Don C. Herzog^

(1979, personal communication) indicated that the major thrust on

insect management of soybean in Florida has been focused on VBC.

Accounts of the life-history and behavior of VBC have been

reported by Watson (1915, 1916a), Douglas (1930), Hinds (1930), Hinds

and Osterberger (1931), and Ellisor (1942). Ford et al. (1975) have

compiled a comprehensive bibliography of literature on VBC.

Assistant Professor, Department of Entomology and Nematology University of Florida, AREC, Quincy.

5 .

Generally, the female moths lay eggs singly, mostly on the underside of the leaves. The eggs hatch in 3-5 days. There are usually 6-7 larval instars during the normal 3-4 week developmental period. Larvae are usually greenish in color and striped longitu- dinally, but may be brownish to almost black during cold weather in

late fall. When disturbed, they wriggle rapidly and drop off the plant. After growing to a length of about 5 cm, larvae move downward and pupate just under the soil surface at the base of the plants.

Adult moths emerge in about 10 days. Moths are light brown in color with an oblique dark line across the front and back wings. Several generations may be produced annually, depending on season and climate.

Buschman et al. (1977b) indicated that VBC overwinters in south and central Florida. The adult moths migrate northward as the season progresses, but infestations seldom reach economic injury levels north of a line from Arkansas through North Carolina (Tiirnipseed 1973) .

Mating and ovipositional behavior of the moths was obseirved by Greene et al. (1973). In south and central Florida, the moths oviposit throughout the year (Buschman et al. 1977b). Moscardi (1979) found that the resulting adults were more fecund when larvae were fed on early rather than on late stages of soybean crop phenology. This was apparently due to the high nutritional value of leaves in this phenological period.

In the laboratory, Reid (1975) found that the third through the last larval instar consumed about 98% of their total food. A laboratory rearing procedure for the species was developed by Greene et al. (1976) . .

Methods, other than chemical, have been investigated to

control VBC. Economic thresholds for the VBC in Florida were

established by Strayer (1973). Treatments should be made when

large (1/2" or longer) VBC larvae counts reach 10/foot of row

prior to bloom or 4/foot of row post bloom. A population dynamics

model has been developed (Menke 1973) and validated (Menke and Greene

1976) The . possibility of using pheromones in controlling VBC was

suggested by Johnson (1977)

et al. Allen (1971), Kogan et al. (1977) , and Allen and Kish

(1978) reported the effectiveness of the naturally occurring fungus

Nomuraea rileyi (Farlow) Samson in suppressing VBC larval populations

A model for the fungus has been developed and validated by Kish and

Allen (1978)

The potential of a nuclear polyhedrosis virus (NPV) in

suppressing VBC populations has been reported (Carner and Turnipseed

1977). Field efficacy studies in Florida soybean have been con-

ducted by Moscardi (1977) , Abdul Kadir (1978) , and Ahmadzabidi

(1978) Allen . and Kish (1978) further discussed the role of NPV,

Nomuraea rileyi and also Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner (B.t.),

Predaceous Arthropods in Soybean

Recent accounts of predators in Florida soybean were documented by Hasse (1971), Neal and Whitcomb (1972), Neal et al. (1972),

Whitcomb et al. (1972), Neal (1974), Buschman et al. (1977a), and

Nickerson et al. (1977). , ,

Turnipseed (1972) reported that Nabis spp., Geoooris spp.

and spiders were the most common predators in South Carolina. In

Florida, Neal (1974) reported Nahis spp., Geoooris spp., several

carabids, and Labidura riparia (Pallas) as the most important preda-

tors in soybean fields.

There are about 9 Nobis spp. reported in soybean from

various states: Ohio (Balduf 1923), Minnesota (Kretzschmar 1948),

Missouri (Blickenstaf f and Huggans 1962, Barry et al. 1974),

Arkansas (Tugwell et al. 1973), North Carolina (Deitz et al. 1976),

and Florida (Hasse 1971, Neal 1974, Buschraan et al. 1977a). These

species include: Nobis altematus (Parshley) , N. omeriaoferus Carayon,

N. capsiformis Germar, N. deceptivus Harris, N. ferus Linnaeus,

N. kalmii Reuter, N. roseipennis Reuter, N. sordidus Reuter, and

N. subcleoptratus Kirby. The most common species is N. roseipennis

(Neal 1974, Deitz et al. 1976),

Life-histories of Nobis spp. have been reported by

Mundinger (1922), Taylor (1949), Werner and Butler (1957), and

•Deitz et al. (1976). The females deposit their eggs in the soft

plant tissues in spring. There are 5 nymphal instars which, like

the adults, prey on aphids, leafhoppers, lygus bugs, spiders, and

lepidoptera eggs and larvae. Mundinger (1922) reported 1 generation

of N. roseipennis per year.

The effectiveness of Nobis spp. as predators has been

reported by Whitcomb arid Bell (1954) , Ridgway and Jones (1968)

Turnipseed (1972), and Waddill and Shepard (1974). . . . .

Only 5 Geocoris spp. have been reported from various row

crops (Balduf 1923, Blickenstaff and Huggans 1962, Dunbar and

Bacon 1972, Elsey 1972, Mead 1972, Eveleens et al. 1973, Tugwell

et al. 1973, Whitcomb 1973, Shepard et al. 1974b, Crocker et al.

1975, Crocker 1977, Wilkinson et al. 1979). The species include

Geoaovis atvicolor Montandon, G. bullatus (Say), G. pollens

Stall, G. punctipes (Say), and G. uliginosis (Say). Geoooris

punatipes has been reported to be the dominant species (Neal 1974,

Shepard et al . 1974b)

The biology of Geoooris spp. has been reported by McGregor

and McDonough (1917) , van den Bosch and Hagen (1966) , Champlain

and Sholdt (1916) , Tamaki (1972) , and Tamaki and Weeks (1972a)

The females lay eggs singly in terminal plant growth. There are

5 nymphs instars between the egg and the adult. Both adults and nymphs feed on a wide variety of insect eggs, caterpillars,

leafhoppers, psyllids, plant bugs, mites, and other arthropods.

Sweet (1960) and Stoner (1970) found that Geoooris spp. can sur- vive for extended periods of plants alone, although they require prey for normal feeding and development. Components of their feeding niches were studied by Crocker (1977)

The potential and effectiveness of Geoooris spp. as predators have been reported by many authors including Lingren et al.

(1968) , Orphanides et al. (1971) , Elsey (1972) , Tamaki and Weeks

(1972b), Turnipseed (1972), Barry et al. (1974), Neal (1974),

Shepard et al. (1974b), Waddill and Shepard (1974), and Deitz et al.

(1976) ,

The abundance of spiders in soybean and other row crops

has been documented by Whitcomb at al. (1963) , Whitcomb and Bell

(1964), Turnipseed (1972), Burleigh et al. (1973), Neal (1974),

Deitz et al. (1976), Fuchs and Harding (1976), Johnson et al.

{1976>)), Smith and Stadelbacher (1978), Whitcomb (1980), and several others. Spiders are always present in fields and often

outnumber predaceous insects in crops (Whitcomb 1980) . In North

Carolina soybean fields, spiders are major predators and consist of at least 13 different families (Deitz et al. 1976). Neal (1974) reported at least 46 species of spiders in north and central Florida soybean... Neal (1974) and Deitz et al. (1976) reported Oxyopes saltious Hentz and ChiraoanthLwn inclusion (Hentz) to be the 2 most abundant species.

Biological information on these spiders can be found in

Whitcomb and Bell (1964), Whitcomb and Eason (1967), Peck and

Whitcomb (1970), Horner (1972), and Wheeler (1973).

Little is known about the role of these spider predators

in the soybean ecosystem (Deitz et al. 1976) . Whitcomb (1980) indicated that spiders play 4 principle roles in cultivated fields; preying upon many pest species, feeding upon other entomophages serving as food for other predators, and finally, competing with other predators when prey become scarce.

The predominant predaceous beetles on soybean belong to

the families Carabidae and Coccinellidae (Tugwell et al. 1973) .

Of the many carabids occurring in the soybean fields, the following 11

have been reported to be particularly abundant: Labia analis

DeJean (Tugwell et al. 1973), Catleida decora (Fabricius) (Neal 1974),

and Calosorna sayi DeJean (Price and Shepard 1978) .

The more important coccinellid predators in soybean include

ColeogmegilZa maoulata (DeGeer) , Hippodamia aonvergens Guerin-Meneville

Scyrrmus spp. and Stethorus spp. Notoxus spp. of the family Anthicidae

is also considered to be an important predator (Tugwell et al. 1973,

Neal 1974, Deitz et al. 1976).

Among the earwigs in soybean, the striped earwig, Labidura

riparia (Pallas) has been the most documented (Buschman et al. 1977a,

Shepard et al. 1973, Walker and Newman 1976, Price and Shepard 1977,

Travis 1977, Price and Shepard 1978). The earwig feeds on all life

stages of many phytophagous lepidopterous and coleopterous insects

(Bishara 1934, Tawfik et al. 1972, Ammar and Farrag 1974), but rarely

on plant materials. This predator may even die when arthropod prey

is unavailable (Schlinger et al. 1959, Tawkif et al. 1972). Besides

Labidura riparia, Neal (1974) reported three other species, Doru lineare

(Eschscholtz) Vostox , brunneipennis (Serv'ille) , and Euborellia annulipes

(Lucas) in Florida soybean.

General accounts on other predaceous arthropods in soybean can be found in Watson (1916b), Dozier (1918), Balduf (1923), Nickels

(1926), Douglas (1930), Hinds and Osterberger (1931), Ellisor (1942),

Kretzschmar (1948) Blickenstaff and Huggans (1962), Whitcomb et al.

(1972), Neal and Whitcomb (1972), Neal et al. (1972), Buschman et al.

(1977a), and Nickerson et al. (1977). . ,

Effects of various factors on survey of predaceous insects

in soybean were reported by Dumas et al. (1964) . Their seasonal

abundance on and in soybean was reported by Shepard et al. (1974b) • and Deitz et al. (1976).

( V. Effects of Pesticides on Beneficial Species

Adverse effects of pesticides on nontarget organisms were recognized by many biologists even before synthetic pesticides were widely used. Comstock 1880 (in) DeBach (1964) pointed out that pyrethrum used to control scale insects did more harm than good by destroying the beneficial insects. However, the old-line chemicals were not as disruptive to arthropod ecosystems as are the new broad- spectrum synthetic chemicals (van den Bosch and Stern 1962)

The early work on this aspect was reviewed by Ripper

(1956) and more recently by Croft and Brown (1975) . Some other publications dealing with this information include those of Pickett

(1948), Pickett and Patterson (1953), Linsley (1956), Smith and

Eagen (1959a, 1959b), Stern et al. (1959), Metcalf (1960), Hayes

(1960), Brown (1961, 1962), Mahoney (1962), Bartlett (1963), Durham

(1963), Akesson and Yates (1964), Doutt (1964), Hindin et al. (1964)

Rudd (1964), West (1964), Campbell et al. (1965), Falk et al. (1965),

Marth (1965) , Moore (1965) , West and Milby (1965) , Newsom (1967)

Graham (1970), Kinzer et al. (1977), and Brown (1978).

Croft and Brown (1975) arranged several insecticides into

5 classes of descending toxicity according to LDt-f^ or LCj. to 10 species of coccinellids and 4 other coleopteran species, 5

hemipterans , 1 chrysopid, and 3 acarines. The 5 insecticides

(also in order to descending toxicity) in each class are (1) para-

thion, parathiomethyl , malathion, azinphosmethyl , carbaryl; (2) mevinphos, phosphamidon, diazinon,, dimethoate, ethion; (3) demeton,

thiometon; lindane, denietonmethyl , carbophenothion, trichlorfon, (4) toxaphene, endrin, DDT, endosulfan; (5) chlorobenzilate, schradan, binapacryl, tetradifon, and dicofol.

The response of arthropod natural enemies to insecticides has always been associated with the pest outbreaks termed "resurgence" and "trade pest " or "secondary pest" (Bartlett 1964) following

insecticide applications that destroy the natural enemies of the pests.

The adverse effects on natural enemies described by various

researchers include the direct killing by pesticides of predators

in treated areas (Bartlett 1964), pesticide drift from treated to

adjacent untreated areas (Bartlett 1964) , trap effects of treated

upon untreated portions of the crop (DeBach and Bartlett 1951,

Ripper 1956, Bartlett 1957) , and indirect effects of the pesticides

such as starvation or forced emigration due to reduction of the

pest populations which are the food supply (Brown 1978).

There have been several recent publications on the poten-

tial of predators in soybeans, on the action of insecticides on

predator effectiveness, and on pest resurgence. Marston et al.

(1979) demonstrated that predators play an important role in restricting populations of green cloverworm, Plathypena scabra

(F.) and other potential pests in Missouri. Effects of several pesticides on these predators have been discussed by Turnispeed

(1972), Walker et al. (1974), Greene et al. (1974), Price and

Shepard (1977), Livingston et al. (1978b), and Price and Shepard

(1978) . Resurgence of phytophagous species following insecticide applications have been reported by Todd et al. (1972) , Turnipseed

(1972), and Shepard et al. (1977).

Effects of pesticides on entomopathogenic fungi on soybean have been discussed by Ignoffo et al. (1975) and Johnson et al. (1975a). Moscardi (1977) showed that NPV greatly reduced the impact of Nomuraea riteyi epizootics. . ,

MATERIALS AND METHODS

G eneral Experimental Procedures

Studies were conducted at the University of Florida

Agricultural Research and Education Center, Quincy, Gadsden Co.

Florida. Experiments were conducted on Centennial variety soybean

in. 1977 and Bragg variety soybean in 1978.

General Experiments 1977 and 1978

Standard cultural practices were utilized in growing the

soybean (Hinson 1967, Whitty et al. 1971), The crop was planted

at approximately 60 lb/A with a row spacing of 36 inches. The

herbicides trifluralin 4 EC and metribuzin 70 WP were incorpor-

ated into the soil prior to planting at rates of 0.5 and 0.26 lb

AI/A respectively. At cracking time, alachlor 4EC and dinitroamine

2EC were applied at rates of 2.0 and 0.33 lb AI/A, respectively.

The Centennial variety soybean was planted on June 16, 1977, and the

Bragg variety was planted on June 29 and 30, 1978.

The effects of selected recommended and experimental

insecticides on beneficial species of soybean arthropods were

investigated. All treatments were aimed at controlling VBC popu-

lations at recommended rates (Fla. Insect Control Guide 1978)

Two microbial insectides, virus (VBC NPV) and Baoillus thurin-

(B. giensis t . ) (Dipel™) were tested in 1977. Since there was no

15 established reconmiended rate available for the VBC NPV, the rate tested was 3 LE/A. Abdul Kadir (1978) and Ahmadzabidi (1978) indicated that 3LE/A of VBC NPV effectively suppressed VBC populations below economic threshold levels. To each virus preparation

1 lb/A experimental adjuvant (Sandoz Inc.) was added prior to field application to protect the virus from sunlight.

Each treatment was applied both alone and in combination with other treatments. When in combination, one-half of the recommended rate was used for each. All treatments and rates were as listed in Table 1.

All applications, except virus and virus plus dif lubenzuron treatments, were made with a Hahn 312 "high boy" eight-row sprayer at a speed of 3 m.p.h. and a pressure of 100 p.s.i., delivering 17.5 gallon/A. The virus and virus plus dif lubenzuron treatments were made with a tractor mounted four-row sprayer at a speed of 3 m.p.h.

The sprayer was set at 30 p.s.i., delivering 17.5 gallons/A.

The soybean growth stage at time of application was R4 (Fehr et al.

1971) . All treatments were applied in small plots arranged in a randomized complete block design. Each plot consisted of 8 rows

45 feet long.

The shake-cloth method described by Boyer and Dumas (1963) was employed to sample the populations of VBC and the predatory species on the soybean foliage. The cloth was placed between 2 rows of soybean so that it was located beneath undisturbed foliage.

Approximately 2 row-feet of soybean on each side were then vigorously ^ 1 ,

Table 1. Treatments applied to control Antioarsia gemmatdlis Hubner on soybeans at the University of Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla. 1977 and 19781.

Treatment Rate Treatment Rate 1977 (lb AI/A) 1978 (lb AI/A)

Diflubenzuron 0.031 Fentin hydroxide 1. 00

B.t. 2 0.50 Dif lubenzuron 0. 125

Dif lubenzuron +B.t.2 0,015 + 0.25 Carbaryl 0. 25

Carbaryl Q.50 Acephate 0. 125

Carbaryl + diflubenzuron 0.25 + 0.015 UC51762 0. 125

Carbaryl + B. t. 0.25 + 0.25 Me thorny 0. 125

VBC NPV 3LE Permethrin 0. 05

VBC NPV + diflubenzuron 3LE + 0.015 Untreated check

Methyl parathion 0.50

Untreated check

"1977, Centennial variety soybean 1978, Bragg variety soybean

Weight of formulation ,

that fell shaken over the cloth. The VBC and arthropod predators Two shake- onto the cloth were identified, counted, and recorded.

7th, 14th, cloth samples were taken in each plot on the 1st, 3rd,

the 3rd, 5th, 21st, and 28th day after treatment in 1977, and on Samples 11th, 16th, 23rd, and 30th day after treatment in 1978,

were taken near the center of the plots to minimize border effects. TM V in addtion to the shake-cloth method, a D-Vac backpack

suction machine with a 27 r.p.m. motor and 34 sq. inch cone open-

1977 ing was employed to sample the arthropods on soybean foliage in both only. Two 45 row-feet samples were taken from each plot. Since

methods (shake-cloth and D-Vac) were used on each plot; care was

taken so as not to D-Vac the rows that had already been sampled

with the shake-cloth on the same sample date. A clean nylon D-Vac

bag was used for each sample. The arthropods sampled were retained

in each bag, which was labeled, then brought to the laboratory and

frozen. The arthropods were later identified and counted.

Only populations of the more common predators were moni-

tored. These Include both the adults and nymphs of Nabis spp.

adults and larvae of (Nabidae) , Geocoris spp. (L^ygaeidae) , the

spp. (Anthicidae) Calleida decora (Carabidae) , the adults of Notoxus

and spiders. Counts were recorded as the niimber of each predator/4

row-feet. The VBC populations were recorded as the number of small

(1/2 inch) and large (1/2 inch or longer) larvae/4 row-feet. 19

Toxaphene Experiments

A separate experiment was conducted to determine the effects

of toxaphene on the arthropods of soybean; Bragg variety soybean

was planted on June 29 (Field 1), and June 30 (Field 2), 1978, using

standard cultural practices described earlier. Field 1 measured

210' X 420' and Field 2, 150' x 420'. Eight plots were established

in each field in a split- plot design. Each plot consisted of 35

rows 99 feet long in Field 1, and 35 rows 69 feet long in Field 2.

The following treatments of toxaphene 2EC were selected

for evaluation.

a. soil application

b. foliar application

c. soil + foliar applications

d. no application (check)

Soil treatment was applied at the rate of 3.0 lb AI/A on

August 14, 1978, with a four-row tractor sprayer at a pressure of

30 p.s.i., delivering 25 gallons/A. Foliar application was made

on September 7, 1978, at the rate of 3.0 lb AI/A with a Hahn 312

"high boy" eight-row sprayer at a speed of 3 m.p.h. , a pressure

of 100 p.s.i., delivering 17.5 gallons/A.

Two sampling methods were employed. Shake-cloth method was

employed . to monitor the abundance of VBC and predators on soybean

foliage. Pitfall traps were used to determine the abundance of ground-dwelling predators. 20

The shake-cloth method, as described earlier, was employed on August 18, 24, 31, September 7, 14, 21, 28, and October 5, 1978.

Four samples of 4 row-feet were taken from each plot on each sampling date. Arthropods that fell onto the shake-cloth were identified, counted, and the number 4 row-feet was recorded. The arthropods monitored by shake-cloth method included VBC, nabids, geocorids, carabids, anthicids, and spiders.

Two pitfall traps, modified from those used by Whitcomb and

Bell (1964), were placed in each plot on August 22, 1978 (Fig.l).

They were situated within the row to avoid vehicular disturbances.

The traps were pdlTced diagonally equadistantly from two diagonal corners and the center of each plot. Each trap consisted of a clean

1-pint mason jar which was buried so that the upper rim was flush with the soil surface. Care was taken so as not to disturb the

soil surface around and near the trap. Each trap was then half- TM filled with ethylene glycol base radiator coolant (PEAK , Northern

Petrochemical Company) . About 25 ml. formaldehyde solution was

added to each jar to repel mammalian predators.

To prevent rain and leaves from falling into the trap, a

7-inch square sheet-metal cover, supported by 4-inch legs at

the corners, was placed over the trap. Each trap was marked by a

4-foot stake with a brightly colored engineers tape attached to it

to facilitate location of the trap. 21

Figure 1. Pitfall trap used to sample ground-dwelling arthropod predators in soybean fields at the

University of Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla. , 1978 22

Traps were collected, labeled and replaced weekly from

August 31 until October 20, 1978. In the laboratory the arthropods from the traps were identified and counted, and the number/pitfall trap was recorded. The arthropods monitored using the pitfall traps included earwigs, ground carabids,and spiders.

Yield Measurement

A 25-foot row of soybean was harvested from each plot.

The beans were threshed, cleaned, and weighed. After adjusting to 13% moisture content, the yield from each plot was converted to bushels/A

' ' * Statistical Analyses

General Experiments 1977 and 1978 ;,•

Natural log transformation was applied to the data before analysis. Calleida decora and Hotoxus spp. populations were not analyzed because their counts were too low. For the nabids and geocorids, nymphs and adults were not separated, but were analyzed simply by family. All spiders (not identified to species) were analyzed as a group. Small and large VBC larvae were analyzed separately.

Differences among treatments were analyzed for each sample date and for each method. The model used for the 1976 experiment was:

Yfiij = Uy + Pj + Ti + (PT)ij + ESj^^. .J 23

where

= observation Yy^^^^hij hij^^

Uy = overall mean for Y

Pj = jth block effect j = 1, 2, 3, 4

Tj^ = i^^ treatment (insecticide) effect i = l,....,10

= effect (PT) . . ii^'^ block X treatment interaction ID

^^h{ij) = h(ij)th sampling error for hij^h observation

During the 1978 experiment the model used was, for each sample date:

= Uy + Pj + Ti + (PT)ij + ESh(ij) + Essg(^^. ^ghij .^^

where

^ghij ~ g'^ij^^ observation

Uy = overall mean for Y

Pj = j^^ block effect j = 1, 2, 3

Ti = i^^ treatment effect i = 1, ....,8

(PT)j^j = ij^^ block X treatment interaction effect

^ h(ij)''^^ sampling error for ghij''^^ observation ^'^h(ij)

Ess = g(h(ij)*^^ sub-sampling error for ghij^^ observation For both years, ANOVA tables were computed for each sample date, for each sampling method, and for each different group of arthropods studied. E)uncan's multiple range tests were performed to compare differences among treatment whenever the ANOVA tables showed significant treatment effects. Graphs were plotted to show the effect of each treatment. Scales on the graphs are actual number of arthropods/4 row-feet, but tables contain means expressed as natural logs.

Toxaphene Experiments

Natural log transformation was applied to the data before analysis. The split-plot design model used in the analysis was as follows:

= Yhijkl Uy + Pi + Ai + Ea^i + Bj + (AB) i j + Ebj2^(i) + Gk

^ . + (AG)ik + (BG)j3^ + (ABG)ijk + ECki(ij)

+ ESh(ijki)

where

Yhijk = hijklth observation

Uy = overall mean for Y

= ith = Vi block effects 1 1, , 4; main plot treatment

A- = i^^ soil treatment effects i = 1, 2

Bail = ilth error for soil treatment effects j^^ Bj = foliar treatment effects j =1, 2; subplot treatment

{AB)ij = j^^ soil X foliar treatment interaction effects

^jl{i) ~ jl(i)^ error for subplot effects

G]^ = kth week effect, k = 1,...., 8j subplot treatment

(AG)ik = ik^*^ soil X week interaction effects

{BG)jj^ = jk^^ foliar x week interaction effects

(ABG)j^jj^ = ijk^'^ soil x foliar x week interaction effects

EC = kl(ij)th error for subsubplot effects

^^h(ijk) ~ h(ijkl)^^ sampling error for hijkl^^ observation

ANOVA tables were computed for each arthropod and treatment studied. Graphs, based on the actual number of respective arthropods/4 row-feet were plotted for those species which ANOVA tables showed significant results. RESULTS

Control of Velvetbean Caterpillar (VBC ) Antiaarsia gemmatalis Hubner

The levels of control of VBC by various recommended and experimental pesticides during the 1977 and 1978 seasons are shown in Figs.

2 to 8. Generally, there were significant differences between each individual treatment and the untreated checks from the first to the last date. In the untreated check plots, the populations of large

(1/2 inch or longer) VBC larvae remained high throughout both years and peaked 15 days after treatment, September 24, 1977, and September 21,

22, 1978 (Figs. 2, 4, 6, and 7) . The populations then declined due to the naturally occurring fungus, Nomuraea rileyi, which produces

epizootics late in the season (Allen et al. 1971) . Populations of small (< 1/2 inch) larvae peaked 1 week earlier than large larvae and consequently dropped 1 week earlier (Figs. 3, 5, and 8).

Their peak was observed 10 days after treatment, on September 19,

1977, and September 14, 15, 1978 (Figs. 3, 5, and 8).

During 1977 (Fig. 2-A,B,C) , single applications of diflubenzuron 0.031 lb AI/A, and dif lubenzuron 0.015 lb AI/A, plus B.t. 0.25

AI/A, carbaryl' 0. 25 plus diflubenzuron 0.015 lb AI/A, carbaryl 0.50 lb AI/A, and dif lubenzuron 0.015 plus VBC NPV 3liE/A suppressed the

26 Figure 2. A, B, C . Fluctuations of large [1/2 inch or longer] Anti-cco'sia gemmatatis Hubner larvae following one application of selected chemical and microbial pesticides at the University of Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla., 1977 Days After Treatment

; i-

.^^^M Untreated check

Days After Treatment 29

Figure 2. Continued 30

HC -d u o o o o o o o Q o o o o o o o o o o o Q u 03 u o rH o o o o o o o o Z ns

o (1) o XI u u u X! o u ns XI ^ o o o o o O in in o o o o o (N O rH rH rH ip MH o rH o o rH O o O CM o .rH -d

c >i Q) XI 0) 73 0) XI 0) rH i C (0 Q Q) -d V4 U -a Tl Ti T3 XI u T3 nJ n3 H CN CO CN CTi in in n m CN o n r~ O rH o rH o o O o CN o O ro

0 in u n3 u o X) X3 XI T3 -d (3 X! o (d r- o r~- vO CO c o CO in CO in (N CN 00 en > II rH rH rH o o O CN rH o CN rl ns x; Ck >t rH in in c ns CM in in • CN rH o o o +J d 0 to + + o ip + -p rH in in 0) + CO o rH o rH in o 1 >1 >1 > > -P Q) o XJ X! u u M a< a, rH (0 2 -p B 0^ 3 3 ns ns (0 z z >. 0) nJ rH rH rH XI XI XI x; U 14H -p MH H U u u u -p +J •H •H (C ns ns m C E-i Q Q U U U > > D populations of large VBC larvae below economic threshold levels,

significantly lower than populations in the untreated check. A

single application of VBC NPV at 3LE/A (Fig. 2C) resulted in sig-

nificant reduction of the large VBC larvae populations 5 days after

treatment, and counts further declined to the end of the sampling period. One application of methyl parathion at 0.50 lb AI/A kept

the large VBC larvae populations significantly lower than that of

the untreated check through the 10th day posttreatment , but caused

resurgence of the pest by the 15th day after treatment. Resurgence was also observed in -plots treated with B.t. at 0.50 AI/A and

carbaryl 0.25 plus B.f. 025 lb AI/A by the 15th day after treatment during which time the general population of VBC peaked before it was suppressed by the naturally occurring fungus Nomuraea rileyi.

Differences among treatments are summarized in Table 2.

Effects on small VBC larvae during the 1977 season were as

shown in Fig. 3-A,B,C'. Comparisons among treatments are shown in

Table 3. During the 1st to 5th day after treatment, all treatments kept the population significantly lower than the untreated check.

the During population peak (10th day posttreatment) , plots treated with dif lubenzuron 0.031 lb AI/A, dif lubenzuron 0.015 plus B.t.

0.25 lb AI/A, dif lubenzuron 0.015 plus carbaryl 0.25 AI/A , and dif lubenzuron 0.015 plus VBC NPV 3LE/A had significantly fewer small VBC larvae than the untreated check. Counts in plots treated with methyl parathion 0.50 lb AI/A B.t. 0.50 lb AI/A, and carbaryl Figure 3. A, B, C. Fluctuations of small [< 1/2 inch] Antiaarsia gemmatalis Hubner larvae following one application of chemical and microbial pesticides at the University of Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla., 1977. 33

Untreated check Methyl parathion .50 Diflubenzuron .03

Days After Treatment

Untreated Check

. I Methyl parathion 50

Carbaryl . 50 200- p Dif lubenzuron . 015 + Carbaryl ,25 0) .Carbaryl .25+B.t, .25 180- o u 160-

140-

> U 120" (0 loo-

(0 g se- o 60- o 2 40" 20-

0- »— t I — 10 15 20 30 Days After Treatment 34

Figure 3. Continued

I 1

O o CN CO O f— vD CN CN CO 0^ CN O a n CN) rH CN r-H CN i-H iH CN 1—1 2

u U Id XI U o o m XI (d XI (d XI (d XI CD r-l en .H CN in in CTl o CN r~ CN r-H CN vD (N U5 CN ro CM rsi n CO CN CN

4-) XI C (d

Vh (U P o U Id X! (d (d (d (d MH CO m in in o CO •H in CTl r~- in rH CO gn ^ ,

to 1 Q(d

Xi (1) U O rd .u V) Tl X! 0) M-l (d CO r~ CO Sf m o o CN o cn CN 00 rH r~- x: (U (d ro (N O H OJ O m u u c •H -M 0 E m 0) Q) o U (1) 0) 1 u CO o n r~- 00 ro in rH 0 o .-1 -p in iD CO r~ CO rH cn rH ro O O T) >1 o •H (1) u CM CN CM o o O CN CN o c c II Id o •rH > Id > le H in in x; rH 0) rH in in Oh e nS (0 • o rH >i H m •H u O o C C M-l w o O Id M-l c 0 « + o 0 0) + + Vh 4-1 03 rH in -1- 0 to tn in in MH c C +J ro O rH o o (U M 0 in in CN CN w in +J (d O o w (U u •rH •H P X! O o o o O o n n o >H 0) nS 0 1 c Oh Di +J •H M-l 0 C XI g W -P O ^1 3 XI C rH u + 3 o 0) in -a" 0 MH 4J rH •H u x: i c H > C •rH MH x: +j (0 u .H •H O 0 13 CQ •rH -p x: 0 G u u Id u x; s D P 3 + + ^ +j C p N N Id -o •H Id c c C rH rH rH ft 1 >1 >. > p G r- X! X! M U Vh Id tn cn 3 3 (d rd Id 2 X) Eh Q CQ Q U U u > > (0 . ,

0.25 plus B.t. 0.25 lb AI/A were highar than that of the untreated

check, although not significantly different from one another.

Populations in all treatments declined beginning 15 days after

treatment

The results of the 1972^ study were presented in Figs. 4,

5, 5, 7, and 8. Figure 4-A,B shows the effects of selected pesti-

cides on large VBC larvae for 5 sample dates. Single applications

of dif lubenzuron at 0.125, permethrin at 0.05, and UC51762 at 0.125

lb AI/A kept the larval populations low throughout the sampling period. Action of dif lubenzuron was observed to be effective from

the 3rd day after treatment onwards, whereas that of permethrin

and UC51762 was immediate.

From the 1st through the 8th day after treatment, numbers

of large VBC larvae on all treatments^ except dif lubenzuron, were significantly lower than the untreated check. Dif luben-

zuron required 2 additional days to reduce populations signifi-

cantly. Populations of VBC larvae increased to levels comparable

to the check on the 15th day after treatment in plots treated with acephate and methomyl, both at 0.125 lb AI/A (Fig. 4-A,B)

On the same date, larval populations in carbaryl-treated, and

fentin hydroxide-treated plots also increased slightly, and still remained significantly lower than the check. Counts in all treatment (except carbaryl, which increased slightly from that of previous

sample date) declined by the 22nd day posttreatment and thereafter •

Figure 4. A, B. Fluctuations of large 11/2 inch or longer] Anticarsia germatalis Hubner larvae following one application of selected chemical pesticides at the University of Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla,, 1978. 38 Untreated check

Days After Treatment

13 8 15 22 28 Days After Treatment .

until the cessation of sampling. Comparisons of the effectiveness , of each treatment are shown in Table 4.

The effects of these treatments on small VBC larvae during

1978 are shown in Fig. 5-A,B. Like those of large larvae, their numbers were generally low in plots sprayed with dif l\ibenzuron, permethrin, and UC51762; and the effects of dif lubenzuron became obvious beginning the 3rd day posttreatment. While the populations in other plots remained significantly lower than the check through the 8th day after treatment, the larval populations in acephate- and methomyl-treated plots increased with the check. Detailed ; comparisons among treatment are shown in Table 5.

The effects of foliar and soil applications of toxaphene at the rate of 3.0 lb AI/A each are shown in Figs. 6, 7, and 8. No significant differences were detected in large larval populations

between soil-treated plots and the check plots , even though populations in the soil-treated plots tended to be lower than the checks on August 24, 31, and September 7, 1978 (Fig. 6). Significant differences were detected between the large larval populations in

foliar-treated plots and the check plots (Fig. 7) . The foliar, treatment kept the populations :of large larvae lower than the check throughout the sampling period. Although the populations of small larvae in the foliar-treated plots were observed to be lower than in the check plots, no significant differences were detected

(Fig. 8) 40

c •rl -0 U o (N n CN O o 00 O o (N CN CN o rH Q o (N o O o O o o O o o Z (0

CO 0 U c in t-^ u O T3 U 0) 0 XI o (4 o 10 u <*H « Xi (N o (N o CTl in in 00 MH -P ID in CO m w O •H e O o CN CM o rs) o rH 0 r-i o +j fa +J 0 c to H 14-1 (d U 0 o (0 rl 1 C u o XI (d u nj u ip 0) >- CTl ro CTl ro o +J I-H rl ^ O ro lO [ o (0 •H c x: (0 m O O (N n O ro o ro tn w 0) rl (1) V4 W > Eh 'u H P Q) C 0 P 0) c C +J XI XI XI XI X! XI XI (d 0 iH 0) O o CN in O CN cn in (U H ft J3 < 00 o (N o in o in rd (0 o o O o o o o ro Q(d 3 rH in X! JH X3 u ,o o u nJ O o CTl IT) O CTl o o CO U 1^ 00 in o CN o o c ro o o o O o II > (d x:

>1 rH (d X3 n) u u u u -a (0 (d rH ID ID iXl ca o CT^ VD CO n

iH (U cn 4J C in in in in -p Id O (N in CN CN in Q) u o rH CN i-H rH rH o rH (0 Q) 3 •rl O x: e X, c 0) +j o o x; in u sh u x: t3 3 c 4-1 c -P >i N •H T) H (d c x: C rH 1 x: P C c XI u (0 e (d M 3 •H 3 (0 x: o Q) C Q +J rH XI rH e iH (d

> Figure 5. A,B. Fluctuations of small [< 1/2 inch] Antioarsia gemnatalis Hubner larvae following one application of selected chemical pesticides at the University of Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla., 1978. 42

Days After Treatment 43

tn c o (N rH CN CN -rl 00 rH in n rH o CN o Q >1 >> Q Q Q o rH o o O 2 o n) o U o rH (d rH Q Q •P rH o O XI o U c; Q) tl u XI (0 XI (d XI XI tu 00 00 tn cn CTi VD CN n n U 0 UH CO ,H o cn in o Q> 0 IH m •p o CNJ o rH rH o MH Q) >1 -H to 6 +J •H £ tn P 0 4J rH > 43 XI Id td XI (0 XI Id C u •H n tn tn in in CN CTi td C CN in ro rH CN •q* r- in O OJ P -H m rH rH CN n rH CN o CN i -P U XI rO 0) u U +J XI X! XI u (d (d -a tn 00 CO o tn CO O Q) dj < 00 CM 00 CO rH rH C rH -0 •H tn IN H rH M rH rH n 0) u >, Vh t rH (0 Id tn P Q o tn c 0) •H C a, (0 u u u u u o td CN (U rH CO!9 o o CN rH in X5 in CN o in o rH rH CTi 0 o >i U 0 o o o o o o (N o tn c

tu II >i > -P H Id •-H OJ cn X! •rH 73 ft e M 1 rH tn (0 -P XI (d u XI u o u d Id > U rH o r~ cn cn o Id MH Q) 00 tn in in o o o 0 Cn tH o -p O d o o o o o 0 tn tn ns in rH MH tu u U +j 0) CQ m 0 tu ItH tu cn 0 tn rH in in in in -p C c C t( o CN in CN CN) CN in •p Id P 0 o rH CN iH rH rH o tu u tu •H rH ® 4-1 >1 rH o o O O O o tu o Hh nJ u 43 tu rH r-l 1 u c e a •rH •H td -H m 0 rH P tn -p 0 Cx Q) rH T) tu 3 tn 10 •H u X e c (J X c tu +j (« o 0 x^ tn OJ c « u V4 o x: s ft •H 3 c •p c -p N H tJ •H Id c x; C rH tu rH tu o tu CO tu >1 +J CN x: p c r~- c XI (d E +j (d CO 3 in ^ CTi •H 3 (d x: o tu (U c Q (d rH 4J rH XI ft rH x: (d 0) C <4H u tu in p p tu 0 rH u 0) •H (d u U tu tu c s: 4-1 Cn Q u < D X p m Figure 6. Fluctuations of large [1/2 inch or longer] Anticarsia gemmatatis Hubner larvae following one soil application of toxaphene at 3.0 lb AI/A at the University of Florida AREC, Ouincy, Fla., 1978.

Figure 7. Fluctuations of large [1/2 inch or longer] Anticarsia gemmatatis Hubner larvae following one foliar applica-- tion of toxaphene at 3.0 lb AI/A at the University of Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla., 1978. 45

55 J

1 ' I I I I I r 18 24 31 7 14 21 28 5 Aug. Sept. Oct. 46

Aug. Sept. Oct.

Figure 8. Fluctuations of small [< 1.2 inchj Anticarsia germatalis Hubner lar-vae following one foliar application of toxaphene at 3.0 lb AI/A at the University of Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla., 1978. < Effects of the Treatments on Predatory Species

Initially, during the 1977 season, 2 sampling methods, the

standard shake-cloth and D-Vac were used to sample the predatory

species populations. The D-Vac method was abandoned and only the

shake-cloth used during the 1978 season, primarily because the

shake-cloth was more convenient. It was also cheaper, faster,

and the standard method for sampling soybean arthropods. Shepard

et al. (1974a) and Turn ipseed (1974) indicated that the shake-cloth

method was more efficient compared to D-Vac method and Gonzalez

et al. (1977) reported that D-Vac method could be erratic. Compar-

ing these 2 methods, however, is beyond the scope of this study.

* Effects on Nabids . .

The populations of nabids on soybean during the 1977 grow-

ing season peaked 15 days after treatment (Figs. 9, 10). In shake-

cloth sampling, the nabid populations in plots treated with methyl

parathion were consistently lower than that of the untreated check

(Fig. 9-A,B,C) . However, significant differences occurred only

1 and 15 days after treatment (Table 6) . Populations of nabids in methyl parathion-treated plots were generally lower than in other

treated plots (Fig. 9-A,B,CT. One day after treatment, nabid

numbers in methyl parathion-treated plots were significantly lower

than in the other plots, and 5 days later, the nabid counts in methyl parathion plots were significantly lower than all except

the virus and virus plus diflubenzuron plots. No significant differences in nabid numbers were observed between methyl parathion

and other plots 10 days after treatment. Fifteen days after Figure 9, A, B, C. Effects of selected pesticides on nabids in soybean at the University of Florida AREC,

Quincyv Fla. , 1977, Samples collected by shake- cloth method. 49

1- 1 -I 1 1

3. 5 10 15 20 30 Days After Treatment

5.1-

4.&

(D V 3.64 o 3.1H

^ 2.6H

(0 2.1- c

1.1- 2o 0.6_- .015 + Carbaryl .25 o.r Carbaryl .25+B.t. .25 I .10= 15 20 30 Davs After Treatment 50

Days of Treatment

Figure 9. Continued. »

CD in CO cn CM 00 CO tn o 'a- vD cn CO cn Q n o O O o o o o o o o 2

-H CN 00 00 IT) in ro VD in in in

T) -p C c n AH AH AH AH nj (U rd (0 (0 (d fd XI fd XI fd i e n rn cn in r~ o Q) 00 n in vD in ro rH in rH XI (0 ^: >. o r- Q) ^ ,-H O H U M H rH >i x: )H n 4J o tu A^» 0) • -P rrl AH .rd lO UJ lU Id fd fd

•H -0 (0 ^ [ lO ro (U i-H in in n CN CN in o o < , 4J fa

, > U tn Q i~H 1 1 1 0) >i rH r-l >. ttJ r 1 as U Q \J Tl •H cn c _Q (J "0 C m (d (d fd fd fd Ti XI u C IW CO 00 ro 00 o ro VD cn CN 0) O Of rH •H ^3 o CO 00 rH o CO rH in cn tH •H H ro rH cn ro ID rH o ro 1— o >i • O CN •H fd U +J o o 0) r-l •rH O o • ft ft o tn -f o rH -1- -1- fd >4-l u c tn rH in fd Q) + > P ro O rH o in in o •H TJ •rH o in o in CN CN W in u •P XI C o tn (0 o o o o o O ro ro o MH tu C p CJ >H (U o •P c 0) tn x: 0 C •P c: -P u 0 •P fd O (0 3 0) u O • N rH o to p C 0) I 0) i Q) U -0 rd u J-l XI ft 3 3 -1- + u tn -P N N + to •d x: C C C rH rH rH ft (U -p c 0) 0) 0) >1 >1 > > •p •H fd XI XI >H u rH fd u 3 3 m (t) as 2 2 >l (U G rH rH X! XI XI x; tn 3 0) m •p IM u ^ U o -p -p c Q I-l •H •rl (0 to CQ c fd Q CD Q u u u > D 0) O > s P . ,. .

treatment nabid numbers in methyl parathion plots were significantly lower than the diflubenzuron and untreated check plots (Table 6)

The populations of nabids in VBC NPV plots were generally lower compared to diflubenzuron and carbaryl plots (Fig. 9-A,B,C)

Nabid numbers in VBC NPV plots were significantly lower than in diflubenzuron plots 5 and 15 days after treatment. No significant difference occurred between nabid populations in dif lubenzuron and carbaryl plots on any date.

Nabid populations in plots treated with VBC NPV alone were consistently but not significantly lower than in VBC NPV plus dif lubenzuron plots. Compared to methyl parathion, the virus plots had greater nimbers of nabids (except on day 30) and significantly

more on day 1 posttreatment (Table 6) ,

No significant differences were detected between the impact of carbaryl, carbaryl plus dif lubenzuron, and carbaryl plus B.t., although covints from carbaryl plus B.t. plots were generally lower than those jof carbaryl and carbaryl plus diflubenzuron CTable 6,

Fig. 9B)

Similar results were obtained using the D-Vac method (Fig

10-A,B,C) . Statistical analysis (Table 7) showed no significant differences between the impact of dif lubenzuron, carbaryl, and virus VBC NPV, although population counts seemed to lower in VBC

NPV plots. Significantly lower numbers of nabids occurred on day 5 posttreatment in VBC NPV plots than in B.t. plots. No significant differences in nabid numbers were observed between plots treated Figure 10. A, B, C. Effects of selected pesticides on nabids in soybean at the University of Florida AREC,

Quincy, Fla. , 1977. Samples collected by D-vac method. —

8.0- 'Untreated check Methyl, parathion .50

7.2- -~Dif lubenzuron ; 03

„ B.t. . 50

w 4.0

•H 3.2 (0 c

O 2.4

o 1.6

0.8

0 —1 I 10 15 20 30 Days After Treatment

Untreated check

Methyl parathion . 50

Carbaryl . 50

8.0" Dif Ixibenzuron . 015 + carbaryl .25 .Carbaryl .25+B.t. .25 7.2

4J 6.4'

o u 4.8 in 4.0

-O •rl 3.2

to c 2.4 t-l o 1.6 o 0.8

0 I I 10 15 20 30 Days After Treatment Davs After treatment

Figure 10. Continued. i I {

13 Q) Ul rH Q> rH .-1 CP T) (N a in rH in CO Q c o rl § U o O o o o o o o rH o z -a -p o - W u C (U u (d rj CN o CN XI rH in 4-) rH o (J\ rH p >i (0 o CO c -H (M 0 rH rH (U tn rH rH rH rH O H o XI Sh o (U >i u »»H +j u C <4H 01 -H Q) rl ^ X) XI XI ffl (fl X5 (fl t (0 (fl (fl (fl (fl in CP o in vD ,— in UO (fl o^ f vD > c 0) rH CTi m u iH rH rH rH rH iH rH Eh i-H rH rH rH c (0 Sh u C u (1) H 4-) C -H I4H (1) e MH , •H • ID ro ro LO 1 4-1 0) (fl ID i CO U 14H 0) H (fl 4-» O +) Q O o ^ u XI XI C +> 0) • XI X! XI U XI rrt fd (fl (fl fO fO o \J fl) rH (fl (fl ro 00 CD CO CN CN] 0^ o fij OJ rH lO CN i_| M (0 CTi n rH 00 ti (fl

rH 1— 1— O > "4H O rH o O O u w c f~\ (J in c •H XI X! Xi rH lO/H 'S' o 3 XI (fl (0 (fl 0 in •rl ro o rH CX ro in U o U -P Q o Q) (fl c o rH o rH o O o o o o 04 U U (1) •H W > II 0) rH •H CP (0 •H in CN in x: XI (fl (fl in in >i (fl c rH c CP -H O o H C ^ o (fl (fl o o • m •H O + o o S H + + 0 +J O rH in + Q) if) LO <»H m U) rH n o rH o o 4J in in CN in cu U o o w +J (fl ha 0 o S4 iw a o o o o O n o XJ o Q) cu >1 +J CP p 4J rl (d M § c 0) 0 o rH (ux; u cu 4-1 0) u CP 0- cu rH O 0) > H g •H eh tS •H (U cn +4 I4H U p « XI XI c rH O (fl 3 -1- o 3 0) rH 3 o M ItH +j rH -H U x: 6 x; 4-1 -p C •rl UH x: 0) C tn o 0 m* •H 4-1 x: (C x: >| 4-1 Sh -a u Sh 4-1 c X! (fl 3 3 + + (0 •H (fl 4-1 N N + Ti C C C rH rH rH CD CJ 4-1 0) r-. cu 0) >1 >, > > XI XI Sh Sh rH (fl (fl § Q) c Q 3 3 (fl (0 (fl z 2 x: Sh (fl (fl rH rH rH XI XI XI +J 0) 0) l(H 4J IH VI Sh u u u O 0) 4J H -rl •rl (fl (fl (fl ffl ffl C S (fl E-i Q ffl Q U CJ u > > P •3 EH .

Significantly with diflubenzuron, B.t., and dif lubenzuron plus B.t. than in VBC lower numbers of nabids were observed in VBC NPV plots significant NPV plus diflubenzuron plots 5 days after treatment. No carbaryl differences were detected between the effects of carbaryl and

plus B.t. on nabids.

Effects of acephate, carbaryl, diflubenzuron, fentin

hydroxide, methomyl, permethrin, and UC51762 on nabids during the

1978 season are shown in Fig. 11-A,B. The smallest number of nabids

was observed in acephate plots except on days 15 and 22 where the

nabid numbers in the check plots were the lowest. On days 1 and 3

after treatment, nabid counts in acephate plots were significantly

lower than in other treated plots, but not significantly different

permethrin also reduced from one another (Table 8) . Methomyl and

nabid populations significantly from the check on day 3 posttreat-

No significant differences were observed among any treatments f ment.

after the 3rd day of treatment. However, the populations of check

plots on day 15 posttreatment were found to be significantly lower

than in carbaryl and permethrin plots (Table 8)

Effects of toxaphene on nabids are shown in Fig. 12. Num-

bers of nabids collected approximately 5 hours (September 7, 1978),

and 1 week (September 14, 1978) following treatment were observed to

be lower in the foliar-treated plots than in the check plots, but

their numbers in the treated plots exceeded that of the check dur-

ing the last 3 weeks (September 21, 28, and October 5, 1978) of Figure 11. A, B. Effects of selected pesticides on nabids in soybean at the University of Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla., 1978. Samples collected by shake cloth-method. —

'Untreated check 8.4 hydroxide 1.0 m nit*i«MHii.Fentin lubenzuron .125 7.9 , ^^Dif .Carbaryl .125 7.4 .Acephate .125 6.9 6.4 5.9 5.4H 4.9 (U Q) 4.4 1 3.9 o 3.4 2.9 in -O 2.4 •H 1.9 c 1.4

14-1 o 0.9 o 0.4 —I 8 15 • 22 28 Days After Treatment

Untreated check UC51762 .125 Methomyl .125

Permethrin . 05

Days After Treatment \

CN CO in in in CD IT) r~ rH Q CN O O o o o o o o 2

ro CN CN CO CN (Tl CN CO 00 Q (N CO H O rH rH rH o 2

£! X! X! XI XI P UJn1 tri to to lUUrrt C v,D I n

-p iH H rH rH r-i .H iH rH fC 0)

Eh U 0) 1— CN CO rH in CO ro CO rH cn CO in CO in CN Q CN iH H -H rH rH (N Z 10 QnJ

ab 3 ID fo u X! X! fo rH in CM lO o cn CN 0 o r~- VD CM rH .H VO O d .M rH o rH H rH H C

II > •H 1 rH (d (tl (0 XI a rS nJ nJ (d ro m CN vD in an n o VO

Q) Di in in in in •P C 0) \ O CN in CN in +J rd -P H o i-l CM rH rH rH o (U u rH a o o o O O o Q) i N -H •a 4-1 c c x: C rH 0) rH Vh (U •w (0 1 +) CM x: +j CJ C! XI (d -p (d c •H 3 (0 x; O (U tn 3 (0 .-I p XI ft rH x; c Q 0) c u 0) in -p 1 +j (d >H a; •H (d u u c 0) 0 E-i fa Q u D s ft D s 4J 61

6.o^ Foliar treatment Check 5.4"

4.8. QJ 0) 4.2. I o u 3.6- \ 01 3.0. HTl ja 2.4- c

o 1.8-

o 2 1.2- 0.6-

0.0-

I I— I I — '•18 24 31 7 14 21 28 Aug. Sept. Oct.

Figure 12. Effects of one foliar application of toxaphene at 3.0 lb AT/A on nabids in soybean at the University

of Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla. , 1978. Samples collected by shake -cloth method. sampling. This contributed to significantly higher nabid populations in treated plots than in the check plots. The probable reasons are that toxaphene had little or no effect on nabids 2 weeks after treatment and that the greater amount of foliage {less defoliation) in the treated plots provided nabids with a better shelter. Ridgway and Jones (1968) indicated that nabids feed on plants also.

Effects on Geocorids

The populations of geocorids on soybean during the 1977 growing season are shown in Figs. 13 and 14. In shake-cloth samp-

ling (Fig. 13-A,B,C) , the geocorid populations in methyl parathion plots were significantly lower than in the other treatments and the untreated check on days 1, 5, 10, and 20 after treatment and significantly lower than all treated plots except carbaryl plus B.t. on

day 15 (Table 9) . Other significant differences were observed on day 5 posttreatment when the nim±)ers of geocorids in carbaryl plots were significantly lower than in the carbaryl plus dif lubebzuron plots. The numbers of nabids in the carbaryl plus B.t. plots were significantly lower than in diflubenzuron plus B.t. on day 10 and

20 after treatment, and were significantly lower than in VBC NPV plus dif lubenzuron plots on day 15 after treatment. There were

no significant differences among the other treatments and the ; untreated check as to their effects on geocorid numbers.

Geocorid populations sampled by D-Vac method are shown in

Fig. 14-A,B,C. Analysis indicated no significant differences Figure 13. A, B, C. Effects of selected pesticides on geocorids in soybean at the University of Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla., 1977. Samples collected by shake-cloth method. 64

Days After Treatment 65 c 5.0-

4.5- p

Days After Treatment

Figure 13. Continued T3 CO o CN n O t-~ 00 0) I O o O o O tN (N O CTv Q CO rH rH O rH rH rH rH rH rH o

X5 XI XJ XI XI X5 (fl (fl to (0 (fl X! (fl to u (fl (0 -H O n o in fN H in rH O rH (N "a- in XI o >i u rH rH rH rH rH H rH rH o rH o u

o o u o XI u XI XI TJ XI XI •P (tj XI (0 (0 U fd C r-H in d O 00 r- QJ in n 00 (N tN CO CM > (fl rH u +J rH o rH rH rH O rH rH o rH -H -H (d Q) M Eh C u r~- XI XI X! XI XI XI XI o 0) (fl (0 fO to to X3 (0 to u (0 rl +J cr^ Q) (N 'J' CN O rH o o MH C Q) •P (N rH CN) tn H rH o •H +J iw o C U U - rH H rH rH rH o rH rH O rH (U • H (0 in >i nS a XI X! X5 X! XI X> XI to (fl (fl X! tfl (0 (fl (fl U 0 in VD in CO rH u ro O in H CN rH CN rH t w c s c •H rH rH H o rH rH rH rH O i-H o o 3 U -H CX 4J

'J- ifl ^

0 U (0 (0 (0 (fl (0 (0 (fl (fl X! (fl o en rH rH CN O 'J- o o 00 n 00 CTi rH O CN) ft a «< ft o rH rH O H O O rH O rH 10 nj (0

01 -H C V4 in O CN) in in U CN) rH O 0 o o 0) rH M-l + o O O < <4-( m n in + o >i rH o rH o in in O 4-1 O in o in CN) CN) in m Ti H (fl M o W 05 o O o ro U 0) > 3 e •H a C o C P o 0) +J u tjv 0 0) • N 3 O r-l c N rH U 0) C PQ 0) nh(•lij X! C O A< (C + X 3 O i. 4-1 rH •H u to x; w c •rt «4H x: (U to (u o g -a •H X! u V) (0 u + + -P N (0 C c C rH rH rH ft (U 0) 0) Q) >1 >1 > > 4J XI XI M >H (0 B 3 (0 (fl (fl 2 >1 fl> (fl rH rH XI X5 x: )H -p" a; Q) IP MH U !h O U 4J 4J H •rl (fl (0 (fl C X! Q m Q u U > > s D to Eh Figure 14. A, B, C. Effects of selected pesticides on geocorids in soybean at the University of Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla,, 1977. Samples collected by D-Vac method.

6.0 ^-^^ ^ 5.4 Untreated check m ^^H^ethyl oarathion . 5

-0 'u 3.0i o o g 2.41

1.81

o 1.2 • z • • 0.6 H

I I 10 IS 20. 3Q Days After Treatment

Figure 14. Continued 70 a 4J 0) H 00 '3' rH w o m 00 n o CO ro in 0) in CO in 00 Q O Xi f-i rH rH P •H rH rH rH rH rH rH rH 2 o cn c •H c (0 +J •r( 0) tfl •a £t 0) u >i 0( r- in rH CN rH in in CM in ro o 0 O o 00 CN CO CTl Q o w H \, o rS >-H o o o o o rH o o O 2 (0 >-, -rH +J X) p 0) 0 c H }^ (U V( u 4J •iH c 0) > g Q) m 00 tN CN CN o in r- rH CN >w cn o CO CN in ro ro Q HH iH CO H c (0 i-H o rH o o rH o o o rH 2 •rH (0 i (1) o u H c o u in in •rl ns CM in in 0 rH cn II 01 < o CM rH Cn en d o >! rd c o o c x; i (3 -P 0) (D x: +J 0 dj cn •rH U rH C 0 Q) M 3 s (d rH S H C N >W o g > 0) c Id Q) -r^ O XI 0) to rH > C 3 XI C in 1 D c + 3 0 Q) -H Q 4H +j rH •H u x: -p m 0) c c •H 4H X! -p 0) o o T3 -H P x; -P 3 s X! u Vt u x: g 3 3 + + ra. p N N + (0 C C rH rH rH 0) (U 0) >1 > > +J C r~- XI XI u iH rH nJ w (d D 3 (C (« 2 >1 > Figaire 15. A, B. Effects of selected pesticides on geocorids in soybean at the University of Florida AREC, Quincy,

Fla. , 1978. Samples collected by shake- cloth method. 72

Days After Treatment i

•0 (U p 1— nj ro cn in CO rH rH cn CO H rH o Q [fl CN w 0) iH .H o o o rH rH z 10 a •H u § •H 4) 4J XI 10 >i 0) 0 rH n 00 cn (n rH CO in CN in o O o CM D H tN CO >1 to CM rH •H H H iH rH rH rH 2 +J U 0) H e M (U > 0 0>>0 c 00 CN in CO rH r- 0^ 0) o ro o o O m Q nJ +J o 4J rH rH O rH rH r-i rH rH rH 0) m (1) 14-1 .-H u o • w 00 +j Q) 0) O O o in m cn «Woo rH rH O rH cn cn o Q 1 m ? c • rH rH rH o rH o o rH 0 0 2 •rH rH >1 -P lO u Q U •H 0) H u a a c a -H rH O o n o w in cn 00 o Q -o iH H •H CP o o o o rH o »^ c 0 •H u u w 0 0 0) iH tjl rH O rH rH r~ cn rH cn CN IW Tl ID in in in CO O 0 •H Q o o o O o o o rH NS -d 0 0 rH 0) x; Cm XI +j E 0) 3 E 0 c in in in x; 0) o in in CM CN in 0) -P -p -p o rH rH rH o 01 0 -H 0 to H rH o O o o o H u 1 0 •H C Q) Ifl x; O M c •H O (d (U X c >i x: O o \§ s XI 4J U o T3 c -p >, N •H 'D c X C H Q) rH 0) 0) 00 (U >i 4J (N x; P c XI u fd e +j (d

4.8" Foliar treatment Check 4.4- 4J O Q 4.0- M-l

I 3.6" o

3.2-

•H 2.8 o o 2.4- o 0) 2.0- o 1.6-

1.2-

0.8-

0.4 I I I r — r- —r— 18 24 31 14 21 28 5 Aug. Sept. Oct.

Figure 16. Effects of one application of toxaphene at 3.0 lb AI/A on geocorids in soybean at the University

of Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla. , 1978. Samples collected by shake- cloth method. .

between any treatments; however, populations in methyl parathion plots appeared to be lower than in the untreated check and other treated plots. This was probably due to the lower number captured by the D-Vac method as compared to the shake-cloth method for respective sample units. This is in agreement with Shepard et al. (1974a) who reported that the shake-cloth method produced higher means for most predator species than the D-Vac method. The population means

for geocorids sampled by the D-Vac method are shown in Table 10.

Results of the 1978 study on the effects of selected pesti-

cides on geocorids are shown in Fig. 15-A,B. There were no signifi-

cant differences between the numbers of geocorids recovered from

treated plots and from the untreated check, even though more geo-

corids occurred in the check plots than in the treated plots. For

all days combined numbers of geocorids in acephate plots were lower

than in other treated and check plots (Table 11)

Effects of toxaphene on geocorids are shown in Fig. 16.

Toxaphene applied to soybean foliage at 3.0 lb AI/A significantly

reduced geocorids. Geocorid numbers in treated plots declined fol-

lowing treatment and remained lower than the check until the last

sample date, October 5, 1978, when they were as high as the check

(Fig. 16). Toxaphene applied to the soil at 3.0 lb AI/A had no

significant effect on geocorid numbers. , .

Effects on Spiders

The populations of spiders on soybean during the 1977 grow-

ing season are shown in Figs. 17 and 18. In shake-cloth sampling,

significant differences between treatments occurred only on days

10 and 30 after treatments (Table 12). On day 10, counts from

plots treated with VBG NPV, carbaryl plus B.t. , and carbaryl plus diflubenzuron were significantly lower than those of diflubenzuron

B.t., and VBC NPV plus diflubenzuron plots. On day 30, the numbers of spiders in methyl parathion plots were significantly lower than

in plots treated with VBC NPV plus diflubenzuron , carbaryl, and diflubenzuron plus B.t.

In D-Vac sampling significant differences among treatments occurred only on day 5 after treatments (Table 13)_, when counts from

VBC NPV plots were significantly lower than those of the checks and other treated plots.

Fluctuations of spider populations due to the effects of , selected pesticides during the 1978 study are shown in Fig. 19-A,B.

Significant differences among treatments were observed only on day

8 after treatment. On this date, the populations of spiders in permethrin plots were significantly lower than in the check, fentin hydroxide, dif lubenzuron, carbaryl, and methomyl plots. Numbers in acephate plots were significantly lower than in the check and fentin hydroxide plots. Spider numbers in plots treated with UC51762 and methomyl were significantly lower than in the check plots (Table 14)

In general, the counts in acephate plots were the lowest, followed by permethrin. Figure 17. A, B, C. Effects of selected pesticides on spiders on soybean at the University of Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla., 1977. Samples collected by shake-cloth method.

v." 79

3.9- .Untreated check

Methyl parathion . 50 3.5- 4J .Virus 3LE O •Virus 3LE + diflubenzuron .015 a 3.1" >4-l

I o 2.8'

2.4' \ u 2.0 0) -0 •H 0 1.6 to

M-l o 1.3

o 0.9' 2 0.5' O.H 10 Ti 30 Days After Treatment

Figure 17. Continued 80

rH U) c^ Q) u u o XI XI X) X! u U XI ItJ ns (t) ,it3 XI XI (tJ nj O U o o rH ro n n VD VD f—^ in CT» •H • c rH rH rH rH O o rH rH O O (0 o u £1 u >i -H o g cn o Oil O o rH CTl rH -a* O m n (N CTl CM m b -a to >i c rH rH rH rH rH O rH rH rH rH Z

0) •H d )^ OJ E cn o CO 00 r~- vD 00 > +J 1 rH o 'J' (y\ rH VD rH Q

(d I tn (U o O rH o rH o o rH O rH 2 (0 -w u Eh c T) T3 (tJ c Sh u U o -O tj (U 0) H (U X3 XI XI XI o •o •H P m X) as XI u IP c u - Mh vO rH o CO CN r~ -H (U Q) . n rH vD r-- CM in r-j o VD in d u < (U rH [fl t rH rH o o o o o rH O o •H to >i to o (0 Q -P +J O o O VD CTv tn in CO r~ in VD oo r-- d 0) c cn n o o 00 VD CO Q in c •H to <1) 0 o o o O rH rH o O o o Z u -H Ot (0 o P (0 - d"" u u w r~ o CN CO o in a\ rH in CO LD CTl 00 03 o r-- O Q rH w a < tn o 0) ft o o o o O H o o O o Z tJ ft (fl It! in rs d o to (71 -H U C S-l in in > 0) CN rH in in •H

T) S rH o cn II •H O h o o • ft o O ttJ to rH + o d x: O o + + (0 a UH MH IT) rH Q) H + O >, ro o rH o in in O nS -p O LO o in OJ W w in o to -d •H iJ MH n o to O o O o o o n O +J tu ^ U > -H d § c (U -P o Cn O i -H VI iH •d p o S XI u 3 3 + + n3 -p N tsl + U T! d d d rH rH rH l > > ft +J X! XI u !h Jh CM rH rfl (N 3 itJ m z 2 0) It) rH rH XI X! XI Vh MH +j 14H U u U 4J u •rl •rl >

Id Figure 18. A, B, C. Effects of selected pesticides on spiders in soybean at the University of Florida

AREC, Quincy, Fla. , 1977. Samples collected by D-Vac method.

5.5 Untreated check 5.0" Methyl parathion . 50 4.5- Virus 3LE Virus 3LE + diflubenzuron .015 -P . Qj 4.0 o /^\ / N ^ 3.51 o u ^ 3.01

0) 2.5"

:2 2.01 ft w 1-51 . M-r O 1.0- o z 0.5- -1— —, , h- 1 10 15 20 30 Days After Treatment

•Figure 18. Continued J

in 'a* CO in 00 o 1^ CO CN in Q rH H rH rH rH rH rH rH rH rH Z H rO •H c XI td 0 (U >-i rH i •H CO O E rH rH rH rH O O rH rH o rH Z to •d >1 c 4-1 +J (U +1 CU -iH rH c • 3' in CN o 0) (0 u (0 rH ro ro rH 00 CO 00 rH rH >w > -H as MH r~ nS rH rH rH rH rH rH •rl ^, H o o o 2 rH 1 C rH C "d • •P 0) 0) Q) C -P +J iH 4J CN rH o in ro 00 o Id C o Pm iw CO "a* o O o m as 0) 0) < -H •rl u H rH o o o O O o o o O 2 i W •H 10 u >i c 0 c nj tn MH •H Q •H •p 0 m H O 00 CO r-- rH rH o rH in Cn rH ro r~ r~ CTl Q O o c fa w o o o o o o o o O o o o c

Q) II > in in •H Id CM rH in in cn x: • o CN rH o o >1 rH MH » u o o c Id 0 + o Id 1-1 0 > + + •H H in + u -p (1) u P C +J ro o rH o in in o o to i (0 U CU X! • N 3 CU rH <4H -o C N a 0 T! •rl • 0) c •H 0) u GQ CU to +J W rH •H lib XI rH c + rH r: CU 3 w -p 3 o o x; E Q) (3 Q) c C H MH •H 0) 4J s m o O -d H x: x; w in u -P o X! P + + cd -P c -P N N Sh -o •H Id c C C rH H rH Id u 0) Q) CU >1 >1 > Q^ p c E XI x> U U U Id cn +J rH 3 3 Id (d (d 2 0) C Q (d rH rH XI XJ X! u (d 0) l*H +j MH )H U U t +j CD o •H H (d (d (d CQ CQ 0) c S Eh Q m Q U u u > > S D Id Figure 19. A, B. Effects of selected pesticides on spiders in soybean at the University of Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla., 1978. Samples collected by shake-cloth method. 1

Untreated check Fentin hydroxide 1.0 — ^^DifJtdaenzuron .125

. Carbaryl . 25 — — Acephate .125

15 22 28 Days After Treatment

'"''Untreated check - — -iUC51762 .125 Methomyl .125 ••Permethrin .05

I I -I 1 r- — 1 3 8 15 22 28 Days After Treatment 87

rH LD CO rH rH 00 rH rH o Q CP CN < w c rH rH o o. o rH rH rH •H TJ O O o (0

00 00 (Ti n in in o +J CN rH rH n n Q c CO o rH rH rH rH rH rH rH Z 0) >tH

in rH in rH CO P in (N in rH CO n ro tN Q C rH to H rH rH o rH rH rH H 2 g

i P(0

VD ro in o 00 in in rH rH o in rH p rH 0 in rH rH rH rH rH H rH 2 O o c o H> II nS x: 00 00 iD ro in ID CO >i a in rH CO rH CN rH C rH rH rH CN P (tJ rH rH H rH o rH rH rH ^ 0 +J m CO P0) w 0) Q) \ in in in in -p cr> in tN (N in +j C -P H o < o rH (N rH H rH o (U m rH vh XI rH O O O o o o rH (U H0)

Ul •H 0) 4-> T) M 0) rH •H o x; X c 0) +j e O O U U u x; T) C 4J c +J >i N •H r| H 0) 3^ u > -P (N >, x: +J g c XI u (0 g to m § p cn 13 (C x; 0 0) Q) C p (0 rH -p rH XI rH x: U (d Q) c <4H iH in -p -P Q) o >H •H (0 o u 0) 0) C Eh Q u <: O s i:x4 88

Fluctuations of spider populations due to the effects of toxaphene during the 1978 season are shown in Figs. 20, 21, and 22.

A single application of toxaphene at 3.0 lb AI/A to soybean foliage significantly reduced the niimbers of spiders sampled using the shake-cloth (Fig. 20). A single application of toxaphene at 3.0 lb

AI/A to the soil had no significant effects on the foliage inhabiting

spiders when sampled using the shake-cloth, but significantly reduced

the numbers of spiders collected in pitfall traps (Fig. 20). Num-

bers of spiders caught in the pitfall traps were also signf iciantly

reduced, mostly during the 1st and 2nd week after treatment, by

the foliar applicaiton of toxaphene (Fig. 22).

Effects on Other Predators

The effects of toxaphene on other predators associated with

soybean were also evaluated. These included the ground beetles

Calosoma spp. and Harpalus spp. , and the earwigs Ldbidura spp.

Toxaphene applied to the soil at 3.0 lb AI/A had no signi-

ficant effects on the populations of Calosoma spp. adults (Fig. 23)

Harpalus spp. adults (Fig. 25), and Labidura spp. adults and nymphs

(Figs. 26, 27) compared to the checks. Counts from pitfall traps

indicated that higher catches of Calosoma spp. (Fig. 23) , Harpalus

spp. (Fig. 25) and Ldbidura spp. nymphs (Fig. 27) occurred in soil

treated plots than in the check plots. This may indicate the

increase in activity of these predators in the treated plots.

Coaker (1966) , Dempster (1968) , and Critchley (1972) all agreed

that the activity of carabid beetles was greatly increased by —

3.3 Foliar treatment

3.0 , Check 4J (U (U 2.7.

0 2.4.

\ 2.1. 03 U d) •a 1.8 •H

ui 1.5 o 1.2 o 2 0.9

I —I T 18 24 31 14 21 28 5 Aua. Sept. Oct.

Figure 20. Effects of one foliar application of toxaphene at 3.0 lb AI/A on foliage inhabiting spiders in soybean at the University of Florida AREC,

Ouincy, Fla. , 1978. Samples collected by shake- cloth method. Figure 21. Effects of one soil application of toxaphene at 3.0 lb AI/A on ground-dwelling spiders in soybean at the University of Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla., 1978. Samples collected by pitfall traps.

Figure 22. Effects of one foliar application of toxaphene at 3.0 lb AI/A on ground-dwelling spiders in soybean at the University of Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla., 1978. Samples collected by pitfall traps.

Figure 23. Effects of one soil application of toxaphene at 3.0 lb AI/A on Cdlosoma spp. in soybean at the University of Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla., 1978. Samples collected by pitfall traps.

Figvire 24. Effects of one foliar application of toxaphene at 3.0 lb AI/A on Calosoma spp. in soybean at the University of Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla., 1978. Samples collected by pitfall traps. r

2.8'

2.5 Soil treatment 2.3- Check

^ 2.0i u

•a (0

I § l.O' ^ 0.&

o 0.5'

§ 0.2

I I I 31 14 21 28 12 20 Aug. Sept. Oct.

Foliar treatment

^ .Check 2.31

a 2.0 U \-P 1.8 (n P 1.51 3 Tl nJ 1.3

I 1.0 to o 0.'8

4-1 o 0. 5 0.31 2o 0,0 I I I — 31 14 21 28 5 12 20 Aug Sept, Oct. a ,

4.8

_ Soil treatment 4 A •--Check

(c 4.

<4-l • ; O 3.2

2.8.

31 14 21 28 Aug Sep,

Figure 25. Effects of one soil application of toxaphene at 3.0 lb AI/A on Havpalus spp. in soybean at the University of Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla., 1978 Samples collected by pitfall traps. ,

Figure 26. Effects of one soil application of toxaphene at 3.0 lb AI/A on Lahidura spp. adults in soybean at the University of Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla. 1978. Samples collected by pitfall traps.

Figure 27 . Effects of one soil application of toxaphene at 3.0 lb AI/A on Labidura spp. nymphs in soybean at the University of Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla., 1978. Samples collected by pitfall traps. 96

110

100 i Soil treatment Check 90

u 80 \p 70 3 "S 60

^ 50 40

o 30 o 20

10 0

31 14 21 28 12 20 Aug. Sept. Oct.

440

400 -Soil treatment " Check ^ 3601 u 320 to ft 280

« 2401 20O

3 1601

o 120'

§ 80-

31 14 21 28 12 20 Aug. Sept. Oct. .

certain soil insecticides such as aldrin, dieldrin, DDT, and of organophosphorus compounds. Coaker (1966) found that catches were Bembidion spp. in pitfall traps increased when insecticides

applied to the soil.

Although no significant differences were detected (Fig. 24),

to application of toxaphene to the foliage at 3.0 lb AI/A seemed

of cause a drop in pitfall counts, below that of the check,

Calosoma adults during the 1st (September 14, 1978) and 2nd the (September 21, 1978) weeks following treatment. Beginning

3rd week following treatment until cessation of sampling, catches

of Calosoma in pitfall traps from treated plots exceeded that of

the check plots.

' ^ - , *' '

. . . .. Yield Data

Carbaryl-treated plots produced the highest yield and the

untreated check plots had the lowest yield in 1977 (Table 15)

The average yield from each treated plot was significantly higher

than that Of the untreated check, except those treated with virus at .

3LE and carbaryl.plus B.t. applied at one-half rate each.

There were no significant differences detected among yields

treated from any plots during the 1978 experiment (Table 16) . Plots

with acephate seemed to produce the highest yield and the untreated

check produced the lowest yield.

Analysis of yield from toxaphene plots (Table 17) indicated

that plots receiving foliar treatment produced higher yields than

the check (plots without foliar tretment) ; and soil-treated plots 98

Table 15. Yield of Centennial variety soybean in plots treated with selected chemical and microbial pesticides at the Univer- sity of Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla., 1977a.

Treatment Yield 1977 (Bushcls/A)

Dif lubenzuron 34.83ab

B.t. 34.02ab

Dif lubenzuron + B.t. 35.27ab

Carbaryl 35.96a

Carbaryl + diflubenzuron 34 . 88ab

Carbaryl + B.t, 33.35 abc

VBC NPV 30.91bc

VBC NPV + dif lubenzuron 36.99a

Methyl parathion 34.88ab

Untreated check 29.07c

a Means with the same letter are not significantly different according to Duncan's multiple range test [alpha = 0.05] 99

Table 16. Yield of Bragg variety soybean in plots treated with selected chemical pesticides at the University of

Florida AREC, Quincy, Fla. , 1978^.

Treatment yield 1978 (Bushels/A)

Fentin hydroxide 22.67

Diflubenzuron 24 . 04

Carbaryl 23.87

Acephate 25.30

UC51762 24.55

Methomyl 23.39

Permethrin 21.10

Untreated check 18.22

Means are not significantly different ;

100

following foliar and Table 17. Yield of Bragg variety soybean soil applications of toxaphene each at the rate of 3.0 lb AI/A at the University of Florida AREC,

Quincy, Fla. , 1978,

Toxaphene Yield [Bushels/A]

Soil Treatment [TA]

1 No soil treatment [check] 9.11

11.81** 2 Soil treatment

Foliar Treatment [TB]

1 No foliar treatment [check] 6.63

2 Foliar treatment 15.04

TA X TB Interactionah

5.63 1 1

1 2 13.91

7.45 2 1 n

2 2 16.17

** Significantly different [p = 0.Ol] ab No significant interaction produced significantly higher yields than the check (plot without

soil treatment) . There was no significant interaction detected between the foliar and soil application of t'oxaphene. ,

DISCUSSION

Certain pesticides were more effective in controlling VBC

larvae than others and some predators were more affected than

others. The use of certain pesticides resulted in higher yields

than others, although not always significantly.

Since methyl parathion is detrimental to beneficial species,

it was used as a treated check. Methyl parathion gave excellent

control of VBC up to 10 days following treatment (Fig. 2-A,B,C)

after which resurgence of the pest occurred. Shepard et al. (1977)

reported resurgence of VBC 3 weeks after treatment with methyl para-

thion .

Numbers of nabids, geocorids, and spiders remained lower

in methyl parathion plots than in other plots throughout the season.

Among the 3 predator groups, geocorids were affected most and spiders

least by methyl parathion. Turnipseed et al. (1975) showed that methyl parathion caused significant reductions in numbers of all 3 predator groups. Previous laboratory studies by Lingren and Ridgway

(1967) indicated that methyl parathion was extremely toxic to certain

hemipterous predators including geocorids and nabids.

Resurgence of VBC populations in methyl parathion plots could be attributed mainly to reductions of predators and the decreasing

102 .

103 residual toxicity of the insecticide. Shepard et al. (1977) pointed out that removal of biotic agents by methyl parathion was the major reason for the resurgence of several pest populations.

Resurgence of the VBC populations in methyl parathion plots, however, did not cause loss in yield (Table 15). This could be due to the fungus Nomuraea rileyi that was acting at that time and quickly suppressed the VBC populations before economic loss occurred

(Abdul Kadir 1978) . The decrease of VBC populations in check plots by the 10th day after treatment (Fig. 2-A,B,C) may be indicative of the initiation of the fungal epizootics. Also at this time, most of the pods were already filled and thus further defoliation did not reduce yield. The yield in methyl parathion plots was signi- ficianly higher than in the untreated check.

Application of B.t. at 0.50 lb AI/A was effective in keeping

VBC larval populations below economic threshold levels up to 10 days following treatment, after which resurgence occurred. However this resurgence, like that of methyl parathion plots did not cause loss in yield. The yield in B.t. plots was significantly higher than in the untreated check (Table 15)

No significant reductions occurred of nabids, geocorids, eind spiders compared to the untreated plots; and their numbers were

generally higher than in methyl parathion plots . The fact that the predator counts were generally lower in B.t. plots than in untreated plots may indicate that B.t. could in some way have affected the predator populations. Also, it may have caused predators to move 104 out of treated plots in search of prey. Dunbar and Johnson (1975) indicated that ingestion of B.t. active material in sugar water by parasitoid Cardiochiles nigriceps Viereck resulted in a significant decrease in longevity. The suppression of VBC larval populations earlier in the experiment reduced the substrate required by the fungus

Nomuraea rileyi to initiate epizootics. Ahmadzabidi (1978) indicated that white-cadaver counts were lower in B.t. plots compared to untreated plots. Therefore, combinations of these factors plus the decrease in residual effectiveness of B.t. (which was probably the main reason) could have caused the resurgence of the pest populations. Abdul Kadir (1978) and Ahmadzabidi (1978) also observed resurgence of VBC larval populations in in B.t. plots, but no reasons were given.

The VBC NPV applied at 3LE/A suppressed the VBC populations below the economic threshold levels. That the populations remained

low throughout the sampling period was probably due to the epizootics of the virus. The late action of the virus permitted VBC to cause

extensive defoliation which resulted in yield not significantly higher

than that of the untreatedplots (Table 15) .

Very little work has been done on the effects of virus on beneficial species. Elizabeth A. Schoborg and D. G. Boucias^

(1980, personal communication) found that there was no significant difference in mortality and developmental time between

Podisus maouliventris (Say) fed on virus-infected and healthy VBC

Graduate student and Assistant Professor, Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of Florida, Gainesville. .

105

larvae in the laboratory. Earlier field studies by Vail et al.

(1972) showed that parasitism of Trichoplusia ni (Hubner) and

Spodoptera exigua (Hubner) was reduced from 28% in untreated plots to 2.2-15.4% in virus-treated plots. They concluded that the virus had a deleterious effect on parasitism. Wilkinson et al, (1975) reported that morality of parasitoids and predators exposed to

B.t. and NPV was <4% as compared to >27% for chemical pesticides.

No significant differences in the numbers of geocorids and

spiders between the virus-treated plots and the untreated check were detected. Nabid counts, however, indicated that virus could have affected their n\imbers. The shake-cloth sampling indicated that the numbers of nabids in virus plots were significantly lower

than in the untreated plots on days 1 and 10 after treatment (Table 6) .

In D-Vac sampling, the nabid numbers in virus plots were significantly

lower than in the untreated check plots on days 5 and 10 after treatment (Table 7). These low counts of nabids in the virus plots were probably due to the movement of the predators from the virus to

other adjacent plots. Based on field experience, W. H, Whitcomb'''

CL980, personal communication) indicated that nabids capture virus-

infected larvae in the field, but do not feed and soon move on ih search of healthy prey

During the 2-year test, dif lubenzuron applied at the rates

of 0.031 and 0.125 lb AI/A gave excellent control of VBC (Figs. 2-

Professor , Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of Florida, Gainesville. 106

neglibible levels A,B; 4A) . Populations of VBC were reduced to

3-5 days after application and remained there throughout the test periods. For this reason Allen and Kish (1978) questioned the integration of dif lubenzuron with the naturally occurring Nomuraea rileyi, as the former suppresses the VBC populations below the one

larva per foot of row required to maintain the fungus. ,

The yield from diflubenzuron plots was significantly higher

than the yield from the untreated plots in 1977 (Table 15) . .

Although no significant difference was detected between the yields of diflubenzuron and the untreated plots in 1978, the yield in

dif lubenzuron plots was higher. ^

Dif lubenzuron has little effect on nabids, geocorids, and

spiders. Similar results were reported by Keever et al. (1977). i

Wilkinson et al. (1978) reported that adults and nymphs of geocorids

' were not significantly affected by dif lubenzuron. . '

Carbaryl at 0.50 and 0.25 lb AI/A kept the populations of

VBC significantly lower than the untreated check for at least 15 .

' days after treatment (Figs. 2B,4A) . This agrees with Turnipseed

at al. (1974) who indicated that it would not require more than

0.50 lb AI/A carbaryl to control velvetbean caterpillars in soybean;.

Signficantly higher yield was produced in carbaryl treated plots j

than in the untreated plots in 1977 (Table 15) . Although no sig-

nificant difference was detected between the yields in carbaryl plots

and the untreated plots in 1978, the yield in the carbaryl plots -

was found to be higher (Table 16) - |

1 . 17,.-- '^r^-TWT",

107

At the rates applied, carbaryl was less toxic to nabids, geocorids, and spiders compared to the rest of the treatments. Greene

did not et al. (1974) indicated that carbaryl at 0.50 lb AI/A or less reduce Geoooris and Nobis populations but both 0.7 5 and 1.0 rates reduced beneficial insects. On the other hand, Turnipseed (1972) stated

that the number of predators was not reduced in carbaryl plots sprayed

at 1.50 lb AI/A.

Combinations of 2 insecticides, each one-half rate, resulted

in VBC and predator counts that were not significantly different

from those where either insecticide was used alone. When difluben-

zuron was used in combination with another insecticide, the VBC counts

were as low as when dif lubenzuron was applied alone (Fig. 2-A,B.C)

The fact that the VBC populations in VBC NPV plus dif lubenzuron plots

were low was probably due to the action of dif lubenzuron. Insecticides

within combinations showed no sign of incompatibility. However, they

did not prove to be significantly better than when applied alone,

except for the VBC NPV plus dif lubenzuron combination, which provided

a yield significantly higher than that of VBC NPV applied alone (Table 15) .

In 1978, acephate and methomyl, both at 0.125 lb AI/A, were

not able to maintain the VBC populations below economic threshold

levels for long periods of time. Resurgence of VBC populations occur-

red 15 days after treatment (Fig. 4-A,B) . The low niimbers of preda-

tors in addition to the reduction in the residual toxicity of pesti-

cides were probably the major factors contributing the rise in VBC .

populations. Acephate was clearly more toxic to the 3 groups of preda-

tors than all other pesticides in 1978 (Trables 8, 11, 14). Although no . ,

108

significant differences were detected in geocorid populations

in acephate plots. (Table 11) , their numbers remained lowest

was Poe et al. (1978) found that the parasitism of leafminers reduced to 36.3% in plots treated with methamidOphos (0.25) plus acephate (0.25) as opposed to 41.6% in check plots.

Resurgence of VBC populations following methomyl appli-

but no speci- cation was also reported by Livingston et al. (1978c) , fic cause was mentioned. Greene et al. (1974) stated that methomyl had little effect on Geocoris at 0.25 lb AI/A but had a greater impact at 0.33 and 0.5 rates. Nabids were reduced with 0.25 and

0.12 rates of methomyl. Turnipseed et al. (1974) stated that methomyl was highly toxic to nabids. Summers et al. (1975) stated that methomyl

oonvergens was disruptive to Nabis spp. , Orius spp., and Hippodamia

Guerin-Meneville. The present data indicates that methomyl at 0.125

lb AI/A significantly reduces nabid populations by day 3 (Table 8)

and spiders by day 8 following treatment (Table 14) . Plots treated with acephate and methomyl produced higher yield than the untreated plots although not significantly so (Table 16)

Permethrin at 0.05 AI/A suppressed the VBC population

to a negligible level throughout the sampling period (Fig. 4B) .

Adverse effects of permethrin on nabids (Table 8) and spiders (Table 14)

were observed on days 3 and 8 after treatment respectively. No sig-

nificant effect was detected on geocorid populations. The effect of

permethrin on the predators, however, was less than that of acephate

and methomyl. Press et al. (1978) reported that permethrin was more . .

toxic to the predaceous bug Xyloooris flavipes (Reuter) than fenitro- thion, pirimiphos-methyl, pyrethrins plus piperonyl butoxide, and malathion. The yield produced in permethrin plots was higher than in the untreated plots although not significantly so (Table 16)

The fact that the experimental insecticide UC51762 significantly reduced ;the VBC populations throughout the sampling period was in agreement with McLeod et al. (1978). They found that soybean pod damage by the beet armyworm was lowest, and the yield had a significant increase in UC51762 plots. Together with its insignificant

spiders effects on nabids (Fig. IIB) , geocorids (Fig. 15B) , and

for future (Fig;. 19B) , UC51762 may prove to be a potential insecticide insect pest management. However, its integration with the naturally occurring Nomuraea rileyi in soybean is questionable as it reduces the VBC population below the minimum requirement for the initiation of the fungal epizootics. The yield produced in UC51762 plots was higher than in the untreated plots, although not significantly so

(Table 16)

Livingston et al. (1978a) found that the fungicide fentin hydroxide possessed insecticidal activity on soybean looper, cabbage

looper, and corn earworm on soybean. In this study, fentin hydrox-

ide at 1.0 lb AI/A suppressed VBC populations below the economic

threshold levels throughout the sampling period. There were no signi-

ficant reductions detected in the numbers of nabids, geocorids,

and spiders between fentin hydroxide plots and the untreated plots.

This was in accord with Livingston et al. (1978b) who reported fentin

hydroxide when, applied at recommended rate, caused little mortality ,

110

in Hippodamia oonvergens. Fentin hydroxide-treated plots produced higher yield than the untreated plots although not significantly so

(Table 16)

Toxaphene applied to the soil at 3.0 lb AI/A did not suppress

VBG populations below the economic threshold levels (Fig. 6), but

the same rate applied to the foliage did (Fig. 7) .

Wille (1951) reported that use of toxaphene resulted in heavy increase of Heliothis viresaens F. and other cotton insects because their natural enemies were eliminated. Stern et al. X1960) indicated that toxaphene applied at 2.7 lb AI/A was toxic to Hippodanria convevgens

Chrysopa spp. , Nabis ferus (Linn.), Geoaoris spp. , Orius spp. , and

Sinea diadema (Fabr.), although not nearly as toxic as DDT and far less toxic than DDT- toxaphene mixture. Johnson et al. (1976b) reported that toxaphene caused reductions in predator numbers although not always significantly. This study supports those findings. Foliar application of toxaphene significantly reduced the numbers of geocorids

(Fig. 16) and spiders (Figs. 20, 22). Toxaphene did reduce nabid numbers, but only during the 1st week following treatment (Fig. 12).

Stoltz and Stern (1977) reported that toxaphene plus naled was less toxic than dimethoate to Nab^\s ameviooferus Carayon. Toxaphene applied to the soil significantly reduced the numbers of spiders

' ' collected in the pitfall traps (Fig. 21) . .

The high catches of Cdlosoma spp., (Figs. 26, 27) in plots treated with toxaphene could be due to the increased activity of these predators as stated by Coaker (1966) , Dempster (1968) , and Ill

caused Critchley Q972) . Also the .reduction in prey could have the predators to move around more looking for food.

It should be noted that soil application was made on

August 15, 1978; traps were placed on August 22, 1978 (8 days after

treatment), and first samples were collected on August 31, 1978

(2 weeks after treatment). It was evident in Calosoma spp. (Fig. 23),

and Harpalus spp. (Fig. 25) that toxaphene had reduced their n\imbers

up to 2 weeks following treatment. It could be that by the third

week after treatment, the residual toxicity of toxaphene might not

be strong enough to cause mortality of these predators, but could

increase their activity.

Toxaphene prevented loss of yield due to insect damage. The

yield in plots receiving foliar treatment was significantly higher

than in the check plots. Soil treated plots producer! significantly

higher yield than those where the soil remained untreated. A reduc-

tion to below normal of the yields in all plots was probably due to

late harvesting of the crop. The pods were too dry and much of the

beans were lost during harvesting. ,

' ' i 'i CONCLUSION

All chemical and microbial treatments applied alone or in combination were effective in controlling VBC larval populations and prevented loss in yield. Resurgence of VBC late in the season did not result in yield loss as the larval populations were then suppressed by the naturally occurring fungus Nomuraea vileyi.

Therefore, further applications to control the resurgent populations were not necessary indicating that proper timing of treatment is critical.

Insecticides that cause resurgence of VBC populations included methyl parathion, B.t., carbaryl plus B.t., acephate, and methomyl.

Reduction of biotic agents and short residual toxicity of these insecticides were the most probable reasons for the resurgence.

The VBC NPV has a great potential for integration into pest management programs. It is virulent and persistent, and applications made earlier than standard chemical insecticides may give better control of the pest.

Integration of dif lubenzuron, permethrin, and UC51762 with the naturally occurring fungus Nomuraea vileyi is questionable as they reduced the larval populations to levels below the minimum required for the initiation of fungal epizootics.

Methyl parathion was the most toxic to nabids, geocorids, and spiders. Survival of nabids was excellent with diflubenzuron

112 113

carbaryl, B.t. , and moderate with virus. Insecticide combinations did not reduce predator populations significantly below those encoun- tered in plots where those insecticides were applied alone. Further

investigations are recommended to determine if in fact the virus reduced nabid populations by causing mortality, or through some

repellancy mechanism.

Fentin hydroxide and UC51762 caused no significant reduction

in nabid populations. In descending order acephate, methomyl, and permethrin were most toxic to nabids.

Survival of geocorids was excellent in all treatments, except methyl parathion and toxaphene. Acephate reduced geocorid

numbers although not significantly so. -

The only treatment that kept the spider populations con-

sistently low during the 1977 season was methyl parathion. Ace- phate, methomyl, permethrin, and UC51762 seemed to be toxic to

spiders, although reductions were not always significant.

Toxaphene was toxic to nabids, geocorids, and spiders.

Further investigations are needed to draw a conclusion as to the

effect of toxaphene on the ground predators, such as Calosoma spp.

Harpalus spp., and Ldbidura spp. There were indications that

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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

Yusoh Bin Salleh was born on January 14, 1949, in Kelantan,

Malaysia. He received his secondary education from Bachok Secondary

School, and Sultan Ibrahim School, Kelantan. In 1968, he gained admission into the College of Agriculture (presently. University of Agriculture), Serdang, Selangor. He graduated with a Diploma in

Agriculture from the college in May 1971.

Upon graduation, he served as an Agricultural Assistant with the Department of Agriculture, Malaysia, in Kelantan for 2 years

In January 1973, he entered the University of Florida to further his education in entomology with a scholarship from MARDI.

In August 1974, he received his Bachelor of Science degree, with honors. In December 1976, he received his Master of Science degree.

Currently he is a candidate for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.

Yusoh Bin Salleh is married to Rohani Ibrahim Salleh and has 2 beautiful daughters, Sharila and Melissa. He is presently a member of the Florida Entomological Society, and the Entomological

Society of America.

129 I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.

George E. Allen, Chairman Professor of Entomology and Nematology

I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.

rman

Entomology and Nematology

Dale H. Habeck Professor of Entomology and Nematology I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.

Elmo B. Whitty y// Professor of Agronomy

This dissertation was submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the College of Agriculture and to the Graduate Council, and was accepted as partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.

March 1980

Dean, Graduate School