The Language Levels Toolkit Lexical register General formality of a passage. Demonstrative This, these, that, those Superlative Adjective with most, or –est at the High register: formal/complex pronoun end Low register: informal Determiner Indefinite article: a/an Tense Where we locate a verb in time:  Discourse framework: the “rules” of a Lexis Total words in a language Definite article: the Simple present: I take, I do, I am particular text or genre Metaphor A figure of speech where a Possessives: my, your, his, her, its, Simple past: I took, I did, I was  Pragmatics framework: inference, person/object is described as our, their Aspect Combining with tense to create something else Evaluative adjective Makes a judgement. Leads the different time frames – simple, politeness and shared meanings of Personification A figure of speech where an animal audience’s opinion of something progressive, perfective texts or inanimate object is described Functional word Has a function but no real meaning Lexical word Word which carries meaning  Grammatical framework: terminology with human characteristics of its own Verb A doing word Pun A play on words Future No real future tense. We show Dynamic: action/process about the grammatical classification of Semantic cohesion Using semantic fields related to the future with: Stative: state words topic and/or an extended metaphor Auxiliary verb ‘will’ or ‘shall’ Voice Active or passive verbs  Lexical-semantic framework: words to link a whole text ‘be going to’ + infinitive verb Semantic field A group of words related by their Present progressive ‘we’re leaving and their meanings at 8’ meaning Grammatical framework: syntax  Graphological framework: terms for Semantics The meanings of words Simple present ‘he goes at ten’

the visual aspects of texts Simile A figure of speech comparing two Grammatical Use of ellipsis or pronouns to avoid things using as or like cohesion repetition in a text Clause A unit of meaning. Sentences can be single or multiple clauses.  Phonological framework: effects Slang Informal vocabulary Infinitive Base form of a verb, e.g. to eat Clauses can contain subjects, created by sound devices Synonym A word meaning the same as Interrogative Asks questions, stands in for verbs, objects, complements and another word e.g. sofa, settee, pronoun unknown noun e.g. who, whom, adverbials couch whose, what, which Complex sentence A sentence consisting of a main Taboo Words that shouldn’t be said in Main verb Main focus of a clause Lexical – semantic framework clause with one of more certain contexts. Usually relating to Modal auxiliary Will, would, can, could, shall, dependent clauses body parts, urination and excretion, verb should, may, might, must Compound A sentence consisting of two main Antonym Words with opposite meanings: up religion, sex and death Modality Degree of certainty or doubt and down sentence clauses expressed by a text Cliché Overused expression Modifier A word used to add meaning to Compound A sentence containing two or Coherence If a text makes sense other words complex sentence more main clauses and at least one subordinate clause Cohesion How a text fits together Grammatical framework: word class Nominalisation Process of turning an event of Collocation A set of words which have become action normally expressed as a verb Coordinate clause A main clause in a sentence containing more than one main strongly associated. Often also Abstract noun Idea/concept/emotion/belief into a noun “Baby snatch mother” – clause introduced by and/or/but clichés e.g. the vast majority Active voice The subject in a sentence acts as a mother has had her baby Main clause A clause that can stand alone as a Collocation clash A play on words where a word in a the agent – does the verb snatched simple sentence known collocation is changed e.g. Adjective Modifies a noun Object The person/thing receiving action The Codfather Minor sentence A grammatically incomplete Adverb Modifies verbs (and sometimes of verb sentence missing a subject or verb Connotation Values a word has beyond its main adjectives/clauses) Participle Past: -ed or –en ‘eaten’ Mood Sentence function meaning e.g. house/home Adverb type Manner/time/frequency/place Present: -ing ‘eating’ (regular) Noun phrase A phrase with a noun as its head /residence all mean similar things, Degree/comment/linking Passive voice The subject of the clause carries out but have different connotations word Adverbial Word or phrase acting as an adverb the verb. Subject can be missed out Phrase A group of words functioning as a Denotations The dictionary meaning of a word “We’ll see her in a while” Person First , second, third single unit Euphemism A word or phrase that tries to avoid Agent The person (or thing) carrying out Personal pronoun Singular subject: I, you, he/she/it Post modification Placing modifiers after the noun saying something unpleasant e.g the actions of a verb Plural subject: we, you, they passed away Pre modification Placing modifiers before the noun Aspect Verbs change aspect depending on Singular object: me, you, him/her/it Figurative language Non literal language use such as the duration of an event. Plural object: us, you. Them Relative clause A subordinate clause that is used similes and metaphors Perfective: completed actions Possession Marking a word to indicate it to add more information about Filler words used to fill gaps e.g. er Progressive: ongoing possesses something another clause element Hedge Words to pad out what is being said Attributive Premodifier which defines an Possessive Mine, yours, hers, his, its, ours, Sentence function Declarative: make statements e.g. sort of, possibly adjective attribute of a noun pronouns theirs (stand in for noun phrase) Interrogative: ask questions Imperative: commands Homonymic pun Play on words based on words that Auxiliary verb A ‘helper’ verb. If there is more Predicative Follows a stative verb ‘he is Exclamatory: incomplete (!) look the same but are not “Being a than 1 verb in a clause, 1 is the adjective unhappy’, ‘the table is bare’ mortician is a grave business” main and the others are auxiliaries Prefix Adapts the start of a word Sentence type Structure of the sentence Homophonic pun Play on words based on words that Collective noun A number of things as one unit e.g Preposition Expresses relationship between Simple sentence A sentence consisting of a single sound the same but are not team words/phrases/clauses. Relate to main clause “Atheism is a non-prophet Common noun Object, animal, person, idea space or time. E.g. in, on, between Subordinate clause Cannot act as a main clause, institution” forms part of a complex sentence Comparative Adjective with ‘-er’ or ‘more’ Primary verb Be, havem do Hyperbole Exaggeration Syntax Linguistic framework dealing with Complement An element that adds information Pronoun Stands in the place of a noun word order and sentence Hypernym A category into which other words to a subject or object Proper noun Specific person, animal, place, day, fit e.g. fish (cod/pike) structure Concrete noun A subcategory of common nouns – work of art etc… Verb phrase A phrase with a main verb as its Hyponym A word within a hypernym category a tangible object Reflexive pronoun Refers back to the subject – myself, main word Idiom Metaphors common in their Conjunction Function word which joins clauses himself cultural context which don’t make Coordinating Joins 2 main clauses to make a Subject The main focus of a sentence much sense translated e.g. pull conjunction compound sentence: and/but/or Subordinating Connects a subordinate to a main your socks up Copular verb Used to join a subject to a conjunction clause. Includes because, although, Imagery Same as figurative language complement. Usually ‘to be’ e.g. I until, while, when… Whole Discourse Jargon Technical language am happy, he seems odd. Suffix Adapts the end of a word Asynchronous Participants don’t need to be participants in conversation Onomatopoeia Words that create the sound communication present simultaneously, e.g. email Declaratives used Intonation changes meaning: “you they’re describing Audience How the writer/speaker imagines as interrogatives take French at college?” Paralinguistics Things that add to the meaning of a positioning and places the audience Discourse marker Word or phrase to change topic text that aren’t language e.g. Blended/ Electronic communication which Divergence When a person’s speech patterns gesture, facial expression etc mixed mode uses features of different modes become less like the other Phoneme The smallest unit of sound Channel How a text is received (eyes or ears) participants in conversation Phonological Using phonological devices to Context The conditions surrounding a text’s Face The persona/role a person plays in cohesion create patterns in a text- e.g. production – audience, purpose, conversation alliteration, assonance genre, mode Face threatening A communicative act which Phonology Sounds used for effect 1st person narrative Written from the ‘I’ position act threatens someone’s face Pitch High and low sounds Genre Category/type of text Interaction How people relate to each other Prosodics Vocal elements which add meaning Implication Indirect meaning Interruption Beginning a turn when someone but aren’t words e.g. stress, pitch, Inference Drawing out meanings from other else is talking volume, tone, pace people’s speech Intervention An attempt to take part in a debate Rhyme Words which end in the same Mode Spoken or written texts Latch Turns that join each other without sound Pragmatics The actual meanings words have pause or overlap Rising intonation A pitch that goes up at the end on outside the literal meanings Mirroring Speakers use words/phrases/ an utterance - e.g. tag question Subject positioning The perspective from which features previously used by other Vowels Sounds created with unrestricted events/issues are perceived speakers airflow (a,e,i,o,u) Synchronous All/both participants are present, Monitoring device To check others are listening – communication e.g. chat rising intonation/tag questions Tenor The relationship between Open question Allows a range of responses Graphological framework participants determines it e.g. Overlap Beginning a turn whilst someone ‘professional’/’intimate’ else is talking, done cooperatively Colour Connotations used to create to agree/encourage meanings Reformulation Rephrasing what someone else has Deviant spelling Deliberate use of non-standard said spelling for effect (Kwik Fit) Discourse: Rhetoric Simultaneous Two or more participants speaking Font Typeface chosen by writer speech at the same time Graphological Using appropriate layout for the Balanced structure A sentence where the two halves Tag question Brief ending tagged onto cohesion text – columns, headline etc… balance each other. May be statements to turn into questions Graphology Visual layout features of a text contrast/antithesis Three part 3 linked utterances following an Headline Newspapers – summary/pun Contrast/antithesis Reality contrasted with what the exchange ‘initiation – response – feedback’ Image Picture used speaker offers or is fighting for structure Inset article Small box, appears within main Figurative language Non literal language use: simile, Topic management Control of a conversation article metaphor, personification Turn One person’s utterance Layout The shape of a text Hyperbole Exaggeration Lists Bullets/numbers. Repetition To help audience retain key points Phonetic rendition When words are spelled as they Rhetoric Linked to the art of public sound e.g. queen as kween speaking. Tend to be to persuade Phonological framework: sounds and Pull quote Enlarged quote from an article or make a speech memorable prosodics Satellite article Sub article connected to main at Rhetorical question A question that is not intended to side or bottom with own heading be answered Accent Way words are pronounced Subheading Leads reader through text Syntactic The repetition of the same according to geographical region parallelism sentence structure Alliteration Repetition of a sound at the Synthetic Use of second person pronoun to beginning of words personalisation synthesise a relation with the Assonance Repetition of similar vowel sounds audience e.g loud brown cow Triad A pattern of 3 words/phrases Consonance The repetition of consonant sounds e.g. lazily buzzing Consonant clusters Groups of consonants produced together Phonological framework: Interaction Consonants All sounds except vowels Emphatic stress Emphasising a word/phrase –

usually shown in bold Accommodation Adapting speech to make it more or Falling intonation Pitch going down at the end of an less similar to other participant utterance Adjacency pairs Two utterances by different Half rhyme Words that almost or nearly rhyme speakers that have a link Homonym Words that look the same but are Backchannel Support/feedback to speaker – pronounced differently behaviour gestures, minimal response Homophone Words that sound the same but are Closed question Limited response possible spelt differently Cohesion in speech Smooth turn taking, recycling and Intonation The way the pitch of our voices mirroring goes up and down as we speak Convergence When a person’s speech patterns Non verbal The meaning conveyed without become more like the other communication using words (Inc. body language)