Gc University Lahore a Dissertation/ Thesis Titled

A DISSERTATION/ THESIS TITLED

ETHNOECOLOGICAL STUDIES OF HERBACEOUS FLORA OF SAHIWAL DIVISION, PUNJAB, PAKISTAN

Submitted to Government College University Lahore in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of degree of D octor of Philosophy IN

Botany

By AHMAD ALI SESSION 2010 - 13

Registration No. 090 - GCU - PHD - BOT - 2010

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY GC UNIVERSITY LAHORE A DISSERTATION/ THESIS TITLED

ETHNOECOLOGICAL STUDIES OF HERBACEOUS FLORA OF SAHIWAL DIVISION, PUNJAB, PAKISTAN

AHMAD ALI

SESSION 2010 - 13

RegistrationNo. 090 - GCU - PHD - BOT - 2010

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY GC UNIVERSITY LAHORE

Dedicated To My Sweet Family & Parents

Contents

Title Page No.

List of Tables II

List of Figures I V

List of Annexure s & Plates V I

Acknowledgement s V II

Abstract V III

Chapter No. 1 : Introduction 01

Chapter No. 2 : Review of literature 11

Chapter No. 3 : Materials and Methods 19

Chapter No. 4 : Results and Discussion 4 7

References 21 5

Annexure s 229

Plate 2 3 9

l LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Page No.

Table 3.4.1 : Plants selected for their Ethnopharmacological Assays 27

Table 3.4.2: Gallic acid dilutions for the estimation of T PC 36

Table 3.4.3: Dilutions for the estimation of Total Flavonoid contents 37

Table 3.4.4: Bacterial strain for antibacterial investigation 40

Table 3.4. 5: Fungal strains for antifungal investigation 40

Table 3.4.6: Preparation of dilutions for MIC Assay. 43

Table 3.4.7: Preparation of dilutions for the anthelmintic investigation 45

Table 4.2 .1: Importance Value Index (IVI) of Plant Species of Di strict Sahiwal 112

Table 4.2 .2: Importance Value Index (IVI) of Plant Species of District Pakpattan 121

Table 4.2 .3: Importance Value Index (IVI) of Plant Species of District Okara 131

Table 4.2 .4: Importance Value Index (IVI) of Plant Species of Sahiwal Division 140

Table 4.3 .1: Physico - c hemical Analysis of Soil of District Sahiwal 165

Table 4.3 .2: Physico - c hemical Analysis of Soil Dis trict Pakpattan 167

Table 4.3 .3: Phsico - c hemical Analysis of Soil of District Okara 169

Table 4.3 .4: Physico - c hemical Analysis of Soil of Sahiwal Division 171

Table 4.4.1: Percentage yield of the different plant extracts 1 7 3

Table 4.4.2: TEAC Values of the extracts of selected plants 174

Table 4.4.3: Percentage DPPH radical scave nging potential 175

Table 4.4.4 : Total Phenolic Contents (TPC) 1 7 8

Table 4.4.5: Total Flavonoid Contents (TFC) 179

Table 4.4.6: Metal Chelating Values (% age) 180

Table 4.4.7: Total Anti - Oxidant Activity Values 1 81

Table 4.4.8: Zone of inhibition against standard antibiotic discs 182

Table 4.4.9: Zone of inhibition against standard a ntibiotic discs 183

Table 4.4.10: Zone of inhibition produced by negative control 183

Table 4.4.11: Zone of inhibition against microbe S. aureus 1 8 4

Table 4.4.12: Zone of inhibition against microbe E. coli 18 5

Table 4.4.13: Zone of inhibition against microbe P. aeruginosa 186

Table 4.4.14 : Zone of inhibition against microbe B. subtilis 187

Table 4.4.15: Zone of inhibition against microbe A. oryzae 188

Table 4.4.16: Table Zone of inhibition against microbe A. niger 18 9

Table 4.4.17: MIC values of A. javanica against the bacterial and fungal strains 190

Table. 4.4.18: MIC values of C. tubulosa against the bacterial and fungal strains 192

Table 4.4.19 : MIC values of C. campestris against bacterial and fungal strains 194

Table 4.4.20 : MIC values of H. europaeum against bacterial an d fungal strains 196

Table 4.4.21 : MIC values of P. glabra against bacterial and fungal strains 198

Table 4.4.22: Plant extracts on mortality of H . contortus 200

Table 4.4.23: Anthelmintic activity of the plant extracts in the form of LSD 50 203

III

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Page No.

Fig 4.1.1: No. of used Herbaceous Plant Species in each Family 10 6

Fig 4.1.2 Major Kinds of Ethnobotanical Uses 106

Fig 4.1.3: Kinds of Medicinal Usages 10 8

Fig 4.2 .1: Dendrogram of TWINSPAN for District Sahiwal 149

Fig 4.2 .2: Dendrogram of TWINSPAN for Dis trict Pakpattan 152

Fig 4.2 .3: Dendrogram of TWINSPAN for District Okara 155

Fig 4.2 .4: Dendrogram of TWINSPAN for Sahiwal Divison 158

Fig 4.2 .5: Biplot scatter diagram of District Sahiwal 161

Fig 4.2 .6: Biplot scatter diagram of Dis trict Pakpattan 162

Fig 4.2 .7: Biplot scatter diagram of District Okara 163

Fig No. 4.4.1: Graphical presentation of plant wise yield 17 3

Figure 4.4.2: TEAC values of the extracts of selected plants 174

Fig 4.4.3: Percentage DPPH radical scavenging potential of Aerva javanica 175

Fig 4.4.4: Percentage DPPH radical scavenging potential of Cistanche tubulosa 176

Fig 4.4.5: Percentage DPPH radical scavenging potential of Cuscuta campestris 176

Fig 4.4.6: Percentage DPPH radical sca. potential of Heliotropium europaeum 177

Fig 4.4.7: Percentage DPPH radical scav enging potential of Persicaria glabra 177

Fig 4.4.8: TPC Values of the selected medicinal plants 17 8

Fig 4.4.9: TFC values of the selected medicinal plants 179

Fig 4.4.10: Metal chelating values of the selected medicinal plants 180

Fig 4.4.11: Total Anti - Oxidant activity values of the selected medicinal plants 1 81

Fig 4.4.12: Zone of inhibition produced by plant extracts against S. aureus 18 4

Fig 4.4.13: Zone of inhibition produced by plant extracts against E. coli. 18 5

Fig 4.4.14: Zone of inhibition produced by plant extracts against P. aeruginosa. 186

Fig 4.4.15: Zone of inhibition produced by plant extracts agains t B.subtilis. 18 7

Fig 4.4.16: Zone of inhibition produced by plant extracts against A. oryzae 18 8

Fig 4.4.17: Zone of inhibition produced by plant extracts against A.niger 18 9

Fig 4.4.18: MIC of A. javanica against ba cterial strains 191

Fig 4.4.19: MIC of A. javanica against fungal strains 191

Fig 4.4.20: MIC of C. tubulosa against bacterial strains 193

Fig. 4.4.21 MIC of C. tubulosa against fungal strains 193

Fig 4.4.22: MIC of C. campestris against bac terial strains 195

Fig 4.4.23: MIC of C. campestris against fungal strains 195

Fig 4.4.24: MIC of H. europaeum against bac terial str ains 197

Fig 4.4.25: MIC of H. europaeum against fungal strains 197

Fig 4.4.26: MIC of G. glabra against bacterial strains 199

Fig 4.4.27: MIC of G. glabra against f ungal strains 199

Fig 4.4.28: Plant extract wise LD 50 Analysis 20 3

Fig. 4.4.29: Graphical view of plant wise Anthelmintic efficacy 204

Fig. 4.4.30: Graphical view of extract wise Anthelmintic efficacy 204

LIST OF ANNEXURES & PLATE

Annexure No. Title Page No.

Annexure l Questionnaire 22 9

Annexure ll (a) M ap of P akistan 230

(b) Map of Punjab Showing Sahiwal Division 231 Annexure lll List of herbaceous plant species of Sahiwal Division 232

Plate 3.4.1 Plants selected for Ethnopharmacologica l studies 239

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT S All praises are for T HE ALEEM , Who has given me an opportunity to enlist myself at the bottom of scholars and A LMIGHTY ALLAH , Who enabled me to present this research work . Uncountable salams to The Last Prophet of God , Who enlighten us to explore the universe .

T hanks to Dr. Ghazala Yasmeen Butt, Chairperson Department of Botany f or providing the facilities during the present research work. S alute to my honorable s upervisor, Dr. Zaheer - ud - din Khan , Professor of Botany who encouraged me a ll the times, resulting in the compilation of the present task. He is a versatile personality , a perfect teacher, a good researcher and above all , a good friend. I am grateful to my Co - supervisor, Dr. Khalid Farooq Akbar , Professor of Botany, Govt. Post Gr a duate College Sahiwal for his valuable guidance during the completion of the research work . Bundle of thanks to Dr. Khalid Hamid Sheikh (Professor Emeritus of Botany), whose technical and valuable criticism imposed precision in my wor k. Greetings to my parents and wife , who favored me in spite of their own ill health , without their moral support I was incapable to face the challenges .

Special t hanks to Dr . Sohaib Muhammad, Lecturer in Botany , whose guidance e nable d me to complete the dissertation. A token of love for my you ng friends Muhammad Zahid , GM Sukhaira and Muhammad Saleem Hashmi , who facilitated me in th e compilation of the data of the present research work.

Ahmad Ali

VII

Abstract

The present work deal s with the ethnoecological studies on the herbaceous flora of Sahiwal Division with special reference to the documentation of ethnobotanical data, phytosociological notes and ethnopharmacological testing of ethnomedicinally important herbs including their a ntimicrobial, antioxidant and anthelmintic potential. The local people, herbal healer/ hakims were interviewed through questionnaire to collect and document the et hnobotanical data on the local herbaceous plants. In total, 180 herbal plant species , 177 bel onging to 43 angiospermic, one species t o one gymnospermic and two t o pteridophytic families , were found in common use by the local inhabitants as forage / fodder, medicinal, food, feed and various other uses. The crude extracts of five ethnomedicinally im portant plants were obtained in polar and non - polar solvents (Water, methanol, chloroform and n - hexane) by maceration method. The % age yield was found maximum in Cuscuta campestris distilled water extract and minimum in Aerva javanica n - hexane extract. T he antimicrobial activity tested by agar well diffusion method indicated strongest antibacterial and antifungal activity by Persicaria glabra against Psedumonas aeruginosa and Aspergillus niger, respectively. The antioxidant activity was found quite convin cing when revealed through six different assays. The highest antioxidant activity was shown by Cistanche tubulosa as revealed by ABTS + Assay, TPC determination, TFC determination and Total antioxidant activity. The highest anthelmintic activity was shown b y Cistanche tubulosa while least by Polygonum glabra. Vegetation of the study area was sufficient only for documentation, but insufficient for any economic purpose, yet some plants had shown very important phytosociological attributes. There was no much ch ange in the soil parameters, yet ecological parameters like frequency , distribution and community structure were changing district wise. The TWINSPAN analysis of the vegetation of the study area divided it in to 3 groups and 12 associations, consisting of 159 plant species , in 222 quadrats.

VIII

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION Biodiversity is an outcome of the evolutionary and ecological processes. It is the variety and variability among living organisms and the ecological complexes in which they occur. It represents a judgment about what is important to protect in the natural environment. The United Nations General Assembly in its 65 th session passed a Resolution 65/161, according to which the period 2011 - 2020 was declared as “The United Nations Decade on Biodiversity”. This resolution created an opportu nity to hoist awareness regarding the importance of biodiversity and the impact of human activities on the plant and animal species and the ecosystem of our planet (Fis c hman, 1992; Ahmed, 2011). At present, biodiversity is facing different threats like pol lution, uncontrolled industrialization and urbanization. Along with these, the biotic pressure is creating scarcity of natural reso urces now a days and this can best be evaluated through e thnoe cological studies. The Ethnoecology encompasses a vast field fo cusing on the study of how human have interacted with environment and how these complex relationship s have been sustained over time. The development of ethnoecology lies in promoting the traditional knowledge of ethnobotany, plant ecology and ethnopharmaco logy of the local medicinal plants and placing all in a global context. It helps the researcher to understand that how a society conceptualizes that environment in which they live and depend on it for living. According to Martin (1995) ethnoecology can be best evaluated from the traditional environmental knowledge. 1.1 Ethnobotany The documentation of usage and interaction between the human and its natural plant resources is becoming important day by day. Over centuries, cultures around the globe have learned to utilize plants to fight illness and sustain health. The history of herbal medicine is as old as human civilization. There are about 2,35,000 to 3,00,000 species of flowering plants. Another 5,00,000 species are estimated to present on earth, to be discovered. The information available of functional attributes even for known species is extremely meager (Manilal, 1997). Pakistan, blessed with a large number of medicinally and economically impor tant plants yet have a great scope of exploration. Mor e than 6,000 species of higher plants and 4,000 f ung al have been documented here. About 1,000 medicinal

p lant species have been reported from Pakistan (Baquar, 1989), of which 500 plant species are frequently used in health care practice s and 350 are trad ed for billions of dollars to local and global markets. Most of the medicinal plants supplied directly or indirectly through market to the pharmaceutical companies are being obtained from the rural forests (Zaman et al. , 1972 and Ikram and Hussain, 1978 ). Such ethnobotanical information about indigenous medicinal plants are helpful to pharmacologist, taxonomist, ecolog ist, watershed and wildlife managers for the prosperity of the inhabitants. F auna and flora are the t raditional partners of nature in human civilizations. Man depends on pl ant and plant products for his needs such as food, fodder and forage for their cattle, fuel wood, furniture, timber, agricultural tools, bridges, protection of soil from erosion, fences, household utensils and other uses like medicinal, aesthetic, ornamental and religious. People have great information for the usage of native plants for their cultural, social and economic scope. Such an understanding or interaction between people and plants is called “Ethnobotany” . The field of ethnobotany demands for a comprehensive botanical training for documentation, identification and preservation of the plant specimens and other such varieties of skills focusing on to understand the cultural concepts about the plants, linguistic training to transcribe the local terms and quotations and the moral an d eth n ic values in the society about some specific plants. Ethnobotanical data documented by a researcher is used by economic botanist for exploring new plant species , a tool for basic selection of plant resources for environmental planners, for fresh idea s for the development of a drug by a pharmacologist, cl inician and phy tochemist, as a new source of history of plant names for a linguist, as a source of realization of policies for an ecologist for the sustainable use of biological resources to conserve g enetic and biological diversity (Jain and Mudgal, 1999). Ethnobotany has been developed as a modern science. Ethnobotanical documentation and inventories are organized on scientific bases with scientific and local names of the plants , their uses, cultural and ecological interpretation, information on phenology, distribution, harvesting, management and conservation of useful and rare plants. These information s are collected from local herbal practi ti oners, herbal traders, community healers and local communi ty member s. Such documentation may be incorporated in to the community resource management and biodiversity conservation programs. It also provides guideline s in the selection of

plant resources in drug re search and development program s. T herefore, t his doc um entation can be considered as a traditional information bank for new era of pharmacy, responsible for the socioeconomic up lift of the people of an area. 1.2 Phytosociology The plant science dealing with the plant communities, their composition, development and relationship between and within the species. It describes the population dynamics of each plant species of a community and relates to the other species of the same community (Mishra et al., 2012). Plant community understanding is an importa nt prerequisite for the study of phytosociology, plant conservation and resource management of rare species or reducing fragmentation of their habitat (Ewald, 2003). Plant species could be studied in a best way at individual or community level in relation to its environment by using phytosociology. Distribution of plants of the same or other species in a community is also affected by micro environmental variations including edaphic factors, time and biotic relationship. Phytosociology is an important protoc ol to study the biodiversity and for the conservation by providing bases for the international conservation policy (CBD, 1992). Phytosociological attributes facilitate an ecologist to calculate diversity, richness and abundance of plant species in an ecosy stem that play a representative role as an indicator of that particular habitat type. With the help of these phytosociological attributes importance value index can be calculated which give an insight in to the heterogeneity of vegetation to provide eviden ce for the priorities of plant conservation (Da Cunha and De Albuquerque, 2006). Moreover, frequency, abundance and other relevant attributes help to identify the most threatened plant species and such habitats requiring protection (Zou et al. , 2007). Biod iversity is an essential component of nature and it provides shelter, food, medicine and other resources for the survival of humanity. The richness of biodiversity depends on the availability and sustainable use of the resources as well as the biotic and a biotic components of the ecosystem. Conversion of natural ecosystem to man made agriculture on wide scale, extensive plus unplanned urbanization, expansion of roads and highways and deforestation are affecting biodiversity . For the conservation of biodive rsity, we have ten national parks, eighty - two sanctuaries and eighty - three game reserves in the country , yet natural vegetation is being lost at very high rate. The natural flora changes continuously with time, due to immigration of species, extinction, ev olution and rapidly changing environmental conditions. It is

obvious that documentation of the local flora will have to be revised and enlarged (Ali, 2008). In Pakistan, human impact recognized as the most important factor, disturbing the compositi on of th e local flora and fauna so resulting in the configuration of new combinations of species and plant communities. Human development and rapid urbanization are causing significant changes in the ecology of plant life. These changes include habitat alteration, habitat fragmentation, pollution, entrance of alien plant species and human interaction. This unevenness is changing the pattern of species richness, their relative abundance and incarceration of species to dif ferent levels of impact (Sukopp and Hejny . , 1 990). Plants typically o ccur together in repeating unit s o f related plants, these unit s are called communities. The community is not described by simple list of plant species, which compile it but characterized by detailing the unique structure and composi tion of these species, with appropriate importance (Muller and Ellenberg, 1925). The dominant species can be evaluated by calculating a statistic s known as “Importance value index” (Smith and Smith, 2001), a tool to evaluate the dominance of species and distribution of species to community structure as outcomes of the biodiversity evaluation of the research area. Community structure provides first hand information about vegetation a nd interprets the plants at different exposure. As soil and biotic factors are related to each other, any change in one component can result a change in other associated component, affecting the community structure. Structure of a community is the outcome of environmental conditions, habitat and existing types of vegetation (Malik et al. , 2007 ). Yet diversity varies from place to place and even point to point. Development and distribution of plant life in an area is i f in many complexes th en it is believed that distribution of species on earth is heterogeneous (Botkin and Keller, 1995). Various environmental factors effect on the distribution of plant species and these factors may be humidity, perspiration, rainfall, day length, light intensity, water table and soil characteristics , etc. Many combinations of these factors may compose different habitat in same area and as a outcome a species dominant in one habitat may be absent in the second one. Consequently, there is a need of some program that can develop a correlation to classify them in to communities. To study the relation between vegetation and environment, ecologists mostly use Ordination techniques.

Canonical Correspondence Analysis developed by Ter Brak, (1986) is the latest development in ordination technique by which plant life data and environmental variables can be incorporated within ordination (Kashian et al. , 2003). There is an unregulated growth in industrialization and urbanization in the developing states like Pakistan. This trend has altere d the local flora resulting in spread and dominance of invasive species. It is the same problem with local species in wild habitat because of the unnecessary use of agro - chemicals, mechanized cultivation and other anthropogenic activities. Human disturbanc es, extensive grazing, trampling and nomad deforestation had important impact on community structure, which might be the cause of removal of the trees and other types of vegetation (Cierjacks and Hensen, 2004). The rapid infrastructure de velopment and indu strialization in Pakistan has put its biological resources under stress , which needs to conserve the local flora . A lot of research work has been conducted by Governmental / Non Governmental O rganizations on tree plants , yet herbaceous flora is being disca rded or ignored in view of its weeds sense. I t is one of the reasons that ethnoecological study of the herbaceous flora was preferred for investigation in the present study . 1.3 Ethnopharmacology In our traditional ethnobotanical knowledge, we found that a weed or plant is used in the cure and control of different ailments, singly or in combination with other plant material s. In recent years, prevention of many disorders such as cardiovascular problems and cancer have been fou nd associated with the intake of vegetables, fresh fruits and plant beverages that are rich in natural antioxidants. Antioxidant and antimicrobial potential of plant or plant product is due to the secondary metabolites in them, which have distinct mechanism of action; some having prot eins and enzymes while others having low molecular weight compounds such as carotenoids, vitamins, anthocyanins and other phenolic compounds. It is the reason of investigatin g medicinal plants for their ethnopharmacological abilities (Shahwar et al. , 2011) . The potential of plants as a source of new drugs is still unknown. A very small fraction of estimated plants (2,50,000 - 5,00,000) has been investigated pharmacologically. On global bases, 130 drugs are being extracted from plant sources in pharmacological industry. A wide range of plant parts including stem, root, flower, fruit or twig exudates are used for extraction of raw drugs. Some of these unprocessed drugs are collected in smaller quantity by the local folk healers or community

members, while many d rugs are collected in large quantity and are traded in the market for many herbal industries (Mahesh and Satish, 2008). Medicinal plants play an embarking part in the formulation of traditional and modern medicine. According to World Health Organization (W HO), more than 25% of the modern drugs that are now being used in European countries are obtained from plants. The medicinal value of a plant is due to the presence of secondary metabolite like alkaloids, flavonoid s, glucosides, tannins, gums, res ins, esse ntial oils and fatty oils, etc. Such compounds produce definite physiological action on the human body (Blot et al ., 1993; Haraguchi et al ., 1999). Because of continuous use of antimicrobial drugs in the treatment of communicable diseases, microorganisms h ave attained resistance against many antibiotics. Therefore, there is a need to develop alternate antimicrobial drugs. In developing countries where allopathic medicines are quite expensive, screening of antimicrobial assay of local ethnomedicinal plants; having a rich source of novel antimicrobial agents, may still be needed. Such issues have lead to the search of new antimicrobial agents mainly from the plant extracts, with the objective to find out new chemical compounds, which overcome the above disadva ntages (Okoro et al., 2010; Odeja et al., 2015). Oxygen is a necessary element of human life, yet under some specific conditions, it plays a havoc role by imposing deleterious effects on human body. During cellular redox processes, molecular oxygen reacts w ith certain compounds and constitutes Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) as a byproduct. These reactive species may be superoxide anion, hydroxyl radical and hydrogen per oxide, having tendency to donate an electron to other substances. Such reactive species be have as free radical, having surplus one or more free - floating electrons, behaving highly unstable and reactive. At low or moderate concentration, ROS plays a supportive role for immune system and cellular responses but at high concentration, it generates oxidative stress that can damage cell structure together with proteins, lipids and DNA. Such an oxidative stress plays a vital function in the development of chronic and degenerative disorders such as rheumatoid arthritis, autoimmune and neurodegenerative disorders, cancer, aging, and cataract (Pham - Huy et al ., 2008). Antioxidant are such compounds that can easily convert oxygen reactive species to non - reactive species, by donating a free electron to the free radical for restriction of its reaction in the body and it is the basic principal of an antioxidant.

Screening o f plants with high antioxidant capacity, which can break the progression of most chronic diseases and can safe human body from free radicals, is the major goal of today’s research (Erturk et al., 2010). Today’s interest is to find out phytochemical antioxi dants that can protect the human body from such diseases. The most effective antioxidant among phytochemicals seems to be flavonoids and phenolic compounds in the raw materials of many plants. It is thought that metal chelating capability and radical scave nging property of these phenolic compounds make them effective free radical scavenger and inhibitor of lipid per oxidation. Over all, plant / plant products, are the best source of antioxidants essential for human degenerative ailments (Ebrahimzadeh et al. , 2010). The current period is the research period for the all the world. Research is in progress even in under developing countries. Research on antioxidant had increased considerably during the last 10 years. According to the information in the Midline d atabase alone, manuscripts mentioned “antioxidant” had increased 340 % while in plants, animals and human area had increased only 39 % (Prior et al., 2005). A lot of research work had been evaluated as well as is in progress on plant and plant products. It has been evaluated that some flavonoids have anti carcinogenic effects; therefore demand for plant products is increasing (Tosun and Artic, 1998), as they might reduce heart diseases, cancer and the effects of aging. The plant products were found to have antioxidant characteristic that are capable of scavenging free radicals and reactive oxygen species that contribute to aging and some other diseases. Antioxidants deactivate and stabilize these free radicals, before the y attack the targets in biological ce lls or metabolic mechanism (Gundogdu et al., 2016) . Man has started to utilize plants and plant products for medication of his own as well as of his pets since the history of cave dweller’s civilization and now a day the use of medicinal plants for the treatment of various diseases of human and livestock is a common practice round the world (Ali et al., 2016 ). The medicinal plants are supplemented with compounds talented of contesting against Helminthiasis , a vigorous animal ailment in dairy industry, inflicting heavy economic and production losses, enhancin g mortality rate and weight loss , especially in third world countries due to the poor management practices. Chemical control and enhanced management plans has measured the helminthiasis all over the world. However, due to growing resistance in helminthes a gainst profitable anthelmintics have directed to the selection of the medicinal plants

for their anthelmintic activity . T he traditional medicines or “green medicine s ” are considered more reliable and safe as compared to synthetic drugs. Proper screening an d evaluation of anthelmintic efficacy of such medicinal plants could offer the possible sustainable and environmentally acceptable alternatives of these available anthelmintics (Kursat and Erecevit , 2009 ; Vidyadhar et al., 2010). The present study plan was proposed to carry out t he ethnobotanical documentation, floristic study, distribution pattern of the local herbaceous plant communities through phytosociological attributes along with the physicochemical parameters of the soil of all the six tehsils of Sa hiwal Division, Punjab. The ethnopharmacological potential of some selected medicinal plants was also explored in the present work. 1.4 Study Area Sahiwal Division, located in southeast of Punjab is consisting of three districts namely Sahiwal, Pakpattan and Okara (Annexure II). It is marked on the Globe as, 30 о 39 ′52″ North latitude and 72 о 6 ′30″ East longitude (Anonymous, 2012 - 13). These districts are situated at nearly 152.4 m (500 ft) AMSL, with Districts Sheikhupura, Faisalabad and Tobatake Singh on the Northern side, District Kasure on the Eastern side, Districts Vehari and Khanaiwal on the Western side, while Districts Bahawalnagar and Bahawalpur on Southern side. The climate of this study area is of subtropical continental nature having features of w idespread summer heat in months of June - July with average maximum temperature of nearly 49°C. The winter season begins at November and lasts till February. December as well as January are the coolest months when temperature drops to even freezing poin t. Th e normal rainfall of the area is about 210 - 510 mm (11 - 20 inches). The s oil of all the districts is composed by alluvium laid down by the rivers Bias, Ravi and Satluj. In most of the localities , soil texture is loamy to silty loam beside the riverside, whil e moderate heavy loam to clayey soil is found near the four chief canal sides. Most of the soils of these study areas are well drained and possess comparatively deep water table. Appropriate ground water quality at medium depths is present beside river s Ravi and Satluj. Due to these rivers, this area is bifurcated in to “Ravi and Neli” belts for its fauna and flora. The saline and sodic soils are found along the river Bias belt (Anonymous - l , 2008 - 09). There are five major canals irrigating the study area ; Lower Bari Do - aab Canal, Depalpur canal, Sohag Canal, Pakpattan Canal and Khadar Branch. Out of

these L.B.D.C and Pakpattan Canal are twelve month running, while other three are six month running canals. Before the start of canal irrigation, vegetation i n the study area was of arid and semi - arid nature. After the start of canal system, farming of crops on large scale became feasible and large zones of land were cleaned of forest and native vegetation. Along this, fresh species of trees such as Kikar, Shis ham, Neem and Eucalyptus were familiarized. These plants and rigorous cultivation have transformed the landscape of area. The main vegetation of the area had the features of the “Bar” lands, consisting of xerophytic trees, shrubs, herbs and grasses. In b iodiversity surveys, a typical term “Rakh Flora” is used for the four native plants of this area, i.e. Karir, Jhand, Van and Frash. Dominant native floristic members are Capparis decidua ( Karir ), Prosopis cineraria (J h and), Salvadora oleoides (Van), Tamari x aphylla (Frash), Ziziphus nummularia (Jangli Bairi), Citrullus colocynthis (Kor - Tuma), Alhaji maurorum (Jawaian) and Imperata cylindrica (Dabh) (Champion et al . 1965). The land in research area is much well - known for its fertility. The main crops are Whe at, Rice , Cotton, Maize, Sugarcane, Millets, Grams , Tobacco, Sunflower and Barseem also including some vegetables like Potato, Onion, Cauliflower, etc. Medium heavy loam to clay soils are quite suitable for growing of paddy , maize and sugar can crops. (An onymous - ll , 2008 - 09). Most of the farmers have updated techniques of cultivation for better acreage than the farmers of Southern Punjab region. Old towns of the division like Pakpattan, Qaboola, Harapa, Gogaira and Depalpur are remnants of old civilization s of Indus valley located at the riverbanks. About 75% of people are concerned with agriculture; others are government employees, business persons or doing private jobs within the country or abroad in different fields. Objectives of the study The main objectives of this research proposal are: ( a ) to record the ethnobotanical data on the herbaceous plants of Sahiwal Division ( b ) to determine distribution pattern of local herbaceous plant communities through phytosociological attributes ( c ) to concl ude the physico - chemical properties of the soil of the study area and its possible correlation with floristic data

( d ) to explore the ethnopharmacological effects , i.e. antioxidant, antimicrobial and anthelmintic activities of some selected ethnomedicinally i mportant plants ( e ) to analyze the data thus obtained, statistically to find out signific ance of the results.

Chapter 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE The ethnoecological studies have been carried out nationally in different parts of Pakistan but no such work has been conducted so far in Sahiwal Division of Punjab. The available literature, relevant to such studies on Ethnobotany, Phytosociology and Ethnopharmacology were reviewed and documented in the present chapter as follow s : 2.1 Ethnobotany Ong (1990) conducted an ethnobotanical study among Temaun tribe. In this study, he found much information about the local plan ts, their uses in different fields of life by the local inhabitants. He pointed out very interesting information, as health awareness that about sixty percent of the plants in use were truly medicinal. He reported the ethnic use of local plants, especially of Ageratum conyzoides. Raimondo and Lentini (1990) s urveyed the plants of the native flora in the common tradition s of the Modonie Mountain, Italy. They composed data on 210, ethno - botanically important plants. In a number of cases, the so me plants had s ingle while some plants had multiple uses restricted to the major plant families, i.e. Apiaceae, Lamiaceae , Asteraceae and Leguminosae. Agharkar (1991) des c ribed a short account of the main alien and cultivated plants having medicinal value s as pop ular village remedies found within Bombay presidency . He documented each species along with its family name, common name, habitat, and part used a s main medicin e . The data on the folk use of these medicinal plants was collected from the local inhabitants. Bhatt ari (1992) collected ethnobotanical information on veterinary medicines, as the first ethnobotanical document on the rural farmers of Nepal. He defined 60 prescriptions concerning 58 species with details of amount. The use of veterinary herbal medicine was very functional among the rural people. The findings of this survey depicted that it was the first choice of treatment and in most cases; almost the only available treatment for their livestock. Naureen (2005) worked on the taxonomy of twelve species o f the genus Rubus L. Many of these were found ethnobotanically important. Decoction of the root was useful in stomach and respiratory disorders, while leaves were used for urine stimulation during late pregnancy and childbirth. Fruits were eaten raw and us ed for making jam, vinegar, juice and wine.

Ibrar et al. (2007) described the ethnobotanical assay of about 97 plant species of Ranyal Hills, District Shangla, Pakistan. The plants were classified on the bases of their uses, as medicinal or economic, e.g. 37 species used for fuel, 37 for fodder, 31 for medicinal, 18 as edible, 12 for shelter, 10 as vegetable, 9 as poison, 7 as ornamentals, 6 for timber, 4 for furniture, 4 for fencing, 4 for honey bee, 3 for agricultural tools, 2 for flavoring , 2 for religi ous belief, 2 for mats and baskets, 2 for teeth cleansing, 1 for tea substitute, 1 for fiber yielding, 1 as glue, 1 as irritant and 1 for making pen. Ahmad and Husain (2008) documented the ethnobotanical data on interaction of local community of the salt r ange (Kallar Kahar) of Pakistan with the local plant wealth, especially the medicinal plants. They reported the ethnic use of 29 species belonging to 18 families. Local people were very familiar with these plants, as these were easily available, inexpensiv e and having no side effects and were in use for decoction or in powder form for common disorders like fever, cold, cough and diarrhea. Ahmad et al. (2010) analyzed the floristic composition and community description of Deodar Forest in Himalayan range of Pakistan, by arranging 47 strands of deodar ( Cedrus deodara Roxb. ). On the bases of floristic composition of plant species, importance value index and phytosociological analysis, deodar communities and forest types were documented and described quantitati vely. Poor floristic similarities were observed between and within these communities. Mahmood et al. (2011) interviewed 7 Hakims (Herbalists) and 58 local old men during surveys conducted on traditional medicinal use of local plants of Mirpur AJK, Pakistan . They collected information on 29 species belonging to 20 families used by local people for various purposes. The information included local name, scientific name, family name and the plant part used for specific ailment. Shaheen et al. (2011) studied the vegetation of Western Himalayan alpine pastures, AJK, Pakistan and 46 plant species were reported medicinally important and used by local communities. Fever, cough, cold, asthma, kidney stones, parasitic worms, stomach disorders and weakness were the vari ous disorders being treated ethnomedicinally. Marwat et al. (2012) performed a research work on twenty - eight species belonging to twenty - two genera of the grassy weeds dur in g 2005 - 2007 , in Dera Ismail Khan, KPK, Pakistan. These weeds on one hand were found creat ing a havoc yield

12 loss due to competition and allelopathic effects, harbor insects and on the other hand found in use by local community for different ailments, as staple food and fodder and for thatching purposes. Nisar et al. (2014) conducted a stu dy for ten years in Bahawalpur, Pakistan to enlist the medicin al plants and their local usage, using a questionnaire and interviewing the local inhabitants. They reported 123 plants along with their proper nomenclature and ethnomedicinal uses by local peop le . Shaheen et al. (2014) prepared a floristic checklist of 248 species belonging to 166 genera and 38 families of Thal Desert, Pakistan. Themeda triandra was reported first time in Pakistan. This work provided important and fundamental data for public out reach to address the biodiversity crisis, conservation management and the ecologically sustainable management of natural recourses. Calvo and Cavero (2016) documented 19 plants of 13 families effective against ophthalmological problems. They interviewed 6 86 local informants in 686 locations of Navarra. The plant parts used most frequently were the aerial parts, flower, inflorescence and fruit. Ethnobotanical and pharmacological data indicated Allium sativum , Calendula officinalis, Foeniculum vulgare and Sa ntolina chamaecyparissus ssp. squarrosa useful for the ophthalmological purposes.

2.2 Phytos o ciology Hajra and Rao (1990) studied the flora l types, phytosociology and floral means in North West Himalayas. They categorized forests into tropical, subtropical, temperate, subalpine and alpine types and the vegetation into wild, eatable, medicinal, aromatic, decorative, orchids, silage, bamboos and other biologically interesting plant species. Phytogeographical affinities, the major threats to the flora and some conservation program were also discussed here. Chaudhri and Qureshi (1991) observed that as many as 709 species establishing about one fou rth of vascular flora of Pakistan, were in danger of being slowly wiped out or eliminated altogether. The reasons were the illegal trade, unsustainable use of the plant resources and changing environmental conditions. Some conservation program s were also r ecommended. Khan (1994) recorded that the decline in the thorn forest area of Pun jab was due to cutt ing , overgrazing and wind erosion, desertification, water logging and

13 salinity. Salvadora oleoides was mainly focused in this study for its great ethnobota nical and ecological importance . Malik et al. (2007) studied the vegetation of Pir Chinasi hills, AJK, Pakistan. They studied vegetation of the area consisting of 77 plant species constructing 13 plant communities, with reference to environmental factors s uch as soil condition, humidity, rainfall, climate, wind and biotic factors. It was noted that chemical contents of the soil play an important role in the specific structure of the communities. The soil of the study area was of heavy loam, clay and clayey loam type. Peer et al . (2007) analyzed the grazed vegetation of Hindu Kush Mountains, for the hierarchical cataloging of community data, using Two Way Indicator Species Analysis (TWINSPAN) and studied the relationship between flora and selected environmental limitations by usi ng Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA). Ali (2008) studied the importance and differential developmental periods of flora in Pakistan. A good flora is expected to provide information helpful for the identification of plant wealth, its utilization on sc ientific and systematic bases. We do not realize the importance of the plant wealth that God has blessed us especially in a country, having no department of botanical survey . In the compilation of Flora of Pakistan forty - seven botanist and fourteen artists have contribute their services. Ahmad et al . (2009) evaluated the status of Olea ferruginea forests, District Lower Dir , Pakistan, by arranging 30 strands in the forest. Phy tosociological characteristics like relative frequency, density, basal area and a bsolute values such as density and basal area of strands and species were presented. Based on Index Value (I.V.) and Species Analysis, 10 plant communities were documented in the area, showing more or less the same floristic composition. Sharma and Pandey (2010) attempted to record the phytosociological features of the vegetation of some selected sites in the arid region of Thar Desert of Rajasthan, India. They studied the soil character istics of the area influencing the microclimatic conditions, community composition, etc. This information may be utilized/ useful for formulating conservation strategy. Rahim et al . (2011) made a broad ecological study of the flora of saline area of Ferozwala, District Sheikhupura, P unjab, P akistan. The vegetation was surveyed and classified according to Zurich - Montpiller School of thought. They determined the physico - chemical analysis of soils and discussed its ecological affinities with each

14 ass ociation. Several relationships of the plant community types were worked out during the study. Shaheen et al. (2011) studied the distribution pattern of the biodiversity of the flora of western Himalayan alpine pastures of AJK, Pakistan based on importanc e value index. Average value of species’s richness was 1.42. Local alpine flora was dominated by vegetation of hemicryptophytic and microphyllous, life form and leaf spectra, respectively. Canonical correspondence analysis used to analyze the species - envir onment correlation. Anthropogenic activities had shown a negative impact on the biodiversity. Correlation of diversity and richness with altitude gradient was found to be also negative. Mishra et al. (2012) recorded the phytosociological perspectives of h erbaceous flora of grassland ecosystem in Anapara, U.P., India. They studied the phytosociological attributes of about forty plant species in terms of relative dominance, relative frequency, relative density as well as importance value index. This study wa s conducted thoroughly in consecutive three years (2010 - 13) to record the annual variation in the population dynamics and phytosociological status of the species. Ahmad et al . (2013 ) investigated the flora along the motorway (M - 1 ), Rawalpindi to Attock in Pakistan and examined the data by TWINSPAN and DC A, computer programs in order to categorize the vegetation into communities. Floristic data was taken from 40 sites at a space of 10 k m on both side of motorway. Total 45 species belonging to 23 families w ere recorded. Whole flora was divided in to 2 major and 14 sub communities after TWINSPAN application. Hussain and Perveen (2015) studied the plant biodiversity of the Fort Ranikot (The great wall of Sindh, Pakistan). This work consisted of comprehensive i nventory of the study area along with its phytosociology. They recognized six plant communities from different sites of the study area on the bases of importance value index. Because of microclimatic conditions and topography, they divided the research are in to six sites. For the comparison of these sites, different ecological indexes were evaluated. Zereen et al. (2015) studied the vegetation and different parameters of soil and water in District Lahore. Vegetation data was evaluated by multivariate a nalysis method, i.e. Two Way Indicator Species Analysis Method (TWINSPAN) and Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA). About forty quadrats were managed and

15 seventy eight species belonging to thirty seven families were recorded. Two major and six sub plant associations were recognized in the study area. Relationship of vegetation with environmental aspects was analyzed by CANOCO.

2.3 Ethnopharmacology Iqbal et al. (2001) studied the efficacy of methanol extracts of some commonly used ethno veterinary medic inal plants, screened for their in vitro study. These plants were Zingiber officinalis, Ficus religiosa, Allium sativum and Cucurbita Mexicana, arranged in their efficacy order. A ll the selected medicinal plants were hav ing anthelmintic activity, so in vitro study was required for further evidence for their proper use in animals. Bisht et al. (2006) tried the extracts from the roots of Hedychium spicatum to access their antibacterial and antifungal efficacy. As a result inhibitory activity against gram p ositive and gram negative bacteria and fungal cultures were found in essential oil, petroleum ether and chloroform extracts. Khan et al. (2006) tested the antimicrobial activity of many parts of Derris elliptica, D. indica and D. trifoliata after their fra ctionation with a sum of polar and non - polar solvents (methanol, butanol, dichloromethane , ethyl acetate and petroleum ether). A reasonably good antibacterial activity was displayed by methanol fractions of the leaves and root’s heartwood butanol, methanol and petroleum ether fractions of the root bark of D. indica as well as petroleum ether and ethyl acetate fractions of D. trifoliata . None of the florae showed antifungal acti vity . Eguale (2007) conducted an anthelmintic efficacy of crude aqueous and hydro - alcoholic extracts of the seeds of Coriandrum sativum (Apiaceae), an adult nematode parasite Haemonchus contortus and its eggs . Aqueous extract was also investigated for in vivo an thelmintic activity in sheep and inhibited egg hatching completely at a concentration of <0.5 mg/ml. LED 50 of aqueous extract and of hydro - alcoholic extract were 0.12 mg/ml and 0.18 mg/ml, respectively, as found by one - way ANOVA. Vidyadhar et al. (2010) e valuated a medicinal plant as an alternate source of anthelmintics, to overcome the conventional anthelmintic drugs due to the development of resistance in worms and their high cost. They selected Enicostemma littorale , a local medicinal plant used for liv estock ailments. Different concentrations

16 of all extracts were tested and results were recorded in time for paralysis and time for death of worms by using dose dependent activity. Ajaib et al. (2011) evaluated the pharmacological value of a local medicina l plant, Sauromatum venosum Schott. of Kotli, Pakistan. This assay consists of antibacterial activity including MIC and antioxidant activity of crude extract of its fruit. The result indicated a significant antibacterial potential and effective total antio xidant activity and reasonable MIC values. The results thus obtained confirmed the local ethnic health care practices and ethnobotanic information of the plant. Sravanthi et al. (2011) investigated the anthelmintic activity of methanolic extract of seeds of S a pindus trifoliatus and found effective at all concentrations tested . The extracts were diluted at four concentrations and Albendazole was used as standard. M ore than half of the population of the world suffers from helminthiasis and could be be st controlled by utilizing such medicinal plants. Riaz et al. (2012) evaluated the antioxidant potential of Dodonaea viscose Jacq. Dried contents of methanolic extract of said plant were dissolved in distilled water partitioned with chloroform, ethyl ace tate, n - hexane and n - butanol. Results of Phytochemical analysis showed the presence of phenolics, flavonoids and cardic glycosides in an adequate amount in chloroform, n - butanol and ethylacetate fractions. The chloroform fraction showed the maximum total antioxidant activity, i.e. 1.078±0.59 (eq. to BHT). Mashwani et al. (2013) compared the relative level of antioxidant activity of methanolic extract of the root bark of Berberis lycium Royle through different systems of antioxidant determination. They iden tified B. lyceum as a most excellent source of free radical scavenging compounds. The antioxidant activity was highest in phosphomolybdenum assay followed by ABTS and reducing power assay, respectively. Validmir - Knezevic (2014) conducted a study to evalua te the antioxidant activity of the plants belonging to family Lamiaceae, in Croatia (Eastern Europe), using DPPH Scavenging activity and total antioxidant capacity assay. Rosmarinic acid was found prominent in almost all the investigated medicinal plants, having an effective antioxidant activity, with exception of Teucrium species. These plants are recognized as promising source of leading compounds for new drugs, targeting diseases.

Shirma et al. (2014) investigated the anthelmintic activity of different extracts of Eclipta prostrata Linn., used by traditional practi ti oners in Migori, Kenya, against Haemonchus contortus worm. Whole plant was extract ed in three solvents , i.e. methanol, acetone and water. Efficacy of these extracts was compared with standard reference drug, Albendazole and phosphate buffer saline as negative control. Karim et al. (2015) demonstrated the potential medicinal value of Pistia stratiotes by using its leaf and root extract s in two different solvents, petroleum ether and alcohol , respectively. Antioxidant value was assayed by DPPH, Nitric oxide scavenging and Ferric ion reducing method while anthelmintic activity by inducing paralysis and death in earthworm in a dose depende nt manner. Petroleum ether extraction of root ha d shown highest efficacy in Fe 3+ power assay. Wikaningtyas and Sukandar (2016) evaluated the antibacterial activity of eight local plants using minimum inhibitory concentration and Muller - Hinton broth in a m icro dilution method. The best results of antibacterial activity were shown by Kempferia pandurat (Roxb) extract (256 mg/ml) and Sena alata extract (512 mg/ml). In the same way Sena alata showed the maximum results in phytochemical screening and Kempferia pandurat (Roxb) showed moderate results. Ali et al. (2016) investigated the in vitro anthelmintic potential of the five ethnobotanically selected local medicinal herbaceous plants of Sahiwal Division, Punjab, Pakistan; by using their macerates extracted through polar and non - polar (two each) solvents. This activity was performed against a blood sucking macro parasite of sheep and goats ‘ Haemonchus contortus ’. They used NaCl 0.9 % and Piprazine citrate 10 mg/ml solutions as negative and positive control respectively and found very encouraging results, applicable in the field of veterinary h ealth care.

Chapter 3

MATERIALS AND METHODS The present study entitled “Ethnoecological Studies of Herbaceous Flora of Sahiwal Division, Punjab, Pakistan” was conducted during the academic session 2010 - 2016. It consisted of:  Documentation of Ethnobotanical data  Phytosociological attributes  Physico - chemical analysis of soil  Ethnopharmacological studies of some ethno medicinally useful herbaceous plants 3.1: Documentation of E thnobotanical data Material The material required for the survey and documentation included: Notebook, GPS, digital camera, pencil, paper, polythene bags, top sheet, prescribed questionnaire and local government helping information. Methodology The study area consisted of three districts; Sahiwal, Pakpattan and Okara, each district having two tehsils and overall total study area was divided into six sites, each site consisted of one tehsil head quarter, its adjoining areas and villages. The survey was conducted twice a year, in the months March - April and Sept ember - October. Local old aged people, Hakims, marketing traders and plant collectors from city and villages were interviewed through a questionnaire and the information was documented ( Annexure I ). The local inhabitants were unaware of the scientific or in ternational names of the plants. Therefore, the local names of the plants with their characters and locations were recorded, to approach the exact plant. The reported plants were collected with their photographs, dried and preserved on the standard herbari um sheets. The identification of the plants for their proper scientific names was carried out with the help of available literature on the flora of Pakistan such as Nasir & Ali (1970 - 1989), Ali & Nasir (1990 - 1992) and Ali & Qasir (1992 - 2014). The identifie d plant samples w ere submitted to the Dr. Sultan Ahmad Herbarium, Botany Department, GC University, Lahore, Pakistan as voucher specimens. The recorded information included ethnobotanic al data and floristic composition.

3.2 Phytosociological Attributes Ph ytosociology is special field of synecology in which structure, composition and classification of plant community is studied, in the form of attributes. Quadrat method was used for random sampling of the plants after Clements (1905). Phytosociolo gical attr ibutes were studied by calculating percentage frequency and percentage cover after Oosting (1956) and Daubenmire (1974) , respectively. From these basic parameters, Importance Value (IV) and Importance Value Index (IVI) w ere determined after Curt is (1959) a nd Risser & Rice ( 1971) , respectively. This data w as also analyzed through Two Way Indicator Species Analysis (TWINSPAN) after Ali and Malik (2010). Material The material required for the survey and documentation of Phytosociological attributes included: Quadrat (1x1 m 2 ), Notebook, GPS, digital camera, pencil, paper, polythene bags, top sheet, and local government supplied information on the study area. Methodology As mentioned earlier, Sahiwal Division consisted of three districts, i.e. Sahiwal, Pakpattan and Okara. Each district consisted of two tehsil headquarters. In each tehsil approximately six study sites were randomly selected twice to cover maximum area and vegetation. In this way, total research area was divided in to Seventy - four research sites. In each site, vegetation was studied by quadrat method randomly using quadrat of 1x1 m 2 at three representative places and was documented with the name and number of species and their percentage cover, density and percentage frequency followed by soil samp ling and plant collection in one year (March - April and August - September). Proceedings for soil analysis and voucher numbering of plant specimens, had already been described earlier. Summary of research area and study sites with number of quadrat investigat ed is given as under: District No. of Study sites No. of Quadrat Sahiwal 12+12 72 Pakpattan 14+12 78 Okara 12+12 72 Total Study sites 74 3/each Total number of quadrats - 222 Methodology f or studying the Phytosociological attributes described as follow s :

The Daubenmire Canopy - coverage Method It is commonly used for collecting frequency and cover data in herbaceous or grassland vegetation. Cover estimation is an important parameter for the measurement of bio - mass . A rectangular quadrat of 1m x 1m dimension was used to document the vegetation by following canopy - coverage method. The p ercent cover of each species in each quadrat was recorded. In this case, percent cover in the strand for a species was equal to the total percent cover value of that particular species for all the quadrats included in the survey. The q uadrats without a particular species was considered as zero value. Total area covered by a species in all quadrats % age Cover = ------x 100 Total Area sampled

Cover for a species Relative Cover (RC) = ------X 100 Total Cover for all species De n sity It is a numerical expression of the strength of a species in relation to the total number of all species present in a community in the study area. It wa s calculated after Curtis and McIntosh (1950) by the formulae as follows: Total no. of individuals of a species in all qu adrats Density (D) = ------x 100 Total no. of quadrats

Total no. of individuals of a species Relative Density (RD)= ------x 100 Total no. of individuals all species % Frequency It was introduced by Raunkiaer (1934) and indicates the number of sampling units or qua drats in which a particular species occurs . It refers to the degree of dispersion of a particular speci es in the study area and is expressed in terms of percentage of occurrence. Frequency and R elative frequency of the study area were measured by the following formulae : No. of quadrats in which species found present % Frequency (F) = ------x 100 Total number of quadrats studied

Frequency value of a species Relative Frequency (RF) = ------x 100 Sum of f requency value of all the species

Importance Value Index (IVI) In a highly heterogen eous community , a single phytosociological attribute is not able to yield the total picture of ecological importance independently. The concept of Importance Value Index was developed by Curtis (1959) for expressing the ecological success and dominance of a species in the form of a single value by adding the values of percentage cover, relative density and relative frequency. This total value out of 300 is called Importan ce value of a species. Importance Value = Relative Cover + Relative Density + Relative Frequency

Importance Value Index = Analysis by TWINSPAN The data obtained by quadrat was analyzed through Two W ay Indicator Species Analysis (TWINSPAN), based on percentage cover by using PC ORD V - 6.0 after Ali and Malik (2010) to identify the vegetation community. Identified communities were named after the first and occasionally the second dominant species. In th is way, dominant species we re arranged to communities. Canonical Correspondance Analysis (CANOCO) As the physicochemical properties of the soil have direct influence on the type of vegetation of the area. To justify this relationship, a computer program Canonical Correspomdance Analysis (CANOCO) using PC ORD V - 6.0 after Ter Braak (1986 ) was used. In this way, a relation between the soil characteristics and plant communities was observed in a better way.

3.3 Physico - chemical analysis of Soil The study are a consisted of three districts, six tehsils, each tehsil comprising of twelve study sites at least, in totality study area was divided in to seventy four study sites. The collection of soil samples was managed from each study site as; Sahiwal : 12+12 Pakp attan : 14+12 Okara : 12+12 Total samples : 74 Three - soil samples were taken and mixed to one from each study site. Each soil sample was taken from 10 - 15 cm depth, with barrel type hand auger. These three soil samples were mixed to one and packed in d ouble polythene bag, after marking

22 site number and date on it. The samples were shifted to the laboratory for their physical and chemical analysis after Richards (1954) and Ryan et al. (2001). Physical analysis included of soil texture and % moisture contents, while chemical analysis - 2 - 1 consisted of % age organic matter, pH, Electrical Conductivity (EC), CO 3 , HCO 3 , Ca +2 , Mg +2 , Na +1 , Cl - 1 and SAR (Sodium Adsorption Ratio) .

Physical characteristics of soil Material Pointer, tags, permanent marker, sampling labels, soil sampling information papers, map, petri - dishes, hand auger, soil sample, record sheets, screen of mesh size 2mm, polythene bag, Plastic beaker 1000 ml, measuring cylinder 1000 ml, wash bottle, distille d water, electronic balance and Bouyoucos Hydrometer . Methodology To evaluate the different physical characteristic of soil, following parameters were studied: Soil moisture contents Soil samples taken in pre - weighed oven dried petri - dishes were placed in oven for drying at 105 °C for 24 hours. These soil samples were re - weighed and moi sture content was calculated after Richards (1954) as: Moisture content (% age) = (Fresh weight - dried weight) / Fresh weight ×100 Soil Texture Soil texture was ca tegorized following the Soil Texture Triangular Coordinate Method after US Soil Survey Staff (1951) by taking 25 gm sieved soil, 200 ml dist. water and 20 ml sodium oxalate (saturated) taken in plastic beaker and shaken for 10 minutes. Suspension was shift ed to 100 0 ml measuring cylinder and volume was made to 1000 ml by adding water . After stirr ing vigorously , it was left undisturbed for five minutes and then Bouyoucos Hydrometer was placed in the suspension . The reading was taken and temperature of the suspension was also recorded . This reading was for clay and silt. The suspension in the c ylinder was re - shaken and left undisturbed for 5hours . After which, the hydrometer was placed in the suspension and the reading was recorded for clay. The temperature of the suspension was also recorded. Temperature correction formula was used for the hydrometer reading , to calculate the percentage of silt , clay and sand and then compared with above mentioned soil texture triangle for the determination of soil texture.

C hemical characteristics of soil Material pH meter, Electrical conductivity meter, weighing balance, wash bottle, Electric shaker, beaker and measuring cylinder of 250 ml, 500 ml, 1000 ml, Pipette 10 ml, burette 50 ml, 500 ml conical flask, P henolphthalei n, Barium diphenylamine, Ferrous sulphate, Potassium dichromate, Methyl orange, Sodium Carbonate, Sulphuric acid, Nitric acid, Sodium hydroxide, Ammonium purporate, Ammonium chloride (ammonium hydro - oxide), Erichrome blac - T, Flame Photometer, Sodim chlorid e and distilled water. Methodology The chemical characteristics of soil were recorded by using the following methodology : pH and Electrical conductivity 20 gm dried sieved soil was mixed with distilled water to make the volume of suspension 100 ml in a beaker of 250 ml. After placing on electric shaker for 30 minutes, suspension was used for recording the pH and electrical conductivity , after the standardization of both the instruments with appropriate buffer solutions. Soil saturation extract Dried soil mixed in adequate amount of distilled water to make saturat ed paste in a way that a glaze of water be observed on the surface, yet no water will stand in the hole made in that paste. Th e paste was kept stayed for a night and then sucked with an electric s ucker to obtain soil saturation extract. This soil extract (aliquot) was used for further chemical analysis as follows: - 2 - 1 Carbonates (CO 3 ) and Bicarbonates (HCO 3 ) The titration consisted of two steps and two reactions as shown below:

Na 2 CO 3 + H 2 SO 4 ------> 2NaHCO 3 + Na 2 SO 4

NaHCO 3 + H 2 SO 4 ------> Na 2 SO 4 + 2H 2 O + 2CO 2

1N H 2 SO 4 was taken in a burette . 10 ml soil extract (aliquot) was taken in 250 ml conical flask and 2 - 3 drops of phenolphthalein was added in 250 ml conical flask . No color appearing means carbonate absent, if pink color appear s, it means carbonate is present . This pink colored solution i s titrated against 1N H 2 SO 4 and end point i s colorless. Three concordant readings were taken and R1 was taken as the average of t hese three readings. Titrated solution in conical flask was used for the detection of bicarbonates, after adding methyl orange as indicator. It was titrated against 1N

H 2 SO 4 and the e nd point was golden yellow to light orange color. In the same way, three readings were taken and R2 was taken as the average of these readings. Calculation:

2R1 x Normality of H 2 SO 4 -- CO 3 (me/ L) = ------x 1000 Aliquot (ml)

(R2 - R1) x Normality of H 2 SO 4 - HCO 3 (me/ L) = ------x 1000 Aliquot (ml) Chloride By volume 10 ml of aliquot was taken in 250 ml conical flask , followed by add ition of two to three drops of Potassium Chromate ( 5% ) as indicator. Continuous stirring was done unde r bright light and it was titrated with Silver Nitrate 0.05N taken in burette . End point was brick red precipitate s or permanent reddish brown color. Three concordant readings were taken. One reading without aliquot was taken as blank reading. Calculation:

(ml of AgNO 3 for sample) - (ml of AgNO 3 for blank) Cl - (me/ L) = ------x 1000 Aliquot (ml)

Calcium and Magnesium (By titration method) Calcium To remove Ammonium acetate and dispersed organic matter present in soil, soil was dissolved in aqua regia (3part HCl+ 1part HNO 3 ) evaporated and dried. After drying soil sample was reused for chemical analysis. 10 ml pretreated aliquot, five drops of 4N NaOH and 50 mg of Ammonium purpor ate as indicator was added, shaken and stayed for rest. All this was titrated against EDTA (versenate) 0.01N solution and from orange red to purple was end point. At the end point EDTA (versenate) 0.01N solution was added drop wise, each drop after 5 - 10 se cond, as the color was not changing instantaneously (One reading was taken as blank). Calcium and Magnesium By volume 10 ml of aliquot was taken in conical flask , followed by the addition of t en drops of NH 4 Cl - NH 4 OH buffer solution and 3 - 4 drops of Erichro me black - T indicator w ere added in to the conical flask and titrated ag ainst EDTA (versenate) solution 0.01N, end point was wine red to bluish green (One reading was taken as blank).

Calculation: R1= ml of EDTA sol. u sed for sample R2= ml of EDTA sol. u sed for blank R1 - R2 x N (EDTA) Ca ++ (me/L) = ------x 1000 Vol. of aliquot (ml) R1 - R2 x N (EDTA) Ca ++ + Mg ++ (me/L) = ------x 1000 Vol. of aliquot (ml ) Mg ++ (me/L) =Ca ++ + Mg ++ (me/L) - Ca ++ (me/L) Sodium (By Flame Photometer) Stock solution of Na was prepared by dis solving 2.5435 g of NaCl in distilled water to make the final volume exact ly 1L (stored in cool place until usage). Working standards were prepared from stock solution as follows:

C 1 V 1 =C 2 V 2 Where

C 1 = Concentration of the stock solution in ppm

V 1 = Volume required of solution in ml

C 2 = Concentration of Sodium required in ppm

V 2 = Total volume required (ml)

V 1 x C 1 C 2 (ppm required) = ------V 2 Working standar d solutions were prepared of 10, 20, 30 , … , 100 ppm concentration s . T he flame photometer was operated stepwise , placed the Na - Filter, readings of the blank , standard and sample solutions were taken and recorded. Organic matter (By Chromic acid method) Principle: In this method during analysis soil organic matter (soil organic carbon) is oxidized with excess chromic acid and after complete oxidation, the remaining chromic acid, not used in oxidation is determined by titration against Ferrous Sulphate.

1 g air dried, grounded soil and 5 ml K 2 Cr 2 O 7 sample was taken in500 ml conical flask and mixed well. 10 ml con. H 2 SO 4 was added and mixed well and allowed to stand and cool for 30 minutes. Then 100 - 150 ml distilled water, 3 ml Phosphoric acid (85 %) and 3 - 5 drops of Barium diphenylamine (as indicator) w ere added. It was titrated against standardized Ferrous sulphate, sharp green was the end point. At the

26 start and after each hour a blank reading was taken that was subtracted from the following readings of sa mple volume, to get the actual volume of Ferrous sulphate used to reduce Potassium dichromate. Calculation: Vol. (ml) for blank - Vol. (ml) for sample % age O.M = ------x N of FeSO 4 x 0.337 Weight of soil sample (g) % age O.C = % age O.M / 1.724 Sodium Ad sorption Ratio (SAR) It is a measurement of sodicity of soil of the research area, using water extract of soil. It is also used for the suitability of water for irrigation or vegetation. It is determined by the concentration of solids dissolved in water. Na + Sodi um Ad sorption Ratio (SAR) = ------[1/2(Ca ++ + Mg ++ )] ½

3.4 Ethnopharmacological Studies on some ethno medicinal ly important local herbaceous plants During the ethnobotanical surveys, some plants were selected on the basis of their ethnobotanic significance for the analysis of their ethnopharmacological features. The five plants selected for this purpose had been given on next with their scientific name, voucher number and part used for the analysis. Table 3.4.1 : Plants selected for their Ethnopharmacological Assays

Sr. Plant name / Family Voucher No. Part used No. 01 Aerva javanica (Burm. f.) Juss./ Amaranthaceae GC.Herb. Bot. 2909 As whole

02 Cistanche tubulosa (Schrenk) Hook. f./ Orobanchaceae GC.Herb. Bot. 2910 As whole

03 Cuscuta campestris Yuncker. / Cuscutaceae GC.Herb. Bot. 2911 As whole

04 Heliotropium europaeum Linn./ Boraginaceae GC.Herb. Bot. 2912 As whole

05 Persicaria glabra (Willd.) M. Gomes / Polygonaceae GC.Herb. Bot. 2913 As whole

Morphological and Ethnobotanical features of the plants selected for Ethnopharmacological Study

Aerva javanica (Burm. f.) Juss. Pl 3.4.1 (Syn: Achyranthes javanica (Burm. f.) Pers ., Aerva persica (Burm. f.) Merrill) Family: Amaranthaceae Morphological features: perennial herb, frequently woody and suffruticose or growing erect in clumps. Stem 0.3 - 1.5 m in height, branched, densely whitish, terete, and often tufted. Leaves sessile or with indistinct petiole 2 cm in robust plants. Flowers dioecious, with spikes ses sile, cylindrical, dense and stout up to 10 x 1 cm. Seeds 0.9 - 1.25 mm round, slightly compressed, brown or black and shiny (Townsend, 1974). Ethnobotanical u ses: Decoction as gargle for toothache, pa ste of leaves and inflorescence for wound healing and inf lammation, paste of inflorescence and seeds as purgative and anthelmintic, inflorescence used in matrices against cho le ra and lumber pain (Qureshi and Bhatti, 2009; Murad et al. ,2013).

Cistanche tubulosa (Schrenk) Hook. f. Pl 3.4.1 ( Syn : Cistanche lutea auct. non Hoffmg. & Link: Wight ) Family: Orobanchaceae Morphological features : Yellowish to yellow brown fleshy herb, 15 - 150 cm tall with up to 5 cm broad base. 1 - 4 cm long and 7 - 20 mm broad triangular to linear acute scale. Bracket oblong lanciolat, often purplish, slightly longer than calyx. Bracteole shorter than calyx, calyx 14 - 18 mm long, including lobes. Corolla 3 - 5 cm long, 1.5 - 2 cm broad at the mouth, usually yellowish with purplish lobes. Stamina filament wooly at the base, anthers densely ha iry. Capsules 20 - 25 mm long and many seeded (Jafri, 1976). Ethnobotanical u ses : It is used against whooping cough and stomachache (Ilahi et al. , 2010). Male and female fertility, decoction against as jaundice (Salahuddin et al., 2013).

Cuscuta campestris Yuncker. Pl 3.4.1 Family: Cuscutaceae Morphological features : Stem thin, brown, green when young, branched and intermingled. Leaves minute scareous 1 - 1.5 mm. Flowers 2 - 3 mm long, compact,

28 clusters of 2 - 8 flowers. Calyx lobes 5, fleshy, glandular with reticulate venation. Corolla lobes light brown to yellow, slightly bigger than corolla tube, abundantly fringed. Stamen 5, broaden at the base, tapering to the apex, 0.2 - 0.7 mm long. Ovary fles hy, globular, brown, 1 - 1.2 mm, style 2 long, triangular or ovoid. Capsule globose, depressed, glandular and membranous (Rajput and Tahir, 1988). Ethnobotanical u ses : A yellow pigment obtained to dye wool persistently (Tanase, et al. , 2012). To treat o varian cancer and postmenopausal os teoporosis moreover , antifungal and insecticidal role is undeniable (Costea and Francois, 2005).

Heliotropium europaeum L inn . Pl 3.4.1 ( Syn: Heliotropium eichwaldii var. lasiocarpum (Fisch. & Mey.) Clarke ) Family: Boraginaceae Morphological features : An annual herb, 50 cm or more tall, branches green, dense, hairs up to 1 mm long. Leaves with petiole up to 4.5 cm long, hairy on both surfaces. Inflorescence terminal, 3 - 14 cm long with close set biseriate flower. Cal yx sessile with 2.5 - 3 mm long, lobes hairy on outside, glabrous. Corolla lobes orbicular to oblong 1.2 mm long. Anthers 1.1 mm long, elongated branched at base. Stigma basally 2 - fid ovoid (Nasir, 1989). Ethnobotanical u ses : It is an antiseptic, diuretic, expectorant and laxative. Juice of its berries (fruit) is best cure for jaundice, also used to treat gum infection , pyorrhea and other teeth problems . Leaves are applied externally on burn wounds. Its fruit juice and Ocimum sanctum juice are used to break kidney and bladder stone. In some areas c ooked as “ Saag ” that is very energetic (Mahmood et al. , 2011). Eyewash and infusion (Calvo and Cavero, 2016).

Persicaria glabra (Willd.) M. Gomes Pl 3.4.1 Family: Polygonaceae Morphological features : 0.5 - 1.5m tall, glabrous, perennial branched herb. Stem reddish at base, node usually swollen. Leaves 18 - 22 x 1 - 3.5 cm, completely glabrous. Ochrea 1 - 3cm long, tube like, completely eciliate. Inflorescence glabrous, pedunculate, branched raceme 5 - 10 cm long. Flower s heterostylous, pedicle 2.5 - 4 mm long, exerted from achreolae. Stamen exerted or included 1.75 - 4 mm long. Pistle exerted or included 2 - 4.5 mm long. Ovary biconvex, style 2, rarely 3, connate at the base (Qaiser, 2001).

Ethnobotanical u ses : Whole plant is astringent, rubefacient, vermifuge and diuretic and is used in the treatment of piles, jaundice, pneumonia, rheumatism, relieving pain and in some cases fever (Sivakumar et al. , 2011), also shows anti - inflammatory activity (Sobia et al. , 2013). Photograph of Aerva javanica, Cistanche tubulosa, Cuscuta campestris, Heliotropium europaeum and Persicaria glabra attached as Plate 3.4.1 . Materials Required Instruments, chemicals, apparatus, glassware and test organisms used in the ethnopharmacological study: Instruments  Spectrophotometer: UV - 2300, Tec. Company, Shanghai.  Electric Oven: Memmert, Germany.  Analytical Balance: Cp 224S (Sartorious), 0.00 - 220 gm.  Electric Balance: EB - 43OH, Japan.  Autoclave: Y222, 100VEC, Japan.  Rotary Evaporator: Laborata, 4000 Heidolph, Germany.  Laminar air flow cabinet : Technico Scientific Supply, Lahore, Pakistan.  pH meter: 410A, Orion, USA. Chemicals

 Methanol (CH 3 COH) ● Ethanol (C 2 H 5 OH)  n - Hexane ● Chloroform  Gallic acid ● NaCl (Sodium Chloride)  Distilled Water ● Nutrient broth  Nutrient agar ● Potato dextrose agarose

 Na 2 CO 3 ● 2,2 - diphenyl - 1 - pirlyhaydrazyl (DPPH)  Standard antibiotic discs of Amikacin (3 0 µg/ml ) , Ampicillin ( 10 µg/ml ) , Amoxicillin ( 1 5 µg/ml ), Ceftazidime (3 0 µg/ml ), Cefotaxime ( 10 µg/ml ) , Ce fotaxime ( 10 µg/ml ) , Piperacillin ( 1 5 µg/ml ) .  Standard antifungal discs of Fungivin ( 1 00 µg/ml ) , Griseofulvin ( 1 00 µg/ml ) , Nystatin ( 1 00 µg/ml ) , and Tezol ( 1 5 µg/ml ) . Apparatus  Soxhlet apparatus ● Blender  Spirit Lamp ● Cotton

 Dropper ● F orceps  Surgical gloves ● Scissor  Inoculating needles ● Stirrer  Aluminum foils ● Micropipettes  Surgical blades ● Pestle and mortar  Cork borer no.4 Glassware  Petri dishes ● Volumetric flasks, 100,250,500 ml  Glass vials ● Reagent bottles  Funnels ● Erlenmeyer flask, 250, 500, 1000 ml

Test Organisms Bacterial Strains Gram (+) ve  Bacillus subtilis ● Staphylococcus aureus Bacterial Strains Gram ( - ) ve  Echerichia coli ● Pseudomonas aeruginosa Fungal Strains  Aspergillus niger ● Aspergillus oryzae Intestinal Parasitic worm  Haemonchus contortus

Methodology This ethnopharmacological assay consisted of following analyzing activities  Extraction of plant extract in polar as well as in non polar solvents  Calculation of % age yield  Evaluation of antioxidant activity  Evaluation of antimicrobial activity  Evaluation of anthelmintic activity  Statistical analysis of data

Extraction of Plant crude extracts The crude extracts of the selected medicinal plants were extracted by Maceration method as follows:

Maceration Method The selected five medicinal plants were collected at their flowering or fruiting stages, washed with distilled water and placed in shade for drying. After drying each plant material was crushed and grounded separately. Each powdered plant was preserved in Kraft envelops with proper labeling as A, B, C, D and E. 200 gm of each powdered material of the selected medicinal plants was taken in 1000 ml glass beakers separately. About 300 ml , n - Hexan was added in each beaker an d covered with Aluminum double foil and remained immersed in n - Hexan for 8 days. Filtration was carried out on the 9 th day. The filtrate was the crude extract of the plant in n - Hexan. Each residue was dried in shade and then placed separately in 1000 ml gl ass beakers containing chloroform. The beakers were covered with aluminum foil and were shaken daily for 8 days. Filtration was carried out and the filtrate was the crude extract of each plant in chloroform. The residue of the each plant material was then taken separately in beakers containing methanol and placed for 8 days with shaking each beaker daily. Filtration was carried out. The filtrate was the methanol extract, while the residue was dipped in distilled water and kept for 8 days with shaking the ma terial daily. The filtration was carried out. The filtrate was labeled as aqueous extract, while the residue was discarded. All the four extracts were dried using rotary evaporator and the percentage yield of each plant material in each solvent was calcula ted with the following formula: Wt. of dried extract Percentage Yield = ------x 100 Wt. of the powdered plant material used Evaluation of A ntioxidant activity The following standard protocols were used to evaluate Antioxidant activity of the various polar (i.e. n - Hexan and chloroform) and non - polar (methanol and aqueous) extracts:  ABTS + Assay  DPPH Assay  Total Phenolic content determination  Total Flavonoids content determination  Metal chelating activity  Total antioxidant activity

ABTS + Assay

This assay was initially developed by Miller et al. (1993) and later improved by Re. et al. (1999). It is 2,2' - azino - bis (3 - ethyl benzothiazoline - 6 - sulphonic acid) having molecular formula C 18 H 18 N 4 O 6 S 4 . It is used to measure the antioxidant capacity of phytochemicals. By addition of Sodium persulphate, it is converted in to its radical cation that absorbs blue light of the wavelength 734 nm. This radical cation is reactive for many antioxidants including thiols, vitamin C and phenolics. During the reaction with antioxidant, this ABTS - radical cation is converted into colorless neutral form and is monitored spectrophotometerically. This assay is referred as Trolox Equivalent Antioxidant Capacity (TEAC) assay in which reactivity of an anti oxidant is compared to that of Tolox. Preparation of Plant sample (500 µg/ ml) P lant macerate 0.01 g was taken in 50 ml measuring cylinder and its solution was made in concerned solvent. The volume was raised to 20 ml. In this way of each plant macerate, 500 µg/ ml dilutions were made of each solvent. PBS Buffer Solution

About 1.8 g of K 2 HPO 4 .3H 2 O and 8.7 g NaCl were weighed accurately, transferred to

200 ml distilled water, initial pH was noted, by the addition of K 2 HPO 4 (0.23 g dissolved in small amount of water) solution pH was adjusted to 7.4 exactly and volume raised to 1L. 7 mM ABTS + Solution This solution consisted of the following two solutions: Solution l 0.0384 g of ABTS + was diluted to 7.5 ml distilled water, sh aken vigorously until clear solution was formed. Solution ll 0.027 g of Potassium per sulphate was diluted in distilled water and volume was made to 10 ml. Moreover 2.5 ml of solution ll was pipetted out and mixed with solution l. It was left in dark for 24 hours and used for next day, as 7 mM ABTS + Solution .

33 Proce dure Absorbance of ABTS + solution was attuned at 0.68 - 0.72 at 734 nm by addition of PBS buffer and the reading in this range was recorded as A o (absorbance of control). 2990 µL of ABTS + and 10 µL of plant sample were taken in reaction tube and shaken. The change in absorbance from first minute up to eighth minute was recorded. The reading of solvent blank without plant sample was also taken as control. Result Analysis Estimation of percentage inhibition of plant sample was carried as follows: 1 - Abs sampl e Percentage Inhibition = ------x 100 Abs control The above values thus obtained were expressed in orientation with the standard curve of Trolox as TEAC µg/g. DPPH Assay

This assay was evaluated according to Lee et al. (2001) and Erasto et al. (2004). It is free stable nitrogen based organic radical, having absorption band 515 nm and chemical formula 2,2 - Diphenyl - 1 - picrylhydrazyl. On reaction by an antioxidant, it is reduc ed and its absorption value is reduced as well. This property supports the visual monitoring of the reaction. Most of the phenolic antioxidants react very slowly with DPPH (Bondat et al. 1997), suggesting that this assay should be evaluated over time. Prep aration of Plant sample (500 µg/ ml) P lant macerate (0.01 g ) taken in 50 ml measuring cylinder and solutio n was made in respective solvent. The volume was made 20 ml. In this way of each plant macerate , 500 µg/ ml dilutions were prepared of each solvent. 0. 1mM DPPH Solution 0.00394 g of DPPH dissolved in methanol and the volume was raised up to 100 ml and preserved at 4C º . BHA dilutions Different concentrations of plant extracts (500, 250, 125 and 60 µg/ml were prepared from the plant sample mother solution by the addition of methanol.

34 Procedure 1000 µl of plant dilution taken up in a test tube and then 2.5 ml of freshly arranged DPPH solution was added. The solution was shaken and located for rest at room temperature for 40 - 60 minutes. After the incubation, solution of DPPH was reduced by changing color yellow to light color or transparent as end pint. Now the absorption of solution was recorded at 515nm wavelength with spectrophotometer. BHA was taken as standard while methanol as blank. Result Analysis The percentage of the remaining DPPH radic al was calculated by formula as:

Absorbance of sample Percentage DPPH = ------x 100 Absorbance of control

Total Phenolic content determination (TPC) This assay was foll owed after Makkar et al. (1993). For the estimation of Total Phenolic contents, Folin - Ciocalteu reagent (F.C reagent) was used due to its reduction capability, having Tungsten and Molybdenum oxides in its composition. When reduction takes place, color turn ed to blue. Absorbance was measured at 765 nm, amount of light absorbed at specific wavelength was the result of uniformity of phenols existing in plant macerate. Preparation of Plant sample (500 µg/ ml) P lant macerate (0.01 g ) taken in 50 ml measuring cylinder and dilution was made in respective solvent. The volume was made 20 ml. 500 µg/ml dilutions were prepared of each solvent by this way of each plant macerate , .

Sodium Carbonate Na 2 CO 3 10%

10 g of Na 2 CO 3 was dis solved in a small quantity of autoclaved distilled water and the volume was raised to 100. 2N Folin - Ciocalteu reagent Premade 2N Folin - Ciocalteu reagent was available from market in golden yellow color having following compounds, Lithium sulphate (Li 2 SO 4 .H 2 O), Sodium tungstate

(Na 2 WO 4 .2H 2 O), Sodium molybdate (Na 2 MoO 4 ), Phosphoric acid (H 3 PO 4 ), Bromine and water.

Concentrations of Gallic acid By using dilution method different concentrations of Gallic acid were prepared from precisely calculated amount of solute as per given table, in the glass vials and final volume was raised to 20 ml by the addition of methanol. Table 3.4.2: Gallic acid dilutions for the estimation of Total Phenolic contents Con. Of Gallic Amount of Quantity of solute Final volume acid (µg/ml) Gallic acid (g) of dilution (ml) 50 0 .0010 0.001 g of Gallic acid 20 ml 40 0 .0008 16 ml of 50 µg/ml 20 ml 30 0 .0006 15 ml of 40 µg/ml 20 ml 20 0 .0004 13.3 ml of 30 µg/ml 20 ml 10 0 .0002 10 ml of 20 µg/ml 20 ml 5 0.0001 10 ml of 10 µg/ml 20 ml 2 0.00004 8 ml of 5 µg/ml 20 ml

The standard camber graph was plotted between absor bance - concentration via spectrophotometer at 765 nm on the Microsoft Excel. Procedure Exact 40 µl plant extract, 3.16 ml double distilled water and 200 µ l of 2N FC reagent were taken in test tube and allowed to stay for 8 minutes. Then added 600 µ l of 10% o Na 2 CO 3 (supersaturated) solution and allowed to incubate at 40C for 30 minutes and absorbance was noted at 765 nm wavelength. Total Phenolic contents we re calculated from the standard curve and expressed as mg/g equivalents to Gallic acid.

Total Flavonoids C ontent determination (TFC) Estimation of total flavonoid contents was evaluated after Dewanto et al. (2002). The colorimetric method was used for the estimation of total flavonoid contents. It works on the opinion that aluminum chloride makes stable complexes with hydroxyl groups of flavones and flavonols having C - 3, C - 4 and C - 5 keto groups. Moreover, it makes a cid sensitive complexes with the ortho - dihydroxyl group of flavonoids. Preparation of Plant sample (500 µg/ ml) 0.01 g of plant macerate was taken in 50 ml measuring cylinder and dilution was

36 mad e in concerned solvent to net volume 20 ml. In this way of each plant macerate, 500 µg/ ml dilutions were made of each solvent. Aluminum chloride solution 10 %

AlCl 3 weighed 10 g accurately dissolved in a small quantity of autoclaved distilled water in 100 ml measuring cylinder, with continuous shaking and the volume was made 100 ml. Sodim nitrate solution 5 %

5 g of NaNO 2 accurately weighed and taken in 100 ml measuring cylinder dissolved gently in a small quantity of aut oclaved distilled water and made the volume 100 ml. 1M Sodium hydroxide Precisely measured 4 g of NaOH was taken in a measuring cylinder of 100 ml, diluted by the addition of autoclaved distilled water and made the volume 100 ml. Dillutions for the estimation of Total Flavonoid cont ents Different concentrations of plant macerate were arranged to assess the TFC of the given plant extracts by dilution method as follows: Table 3.4.3: Dilutions for the estimation of Total Flavonoid contents Concentration Amount Quantity of solute Final volume of (µg/ml) (g) dilution (ml) 100 .00200 0.02 g 20 ml 80 .00160 16 ml of 100 µg/ml 20 ml 60 .00120 15 ml of 80 µg/ml 20 ml 40 .00080 13.3 ml of 60 µg/ml 20 ml 20 .00040 10 ml of 40 µg/ml 20 ml The standard curve by graph was derived between the absorbance and concentration. Procedure 0. 250 ml of 500 µg/ml plant extract, 1250 µl autoclaved distilled water and 75 µl 5%

NaNO 2 transferred in a test tube and shaken well and stayed at rest for 5 minutes for incubation. The 150 µl 10 % AlCl 3 subsequent by the addition of 500 µl 1M NaOH, waited for 6 minute and then by the addition of autoclaved distilled water volume was raised to 2. 5 ml. Through spectrophotometer, absorption was noted at 510 nm. A blank was arranged without plant macerate. TFC contents were determined from the standard curve of Quercetin and expressed as µg of Quercetin equivalents per ml of plant macerate dilution.

Metal chelating activity Iron chelating capacity of plant macerate was evaluated after Dinis et al. (1994). Lipid pro - oxidant has capability to induce oxidative damage due to collaboration of Iron (Fe ++ ) with HO · Formulating Fenton Kind of reaction. ++ +++ · · Fe +H 2 O 2 Fe + OH + OH (Fenton activity) This Lipid pro - oxidant is renowned by amide transition metals exhibiting strong oxidative reactivity. Oxidative damage could be evaluated by elimination of Fe + + by means of ferrous chela tors. Ferrozine had competency to produce a red colored complex ferozine - iron when it reacts with iron, but the presence of chelator in plant macerate disrupts the formation of this complex. The assessment of reduction in color depicts the potential of che lators existed in the plant macerate. Preparation of Plant sample (500 µg/ ml) P lant macerate (0.01 g ) was taken in 50 ml measuring cylinder and its solutio n was made in concerned solvent. The volume was made 20 ml. In this way of each plant macerate, 500 µg/ ml dilutions were made of each solvent.

2mM FeCl 3

0.025 g of ferrous chloride FeCl 3 weighed and transferred to 100 ml measuring cylinder. Small quantity of autoclaved distilled water was added for solution preparation and finally volume was raised to 100 ml.

5 mM ferrozine (C 20 H 12 N 4 Na 2 O 6 S 2 ) 0.257 g of ferrozine weighed accurately and put in to 100 ml measuring cylinder, diluted with small amount of distilled autoclaved water, then volume was raised to 100 ml. Procedure

100 µl plant macerate, 50 µl FeSO 4 , 200 µl ferrozine were taken and after that raised the volume 4 ml by the addition of ethanol. Mixture was shaken violently and stayed for rest at room temperature for 10 minutes. Absorbance was noted at 562 nm with spectro photometer. A blank was a lso arranged without plant macerate and absorbance was recorded. Result analysis Results were analyzed as the percentage of bounded Iron as: Absorbance of control – Absorbance of sample % bounded Iron = ------x 100 Absorbance of control

Total Antioxidant Activity This potential of the plant macerate of the prescribed medicinal plants was evaluated by following Prieto et al. , (1999). Preparation of Plant sample (500 µg/ ml) 0.01 g of plant macerate was weighed and taken in 50 ml measuring cylinder . Its solutio n was made in concerned solvent. The volume was raised to 20 ml by adding respective solvent . In this way of each plant macerate, 500 µg/ ml dilutions were made of each solvent.

0.6 M H 2 SO 4 16.7 ml of lab grade concentrated Sulphuric acid was rinsed drop wise in distilled water in a measuring cylinder and the volume was raised up to 500 ml, stayed for cooling at room temperature. 28 mM Sodium phosphate 5.32 g of sodium phosphate weighed accurately and dissolved in autoclaved distilled water in a measuring cylinder and made the volume 500 ml exactly. 4 mM Ammonium molybdate 2.47 g of ammonium molybdate weighed and dissolved in some quantity of autoclaved distilled water and shaken, made th e volume 500 ml exactly. Procedure 500 µl of each solution was taken in a sample vial and mixe d with 4 ml of reagent solution, 4 ml of reagent solution was used as blank. All the sample vials were capped and incubated in water bath for 90 minutes at 95C o . After that, samples were cooled at room temperature and absorbance was noted at 695 nm with spectrophotometer and the values were expressed as number of gram equivalent of Ascorbic acid. Antimicrobial Activity Microorganism s being living entit ies have right to avail all concerned facilities of life. Yet when human becomes their host, to secure himself from the damages caused by these microorganisms he plans strategies to overcome its activities and pr opagation by using different phy tochemical s as anti - microb ial agents . Here we had checked the antimicrobial activity of our selected medicinal plants against bac teria, fungus and anthelmintics by using standard protocols after Ortega et al . (1996), Ferreria et al . (1996), Sharma et al. (1971) and Singh et al. (1985) .

Bacterial Strains The antibacterial activity of the selected medicinal plants was evaluated against four bacterial pathogenic strains. These strains were obtained from Department of Pathology, Post G raduate, Medical Institute, Lahore. Table 3.4.4: Bacterial strain for antibacterial investigation No . Name Type Pathogenic Role Ac. No 1 Bacillus subtilis Gram (+ ) ve Known as soil bacteria, Probiotic ATCC in healthy individuals causes food 15029 poisoning. 2 Staphylococcus Gram (+) ve Endocarditic (infection of the ATCC aureus heart valves), septic arthritis, Skin 14923 infection and pneumonia, 3 Echerichia coli Gram ( - ) ve Gastroenteritis, urinary tract ATCC infections, neonatal meningitis 14962 and diarrhea. 4 Pseudomonas Gram (+) ve Septic shocks associate with skin ATCC aeruginosa lesions, pneumonia, urinary tract 14971 and gastrointestinal infections Fungal Strains To assess the antifungal activity of the selected medicinal herbaceous pl ants, two types of fungal strains were used. These fungal strains were collected from Institute of Industrial Biotechnology and Microbiology, GC, University, Lahore. Table 3.4.5: Fungal strains for antifungal investigation No. Fugal Name Role 1 Aspergillus niger Causing a serious disease ‘Aspergillosis’ , a lungs infection, another human disease ‘Otomycosis’ causing ear infection. 2 Aspergillus oryzae A commonly propagating fungus in temperate environment, producing a group of afflatoxins. Methodology The antimicrobial potential of the selected ethnobotanically important medicinal plants was studied by using t he standard microbiological techniques as next.

Estimation of zone of inhibition For this evaluation Agar well diffusion method was used according to Jorgensen and Turnidge (2007), with comprehensive steps as follows : Nutrient Agar preparation To culture the gram positive and gram negative bacteria nutrient agar was used, prepared by following Cruick - Shank et al. (1975).  Amount of Nut rient agar medium components in g/L Nutrient broth : 8 g/L Agar : 14 g/L Distilled water : Total volume I L All the constituents were dissolved in some quantity of double distilled water, after continuously mixing when the solution was clear, the vo lume was raised to 1 L. By the addition of 0.01N HCl and 0.01N NaOH, pH of the medium was adjusted to 6.8±0.2.The beaker with medium was placed at hot plate, heated and shaken gently for the disbanding of agar till the light brown color appeared. Finally, after applying cotton plug at the mouth of the conical flask it was autoclaved at 121C o for 15 minutes at 15 - PSI pressure. Potato Dextrose Agar preparation To culture the fungal strains , potato dextrose agar was used and prepared by following Johansen (1940). PDA : 39 g/L Distilled water : Total volume I L 39 g PDA weighed accurately was dissolved in 700 ml double distilled water in a conical flask and p laced on hot plate for gentle wa rming and shaking until hazy yell ow fusion achieved. Now the total volume was raised to 1L and by the addition of 0.01N HCl or 0.01N NaOH, pH of the medium was adjusted to 5.6 ±0.2 and then was autoclaved after applying cotton plug at the mouth of the conical flask. Preparation of slants 5 ml of nutrien t agar taken in each labeled tes t tubes, plugged with cotton and placed in autoclave for st erilization then these test tubes were placed in inclined position to solidify at room temperature. With the help of sterilized inoculating needle mi crobes were transferred on to the slants in Laminar air flow cabinet . This proceeding was repeated for all the strain s of test microbes ( including bacteria and fungi ) , separately. The labeled slants were incubated at 37C o for 24 hours.

Preparation of Inoculums About 25 ml distilled water taken in 250 ml Erlenmeyer flask, autoclaved then cooled to room temperature. After the appearance of colonies in the 24 hour old slants, with the help of sterilized pipettes 10 ml sterilized distilled was added to th ese slants. By applying inoculating needle, colonies were scratched gently over the surface of the slant. This suspension was added in to the flask and was kept at room temperature for 30 minutes before and after shaking. Preparation of medium plates Petr i plates after washing with lab. grade detergent were place in inverted manner in oven at temperature o f 120 C o for about 24 hours. Petri plates after cooling to room temperature were arranged in pairs and sets of ten pairs were arranged in required number . Each set was wrapped with cling film and these sets along with dropper, nutrient agar, borer and other relevant material were placed in autoclave at 121C o for 15 minutes at 15 - PSI pressure. After that when all these material attained the r oom temperature, under Laminar a ir f low cabinet after sterilizing ay spirit lamp flame, 15 - 20 ml of nutrient agar was poured in each petri and its second part was placed inverted on it after proper tagging, and stayed for 20 - 30 minutes for proper settling. The plant macerates were diluted to 100 mg / ml in their respective solvents. The diffused plate method for boring (borer #4) and inoculation (using autoclaved cotton swab) was used. Petries were packed in cling film , allowed for inoculation for next 24 hours at lab conditions. This practice was repeated three times and final reading was taken as average of these. Measurement of zone of inhibition Antimicrobial potential of the selected ethno medicinally important plants was assayed by measuring the inhibition zone produced by the inhibitory action of these extracts against bacterial and fungal strains in the petri plates. Zone of inhibition noted in mm by ruler and was compared with the zone of inhibitio n produced by commercially available antibiotic discs.

Zone of Inhibition (mm)

Measurement of Minimum Inhibitory Concentration Minimum inhibitory concentration ( MIC ) , the lowest possible concentration of the plant extract that prevents visible growth of the test microorganism, was carried out according to Murray et al ., (1999) using modified broth dilution assay. For this purpose, only methanolic extracts of all the selected ethnomedicin ally important medicinal plants were assayed by in cubating with selected pathogen as follows : Preparation of plant samples Ten concentrations of the plant macerate were taken as, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100 mg/ml. For 10 mg/ml solution 0.1 g of respective dried plant macerate (methanol) was ta ken in graduated measuring cylinder and the volume raised to 10 ml by adding methanol. All the dilutions were managed in this way and were stored in 20C o in the airtight glass bottles , till further use . Table 3.4.6: Preparation of dilutions for MIC Assay Con. of plant Amount of plant Final vol. of extract (mg/ml) macerate (g) dilution (ml) 10 0.1 1 0 20 0.2 1 0 30 0.3 1 0 40 0.4 1 0 50 0.5 1 0 60 0.6 1 0 70 0.7 1 0 80 0.8 1 0 90 0.9 1 0 100 1.0 1 0

Preparation of Medium For bacterial strains: 0.08 g nutrient broth, volume raised to 10 ml by addition of double distilled water. pH was maintained at 6.5±0.2 by adding 0.01N HCl or 0.01N NaOH. Medium was transferred to 500 ml conical flask and autoclaved at 121C o , 15PSI pressure for 15 minutes.

For fungal strains: 0.2 g malt extract dissolved and volume raised to 10 ml by addition of double distilled water. pH was maintained at 5.6±0.2 by adding 0.01N HCl or 0.01N NaOH. All the material was transferred to 500 ml conical flask and autoclaved at 121C o , 15 - PS I pressure for 15 minutes. Preparation of inocula For bacterial strains: 2 - 3 bacterial colonies were selected from 24 - hour fresh culture and dissolved in 0.9 % NaCl solution under Laminar air flow cabinet and incubate d at 35±2C o for 3 - 4 hours. For fungal strains: 4 - 5 fungal colonies were selected from 48 hours fresh culture and dissolved in 0.9 % NaCl solution under Laminar air flow cabinet and incubate d at 25±2C o for 3 - 4 hours. Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) Assay Minimum inhibitory concentration was carried out after Murray et al ., (1999). According to this technique each set of test tubes was consisted of 10+1, 10 for the dilution of plant extract ranging from 10 - 100 mg/ml and one as control without plant macerate . 1 µ l o f inoculum, 1 µ l of plant macerate dilution, 2.5 1 µ l of medium and 3 ml of double distilled water were t aken in a test tube and incubate d for 24 and 48 hours at 37±2C o and 25±2C o for bacterial and fungal assay, respectively. Absorbance was noted at 595 nm through spectrophotometer by setting the control value. Statistical Analysis All the parameters were evaluated in triplicates and the outcomes were analyzed statistically on Excel to achieve the considerable value of analysis.

Anthelmintic Activity A nthelmintic activity of extracts of the selected ethnomedicinal plants was examined according to Sharma et al. (1971) and Singh et al. (1985) with slight alterations according to Fasiuddin and Campbell (2000). Test organisms In vitro anthelmintic activity of the nominated plants was assessed by using roundworm , i.e. Haemonchus contortus , attained by dissecting abomasums of freshly slaughtered doubted sheep/goat attained from regional slaughterhouse, cattle market, Tokar Niaz Baig, Lahore , a fter washing the abomasums with saline solution (NaCl 0.9% solution) and kept in NaCl 0.9% solution for further inspection. Haemonchus

44 contortus were identified and authenticated by Department of Zoology, GC University, Lahore. Preparation of test solution s Every solution utiliz ed during anthelmintic assay was arranged freshly and accurately before the beginning of evaluation. NaCl 0.9 % (saline) solution Sodium chloride 0.9 % solution was mainly involved to adjust the permanence of the nematode as in host atmosphere for occultation. NaCl 09 g was exactly measured and moved in to 100 ml measuring cylinder, final volume brought to 1000 m l by the providing of autoclaved water and autoclaved for 15 minutes at 121°C and 15 PSI pressure. It was used for washing f ilthiness, as well as negative control. Piperazine citrate 10 mg/ml

3C 4 H 10 N 2 .2C 6 H 8 O 7 (Piperazine citrate) 0.6 g was d issolv ed in minute amount of distilled water with constant stirring and the concluding volume was elevated to 60 m l by pouring additional autoclaved water. It was used as positive control for assessment of potential of extracts of selected medicinal plants. M acerate dilutions Four different concentr ations (10, 20, 50 and 100 mg/ml ) of each plant macerate were expressed through serial dilution method by transferring precisely me asured amount of solute (Table 3.4.7 ) to the glass vials. The concluding volume was brought to 20 m l with the particular solvent in which the plant material was soaked. Table 3.4.7: Preparat ion of dilutions for the anthelmintic investigation Concentration Amount of Quantity of solute Final volume of of plant extract plant macerate dilution 100 mg/m l 6.0 g 6 g plant macerate 60 m l 50 mg/m l 3.0 g 30 mL of 100 mg/mL 60 m l 20 mg/m l 1.2 g 24 mL of 50 mg/mL 60 m l 10 mg/m l 0.6 g 30 mL of 20 mg/mL 60 m l

Procedure This anthelmintic potential of the arranged plants extract against the gastro - intestinal nematode, Haemonchus contortus, taken from the abomasums of freshly slaughtered sheep, was assessed at the four different concentr ations (10, 20, 50 and 100 mg/ml ) by

45 methodology approved by Ajaiyeoba et al. (2001). The experimental worms were allotted in 82 sets for approximating the competence of th e given plant extracts . Each set was organized in triplicate (three petri plates of each concentrat ion), first set of 10ml Piperazine citrate for standard and second of 10 ml saline solution for control and other eighty sets of plant extracts were organized for experiment as ea ch taking 10 ml of each dilution per extract. Each preparation was followed by the adding of 5 same - sized nematodes. All plates were located for about 4 hours at room temperature. Each plate was detected after every ten minutes break precisely. Paralyzed ( no motion detected other than when they were agitated actively ) and died worms (neither movement noticed when stirred strongly) were counted and recorded against each concentration. Each died worm was re - suspended in separate control plate for ten minutes for probable recovery of the worm motility. If no motility detected, death count was definite. Same protocol was followed for controls (negative and positive) and experimental sets. Statistical Analysis Efficacy of plant extracts in killing the worms was a nalyzed by calculating the mean and SEM . Moreover , lethal dose fifty (LD 50 ), the dose of medicine (plant extract) required to kill the fifty percent of the Haemonchus contortus was calcul ated after Randhawa (2009), by P robit analysis. Probit is a regression application, used to analyze binomial variables by transforming a sigmoid dose response curve to a straight line, analyzed by linear regression. The results of LD 50 , graphical presentations and statistical analysis were evaluated through Micros oft Excel.

Chapter 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION This chapter will consist of four sections as follows :  Ethnobotany  Phytosociological Attributes  Physicochemical Analysis of Soil  Ethnopharmacological Studies 4.1 Ethnobotanical data This study was conducted in academic session 2010 - 2016. Sahiwal division consisted of three districts Sahiwal, Pakpattan and Okara, every district consisted of two Tehsil headquarters and surrounding villages, scattered huts and houses. Different visits we re managed in different seasons and at different occasions of the area to cover the each tehsil and district to encompass the ethnobotanical data fr om the local people as follows : Visits of Study Area During these surveys Tehsil wise research sites were arranged. A plan was composed to cover the whole study area. A guide or contact person was managed from each research site to approach the resource persons and remote areas of the research site. All the possible parameters were followed for a healthy and friendly environment. All the interviews were conducted in good manner, yet non - cooperation and to hide some experience was also observed. Old age people were preferred for the interviews as resource pers on. These resource persons were of each sex, profession and social setup. Ethnic information were recorded on the proper format, at the end of seating and the plants guided by the resource persons were collected and saved for further processing. Plant Col lection, Preservation and Identification Plants reported by the resource persons with their local names, locations and other morphological characteristics and the plants found during the visit area were collected in the newspaper collection. These plants w ere replaced from old to fresh newspaper collection to avoid fungal growth. These plants were identified with the available literature on the flora of Pakistan such as Nasir & Ali (1970 - 1989), Ali & Nasir (1990 - 1992) and Ali & Qasir (1992 - 2014) in soft and hard forms . These dried representative samples were pasted on the printed standard herbarium sheets and

47 deposited to Sultan Ahmad Herbarium, Botany Department, GC University, Lahore for proper Voucher number. Photographic views of these live plants were a lso captured by digital camera. Documentation of Ethnobotanical Data The interviews of local resource persons were recorded on a prescribed questionnaire (Annexure I). The information recorded on these papers were transferred, compiled in the order from Pt eridophytes to Gymnosperms and then to Angiosperms (dicots to monocots) and then arranged family wise alphabetically according to a proper format as follow s : ETHNOBOTANICAL DATA OF LOCAL PLANTS OF SAHIWAL DIVISION, PUNJAB, PAKISTAN Botanical Name : Equisetum debile Roxb. Family Name : Equisetaceae Local Name : Jor - tor Habit : Herb Habitat : Moist places Flowering Period : Feb. - May Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Plant is eaten by animals during grazing, have medicinal values, yet not reported locally.

Botanical Name : Adiantum capillus - veneris Linn. Family Name : Adiantaceae Local Name : Khoo booti Habit : Herb Habitat : Moist places like underside the canal bridges. In the past main origin was Persian well, that is why called Khoo booti. Flowering Period : Sori produced in April - August Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Used in powder and decoction form in the treatment of liver disorders.

Botanical Name : Ephedra ciliata Fisch. & Mey. Family Name : Ephedraceae Loca l Name : -- Habit : Herb/Shrub Habitat : Moderate moist places Flowering Period : Feb. - March Part used : Areal parts Local Usage : A very useful medicinal plant, used for the treatment of asthma and neurological problems.

Botanical Name : Peristrophe paniculata (Forssk.) Brummitt. Family Name : Acanthaceae Local Name : -- Habit : Herb Habitat : Moderate moist places Flowering Period : March - April Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Used as fodder.

Botanical Name : Gisekia phar naceoides Linn. Family Name : Aizoaceae Local Name : Tar booti Habit : Herb Habitat : Moist places Flowering Period : Feb. - June Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Used as fodder

Botanical Name : Trianthema portulacastrum Linn. Family Name : Aizoaceae Local Name : It - sit Habit : Herb Habitat : Moist places Flowering Period : Dec . - June

Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Silage for cattle, enriched with minerals al so used as vegetable.

Botanical Name : Trianthema triquetra Rottle and Willd. Family Name : Aizoaceae Local Name : Loonki Habit : Herb Habitat : Waste and saline places Flowering Period : March - August Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Silage for cattle made from fresh plant. This plant is recommended to reduce the “sam and thohar”( salinity of the Soil).

Botanical Name : Zaleya pentandra (Linn.) Jeffrey. ( Syn: Trianthema pentandra Linn. ) Family Name : Aizoaceae Local Name : Kali it - sit Habit : Herb Habitat : Waste places Flowering Period : Whole the year Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Plant extract is used for the cure of snakebite and abortion.

Botanical Name : Achyranthes aspera Linn. var. pubescens Wall. ex Moq. Family Name : Amaranthaceae Local Name : Puth kanda, Char - chata Habit : Shrub Habitat : Waste place, roadsides Flowering Period : Through out the year Part used : Areal parts

Local Usage : Seeds of this herb are used to cure stomach disorder. For the treatment of renal dropsy the decoction is u sed. Ash is used in the treatment of cough. The seeds of this herb are used for snakebite, cough, T.B., piles. Dry plant in p owder ed form is used for the treatment of gonorrhea.

Botanical Name : Aerva javanica (Burm.f.) Juss. Family Name : Amaranthace ae Local Name : Booien Habit : Shrub Habitat : Sandy places Flowering Period : March - May Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Decocti on is good in the treatment of body swelling and spleen stone.

Botanical Name : Alternanthera pungens Kunth. Family Name : Amaranthaceae Local Name : It - sit bakhra Habit : Herb Habitat : Sandy soils Flowering Period : Jan. - March Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Decoction used against fever, silage for cattle in earlier stage.

Botanical Name : Al ternanthera sessilis (Linn.) DC. Family Name : Amaranthaceae Local Name : -- Habit : Herb Habitat : Moist places Flowering Period : Throughout the year Part used : Whole plant

Local Usage : Used as f odder for cattle . Botanical Name : Amaranthus sp inosus Linn. Family Name : Amaranthaceae Local Name : Chulai khardar Habit : Herb Habitat : Waste places Flowering Period : March - May Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : It is coolant and diuretic, useful for the treatment of leucorrhoea, blood diseases, bronchitis and piles.

Botanical Name : Amaranthus viridis Linn. Family Name : Amaranthaceae Local Name : Chulai Habit : Herb Habitat : Waste places Flowering Period : Throughout the year Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Whole plant is med icinal. Roots are useful in the treatment of leucorrhoea and piles, also used to regulate the menstrual flow. Fresh plant used as fodder for cattle, leaves as vegetable.

Botanical Name : Celosia argentea Linn. Family Name : Amaranthaceae Local Name : Kalgha, Sarwali Habit : Herb/ Shrub Habitat : Less moist places and cotton fields Flowering Period : Sep. - Nov. Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Fresh plant is used as fodder for cattle. Seeds are used in the medicines of leucorrho ea and sperm deficiency.

Botanical Name : Digera muricata (Linn.) Mart. ( Syn: Digera arvensis Forssk. ) Family Name : Amaranthaceae Local Name : Tandla Habit : Herb Habitat : Irrigated soils Flowering Period : July - September Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Leaves are used as vegetable, whole plant is used as fodder for cattle.

Botanical Name : Centella asiatica (Linn.) Urban. ( Syn: Hydrocotyle asiatica Linn. ) Family Name : Apiaceae / Umbelliferae Local Name : Brahmi Buti, Ghor Sumbi Habit : Herb Habitat : Moist places Flowering Period : April - Sep. Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Used in indigenous medicines for eyesight, headache, nervous disorders and skin diseases. Plant is used as fodder by grazing animals.

Botanical Name : Foeniculum vulgare Mill. Family Name : Apiaceae / Umbelliferae Local Name : Sonf Habit : Herb/ Shrub (Cultivated) Habitat : Irrigated soils, moist places Flowering Period : Dec. - Jan. Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : It is a very important condiment. Its extract and itself is a very good ton ic for liver, stomach and brain moreover , it is used in perfumeries.

Botanical Name : Oenanthe javanica (Blume.) DC. ( Syn: Oenanthe stolonifera (Roxb.) Wall. ex DC. ) Family Name : Apiaceae / Umbelliferae Local Name -- Habit : Herb Habitat : Aquatic and moist places Flowering Period : March - April Part used : Aerial parts Local Usage : Used as fodder by grazing animals.

Botanical Name : Oxystelma esculentum (L inn.f.) R. Family Name : Asclepiadaceae Local Name : Dudhani, Gani Habit : Herb, Climber Habitat : Moderate moist places Flowering Period : September - December Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Plant extract is used as mouth wash for mouth ulcer and sore throat. It is palatable for goat and sheep.

Botanical Name : Pentatropis spiralis (Forssk.) Decne. Family Name : Asclepiadaceae Local Name : Ambevel Habit : Herb, climber of Rakh flora mostly on Capparidis and Salvadora plants. Habitat : Arid places Flowering Period : Feb. - March Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Root decoction is used as astringent and coolant, cures inflammation. Fruit is used for the treatment of joint pain, and backache, root used as miswak.

Botanical Name : Ageratum conyzoides Linn. Family Name : Asteraceae / Compositae

Local Name : Leyah Habit : Herb Habitat : Moist places Flowering Period : Feb. - April Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Used as fodder.

Botanical Name : Artemis ia scoparia Waldst. & Kit. Family Name : Asteraceae / Compositae Local Name : Chaoo Habit : Herb Habitat : Moist places Flowering Period : July - August Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Smoke of the plant is useful for the treatment of burn injuries. It is palatable for goat and sheep.

Botanical Name : Blumea lacera (Burm.f.) DC. Family Name : Asteraceae / Compositae Local Name : -- Habit : Herb Habitat : Moist places Flowering Period : Feb. - June Part used : Areal parts Local Usage : Having strong smell of camphor, used as fodder for cattle .

Botanical Name : Carthamus oxycantha Bieb. Family Name : Asteraceae / Compositae Local Name : Poli Habit : Herb Habitat : Moderate and sandy places Flowering Period : March - June Part us ed : Whole plant

Local Usage : Dried plant is used as fuel. Roasted seeds are used as staple food, as well as for the medication of intestinal worms in children.

Botanical Name : Cichorium intybus Linn. Family Name : Asteraceae / Compositae Local Name : Kasni Habit : Herb/ Shrub Habitat : Moderate moist places Flowering Period : March - April Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Whole plant is used as fuel, as well as a very good coolant, used in the medicines of liver, stomach and heart. It is also used as fodder for cattle. Seed are used for the treatment of constipation.

Botanical Name : Cnicus arvensis (Linn.) Hoffm. Family Name : Asteraceae / Compositae Local Name : -- Habit : Her b Habitat : Moist places Flowering Period : Feb. - May Part used : Areal parts Local Usage : Its soft tissue is grazed by cattle.

Botanical Name : Conyza ambigua DC. Family Name : Asteraceae / Compositae Local Name : Ram Devi Habit : Moderate places Habitat : Herb Flowering Period : March - June Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Whole plant is used as fodder for animals. Decoction is

used in the treatment of urinary problems, piles and diabetes mellitus.

Botanical Name : Cotula hemispherica (Roxb.) Wall. Family Name : Asteraceae / Compositae Local Name : -- Habit : Herb Habitat : Wheat fields of sandy area Flowering Period : Feb. - May. Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Used as fodder

Botanical Name : Eclipta alba Hassk. Family Name : Asteraceae / Compositae Local Name : Bhangra sufaid Habit : Herb Habitat : Moist places Flowering Period : Throughout the year Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Whole plant is used for the medication of hair, eyes and teeth ailments. Also used for the treatment of piles, swelling, hernia, lungs infection , asthma, leucoderma, anemia and eye problems especially eye infection and night blindness. It is used to prevent abortion and for u terine after delivery problems . It is used as fodder by grazing animals.

Botanical Name : Gnaphalium polycaulon Pers. ( Syn: Gnaphalium indicum Linn. ) Family Name : Asteraceae / Compositae Local Name : Balraksha Habit : Herb Habitat : Wheat fields of sandy area Flowering Period : March - Ap ril

Part used : Leaves Local Usage : Leaves are used as astringent and vulnerary. It is used as fodder by grazing animals.

Botanical Name : Ifloga spicata (Forssk.) Sch. Bip. ( Syn: Ifloga fontanesii Cass. ) Family Name : Asteraceae / Compositae Local Name : -- Habit : Herb Habitat : Sandy dunes Flowering Period : Feb. - May Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Used as fodder by grazing animals.

Botanical Name : Launia nudicaulis Less ssp. fallax Family Name : Asteraceae / Compositae Local Name : Sufaid Batha Habit : Herb Habitat : Moist places Flowering Period : Throughout the year Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Leaves are applied on for a head of the children for the treatment of fever. It is use d as fodder by grazing animals.

Botanical Name : Pseudoconyza viscosa Mill. ( Syn: Laggera aurita Linn. ) Family Name : Asteraceae / Compositae Local Name : -- Habit : Herb Habitat : Sandy and moist places Flowering Period : Feb. - May Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : This is used as fodde r by grazing animal.

Botanical Name : Pseudognaphalium luteo - album (Linn.) O.M.Hilliard & B.L. Burrt. ( Syn: Gnaphalium luteo - album Linn. ) Family Name : Asteraceae / Compositae Local Name : Balraksha Habit : Herb Habitat : Wheat fields of sandy areas Flowering Period : March - Apr. Part used : Leaves Local Usage : Leaves are used as astringent and vulnerary. Whole plant is used as fodder.

Botanical Name : Pulicaria undulate (Linn.) C.A. ( Syn : Pulicaria crispa (Forssk.) Benth. ) Family Name : Asteraceae / Compositae Local Name : -- Habit : Herb Habitat : Waste places Flowering Period : Feb. - May Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Used as fodder by grazing animals.

Botanical Name : Sonchus arvensis Linn. Family Name : Asteraceae / Compositae Local Name : Dodhak Habit : Herb Habitat : Moist places Flowering Period : Nov. - March Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Used as fodder by animals.

Botanical Name : Sonchus asper Vill . Family Name : Asteraceae / Compositae Local Name : Dodhak

Habit : Herb Habitat : Moist places Flowering Period : Jan. - Apr. Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Powder of the dried plant is applied on the wounds and boils. It is used as fodder b y grazing animals.

Botanical Name : Sonchus oleraceous Linn. Family Name : Asteraceae / Compositae Local Name : Dodhak, Bhatal Habit : Herb Habitat : Moist places Flowering Period : April - May Part used : Areal parts Local Usage : Used as fodder.

Botanical Name : Vernonia cinerascens Schultz - Bip. Family Name : Asteraceae / Compositae Local Name : -- Habit : Herb/Shrub Habitat : Road sides and moderate places Flowering Period : Feb. - Apr. Part used : Areal parts Local Usage : Used as fodder

Botanical Name : Xanthium strumarium Linn. Family Name : Asteraceae / Compositae Local Name : Layeha Habit : Herb/Shrub Habitat : Moist places, banks of water channels Flowering Period : Throughout the year Part used : Areal parts Local Usage : Dried branches used as fuel , plant extract used in the

tonics o f memory, complexion, leucoderma and tooth powder for children.

Botanical Name : Arnebia hispidissima (Lehm.) A.DC. Family Name : Boraginaceae Local Name : -- Habit : Herb Habitat : Less moist and waste places Flowering Period : Nov. - Apr. Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Used as fodder.

Botanical Name : Heliotropium crispum Desf. ( Syn: Heliotropium undulatum Vahl. ) Family Name : Boraginaceae Local Name : Pipat boot i Habit : Herb Habitat : Waste and sandy areas Flowering Period : March - May Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Plant is used after snakebite, more over used for the treatment of camel’s eye infection.

Botanical Name : Heliotropium europaeum Linn. ( Syn: Heliotropium eichwaldi Steud. ) Family Name : Boraginaceae Local Name : Hathi sundhi Habit : Herb Habitat : Less moist sandy places Flowering Period : March - June Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Crush of dried plant is roasted in oil of Sesamum indicum Linn. , Vern. Till. That oil is applied on head for ‘Balchar’(a fungal infection of hair fall).

Botanical Name : Heliotropium strigosum Willd. Family Name : Boraginaceae Local Name : Hathi sundhi Habit : Herb Habitat : Less moist sandy places Flowering Period : April - Oct. Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : It is diuretic and laxative. Juice is applied to sore eyes and gum boils, more over used for the treatment of limbs pain.

Botanical Name : Nonea pulla (Linn.) DC . Family Name : Boraginaceae Local Name : -- Habit : Herb Habitat : Less moist sandy places Flowering Period : Feb. - April Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Used as fodder.

Botanical Name : Brassica rapa Linn. ssp. campest ris (Linn.) Clapham. ( Syn: Brassica campestris Linn. var. campestris Linn.) Family Name : Brassicaceae /Cruciferae Local Name : Sarsoon Habit : Herb/ Shrub (Cultivated) Habitat : Moderate moist places Flowering Period : March - June Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Fresh plant is used as fodder, oil is used in different home and medicinal prescriptions, used as solvent. It is also used against the skin infections.

Botanical Name : Capsella bursa - pastoris (Linn.) Medik. Family Name : Brassicaceae /Cruciferae

Local Name : Chambaraka Habit : Herb Habitat : Moist places Flowering Period : March - June Part used : Whole part Local Usage : Extract is diuretic, also used in the medicine of heart and in the treatment of dropsy and also as a good oil source.

Botanical Name : Coronopus didymus (Linn.) Smith. ( Syn: Senebiera didyma (Linn.) Pers. ) Family Name : Brassicaceae /Cruciferae Local Name : Jangli hala Habit : Herb Habitat : Moist and moderate places Flowering Period : March - June Part used : Areal part Local Usage : Used as fodder by grazing animals

Botanical Name : Eruca sativa Mill. Family Name : Brassicaceae /Cruciferae Local Name : Taramera, Kussoo Habit : Herb Habitat : Moderate places Flowering Period : March - June Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Fresh plant is used as fodder for cattle. Powder of seed, roasted in oil/ghee is used with milk in winter against skin infection. Seeds oil is used for healthy and black hair, moreover , oil and seeds are used against skin allergies and pile s .

Botanical Name : Farsetia jacquemontii ssp. jacquemontii Hook.f.& Thoms.

Family Name : Brassicaceae /Cruciferae Local Name : Farid booti, Farid mooli Habit : Herb Habitat : Moderate, sandy places Flowering Period : March - June Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : It has a pleasant pungent taste, used speci ally for the medication against rheumatism .

Botanical Name : Goldbachia laevigata (M. Bieb.) DC. Family Name : Brassicaceae /Cruciferae Local Name : -- Habit : Herb Habitat : Moist places Flowering Period : March - May Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Used as fodder

Botanical Name : Lepidium sativum Linn. Family Name : Brassicaceae /Cruciferae Local Name : Haloon Habit : Herb Habitat : Waste, moist places Flowering Period : April - June Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : It is bitter in taste, used to cure dysentery, pain in abdomen, blood and skin diseases and muscular pains . Moreover, boiled in milk, is used to cause abortion.

Botanical Name : Malcolmia africana (Linn.) R.Br. Family Name : Brassicaceae /Cruciferae Local Name : -- Habit : Herb Habitat : Moist places

Flowering Period : March - June Part used : Areal part Local Usage : Used as fodder

Botanical Name : Raphanus sativus Linn. var. sativus . Family Name : Brassicaceae /Cruciferae Local Name : Mooli Habit : Herb/shrub ( Cultivated ) Habitat : Moist places Flowering Period : Nov. - Jan. Part used : Areal parts Local Usage : Root is used for curry. It is carminative. Its ash is used in the treatment of liver, stomach and kidney problems. Whole plant is eaten by animals.

Botanical Name : Rorippa islandica (Oeder.) Borbas. Family Name : Brassicaceae /Crucifer ae Local Name : -- Habit : Herb Habitat : Moist places Flowering Period : March - May Part used : Areal parts Local Usage : Used as fodder

Botanical Name : Sisymbrium irio Linn. Family Name : Brassicaceae /Cruciferae Local Name : -- Habit : Herb Habitat : Moist places Flowering Period : March - May Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Plant is u sed as fodder by grazers .

Botanical Name : Cannabis sativa Linn. Family Name : Cannabaceae Local Name : Bhang Habit : Herb/S hrub Habitat : Moderate places Flowering Period : April - Aug. Part used : Areal parts Local Usage : Very well familiar source of narcotics. Used socially as well as medicinally.

Botanical Name : Capparis spinosa Linn. Family Name : Capparidaceae Local Name : Kabar Habit : Herb Habitat : Dry, sandy places Flowering Period : March - June Part used : Fruit Local Usage : Fruit is used as food by human (also as sexual tonic) as well as by insects

Botanical Name : Cleome brachycarpa Vahl ex DC. Family Name : Capparidaceae Local Name : Ponwar Habit : Herb Habitat : Moderate sandy places Flowering Period : March - May Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Used as fodder by sheep and goats.

Botanical Name : Cleome viscosa Linn. Family Name : Capparidaceae Local Name : Bhangra Habit : Herb Habitat : Dry and waste place

Flowering Period : July - Sep. Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Fresh aerial parts are used as fodder by sheep and goats. Roots and seeds are used as cardiac stimulant and are given also in case of snake bite.

Botanical Name : Vaccaria hispanica (Miller.) Rauschert. Family Name : Caryophyllaceae Local Name : -- Habit : Herb Habitat : Moderate moist places Flowering Period : March - June Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Used as fodder by animals

Botanical Name : Silene conoidea Linn. Family Name : Caryophyllaceae Local Name : Takla Qadri, Ghumak dandi Habit : Herb Habitat : Moderate moist places Flowering Period : March - June Part used : Whole pla nt Local Usage : It is also used in the medicines of liver problems, fresh plant is u sed as fodder for cattle.

Botanical Name : Silene gonosperma Rupr. Family Name : Caryophyllaceae Local Name : -- Habit : Herb Habitat : Moderate moist places Flowering Period : March - June Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Whole plant is used as fodder .

Botanical Name : Spergula rubra Linn. Family Name : Caryophyllaceae Local Name : -- Habit : Herb Habitat : Saline and sodic soils Flowering Period : March - June Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Whole plant is used by grazing animals .

Botanical Name : Stellaria media (Linn.) Vill. Family Name : Caryophyllaceae Local Name : -- Habit : Herb Habitat : Moist places Flowering Period : Feb. - May Part used : Areal parts Local Usage : Used as fodder by grazing animals .

Botanical Name : Atriplex crassifolia C.A.Mey. Family Name : Chenopodiaceae Local Name : -- Habit : Herb Habitat : Moderate moist places Flowering Period : July - S ep. Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Whole plant is used as fodder .

Botanical Name : Beta vulgaris Linn. Family Name : Chenopodiaceae Local Name : Chakandar Habit : Herb (Cultivated) Habitat : Moist places Flowering Period : Dec. - March Part used : Under ground rhizome

Local Usage : Used as salad and as a natural source of carbohydrate.

Botanical Name : Chenopodium album Linn. Family Name : Chenopodiaceae Local Name : Bathoo Habit : Herb/shrub Habitat : Moderate moist, waste pla ces Flowering Period : March - May Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : It is diuretic and aphrodisiac, its extract purifies blood , used for piles and for improving appetite. I n village houses c ourtyards are coated with fresh leaves crush for a good fame.

Botanical Name : Chenopodium ambrosioides Linn. Family Name : Chenopodiaceae Local Name : -- Habit : Herb Habitat : Moist places Flowering Period : Feb. - May Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Used as fodder by grazing animals.

Botanical Name : Chenopodium murale Linn. Family Name : Chenopodiaceae Local Name : Krund Habit : Herb Habitat : Moderate moist places Flowering Period : Dec. - March Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Leaves being enriched with minerals, considered an important constituent of curry ‘Sagh’. It is also eaten by grazing animals.

Botanical Name : Haloxylon stocksii (Boiss.) Benth. & Hook. Family Name : Chenopodiaceae Local Name : Khar Habit : Herb/ S hrub Habitat : Sandy places Flowering Period : Feb. - June Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Used as traditional soap. A large collection of the w hole plant is burnt in an oval ditch; a salt is collected at the bottom. This salt is used for washing clothes as soup and in tanneries.

Botanical Name : Kochia indica Wight. Family Name : Chenopodiaceae Local Name : Booin Habit : Herb Habitat : Moderate moist places Flowering Period : March - June Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Dried plant is used as fuel. Extract of fresh leaves is considered as cardiac stimulant in case of irregular heart beat. Dried plant is used as fuel.

Botanical Name : Salsola imbricate Forssk. : ( Syn: Salsola foetida Del. ) Family Nam e : Chenopodiaceae Local Name : Saji Habit : Herb Habitat : Waste and sodic soils Flowering Period : Feb - April Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Its ash is used for typical soap and also as vermicide .

Botanical Name : Spinacia oleracea Linn . Family Name : Chenopodiaceae Local Name : Palak Habit : Herb (Cultivated) Habitat : Moist places Flowering Period : March - May Part used : Leaves Local Usage : F resh leaves are used as vegetable, enriched with Iron, also used as salad.

Botanical Name : Suaeda fruticosa Forssk. Family Name : Chenopodiaceae Local Name : Lana, Lunak Habit : Herb Habitat : Waste and sodic soils Flowering Period : Oct. - Sep. Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Plant ash is used for cloth washing.

Botanical Name : Convolvulus arvensis Linn. Family Name : Convolvulaceae Local Name : Mandar Singhi, Valoor, Hiran - khuri Habit : Herb Habitat : Moderate moist places Flowering Period : Throughout the year especially in March - June Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Whole plant is medicinally stomach - smoothing, extract having healing properties. Fresh plant is grazed by goats and cattle.

Botanical Name : Convolvulus prostratu s Forssk. ( Syn: Convolvulus pluricaulis Choisy. ) Family Name : Convolvulaceae Local Name : Sankha holy, Dodak

Habit : Herb Habitat : Moderate moist places Flowering Period : March - June Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Medicinally it is a coolant, used in nerve tonics and in fresh form eaten by animals.

Botanical Name : Citrullus colocynthis (Linn.) Schrad. Family Name : Cucurbitaceae Local Name : Indryan, Kor Tumba. Habit : Herb Habitat : Sandy soils Flowering Period : Jan. - Apr. Part used : Fruit Local Usage : Fruit is used for the medication of ulcer, stomach, tetanus, urinary discharge and appendicitis. It is recommended for diabetic patients to have a still w alk on the fresh, wet crush of fruit. Its cold decoction is used as under wash for the treatment of piles. Its root is recommended as ‘Miswak’ for tooth infection.

Botanical Name : Coccinia grandis (Linn.) Voigt. [ Syn: Cephalandra indica (Wight.& Arn.) Naud. ] Family Name : Cucurbitaceae Local Name : Chiber Habit : Herb Habitat : Sandy, moist places Flowering Period : May - Aug. Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Whole plant is used as fodder Fruit is used in salad and curry. Fruit and roots have also some medicinal values for the medication of bronchitis, skin diseases and diabetes.

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Botanical Name : Luffa acutangula (Linn.) Roxb. var. acutangula (Linn.) Jeffrey Family Name : Cucurbitaceae Local Name : Kali tori Habit : Herb (Cultivated) Habitat : Moist places Flowering Period : April - June Part used : Fruit Local Usage : M esocarp of its mature fruit is used as commercial sponge for bathing and kitchen cleaning purpose. Fresh fruit is used as vegetable.

Botanical Name : Momordica charantia Linn. Family Name : Cucurbitaceae Local Name : Karela Habit : Herb (Cultivated) Habitat : Moist places Flowering Period : June - Oct. Part used : Fruit Local Usage : Fruit is used for the treatment of diabetes mellitus, also used as vegetable. It is the richest source of minerals and nutrients also used as dry vegetable.

Botanical Name : Mukia maderaspatana (Linn.) M.J. Roam. Family Name : Cucurbitaceae Local Name : Chiraita Habit : Herb Habitat : Moist places Flowering Period : Apr. - Oct. Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Plant is eaten by grazing animals, yet has some medicinal values (not reported locally).

Botanical Name : Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. Family Name : Cuscutaceae Local Name : Akaas bail Habit : Herb Habitat : Climber of other trees Flowering Period : Dec. - Jan. Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Its decoction is used for the medication of cough, asthma, cancer, ulcer and to remove the ladies face hair. Decoction in oil is used as a tonic against hair fall.

Botanical Name : Cuscuta campestris Yuncker. Family Name : Cuscutaceae Local Name : Amber bail Habit : Herb Habitat : Climber Flowering Period : March - April Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Used as fodder by grazing animals, yet recommended only for large animals, as it boot s up the metabolism.

Botanical Name : Chrozophora tinctoria (Linn.) Raf. Family Name : Euphorbiaceae Local Name : Bakwachal Booti Habit : Herb Habitat : Moderate moist and sandy places Flowering Period : March - July Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Soft branches are used as fodder, s eeds are emetic (causing vomiting), cathartic (having purgative effect). Plant yields the colouring matter.

Botanical Name : Croton bonplandianus Baill. Family Name : Euphorbiaceae

Local Name : Jaml ghota Habit : Herb/Shrub Habitat : Moder ate moist sandy places Flowering Period : Oct. - March Part used : Fresh leaves and seeds Local Usage : Leaves and seeds enriched with alkaloids , responsible of motions. So very limited dose is recommended for regulated and smooth motions.

Botanical Name : Euphorbia helioscopia Linn. Family Name : Euphorbiaceae Local Name : Chandni , Dodhak Habit : Herb Habitat : Moist places Flowering Period : Jan. - July Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Root used as anthelmintic, juice used as liniment in nerve pain, applied for warts removal. Plant is used as hydragogue (laxative softening the intestine). Seeds are used for the medication of cholera.

Botanical Name : Euphorbia hirta Linn. ( Syn: Euphorbia pilulifera sensu Boiss. ) Family Name : Euphorbiaceae Local Name : -- Habit : Moist places Habitat : Herb Flowering Period : July - Dec. Part used : Aerial parts Local Usage : Aerial parts are used as fodder by grazing animals.

Botanical Name : Euphorbia serp ens Kunth. ( Syn: Euphorbia microphylla Heyne ex Roth. ) Family Name : Euphorbiaceae

Local Name : Dodhani Habit : Herb Habitat : Moist places Flowering Period : Sep. - May Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Used as fodder, especially recommended for milk producing cattle. Fresh extract (two drops only) of the plant are given to the babies for the treatment of uncontrolled motions.

Botanical Name : Euphorbia prostrata Ait. Family Name : Euphorbiaceae Local Name : -- Habit : Herb Habitat : Moist places Flowering Period : Through out the year Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Used as fodder, especially recommended for milk producing cattle.

Botanical Name : Euphorbia pulcherrima Willd. ex Klotzsch . Family Name : Euphorbiaceae Local Name : Poinsetia Habit : Herb/shrub Habitat : Moderate moist places Flowering Period : Jan. - Apr. Part used : Areal parts Local Usage : Used as an ornamental plant. White juice of the plant is administered as purgative and anthelmintic .

Botanical Name : Fumaria indica (Hausskn.) Pugsley. Family Name : Fumariaceae Local Name : Pitpapara, Shahtara Habit : Herb

Habitat : Moist places Flowering Period : Feb - March Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Decoction of the whole plant is used for blood purification, also used as coolant, diuretic and diaphoretic (sweat inducing). Its bath is recommended for skin allergy. Plant is used as fodder.

Botanical Name : Mentha arvensis Linn. Family Name : Lamiaceae Local Name : Podina Habit : Herb (Cultivated) Habitat : Moist places Flowering Period : July - Sep. Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Leaves in fresh as well as in dried form are used in kitchen as condiment. Extract is used as diuretic, stomachic and stimulant.

Botanical Name : Ocimum basilicum Linn. Family Name : Lamiaceae Local Name : Niazbo Habit : Herb/Shrub Habitat : Moderate moist places Flowering Period : Through out the year Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Fresh leaves are used as condiment. Seeds are coolant , used against lever disorders. Extract is used as blood purifier, stoma ch - pain and stimulant.

B otanical Name : Salvia plebeia R. Br. Family Name : Lamiaceae Local Name : Samundar Sokh Habit : Herb

Habitat : Moist places Flowering Period : March - June Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Used as fodder, anti inflammatory role in medicine.

Botanical Name : Lawsonia inermis Linn. Family Name : Lythraceae Local Name : Hina, Mehandi Habit : Herb/Shrub Habitat : Moderate moist places Flowering Period : Oct. - Nov. Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Paste of powdered dry leaves are applied on hair, nail, palms of hand and feet to have a specific colour and for its cooling effect. Though this paste is coolant yet it has social values more than medicinal. Its dried branches are used as fuel.

Botanical Name : Abutilon indicum (Linn.) Sweet. Family Name : Malvaceae Local Name : Pili booti Habit : Herb/ Shrub Habitat : Moderate moist places Flowering Period : March - May Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Leaves and seeds are used in the treatment of toothache inflammation and piles, respectively.

Botanical Name : Malva neglecta Wallr. Family Name : Malvaceae Local Name : Ticka gulfa Habit : Herb Habitat : Moderate moist places Flowering Period : Jan. - March

Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Used as fodder by sheep and goats.

Botanical Name : Malva parviflora Linn. Family Name : Malvaceae Local Name : Khabazi Habit : Herb Habitat : Moderate moist places Flowering Period : Feb. - March Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Seeds are used in cough and urinary bladder problems. Whole plant is eaten by grazers.

Botanical Name : Malvastrum coromandelianum (Linn.) Garcke. ( Syn: Malvastrum tricuspidatum (R.Br.) A.Gray. ) Family Name : Malvaceae Local Name : -- Habit : Herb Habitat : Moist places Flowering Period : Throughout the year, especially in March - April Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Used as fodder by grazers.

Botanical Name : Sida cordifolia Linn. Family Name : Malvaceae Local Name : Choti peeli booti Habit : Herb Habitat : Moist places Flowering Period : March - June Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Used as fodder by grazers.

Botanical Name : Mimosa pudica Linn. Family Name : Mimosaceae

Local Name : Chooee mooei, Lajwanti Habit : Herb Habitat : Moderate places Flowering Period : Sep. - Oct. Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : An ornamental, touch sensitive plant.

Botanical Name : Glinus lotoides Linn. ( Syn: Mollugo hirta Thunb. ) Family Name : Molluginaceae Local Name : Zakham a hayat Habit : Herb Habitat : Moderate aquatic wastelands Flowering Period : May - June Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Extract of the plant is used for the treatment of Epilepsy and every type of injury and lesions.

Botanical Name : Boerhavia procumbens Banks ex Roxb. Family Name : Nyctagenaceae Local Name : It - sit, Baskhapra Habit : Herb Habitat : Moderate moist and sandy soils Flowering Period : Feb. - Apr. and other times also Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Behaves as a coolan t, so used in the treatments of anemia and leucorrhoea moreover, used for lever, abdominal ailments. A garland of its stem cuttings is used by anemic patient (very famous treatment of anem ia). Plant is used by grazers as well.

Botanical Name : Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. Family Name : Nymphacea Local Name : Bhain, Kauldoday, Kanwal.

Habit : Herb Habitat : Purely aquatic Flowering Period : May - June Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Fruit is flat at the top in hemispher ic form, each seed is eaten individually, roots are used as vegetable both are rich in protein. Dried seeds are used for counting purposes.

Botanical Name : Cistanche tubulosa (Schrenk.) Hook. Family Name : Orobancheaceae Local Name : Gidar Tambacoo Habit : Herb/Shrub Habitat : Behaving as a ro ot parasite in waste places and graveyards . Flowering Period : March - April Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Smoke of the dried plant is used for piles at the effected body part and flowers are used by cardiac patients. Jam of stem cuttings after the peeling off bark is used against essential tremor (Parkinson disease).

Botanical Name : Oxalis corniculata Linn. Family Name : Oxalidaceae Local Name : Khati booti, Khatkal Habit : Herb H abitat : Moist places Flowering Period : Throughout the year Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Whole the plant is used as fodder by grazers. Fresh branches are used as ketchup and vegetable. Extract of the fresh plant mixed with the extract of onio n is applied on the warts for its removal. Whole plant is

used for the medication of malaria and Heamorrhagic Septicaemia (Gal - ghotoo).

Botanical Name : Oxalis Corymbosa DC. Family Name : Oxalidaceae Local Name : -- Habit : Herb Habitat : Moist places Flowering Period : March - Apr. Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Fresh plant is used as fodder by grazers.

Botanical Name : Argemone ochroleuca Sweet. ( Syn: Argemone mexicana Linn. ) Family Name : Papaveraceae Local Name : Satyanasi Habit : Herb Habitat : Less moist sandy soils Flowering Period : Feb. - May Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Yellowish extract is very effective against jaundice and dropsy. Seeds are poisonous and having narcotic affect. Seed past is applied externa lly for headache and Herpes.

Botanical Name : Papaver somniferum Linn. Family Name : Papaveraceae Local Name : Popy, Afee m, Post, Doda Habit : Herb Habitat : Moist places Flowering Period : Feb. - March Part used : Fruit (poppy) Local Usage : Res ins collected by applying cuts on the fresh fruits are named and used as opium. Seeds from the mature fruit are taken and named as Khash - Khaash. Both are

extremely coolant and used for narcotics as well as against rheumatism and snakebite. Hot tea of the s ingle poppy is much enough for cold and flu.

Botanical Name : Alhaji maurorum Medic. Family Name : Papilionaceae Local Name : Jwansa, Jwaian Habit : Herb/shrub Habitat : Saline, dry and waste places Flowering Period : April - May Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : It is diuretic and remo ves excessive fats. Flowers are used against piles. Dried plants are smoked against Asthma, also used as coolant sheet in Electrical air cooler. Dried flowers grinded in Rose extract are used against eye infection. Roots are used against human vital power.

Botanical Name : Arachis hypogaea Linn. Family Name : Papilionaceae Local Name : Mong phali Habit : Herb (Cultivated) Habitat : Sandy soils Flowering Period : July - Aug. Part used : Fruit (nut) L ocal Usage : Endocarp is en riched with lipids, protein and carbohydrates and very delicious in taste, used in winter directly as well as a part of other dishes or food products.

Botanical Name : Cicer arietinum Linn. Family Name : Papilionaceae Local Name : Chana Habit : Herb (Cultivated)

Habitat : Moderate moist sandy soils Flowering Period : Feb. - April Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Fresh green twigs are used as vegetable. Seeds in green form as well as in dried form ate used as protein enriched food supplement for animals and men.

Botanical Name : Crotalaria burhia Buch. - Ham. Ex Benth. Family Name : Papilionaceae Local Name : Booien Habit : Herb Habitat : Moderate moist sandy soils Flowering Period : Feb. - May Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Cold extract of the plant is administered as a coolant.

Botanical Name : Indigofera linifolia (Linn.f.) Retz. Family Name : Papilionaceae Local Name : Neel Habit : Herb Habitat : Moist soils Flowering Period : March - June Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Used by grazing animals, yet no medicinal value reported locally.

Botanical Name : Lathyrus aphaca Linn. Family Name : Papilionaceae Local Name : Matri Habit : Herb Habitat : Moist soils, Banks of wheat fields Flowering Period : Feb. - Apr. Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : An ancient wild vegetable for serving a tasty curry dish.

Botanical Name : Medicago laciniata Linn. Family Name : Papilionaceae Local Name : -- Habit : Herb Habitat : Moist soils, Banks of wheat fields Flowering Period : Feb. - Apr. Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Used as fodder by animals.

Botanical Name : Melilotus indica (Linn.) All. Syn: Melilotus parviflora Desf. Family Name : Papilionaceae Local Name : Ran - Methi Habit : Herb (Cultivated) Habitat : Moist soils, wheat fields Flowering Period : Feb. - Apr. Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Used as fodder by animals.

Botanical Name : Rhynchosia minima (Linn.) DC. Family Name : Papilionaceae Local Name : -- Habit : Herb Habitat : Moist soils Flowering Period : Feb. - Apr. Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Used as fodder by animals.

Botanical Name : Trigonella foenum - graecum Linn. Family Name : Papilionaceae Local Name : Methi (Cultivated) Habit : Herb Habitat : Moist places Flowering Period : March - April

Part used : Aerial parts Local Usage : Fresh leaves are used as vegetable, dried leaves and seeds are used as condiment. It is carminative, few leaves are used in the recipe of every curry for its peculiar favorite smell.

Botanical Name : Persicaria barbata (Linn.) Hara. Var . barbata Family Name : Polygonaceae Local Name : Bhangra, Narri Habit : Herb/Shrub Habitat : Aquatic places Flowering Period : July - Sep. Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Used as fodder, also used in the medicines of arthritis and rheumatism.

Botanical Name : Persicaria glabra (Willd.) M. Gomes. ( Syn: Polygonum glabrum Willd. ) Family Name : Polygonacea e Local Name : Bhangra Habit : Herb/Shrub Habitat : Aquatic/ moist places Flowering Period : April - July Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Decoction of the plant is used against ulcer and teeth bleeding. Freezed cakes are made of paste of fresh green leaves and placed on the injured part turn by turn for the treatment of any type of injury.

Botanical Name : Polygonum plebejum R. Br. Family Name : Polygonaceae Local Name : Hazardani Habit : Herb Habitat : Moderate moist lands

Flowering P eriod : Feb. - June Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Eaten by grazers, powder of plant is used is administered against pneumonia. Root and shoot, decoctions are used against bowl abnormalities/ motions and piles, respectively.

Botanical Name : Rumex dentatus Linn. Family Name : Polygonacaea Local Name : Jangli palk Habit : Herb Habitat : Moderate moist places Flowering Period : Jan. - March Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Used as fodder for animals.

Botanical Name : Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solma. Family Name : Pontederiaceae Local Name : -- Habit : Herb Habitat : Aquatic Flowering Period : May - July Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Plant is enriched with potash (phosphorus); extract is used in the medicines of “Sarkan” in which blood comes with urine in cattle.

Botanical Name : Portulaca oleracea Linn. Family Name : Portulacaceae Local Name : Khulfa, Salunk Habit : Herb Habitat : Moist places Flowering Period : Throughout the year Part used : Whole plant

Local Usage : Plant is used as a pot - herb, as well as used as a coolant against the irritation of bladder and gonorrhea. Seeds are recommended for kidney ailments as diuretic.

Botanical Name : Porulaca quadrifida Linn. Family Name : Portulacaceae Local Name : Lunki Habit : Herb Habitat : Moderate moist waste places Flowering Period : Many times in a year Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Leaves are diuretic, seeds are vermifuge. Aerial parts are used as fodder by grazing animals.

Botanical Name : Anagallis arvensis Linn. var. coerulea (Linn.) Gouan. Family Name : Primulaceae Local Name : Dhabar Habit : Herb Habitat : Moist places Flowering Period : Dec. - April Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : This herb is used against i nflammation, pain in lever and kidney and for the improvement of eyesight. Plant is used as fodder.

Botanical Name : Ranunculus muricatus Linn. Family Name : Ranunculaceae Local Name : -- Habit : Herb Habitat : Moderate moist places Flowering Period : Feb. - April Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Plant use is administered in intermittent fever and asthma, also used as fodder.

Botanical Name : Ranunculus sceleratus Linn. Family Name : Ranunculaceae Local Name : Butter - cup Habit : Herb Habitat : Moist places Flowering Period : Jan. - March Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Used as fodder by grazing animals.

Botanical Name : Oligomeris linifolia (Vahl.) Macbride. Family Name : Resedaceae Local Name : Booein Habit : Her b Habitat : Moderate moist places Flowering Period : Feb. - April Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Cold extract is used as mother breast wash against poor feeding and hard breast.

Botanical Name : Capsicum annuum Linn. Family Name : Solanaceae Local Name : Red peeper Habit : Moderate moist soils Habitat : Herb/Shrub (Cultivated) Flowering Period : Throughout the year Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Red peeper as whole is used as an antiseptic aga inst infected injuries. Both green and red peepers are used as an important Asian kitchen condiment.

Botanical Name : Datura fastuosa Linn. Syn; Datura alba Rumphius ex Nees. Family Name : Solanaceae Local Name : Datura (Sufaid)

Habit : Waste and semi dried places Habitat : Herb/Shrub Flowering Period : March - July Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Whole plant imposes narcotic affects on animal and human body. Also used for the preparation of “Kushta” of gold and in the medicines of TB and huma n sexual power.

Botanical Name : Hyoscyamus niger Linn. Family Name : Solanaceae Local Name : Ajwain Kharasani Habit : Herb (Cultivated) Habitat : Moderate moist soils Flowering Period : June - July Part used : Seed Local Usage : Used spiritually and medicinally as well; medicinally used for the reduction of body weight and abdomen, in the powders of stomach related problems, for the soaking of fresh meat and smoke is used against snake bite and much more spiritual issues.

Botanical Name : Lycopersicon esculantum Miller. Family Name : Solanaceae Local Name : Tamater Habit : Semi moist soils Habitat : Herb (Cultivated) Flowering Period : Many times in the year Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : In fresh, mature for m used in salad and curry. Being the richest source of Vit. C and tasty, used also as ketchup form. Fresh and old plants are used as fodder for animals.

Botanical Name : Nicotiana plumbaginifola Viv. Family Name : Solanaceae Local Name : Jangli tama coo Habit : Semi moist places Habitat : Herb Flowering Period : Feb. - April Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Plant is used as fodder.

Botanical Name : Nicotiana tabacum Linn. Family Name : Solanaceae Local Name : Tambacoo Habit : Herb/Shr ub (Cultivated) Habitat : Moderate moist soils Flowering Period : April - Aug. Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Mature plant is processed for the preparation of tobacco used for smoking purposes. Leaves are also used as antiseptic and anti pests in book shelves.

Botanical Name : Physalis divaricata D. Done. Syn: Physalis minima auctt. non Linn. Family Name : Solanaceae Local Name : Kakang Habit : Herb Habitat : Moist places Flowering Period : July - Aug. Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : It consists ap petizing, laxative and diuretic characteristics, so preferred for the medicines of stomach and urine problems. Aerial parts are used as fodder for cattle.

Botanical Name : Solanum nigrum Linn. var. nigrum Family Name : Solanaceae Local Name : Mako Habit : Herb Habitat : Semi moist places Flowering Period : March - May Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Fresh plant is used as fodder. Fruit is much aphrodisiac, appetizer and diuretic, helpful in the diseases of dysentery, heart problems, hepatitis, leucoderma, piles, vomiting and tonsils. Dried leaf powder along with firefly is recommended for night blindness. Local people prepare the boiled extract of this plant with Cichorium intybus Linn. and use it for the medication of hepatitis.

Botanical Name : Solanum tuberosum Linn. Family Name : Solanaceae Local Name : Aaloo Habit : Herb (Cultivated) Habitat : Semi moist places Flowering Period : Dec. - Jan. Part us ed : Whole plant Local Usage : Under ground stem tuber called as potato, enriched with carbohydrates and other nutrients has important kitchen and industrial utilities. Aerial parts are used as fodder for animals.

Botanical Name : Solanum surattense Burm. f. Syn: Solanum xanthocarpum Schrad. & Wendl. Family Name : Solanaceae Local Name : Mamoli , Kandiary Habit : Herb Habitat : Less moist and waste places

Flowering Period : Through out the year Part used : Whole plant Local Us age : Whole mature roast ed plant’s crush mixed with wet wheat flour is given to the cattle for the treatment of their urine and weakness problems. Root decoction is administered for cough and uric acid reduction. Paste of roasted fruit is applied for joint pain.

Botanical Name : Withania somnifera (Linn.) Dunal. Family Name : Solanaceae Local Name : Aksan Habit : Herb Habitat : Less moist places Flowering Period : March - April Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Whole plant extract is being used for human as well as for vet’s fever. Leave’s paste is recommended to apply on joints for pain and on les ions to open.

Botanical Name : Corchorus depressus (Linn.) Stocks. Family Name : Tiliaceae Local Name : Boh Phali , Munderi Habit : Herb Habitat : Sandy soils Flowering Period : Feb. - May Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Plant extract is rec ommended for the medication of liver and some sexual ailments. Aerial parts are used as fodder.

Botanical Name : Corchorus tridens Linn. Family Name : Tiliaceae Local Name : -- Habit : Herb

Habitat : Moderate moist places Flowering Period : Apr. - May Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Whole plant is used as fodder.

Botanical Name : Phyla nodiflora (Linn.) Greene. Family Name : Verbenaceae Local Name : Bukin, Jal - nim, Ram Devi Habit : Herb Habitat : Moist places Flowering Period : Feb. - March Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : It is used as fodder, decoction of the aerial parts is recommended in fasting for the medication of diabetes, hepatitis and piles.

Botanical Name : Verbena officinalis Linn. Family Name : Verbenacea e Local Name : Karenta Habit : Herb Habitat : Moist soils Flowering Period : March - June Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Aerial parts are used as fodder; roots are used in medicines for scorpion and snake bite.

Botanical Name : Fagonia indica Burm. f. var. schweinfurthii. Hadidi. Syn: Fagonia cretica auct. non Linn. Family Name : Zygophyllaceae Local Name : Dhamasa Habit : Herb Habitat : Less moist, sandy soils Flowering Period : Two times in the year Part used : Whole plant

Local Usage : The usage of the extract of the plant is recommended for both sexes for the treatment of fertility and for blood purification. Ash is given to the anemic children, soft branches are grazed by sheep and goats.

Botanical Name : Peganum ha rmala Linn. Family Name : Zygophyllaceae Local Name : Harmal, Ispand Habit : Herb Habitat : Saline soils, Waste places Flowering Period : April - May Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Seeds are administered for jaundice and fever, to increase th e yield of milk in cattle and for the treatment of joint pain. Smoke of the whole plant is considered as antiseptic. Dried plants are used as cooling gauze in electric air cooler.

Botanical Name : Tribulus terrestris Linn. Family Name : Zygophyllaceae Local Name : Bhakra, Gokhroo Habit : Herb Habitat : Waste places Flowering Period : More than once in the year Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Seeds are aphrodisiac, blood purifier and diuretic, also administered for heart and kidney problem s. In soft form it is grazed by sheep and goats.

Botanical Name : Allium cepa Linn. Family Name : Alliaceae Local Name : Piaz, Basal Habit : Herb (Cultivated) Habitat : Moderate moist places

Flowering Period : Jan. - March Part used : Bulb Local Usa ge : It is a very important condiment and a part of salad. Drops of its fresh extract are very fruitful as a tonic for liver, stomach and ear (earache).

Botanical Name : Aloe vera (Linn.) Burm. f. Family Name : Asphodelaceae Local Name : Ghee Kawar Ha bit : Shrub Habitat : Arid places Flowering Period : Jan. - April Part used : Areal parts Local Usage : Leaf after peeling of is used as curry, crumpled with some other drugs and is used for the treatment of joint pains, constipation, ulcer and de hairing. Leaves are pasted on lesions to open it and to expel out pus. Pulp is used on face or skin smoothing.

Botanical Name : Asphodelus tenuifolius Cav. Family Name : Asphodelaceae Local Name : Piazi Habit : Herb Habitat : Sandy and moist places Flowering Period : Jan. - Apr. Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Plant extract is used as a part of paste for wound healing and skin allergy.

Botanical Name : Colchicum luteum Baker. Family Name : Colchicaceae Local Name : Surinjan takla Habit : Herb Habitat : Moist places

Flowering Period : Jan. - March Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Seeds are used in the medicines to relieve inflammation and pain. Fresh plant is used as fodder.

Botanical Name : Cyperus rotundus Linn. Family Name : Cyperaceae Local Name : Motha, Deela Habit : Herb Habitat : Aquatic and moist places Flowering Period : Through out the year Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Dried and grinded rhizome is used for the treatment of motions and vom iting. I n fresh form is also used by animals as fodder.

Botanical Name : Apluda mutica Linn. Family Name : Poaceae Local Name : -- Habit : Herb Habitat : Moderate moist places Flowering Period : March - April Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : It is a very favorite fodder for all the animals.

Botanical Name : Avena sativa Linn. Family Name : Poaceae Local Name : Jangli jaey Habit : Herb Habitat : Moderate moist places Flowering Period : March - April Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Used as fodder.

Botanical Name : Brachiaria ramose (Linn.) Stapf. Family Name : Poaceae Local Name : -- Habit : Herb Habitat : Moist places Flowering Period : June - July Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : It is used as fodder by animals.

Bota nical Name : Cenchrus biflorus Roxb. Family Name : Poaceae Local Name : Bhurat Habit : Herb Habitat : Moist places Flowering Period : Jan. - Apr. and Sep. - Nov. Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : It is used as fodder in early/ young stage.

Botanical Name : Cynodon dactylon (Linn.) Pers. Family Name : Poaceae Local Name : Tala, Khabbal Habit : Herb Habitat : Moist places Flowering Period : Throughout the year Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : It is a favorite food for the all anim als, also used in decoction form for the fever medication.

Botanical Name : Dactyloctenium aegyptium (Linn.) Willd. Family Name : Poaceae Local Name : Madhana, Koora Habit : Herb Habitat : Moderate moist sandy soils Flowering Period : July - Oct.

Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : In early morning collected coleoptiles are administered against old fever. It is a very nutritious fodder grass for animals for fattening and mil k production.

Botanical Name : Dactyloctenium scindicum Boiss. Family Name : Poaceae Local Name : Madhani Habit : Herb Habitat : Moderate moist, sandy soils Flowering Period : July - Oct. Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : As reported for D . aegyptium (Linn.) Willd.

Botanical Name : Desmostachya bipinnata (Linn.) Stapf. Family Name : Poaceae Local Name : Dhab.Kusa Habit : Herb Habitat : Less moist, waste places Flowering Period : July - Aug. Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : A collection of dried stems is called “Jharoo” used for floor sweeping. Moreover, used for roofing and thatching. Soft leaves and stems are used as fodder

Botanical Name : Dicanthium annulatum (Forssk.) Stapf. Family Name : Poaceae Local Name : Palwan, Marvel Habit : Herb Habitat : Moderate moist places Flo wering Period : Throughout the year Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : A very favorite fodder for animals.

Botanical Name : Digitaria violascens Link. Family Name : Poaceae Local Name : -- Habit : Herb Habitat : Moderate moist places Flowering Period : July - Aug. Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Used as fodder for animals.

Botanical Name : Echinochloa colona (Linn.) Link. Family Name : Poaceae Local Name : Swank Habit : Herb Habitat : Moist places Flowering Period : May - Sep. Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : An ancient grass used as fodder. Seeds are used as food for pet birds.

Botanical Name : Eleusine indica (Linn.) Gaertn . Family Name : Poaceae Local Name : -- Habit : Herb Habitat : Moist places Flowering Pe riod : Apr. - May Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Used as fodder.

Botanical Name : Imperata cylindrica (Linn.) Raeuschel. Family Name : Poaceae Local Name : Dabh, Sar Habit : Herb Habitat : Less moist, waste places Flowering Period : Apr. - J une

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Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Leaves and stems are used as fodder and for thatching, roots are used for the medication of piles.

Botanical Name : Ochthochloa compressa (Forssk.) Hilu. (Syn: Eleusine flagellifera Nees.) Family Name : Poaceae Local Name : Phalwan, Chhimber Habit : Herb Habitat : Less moist places Flowering Period : March - Sep. Part used : Aerial parts Local Usage : A good fodder grass for horses and cattle.

Botanical Name : Oryza sativa Linn. Family Name : Poaceae Local Name : Rice, Chawal Habit : Herb (Cultivated) Habitat : Aquatic places Flowering Period : July - Sep. Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Aerial parts in fresh as well as in dried form are used as fodder for cattle. Seeds after thres hing from husk are used for favorite dishes. Husk is a favorite food for tattoo, asses and horses. Dried plants are used as packing material and fuel.

Botanical Name : Panicum antidotale Retz. Family Name : Poaceae Local Name : Ghamur Habit : Herb Habitat : Moist places Flowering Period : March - May Part used : Whole plant

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Local Usage : Used as fodder in early stage.

Botanical Name : Paspalidium flavidum (Retz.) A. Camus. Family Name : Poaceae Local Name : Kangna Habit : Herb Habitat : Moist places Flowering Period : July - Oct. Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Used as fodder for cattle. Roasted seeds were used as a staple food by ancient people.

Botanical Name : Pennisetum glaucum (Linn.) R. Br. [Syn: Pennisetum typhoides (Burm. f.) Stapf. & Hubbard.] Family Name : Poaceae Local Name : Bajra Habit : Herb Habitat : Moist places Flowering Period : July - Sep. Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Used as fodder for animals, in past seeds were used as a staple food by ancient people, more over seeds are the favorite food of water fowl.

Botanical Name : Poa annua Linn. Family Name : Poaceae Local Name : -- Habit : Herb Habitat : Moist places Flowering Period : Feb. - March. Part used : Whole pl ant Local Usage : Used as fodder for animals.

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Botanical Name : Polypogan monspeliensis (Linn.) Desf. Family Name : Poaceae Local Name : Malhaar Habit : Herb Habitat : Moist places Flowering Period : March - July Part used : Whole plant Local Usag e : Fresh plant is used as fodder for animals.

Botanical Name : Setarria verticillata (Linn.) P. Beauv. Family Name : Poaceae Local Name : Chirchra Habit : Herb Habitat : Less moist places Flowering Period : May - July Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Fresh plant is used as fodder for animals.

Botanical Name : Setaria viridis (Linn.) P. Beauv. Family Name : Poaceae Local Name : -- Habit : Herb Habitat : Moderate moist places Flowering Period : Apr. - July Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Fresh plant in early stage is used as fodder for animals.

Botanical Name : Sorghum halepense (Linn.) Pers. Family Name : Poaceae Local Name : Baru Habit : Herb/Shrub Habitat : Moderate moist places Flowering Period : May - Oct. Part used : A erial parts

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Local Usage : Used as fodder for cattle.

Botanical Name : Triticum aestivum Linn. Family Name : Poaceae Local Name : Gandam Habit : Herb (Cultivated) Habitat : Moderate moist soils Flowering Period : Feb. - March Part used : Whole plant Local Usage : Green and fresh plants are used as fodder. Dried grinded seeds powder called flour used for starch (maida), chappati, bread, noodles, puri, halwa and husk used as roughages enriched with vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates and proteins. Remaining part of dried plant (wheat straw) is used as husk for cattle, construction and paper industry. Oil of grain is used against leprosy, paralyzed organs and backache problems. Extract of roughages is used for reducing belly size, constipation and ga s problems.

Botanical Name : Curcuma longa Linn. Family Name : Zingiberaceae Local Name : Haldi Habit : Herb (Cultivated) Habitat : Sandy and moist soils Flowering Period : Oct. - Dec. Part used : Rhizome Local Usage : It is an important kitchen condiment, also used for the treatment of stomach and injurious infections. At any accidental event, it is recommended to take it with hot milk.

Botanical Name : Zingiber officinale Roscoe. Family Name : Zingiberaceae

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Local Na me : Adrahk, sondh Habit : Herb (Cultivated) Habitat : Moist and sandy places Flowering Period : Dec. - Jan. Part used : Rhizome Local Usage : It is also an important kitchen condiment, used for the treatment of joint pain. Its paste is used as “ubto n” on face or body of bridle to remove body hair.

Summary of Ethnobotanical Usage In the present ethnobotanical survey, 177 Angiospermic herbs, belonging to 43 families, 1 Gymnospermic herb, belonging to a single family and 2 Pteridophytic herbs, belonging to 2 families were documented. Poaceae was found consisting of 24 species, Asteraceae 20, Brasicaceae and Solanaceae 11 each, Chenopodiaceae and Papilionaceae 10 each, Amaranthaceae 8, Euphorbiaceae 7, Malvaceae, Boraginaceae, Caryophyllaceae and Cucurbitaceae 5 each, Aizoaceae and Polygonaceae 4 each, Apiaceae, Capparidacea, Lamiaceae and Zygophyllaceae 3 each, 11 families consisted of 2 each and 17 families consisted 1 species each. During that survey, most of the herbs species were found in mul tipurpose use while some having single use. In this way, 118 plant species were recorded in use as fodder for animals, 99 as medicinal, 27 for other usage and 20 for nutritional usage. Plants used as vegetables Following plant species were reported to be u sed as vegetable: Aloe vera (Linn.) Burm. f. , Amaranthus viridis Linn. , Beta vulgaris Linn. , Chenopodium murale Linn. , Cicer arietinum Linn. , Coccinia grandis (Linn.) Voigt. , Digera muricata (Linn.) Mart. , Lathyrus aphaca Linn. , Luffa acutangula (Linn.) Roxb. , Lycopersicon esculantum Miller. , Momordica charantia Linn. , Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. , Oxalis corniculata Linn. , Raphanus sativus Linn. var. sativus . , Spinacia oleracea Linn ., Trianthema portulacastrum Linn. and Trigonella foenum - graecum Linn.

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17 Families, Single plant each

Poaceae 11 Families, 2 Zygophyllaceae plants each Asteraceae Lamiaceae Capparidaceae Brassicaceae

Solanaceae Apiaceae

Aizoaceae Polygonaceae Cucurbitaceae Boraginaceae Chenopodiaceae Caryophyllaceae Malvaceae Amaranthaceae Papilionaceae Euphorbiaceae

Fig 4.1.1: No . of used Herbaceous Plant Species in each Family

Ethnobotanical Uses of Speccies

Fodder 45%

Medicinal 37% Food 8% Others 10%

Fig 4.1.2 Major Kinds of Ethnobotanical Uses

Summary of medicinal usage Medicinal usage was reported for many human and animals ailments. In case of human ailments 14 plant species were reported to be used for the treatment of Piles, 11 for liver and skin problems each, 9 for human gender diseases, 7 for fever and 5 for snakebite and others had miscellaneous medicinal uses. Abrief description consisting of the scientific names of local plants used against typical ailments / diseases is given as: Plants used agains t P iles Following plants were reported for the treatment of piles: Abutilon indicum (Linn.) Sweet., Achyranthes aspera Linn. var. pubescens Wall. ex M oq., Alhaji maurorum Medic., Amaranthus spinosus Linn., Chenopodium album Linn., Cistanche tubulosa (Schrenk.) Hook., Citrullus colocynthis (Linn.) Schrad., Conyza ambigua DC., Eclipta alba Hassk., Eruca sativa Mill., Imperata cylindrica (Linn.) Raeuschel., Phyla nodiflora (Linn.) Greene., Polygonum plebejum R. Br. and Solanum nigrum Linn. var. nigrum. Plants used against L iver ailments Following plants were reported for the treatment of liver ailments: Adiantum capillus - veneris Linn., Al lium cepa Linn., Cichorium intybus Linn., Corchorus depressus (Linn.) Stocks., Eclipta alba Hassk., Ephedra ciliata Fisch. & Mey., Foeniculum vulgare Mill., Fumaria indica (Hausskn.) Pugsley., Ocimum basilicum Linn., Raphanus sativus Linn. var. sativus . an d Silene conoidea Linn. Plants used against S kin infections Following plants were reported for the treatment of skin infections: Aloe vera (Linn.) Burm. f., Asphodelus tenuifolius Cav., Brassica rapa Linn. ssp. campestris (Linn.) Clapham., Centella asiatica (Linn.) Urban., Coccinia grandis (Linn.) Voigt., Fumaria indica (Hausskn.) Pugsley., Eruca sativa Mill., Glinus lotoides Linn., Heliotropium europaeum Linn., Lepidium sativum Linn. and Solanum nigrum Linn. var. nigrum. while Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & Kit. was reported to used against skin burn. Plants used against H uman gender diseases Following plants were reported for the treatment of human gender diseases: Achyranthes aspera Linn. var. pubescens Wall. ex Moq, Chenopodium album Linn., Corchorus depressus (Linn.) Stocks., Eclipta alba Hassk., Fagonia indica Burm. f. var. schweinfurthii. Hadidi., Lepidium sativum Linn., Portulaca oleracea Linn., Solanum nigrum Linn. var. nigrum. , Tribulus terrestris Linn. and Zaleya pentandra (Linn.) Jeffrey. Plants used against F ever Following plants were reported for the treatment of fever: Alternanthera pungens Kunth., Cynodon dactylon (Linn.) Pers., Dactyloctenium aegyptium (Linn.) Willd., Launia nudicaulis Less ssp. fallax, Oxalis cornic ulata Linn., Polygonum plebejum R. Br. and Ranunculus muricatus Linn.

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Plants used against S nake bite Following plants were reported for the treatment of snake bite: Achyranthes aspera Linn., Cleome viscosa Linn., Hyoscyamus niger Linn., Papaver somniferum Linn., Verbena officinalis Linn. and Zaleya pentandra (Linn.) Jeffrey. Pl ants used against Leucorrhea Following plants were reported for the treatment of leucorrhea: Amaranthus spinosus Linn. , Amaranthus viridis Linn. , Boerhavia procumbens Banks ex Roxb. , Celosia argentea Linn. and Eclipta alba Hassk. Pl ants used against Lungs infection Following plants were reported for the treatment of lungs infection : Achyranthes aspera Linn. var. pubescens Wall. ex Moq. , Alhaji maurorum Medic. , Amaranthus spinosus Linn. , Coccinia grandis (Linn.) Voigt. , Eclipta alba Hassk. , Ephedra ciliata Fisch. & Mey. , Malva parviflora Linn. , Papaver somniferum Linn. , Ranunculus muricatus Linn. and Solanum surattense Burm. f. Moreover Citrullus colocynthis (Linn.) Schrad. was reported against Appendicitis, similarly Pentatropis spiralis (Forssk.) Decne. against b ackache, Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. against cancer, Glinus lotoides Linn. against E pilepsy, Phyla nodiflora (Linn.) Greene. against Hepatitis, Heliotropium europaeum Linn. against hair fall and Oxystelma esculentum (Linn.f.) R. was reported to be used against mouth ulcer.

Usage of Herbal species Ailment wise

Liver Other 11% Ailments Piles 41% 16%

Human Skin gender 11% Fever 9% 7%

Snakebite 5% Fig 4.1.3: Kinds of Medicinal Usages

4.2 Phytosociological attributes Phytosociological attributes were carried out through random sampling by quadrats. The plant species were tabulated on the bas i s of % frequency , density and % cover. On the basis of these three basic parameters , the IVI values were calculated for each plan t species of the area. The phytosociological attributes and two way indicator species analysis of Division Sahiwal was divided at district level for convenience and for composition of data. The data of the division was divided in to three districts i.e. 4.2 .1 Phytosociological Analysis of District Sahiwal 4.2 .2 Phytosociological Analysis of District Pakpattan 4.2 .3 Phytosociological Analysis of District Okara 4.2 .4 Phytosociological Analysis of Di vision Sahiwal 4.2 .1 Phytosociological Analysis of District Sahiwal In the phytosociological survey 1 00 herb species, belonging to 40 families were reported. Out of these, two families i .e. Adiantaceae and Equisetaceae were representing Pteridophytes, one family i.e. Ephedraceae representin g gymnosperms while remaining 37 families were representing angiosperms. Out of these four families were belonged to monocots and 3 3 to dicots. Family Poaceae was found as a dominant family in the flora of District Sahiwal, consisting of 12 species. Cynodon dactylon a commonly growing grass, was the major common species having 5.88 importance value index. Other species found in this family were Apluda mutica , Avena sativa , Dactyloctenium scindicum , Desmostachya bipinnata , Dicanthium annulatum , Digitaria violascens , Echinochloa colona , Eleusine indica , Paspalidium flavidum , Pennisetum glaucum , Setaria viridis having importance value index 0.32, 1.31, 0.80, 0.30, 0.08, 0.89, 0.32, 0.24, 0.52, 0.15 and 0.38 respectively . Family Asteraceae was the second dominant family of the study area, represented by 10 herb species. Pseudognaphalium luteo - album was the dominant species of this family having 2.37 importance value index. Other nine herbs species constituting this family were Cichorium intybus , Cnicus arvensis , Conyza ambigua , Cotula hemispherica , Eclipta alba , Gnaphalium polycaulon , Ifloga spicata, Launia nudicaulis and Pseudoconyza viscose having importance value index 0.31, 0.24, 0.26, 1.78, 0.16, 0.60, 0.97, 0.32 and 0.21 respectively . Family Euphorbiaceae was the third dominant species of District Sahiwal. It consisted of seven herb species, Euphorbia prostrata was found most common having 3.15 importance value index. Other six members were Chrozophora tinctoria , Croton

109 bonplandianus , Euphorbia helioscopia , Euphorbia hirta , Euphorbia serpens and Euphorbia pulcherrima having importance value index 0.33, 1.01, 0.54, 1.04, 1.84 and1.89 respectively . There were the two families i.e. Caryophyllaceae and Papilionaceae having five members each. Family Caryophyllaceae was also represented by five species out of them Stellaria media was the dominant species of the flora of this family having importance value index 3.02. Other four species of this family were Vaccaria hispanica , Silene conoidea , Silene gonosperma and Spergula rubra having importance value index 0.09, 0.18, 0.08 and 0.31 respectively . Family Papilionaceae was represented also with five herbs species. Melilotus indica was the dominant species of this family having importance value index 6.15. Other four members of this family were Alhaji maurorum , Crotalaria burhia, Indigofera linifolia and Rhynchosia minima having importance value index 0.22, 1.12, 0.08 and 0.22 respe ctively . There were four such families i.e. Amaranthaceae, Brassicaceae, Polygonaceae and Solanaceae represented by four species each. Family Amaranthaceae was the first one consisted of four members. Celosia argentea was the dominating species of this family, possessing 7.46 importance value index. Remaining three species of this family were Achyranthes aspera , Aerva javanica and Digera muricata having importance value index 0.12, 0.38 and 0.41 respectively . Family Bo raginaceae was represented by Capsella bursa - pastoris , Coronopus didymus , Lepidium sativum and Malcolmia Africana having importance value index 0.76, 0.34, 0.58 and 0.08 respectively . Family Polygonaceae was also represented by four herbs species i.e. Persicaria barbata, Persicaria glabra and Polygonum plebejum having importance value index 0.26, 0.12, 0.27 and 0.68 respectively . Family Solanaceae was also represented by four herbs species, among these four Solanum surattense was the dominating species having importance value index 1.67. Other three members of this family were Nicotiana plumbaginifola , Physalis divaricata and Solanum nigrum having importance value index 0.40, 0.41 and 0.09 respectively . In the phytosociological survey of District Sahiwal two families i.e. Capparidaceae and Malvaceae were found having three representatives each. Family Capparidaceae was represented by Capparis spinosa , Cleome brachycarpa and Cleome viscose having importanc e value index 0.15, 0.34 and 0.44 respectively . In the same way family Malvaceae was represented by Malva parviflora , Malvastrum

110 coromandelianum and Sida cordifolia having importance value index 0.23, 0.11 and 0.51 respectively . There were ten families fou nd, each having two species. Family Asphodelaceae was represented by Aloe vera and Asphodelus tenuifolius having importance value index 4.13 and1.84 , Chenopodiaceae by Atriplex crassifolia and Suaeda fruticosa having importance value index 1.21 and 0.10 , Convolvulaceae by Convolvulus arvensis and Convolvulus prostrates having importance value index 0.64 and 2.84 , Cucurbitaceae by Citrullus colocynthis and Coccinia grandis having importance value index 0.09 and 1.01 , Cuscutaceae by Cuscuta reflexa and Cuscu ta campestris having importance value index 0.33 and 0.83 , Oxalidaceae by Oxalis corniculata and Oxalis Corymbosa having importance value index 0.60 and 0.19 , Papaveraceae by Argemone ochroleuca and Papaver somniferum having importance value index 0.68 and 0.68 , Portulacaceae by Portulaca oleracea and Porulaca quadrifida having importance value index 0.10 and 0.37 , Ranunculaceae by Ranunculus muricatus and Ranunculus sceleratus having importance value index 1.29 and 0.31 , Verbenaceae by Phyla nodiflora and Verbena officinalis having importance value index 0.53 and 0.22 respectively . During this study nin tee n such families were found that each one was represented by only one herbs species. Family Acanthaceae was represented by Peristrophe paniculata , Adiantaceae by Adiantum capillus - veneris , Apiaceae by Centella asiatica , Asclepiadaceae by Pentatropis spiralis , Boraginaceae by Arnebia hispidissima, Cannabaceae by Cannabis sativa , Colchicaceae by Colchicum luteum , Cyperaceae by Cyperus rotundus , Ephedraceae by Ephedra ciliata , Equisetaceae by Equisetum debile , Fumariaceae by Fumaria indica , Lythraceae by Lawsonia inermis , Mimosaceae by Mimosa pudica , Molluginaceae by Glinus lotoides , Nyctaginaceae by Boerhavia procumbens , Nymphaceae by Nelumbo nuc ifera , Orobanchaceae by Cistanche tubulosa , Primulaceae by Anagallis arvensis and Resedaceae by Oligomeris linifolia having importance value index 0.88, 1.12, 0.97, 0.08, 0.57, 2.10, 0.49, 7.29, 0.35, 0.81, 0.50, 8.20, 0.35, 0.55, 0.16, 0.10, 0.23, 0.85 an d 0.17 respectively .

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Table 4.2 .1: Importance Value Index (IVI) of Plant Species of District Sahiwal Family Name RC RD RF IVI 1. Acanthaceae 1. Peristrophe paniculata (Forssk.) Brummitt 0.67 1.25 0.72 0.88 2. Adiantaceae 1. Adiantum capillus - veneris Linn. 1.03 0.90 1.44 1.12 1. Achyranthes aspera Linn. var. pubescens Wall. ex Moq. 0.15 0.03 0.18 0.12 2. Aerva javanica (Burm.f.) Juss. 0.34 0.44 0.36 0.38 3. Amaranthaceae 3. Celosia argentea Linn. 5.77 11.40 5.21 7.46 4. Digera muricata (Linn.) Mart. 0.45 0.44 0.36 0.41 4. Apiaceae 1. Centella asiatica (Linn.) Urban. 0.37 1.11 1.44 0.97 5. Asclepiadaceous 1. Pentatropis spiralis (Forssk.) Decne. 0.04 0.03 0.18 0.08 1. Aloe vera (Linn.) Burm. f. 6.35 1.37 4.67 4.13 6. Asphodelaceae 2. Asphodelus tenuifolius Cav. 2.62 1.45 1.44 1.84 1. Cichorium intybus Linn. 0.10 0.29 0.54 0.31 2. Cnicus arvensis (Linn.) Hoffm. 0.05 0.32 0.36 0.24 3. Conyza ambigua DC. 0.09 0.14 0.54 0.26 7. Asteraceae 4. Cotula hemispherica (Roxb.) Wall. ex Benth. & Hook. f. 2.18 1.54 1.62 1.78 5. Eclipta alba Hassk. 0.08 0.06 0.36 0.16 6. Gnaphalium polycaulon Pers. 0.60 0.67 0.54 0.60 7. Ifloga spicata (Forssk.) Sch. Bip. 1.27 0.93 0.72 0.97

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8. Launia nudicaulis Less ssp. fallax (Jaub. &Spach.) Jafri. 0.13 0.46 0.36 0.32 9. Pseudoconyza viscosa Mill. 0.17 0.09 0.36 0.21 10. Pseudognaphalium luteo - album (Linn.) O.M.Hilliard & B.L. 4.80 0.32 1.98 2.37 Burrt. 8. Boraginaceae 1. Arnebia hispidissima (Lehm.) A.DC. 0.52 1.02 0.18 0.57 1 . Capsella bursa - pastoris (Linn.) Medik. 0.62 0.76 0.90 0.76 9. Brassicaceae 2 . Coronopus didymus (Linn.) Smith. 0.17 0.32 0.54 0.34 3 . Lepidium sativum Linn. 0.50 0.52 0.72 0.58 4 . Malcolmia africana (Linn.) R.Br. 0.04 0.03 0.18 0.08 10 . Cannabaceae 1. Cannabis sativa Linn. 2.21 2.65 1.44 2.10 1 . Capparis spinosa Linn. 0.11 0.14 0.18 0.15 11 . Capparidaceae 2 . Cleome brachycarpa Vahl ex DC. 0.37 0.29 0.36 0.34 3 . Cleome viscosa Linn. 0.30 0.29 0.72 0.44 1 . Vaccaria hispanica (Miller.) Rauschert. 0.04 0.06 0.18 0.09 2 . Silene conoidea Linn. 0.08 0.29 0.18 0.18 12 . Caryophyllaceae 3 . Silene gonosperma Rupr. 0.04 0.03 0.18 0.08 4 . Spergula rubra Linn. 0.10 0.29 0.54 0.31 5 . Stellaria media (Linn.) Vill. 3.43 2.59 3.06 3.02 13 . Chenopodiaceae 1 . Atriplex crassifolia C.A.Mey. 0.69 1.51 1.44 1.21

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2 . Suaeda fruticosa Forssk. 0.08 0.06 0.18 0.10 14 . Colchicaceae 1 . Colchicum luteum Baker. 0.49 0.26 0.72 0.49 1 . Convolvulus arvensis Linn. 1.12 0.26 0.54 0.64 15 . Convolvulaceae 2 . Convolvulus prostratus Forssk. 4.65 1.19 2.70 2.84 1 . Citrullus colocynthis (Linn.) Schrad. 0.08 0.03 0.18 0.09 16 . Cucurbitaceae 2 . Coccinia grandis (Linn.) Voigt. 0.97 0.64 1.44 1.01 1 . Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. 0.19 0.44 0.36 0.33 17 . Cuscutaceae 2 . Cuscuta campestris Yuncker. 0.91 0.67 0.90 0.83 18 . Cyperaceae 1 . Cyperus rotundus Linn. 8.36 5.96 7.55 7.29 19 . Ephedraceae 1 . Ephedra ciliata Fisch. & Mey. 0.45 0.23 0.36 0.35 20 . Equisetaceae 1 . Equisetum debile Roxb. 1.27 0.61 0.54 0.81 1 . Chrozophora tinctoria (Linn.) Raf. 0.23 0.23 0.54 0.33 2 . Croton bonplandianus Baill. 1.08 0.70 1.26 1.01 3 . Euphorbia helioscopia Linn. 0.83 0.26 0.54 0.54 21 . Euphorbiaceae 4 . Euphorbia hirta Linn. 0.77 0.55 1.80 1.04 5 . Euphorbia serpens Kunth. 1.76 2.50 1.26 1.84 6 . Euphorbia prostrata Ait. 2.96 4.51 1.98 3.15 7 . Euphorbia pulcherrima Willd. ex Klotzsch. 2.43 1.80 1.44 1.89 22 . Fumariaceae 1 . Fumaria indica (Hausskn.) Pugsley. 0.56 0.23 0.72 0.50

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23 . Lythraceae 1 . Lawsonia inermis Linn. 7.12 13.18 4.31 8.20 1 . Malva parviflora Linn. 0.09 0.23 0.36 0.23 24 . Malvaceae 2 . Malvastrum coromandelianum (Linn.) Garcke. 0.11 0.03 0.18 0.11 3 . Sida cordifolia Linn. 0.60 0.20 0.72 0.51 25 . Mimosaceae 1 . Mimosa pudica Linn. 0.60 0.09 0.36 0.35 26 . Molluginaceae 1 . Glinus lotoides Linn. 0.41 0.52 0.72 0.55 27 . Nyctaginaceae 1 . Boerhavia procumbens Banks ex Roxb. 0.08 0.06 0.36 0.16 28 . Nymphaceae 1 . Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. 0.08 0.06 0.18 0.10 29 . Orobanchaceae 1 . Cistanche tubulosa (Schrenk.) Hook. 0.37 0.14 0.18 0.23 1 . Oxalis corniculata Linn. 0.52 0.55 0.72 0.60 30 . Oxalidaceae 2 . Oxalis Corymbosa DC. 0.34 0.06 0.18 0.19 1 . Argemone ochroleuca Sweet. 0.37 0.14 0.18 0.23 31 . Papaveraceae 2 . Papaver somniferum Linn. 0.71 0.44 0.90 0.68 1 . Alhaji maurorum Medic. 0.09 0.08 0.50 0.22 2 . Crotalaria burhia Buch. - Ham. Ex Benth. 0.66 1.05 1.66 1.12 32 . Papilionaceae 3 . Indigofera linifolia (Linn.f.) Retz. 0.03 0.03 0.17 0.08 4 . Melilotus indica (Linn.) All. 4.69 9.45 4.31 6.15 5 . Rhynchosia minima (Linn.) DC. 0.28 0.22 0.17 0.22 33 . Poaceae 1 . Apluda mutica Linn. 0.28 0.35 0.33 0.32

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2 . Avena sativa Linn. 0.98 1.29 1.66 1.31 3 . Cynodon dactylon (Linn.) Pers. 6.83 4.21 6.61 5.88 4 . Dactyloctenium scindicum Boiss. 0.56 0.35 1.49 0.80 5 . Desmostachya bipinnata (Linn.) Stapf. 0.24 0.32 0.33 0.30 6 . Dicanthium annulatum (Forssk.) Stapf. 0.03 0.05 0.17 0.08 7 . Digitaria violascens Link. 0.73 0.94 1.00 0.89 8 . Echinochloa colona (Linn.) Link. 0.21 0.27 0.50 0.32 9 . Eleusine indica (Linn.) Gaertn. 0.10 0.30 0.33 0.24 10 . Paspalidium flavidum (Retz.) A. Camus. 0.26 0.30 1.00 0.52 11 . Pennisetum glaucum (Linn.) R. Br. 0.07 0.05 0.33 0.15 12 . Setaria viridis (Linn.) P. Beauv. 0.38 0.43 0.33 0.38 1 . Persicaria barbata (Linn.) Hara. Var . barbata 0.14 0.13 0.50 0.26 2 . Persicaria glabra (Willd.) M. Gomes. 0.03 0.16 0.17 0.12 34 . Polygonaceae 3 . Polygonum plebejum R. Br. 0.28 0.22 0.33 0.27 4 . Rumex dentatus Linn. 0.21 0.83 1.00 0.68 1 . Portulaca oleracea Linn. 0.03 0.11 0.17 0.10 35 . Portulacaceae 2 . Porulaca quadrifida Linn. 0.17 0.62 0.33 0.37 36 . Primulaceae 1 . Anagallis arvensis Linn. var. coerulea (Linn.) Gouan. 0.66 1.24 0.66 0.85 37 . Ranunculaceae 1 . Ranunculus muricatus Linn. 1.07 1.32 1.49 1.29

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2 . Ranunculus sceleratus Linn. 0.21 0.40 0.33 0.31 38 . Resedaceae 1 . Oligomeris linifolia (Vahl.) Macbride. 0.05 0.13 0.33 0.17 1 . Nicotiana plumbaginifola Viv. 0.35 0.54 0.33 0.40 2 . Physalis divaricata D. Done. 0.21 0.35 0.66 0.41 39 . Solanaceae 3 . Solanum nigrum Linn. var. nigrum 0.03 0.08 0.17 0.09 4 . Solanum surattense Burm. f. 1.94 1.42 1.66 1.67 1 . Phyla nodiflora (Linn.) Greene. 0.24 0.70 0.66 0.53 40 . Verbenaceae 2 . Verbena officinalis Linn. 0.14 0.19 0.33 0.22

Key : RC, RD and RF stands for relative cover, relative density and relative frequency respectively.

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4.2 .2 Phytosociology of District Pakpattan During the phytosociological study of District Pakpattan, 12 1 herbs species, belonging to 41 families were found. Two families i.e. Adiantaceae and Equisetaceae belonged to Pteridophytes, one i.e. Ephedraceae belonged to G ymn osperms while four families i.e. Asphodelaceae, Colchicaceae , Cyperaceae and Poaceae belonged to mo nocots. In this way remaining 34 families were representing the dicot herbs. Family Poaceae was found the dominating than all other families, as having 15 numbers of herbs species. Among these species Polypogan monspeliensis was very dominant, having 2.16 importa nce value index. The remaining 14 species were Brachiaria ramose , Cenchrus biflorus , Cynodon dactylon , Dactyloctenium aegyptium , Eleusine indica , Imperata cylindrica , Ochthochloa compressa , Panicum antidotale , Paspalidium flavidum , Pennisetum glaucum , Poa annua , Setarria verticillata , Setaria viridis and Sorghum halepense having importance value index 0.28, 0.30. 0.19. 0.73, 0.38, 0.24, 0.70, 0.90, 0.36, 0.28, 0.30, 0.19, 0.73 and 1.19 respectively. Family Asteraceae was found as second major species of th is district, contributing 12 species. Out of all these species, Xanthium strumarium Linn. was found as more common herb, possessing 1.55 importance index value. The other remaining herbs species in this family were Ageratum conyzoides , Artemisia scoparia , Blumea lacera , Carthamus oxycantha , Cichorium intybus , Cnicus arvensis , Pulicaria undulate , Sonchus arvensis , Sonchus asper , Sonchus oleraceous and Vernonia cinerascens having importance value index 0.60, 0.17, 0.46, 0.30, 0.14, 0.33, 0.79, 0.73, 0.12, 0.44 and 1.03 respectively . Two families i.e. Chenopodiaceae and Euphorbiaceae were found having 7 species each. Family Chenopodiaceae was dominated by Chenopodium album (Imortance value index valued 5.88) and remaining members of this family were Atripl ex crassifolia , Chenopodium ambrosioides , Chenopodium murale , Haloxylon stocksii , Kochia indica and Salsola imbricate having importance value index 1.40, 0.98, 1.56, 1.10, 0.42 and 2.21 respectively. Family Euphorbiaceae was represented by Chrozophora tinc toria , Croton bonplandianus , Euphorbia helioscopia , Euphorbia hirta , Euphorbia serpens , Euphorbia prostrata and Euphorbia pulcherrima having importance value index 0.22, 1.15, 0.32, 0.55, 0.38, 0.95 and 0.09 respectively. Five members each, representing the four families i.e. Brassicaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Papilionaceae and Solanaceae. Brassicaceae consisting of Goldbachia laevigata, a dominating species having 2.03 importance value index. The remaining species were

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Eruca sativa , Farsetia jacquemontii , Ror ippa islandica and Sisymbrium irio having importance value index 0.47, 0.11, 0.74 and 0.11 respectively. Family Caryophyllaceae was represented by Vaccaria hispanica , Silene conoidea , Silene gonosperma, Spergula rubra and Stellaria media having importance value index 0.38, 0.95, 0.08, 4.63 and 5.67 respectively. Family Papilionaceae was represented by Alhaji maurorum , Crotalaria burhia , Indigofera linifolia , Melilotus indica and Rhynchosia minima having importance value index 0.31, 0.89, 2.27, 2.68 and 1.10 respectively. Family Solanaceae was represented by Datura fastuosa , Nicotiana plumbaginifola , Physalis divaricata , Solanum nigrum and Solanum surattense having importance value index 0.38, 0.60, 0.65, 0.19 and 0.12 respectively. There were two families i.e. Amaranthaceae and Polygonaceae were represented by four species each. Family Amaranthaceae was represented by Achyranthes aspera , Amaranthus viridis , Celosia argentea and Digera muricata having importance value index 0.27, 0.38, 1.56 and 0.93 respectively . Family Polygonaceae was represented by Persicaria barbata, Persicaria glabra , Polygonum plebejum and Rumex dentatus having importance value index 0.40, 0.69, 0.09 and 0.42 respectively. In the same way there were six families i.e. Aizoaceae, Boraginaceae, Capparidaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Malvaceae and Zygophyllaceae were represented by three species each. Family Aizoaceae was represented by Gisekia pharnaceoides , Trianthema portulacastrum a nd Trianthema triquetra having importance value index 1.32, 0.09 and 2.26 respectively. Boraginaceae was represented by Heliotropium europaeum , Heliotropium strigosum and Nonnea pulla ghg having importance val ue index 0.11, 0.74 and 0.11 respectively. Family Capparidaceae was represented by Capparis spinosa , Cleome brachycarpa and Cleome viscose having importance value index 0.48, 0.63 and 0.26 respectively. Family Cucurbitaceae was represented by Citrullus colocynthis , Coccinia grandis and Mukia maderaspatana having importance value index 0.18, 0.13 and 0.15 respectively. Family Malvaceae was represented by Abutilon indicum , Malva neglecta and Sida cordifolia having importance value index 0.42, 0.40 and 0.61 respectively. Family Zygophyllaceae was represented by Fagonia indica , Peganum harmala and Tribulus terrestris having importance value index 0.34, 0.21 and 0.12 respectively. In this phytosociological study of District Pakpattan about nine such families were found having two members each. Fami ly Asphodelaceae represented by Aloe vera and Asphodelus tenuifolius having importance value index 0.38 and 0.29,

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Convolvulaceae by Convolvulus arvensis and Convolvulus prostrates having importance value index 0.39 and 3.28, Cuscutaceae by Cuscuta reflexa and Cuscuta campestris having importance value index 0.10 and 0.17, Lamiaceae by Ocimum basilicum and Salvia plebeian having importance value index 0.14 and 0.19, Oxalidaceae by Oxalis corniculata and Oxalis Corymbosa having importance value index 0.12 and 0.33, Papaveraceae by Argemone ochroleuca and Papaver somniferum having importance value index 0.11 and 0.13, Portulacaceae by Porulaca quadrifida and Portulaca oleracea having importance value index 0.39 and 1.22, R anunculaceae by Ranunculus muricatus and Ranunculus sceleratus having importance value index 1.22 and 2.23, Verbenaceae by Phyla nodiflora and Verbena officinalis having importance value index 0.71 and 0.30 respectively. Similarly 16 families were found ha ving single species each. Family Acanthaceae represented by Peristrophe paniculata , Adiantaceae by Adiantum capillus - veneris , Apiaceae by Centella asiatica , Asclepiadaceae by Oxystelma esculentum , Colchicaceae by Colchicum luteum , Cyperaceae by Cyperus rotundus , Ephedraceae by Ephedra ciliata . Equisetaceae by Equisetum debile , Fumariaceae by Fumaria indica , Mimosaceae by Mimosa pudica , Molluginaceae by Glinus lotoides , Nyctaginaceae by Boerhavia procumbens , Nymphaceae by Nelumbo nucifera , Orobanchaceae by Cistanche tubulosa , Primulaceae by Anagallis arvensis , Resedaceae by Oligomeris linifolia having importance value index 0.43, 0.26, 0.36, 1.06, 0.30, 1.31, 0.42, 0.16, 0.20, 0.63, 0.35, 0.69, 0.34, 0.21, 0.66 and 3.82 respectively.

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Table 4.2 .2: Importance Value Index (IVI) of Plant Species of District Pakpattan Family Name RC RD RF IVI 1 . Acanthaceae 1 . Peristrophe paniculata (Forssk.) Brummitt 0.66 0.05 0.59 0.43 2 . Adiantaceae 1 . Adiantum capillus - veneris Linn. 0.12 0.10 0.55 0.26 1 . Gisekia pharnaceoides Linn. 0.88 1.25 1.84 1.32 3 . Aizoaceae 2 . Trianthema portulacastrum Linn. 0.04 0.03 0.18 0.09 3 . Trianthema triquetra Rottle and Willd. 4.00 0.81 1.97 2.26 1 . Achyranthes aspera Linn. var. pubescens Wall. ex Moq. 0.36 0.26 0.18 0.27 2 . Amaranthus viridis Linn. 0.36 0.42 0.37 0.38 4 . Amaranthaceae 3 . Celosia argentea Linn. 1.28 1.54 1.84 1.56 4 . Digera muricata (Linn.) Mart. 0.73 0.42 1.66 0.93 5 . Apiaceae 1 . Centella asiatica (Linn.) Urban. 0.32 0.39 0.37 0.36 6 . Asclepiadaceous 1 . Oxystelma esculentum (Linn.f.) R. 0.95 1.13 1.10 1.06 1 . Aloe vera (Linn.) Burm. f. 0.27 0.32 0.55 0.38 7 . Asphodelaceae 2 . Asphodelus tenuifolius Cav. 0.13 0.35 0.37 0.29 1 . Ageratum conyzoides Linn. 0.35 0.35 1.10 0.60 2 . Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & Kit. 0.09 0.07 0.37 0.17 8 . Asteraceae 3 . Blumea lacera (Burm.f.) DC. 0.50 0.51 0.37 0.46 4 . Carthamus oxycantha Bieb. 0.18 0.16 0.55 0.30

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5 . Cichorium intybus Linn. 0.04 0.19 0.18 0.14 6 . Cnicus arvensis (Linn.) Hoffm. 0.36 0.26 0.37 0.33 7 . Pulicaria undulate (Linn.) C.A. 0.27 1.00 1.10 0.79 8 . Sonchus arvensis Linn. 0.39 0.71 1.10 0.73 9 . Sonchus asper Vill. 0.04 0.13 0.18 0.12 10 . Sonchus oleraceous Linn. 0.23 0.74 0.37 0.44 11 . Vernonia cinerascens Schultz - Bip. 0.86 1.48 0.74 1.03 12 . Xanthium strumarium Linn. 1.40 1.57 1.66 1.55 1 . Heliotropium europaeum Linn. 0.27 0.48 0.37 0.37 9 . Boraginaceae 2 . Heliotropium strigosum Willd. 0.06 0.16 0.37 0.20 3 . Nonnea pulla (Linn.) DC. 0.45 0.64 0.37 0.49 1 . Eruca sativa Mill. 0.27 0.42 0.74 0.47 2 . Farsetia jacquemontii Hook.f.& Thoms. 0.04 0.10 0.18 0.11 10. Brassicaceae 3 . Goldbachia laevigata (M. Bieb.) DC. 2.53 1.70 1.84 2.03

4 . Rorippa islandica (Oeder.) Borbas. 0.65 0.84 0.74 0.74 5 . Sisymbrium irio Linn. 0.04 0.10 0.18 0.11 1 . Capparis spinosa Linn. 0.59 0.48 0.37 0.48 11 . Capparidaceae 2 . Cleome brachycarpa Vahl ex DC. 0.32 0.84 0.74 0.63 3 . Cleome viscosa Linn. 0.18 0.23 0.37 0.26

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1 . Vaccaria hispanica (Miller.) Rauschert. 0.27 0.32 0.55 0.38 2 . Silene conoidea Linn. 1.45 1.03 0.37 0.95 12 . Caryophyllaceae 3 . Silene gonosperma Rupr. 0.02 0.03 0.18 0.08 4 . Spergula rubra Linn. 6.61 3.21 4.05 4.63 5 . Stellaria media (Linn.) Vill. 6.11 5.02 5.89 5.67 1 . Atriplex crassifolia C.A.Mey. 1.99 0.93 1.29 1.40 2 . Chenopodium album Linn. 7.95 5.27 4.42 5.88 3 . Chenopodium ambrosioides Linn. 1.04 0.61 1.29 0.98 13 . Chenopodiaceae 4 . Chenopodium murale Linn. 1.24 1.22 2.21 1.56 5 . Haloxylon stocksii (Boiss.) Benth. & Hook. 0.83 0.61 1.84 1.10 6 . Kochia indica Wight. 0.68 0.39 0.18 0.42 7 . Salsola imbricata Forssk. 2.80 2.73 1.10 2.21 14 . Colchicaceae 1 . Colchicum luteum Baker. 0.32 0.23 0.37 0.30 1 . Convolvulus arvensis Linn. 0.36 0.26 0.55 0.39 15 . Convolvulaceae 2 . Convolvulus prostratus Forssk. 2.71 5.46 1.66 3.28 1 . Citrullus colocynthis (Linn.) Schrad. 0.23 0.13 0.18 0.18 16 . Cucurbitaceae 2 . Coccinia grandis (Linn.) Voigt. 0.04 0.16 0.18 0.13 3 . Mukia maderaspatana (Linn.) M.J. Roam. 0.13 0.13 0.18 0.15 17 . Cuscutaceae 1 . Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. 0.09 0.03 0.18 0.10

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2 . Cuscuta campestris Yuncker. 0.27 0.07 0.18 0.17 18 . Cyperaceae 1 . Cyperus rotundus Linn. 1.58 1.06 1.29 1.31 19 . Ephedraceae 1 . Ephedra ciliata Fisch. & Mey. 0.32 0.58 0.37 0.42 20 . Equisetaceae 1 . Equisetum debile Roxb. 0.13 0.16 0.18 0.16 1 . Chrozophora tinctoria (Linn.) Raf. 0.23 0.26 0.18 0.22 2 . Croton bonplandianus Baill. 0.63 0.97 1.84 1.15 3 . Euphorbia helioscopia Linn. 0.49 0.28 0.20 0.32 21 . Euphorbiaceae 4 . Euphorbia hirta Linn. 0.18 0.66 0.80 0.55 5 . Euphorbia serpens Kunth. 0.15 0.21 0.80 0.38 6 . Euphorbia prostrata Ait. 0.78 1.08 1.00 0.95 7 . Euphorbia pulcherrima Willd. ex Klotzsch. 0.05 0.04 0.20 0.09 22 . Fumariaceae 1 . Fumaria indica (Hausskn.) Pugsley. 0.30 0.11 0.20 0.20 1 . Ocimum basilicum Linn. 0.20 0.04 0.20 0.14 23 . Lamiaceae 2 . Salvia plebeia R. Br. 0.10 0.28 0.20 0.19 1 . Abutilon indicum (Linn.) Sweet. 0.39 0.45 0.40 0.42 24 . Malvaceae 2 . Malva neglecta Wallr. 0.25 0.56 0.40 0.40 3 . Sida cordifolia Linn. 0.63 0.59 0.60 0.61 25 . Mimosaceae 1 . Mimosa pudica Linn. 0.83 0.45 0.60 0.63 26 . Molluginaceae 1 . Glinus lotoides Linn. 0.44 0.42 0.20 0.35

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27 . Nyctaginaceae 1 . Boerhavia procumbens Banks ex Roxb. 0.88 0.80 0.40 0.69 28 . Nymphaceae 1 . Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. 0.25 0.38 0.40 0.34 29 . Orobanchaceae 1 . Cistanche tubulosa (Schrenk.) Hook. 0.20 0.24 0.20 0.21 1 . Oxalis corniculata Linn. 0.05 0.11 0.20 0.12 30 . Oxalidaceae 2 . Oxalis Corymbosa DC. 0.35 0.24 0.40 0.33 1 . Argemone ochroleuca Sweet. 0.05 0.07 0.20 0.11 31 . Papaveraceae 2 . Papaver somniferum Linn. 0.10 0.11 0.20 0.13 1 . Alhaji maurorum Medic. 0.49 0.24 0.20 0.31 2 . Crotalaria burhia Buch. - Ham. Ex Benth. 0.80 0.66 1.20 0.89 32 . Papilionaceae 3 . Indigofera linifolia (Linn.f.) Retz. 2.59 2.02 2.19 2.27 4 . Melilotus indica (Linn.) All. 2.94 2.72 2.39 2.68 5 . Rhynchosia minima (Linn.) DC. 0.92 0.77 1.60 1.10 1 . Brachiaria ramose (Linn.) Stapf. 0.07 0.38 0.40 0.28 2 . Cenchrus biflorus Roxb. 0.12 0.17 0.60 0.30 3 . Cynodon dactylon (Linn.) Pers. 0.10 0.07 0.40 0.19 33 . Poaceae 4 . Dactyloctenium aegyptium (Linn.) Willd. 0.78 0.80 0.60 0.73 5 . Eleusine indica (Linn.) Gaertn. 0.18 0.56 0.40 0.38 6 . Imperata cylindrica (Linn.) Raeuschel. 0.22 0.11 0.40 0.24 7 . Ochthochloa compressa (Forssk.) Hilu. 0.68 1.22 0.20 0.70

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8 . Panicum antidotale Retz. 0.81 0.91 1.00 0.90 9 . Paspalidium flavidum (Retz.) A. Camus. 0.13 0.35 0.60 0.36 10 . Pennisetum glaucum (Linn.) R. Br. 0.07 0.38 0.40 0.28 11 . Poa annua Linn. 0.12 0.17 0.60 0.30 12 . Polypogan monspeliensis (Linn.) Desf. 2.84 1.85 1.80 2.16 13 . Setarria verticillata (Linn.) P. Beauv. 0.10 0.07 0.40 0.19 14 . Setaria viridis (Linn.) P. Beauv. 0.78 0.80 0.60 0.73 15 . Sorghum halepense (Linn.) Pers. 1.66 1.11 0.80 1.19 1 . Persicaria barbata (Linn.) Hara. Var . barbata 0.22 0.38 0.60 0.40 2 . Persicaria glabra (Willd.) M. Gomes. 0.66 0.63 0.80 0.69 34 . Polygonaceae 3 . Polygonum plebejum R. Br. 0.05 0.04 0.20 0.09 4 . Rumex dentatus Linn. 0.59 0.28 0.40 0.42 1 . Portulaca oleracea Linn. 0.30 0.28 0.60 0.39 35 . Portulacaceae 2 . Porulaca quadrifida Linn. 1.42 0.84 1.40 1.22 36 . Primulaceae 1 . Anagallis arvensis Linn. var. coerulea (Linn.) Gouan. 1.08 0.31 0.60 0.66 1 . Ranunculus muricatus Linn. 1.00 0.66 2.00 1.22 37 . Ranunculaceae 2 . Ranunculus sceleratus Linn. 2.30 2.99 1.40 2.23 38 . Resedaceae 1 . Oligomeris linifolia (Vahl.) Macbride. 3.87 5.40 2.19 3.82 39 . Solanaceae 1 . Datura fastuosa Linn. 0.18 0.56 0.40 0.38

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2 . Nicotiana plumbaginifola Viv. 0.73 0.28 0.80 0.60 3 . Physalis divaricata D. Done. 0.54 0.63 0.80 0.65 4 . Solanum nigrum Linn. var. nigrum . 0.10 0.07 0.40 0.19 5 . Solanum surattense Burm. f. 0.10 0.07 0.20 0.12 1 . Phyla nodiflora (Linn.) Greene. 0.68 0.66 0.80 0.71 40 . Verbenaceae 2 . Verbena officinalis Linn. 0.12 0.17 0.60 0.30 1 . Fagonia indica Burm. f. var. schweinfurthii. Hadidi. 0.25 0.38 0.40 0.34 41 . Zygophyllaceae 2 . Peganum harmala Linn. 0.20 0.24 0.20 0.21 3 . Tribulus terrestris Linn. 0.05 0.11 0.20 0.12 Key : RC, RD and RF stands for relative cover, relative density and relative frequency respectively.

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4.2 .3 Phytosociology of District Okara During the phytosociological study of District Okara, 108 plant (herbs) species, belonging to 41 families were reported. Out of these 41 families a single family i.e. and Equisetaceae belonged to Pteridophytes, one family i.e. Ephedraceae belonged to gymnosperms and other 39 families belonged to angiosperms. Among the angiosperms four families i.e. Asphodelaceae, Colchicaceae , Cyperaceae and Poaceae were representing monocots and 35 fa milies were representing dicots. Poaceae was found as a major family represented by 14 species and Cynodon dactylon was found to be a dominant species having importance value index 7.25 . While Echinochloa colona , Poa annua and Digitaria violascens were of second order dominating species having importance value index 4.69 , 4.81 and 3.78 respectively . Remaining 10 members of this family were Eleusine indica , Apluda mutica , Avena sativa , Dactyloctenium scindicum , Desmostachya bipinnata , Dicanthium annu latum , Polypogan monspeliensis , Setarria verticillata , Setaria viridis and Sorghum halepense having importance value index 0.53, 0.22, 0.32, 0.77, 0.07, 1.15, 0.81, 1.30, 0.92 and 0.34 respectively. Family Asteraceae was the second major species represente d by 8 numbers of species. This family was represented by the Ageratum conyzoides , Artemisia scoparia , Blumea lacera , Cotula hemispherica , Eclipta alba , Pulicaria undulate , Sonchus arvensis and Sonchus asper having importance value index 0.33, 0.50, 0.52, 0.29, 0.57, 0.29, 0.18 and 0.10 respectively . Family Euphorbiaceae was represented by 7 herb species, consisted of Euphorbia hirta , a dominating species having importance value index 1.51, Chrozophora tinctoria , Croton bonplandianus , Euphorbia helioscopia , Euphorbia hirta , Euphorbia prostrata and Euphorbia pulcherrima were the remaining 6 species having importance value index 0.18, 0.51, 0.61, 0.24, 0.51 and 0.15 respectively . Most of its species prefer sandy soils for their rapid growth. Amranthaceae was r epresented by 5 herb species. Achyranthes aspera was a dominant species representing this family by 6.81 importance value index, found along the road sides and other waste places. Aerva javanica , Alternanthera pungens , Alternanthera sessilis and Digera mur icata were the other four members of this family having importance value index 0.26, 0.46, 0.33 and 0.79 respectively . Family Caryophyllaceae was also represented by 5 species. Vaccaria hispanica was the dominant species, shown 2.21 importance value index. While other four members were Silene conoidea , Silene gonosperma , Spergula rubra and Stellaria media having

128 importance value index 0.92, 0.61, 1.16 and 0.64 respectively . Family Chenopodiaceae was represented by 5 species. Atriplex crassifolia was very dominant having 4.49 importance value index, second member was the Chenopodium murale having also a major contributing importance value index i.e. 3.38. Haloxylon stocksii , Kochia indica and Suaeda fruticosa were remaining members of this family having importance value index 1.28 and 1.03 respectively . About all the members of this family prefer moderate moist soils for their habitat. Family Papilionaceae was represented by five herb species. Indigofera linifolia was the dominant species of this f amily contributing 1.66 importance value index. Alhaji maurorum , Lathyrus aphaca , Medicago laciniata and Melilotus indica were the remaining species of this family having importance value index 0.09, 0.61, 0.09 and 0.39 respectively found in the study area . Family Aizoaceae was represented by four members i.e. Gisekia pharnaceoides , Trianthema portulacastrum , Zaleya pentandra and Trianthema triquetra having importance value index 0.83, 0.94, 0.28 and 0.08 respectively. M ost of the members of this family prefer the saline and waste habitat. Family Polygonaceae was also represented by four herb species in the study of vegetation of District Okara. Rumex dentatus was the dominant species contributing 2.7 importance value ind ex, other herbs representing this family were Persicaria barbata , Persicaria glabra and Polygonum plebejum having importance value index 1.81, 0.25 and 0.33 respectively . Family Solanaceae was also represented by four members i.e. Datura fastuosa , Nicotiana plumbaginifola , Solanum nigrum and Withania somnifera having importance value index 0.13, 0.18, 0.97 and 0.24 respectively . These plant species were found in moderate and arid soils. Family Zygophyllaceae was represented by three plant species i. e. Fagonia indica , Peganum harmala and Tribulus terrestris having importance value index 0.57, 0.75 and 0.52 respectively. A ll these herbs were found on the waste and moderate moist soils. There were 7 families represented by two herbs each. Family Apiacea e was represented by Centella asiatica and Oenanthe javanica having importance value index 0.08 and 0.16 respectively . Family Asphodelaceae representing the monocot angiosperms was consisting of two members’ Aloe vera and Asphodelus tenuifolius having impo rtance value index 0.16 and 0.34 respectively . Family Boraginaceae was represented by two herbs i.e. Arnebia hispidissima and Heliotropium crispum having importance value index 0.27 and 0.09 respectively . Family Convolvulaceae was

129 represented by Convolvulus arvensis and Convolvulus prostrates having importance value index 0.99 and 0.51 respectively . Family Cucurbitaceae was represented by Coccinia grandis and Citrullus colocynthis having importance value index 5.07 and 0.93 respectively . Family Cu scutaceae was represented by Cuscuta reflexa and Cuscuta campestris having importance value index 1.15 and 2.34 respectively . Family Lamiaceae was represented by Ocimum basilicum and Salvia plebeian having importance value index 0.25 and 0.12 respectively . Family Oxalidaceae was represented by Oxalis corniculata and Oxalis Corymbosa having importance value index 0.31 and 0.17 respectively . Family Papaveraceae was represented by Argemone ochroleuca and Papaver somniferum having importance value index 0.40 e ach . Family Portulacaceae was represented by Portulaca oleracea and Porulaca quadrifida having importance value index 0.11 and 0.12 respectively . Family Ranunculaceae was represented by Ranunculus muricatus and Ranunculus sceleratus having importance value index 0.14 and 1.08 respectively . Family Tiliaceae was represented by Corchorus depressus and Corchorus tridens having importance value index 0.25 and 0.16 respectively . Family Verbenaceae was represented by Phyla nodiflora and Verbena officinalis having importance value index 0.32 and 0.20 respectively . There were sixteen families represented by a single species. Family Cannabaceae, Capparidaceae, Colchicaceae , Cyperaceae , Ephedraceae , Equisetaceae , Fumariaceae , Lythraceae , Malvaceae , Mimosaceae , Molluginaceae , Nyctaginaceae , Nymphaceae , Orobanchaceae , Primulaceae and Resedaceae were represented by Cannabis sativa , Capparis spinosa , Colchicum luteum , Cyperus rotundus , Ephedra ciliata , Equisetum debile , Fumaria indica , Lawsonia inermis , Abutilon indicum , Mimosa pudica , Glinus lotoides , Boerhavia procumbens , Nelumbo nucifera , Cistanche tubulosa , Anagallis arvensis and Oligomeris linifolia having importance value index 0.74, 1.87, 0.87, 0.88, 0.08, 0.21, 0.38, 0.27, 0.67, 0.62, 0.10, 0.37, 0.85, 1.2 8, 0.09 and 0.35 respectively .

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Table 4.2 . 3: Importance Value Index (IVI) of Plant Species of District Okara Family Name RC RD RF IVI 1 . Gisekia pharnaceoides Linn. 1.03 0.93 0.52 0.83 2 . Trianthema portulacastrum Linn. 0.53 0.90 1.39 0.94 1. Aizoaceae 3 . Zaleya pentandra (Linn.) Jeffrey. 0.07 0.04 0.75 0.28 4 . Trianthema triquetra Rottle and Willd. 0.04 0.03 0.17 0.08 1 . Achyranthes aspera Linn. var. pubescens Wall. ex Moq. 5.66 10.23 4.53 6.81 2 . Aerva javanica (Burm.f.) Juss. 0.38 0.23 0.17 0.26 2. Amaranthaceae 3 . Alternanthera pungens Kunth. 0.14 0.55 0.70 0.46 4 . Alternanthera sessilis (Linn.) DC. 0.11 0.17 0.70 0.33 5 . Digera muricata (Linn.) Mart. 0.61 0.90 0.87 0.79 1 . Centella asiatica (Linn.) Urban. 0.04 0.03 0.17 0.08 3. Apiaceae 2 . Oenanthe javanica (Blume.) DC. 0.23 0.09 0.17 0.16 1 . Aloe vera (Linn.) Burm. f. 0.08 0.23 0.17 0.16 4. Asphodelaceae 2 . Asphodelus tenuifolius Cav. 0.31 0.38 0.35 0.34 1 . Ageratum conyzoides Linn. 0.19 0.46 0.35 0.33 2 . Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & Kit. 0.49 0.49 0.52 0.50 5. Asteraceae 3 . Blumea lacera (Burm.f.) DC. 0.65 0.38 0.52 0.52 4 . Cotula hemispherica (Roxb.) Wall. ex Benth. & Hook. f. 0.34 0.35 0.17 0.29

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5 . Eclipta alba Hassk. 0.68 0.67 0.35 0.57 6 . Pulicaria undulate (Linn.) C.A. 0.19 0.32 0.35 0.29 7 . Sonchus arvensis Linn. 0.15 0.20 0.17 0.18 8 . Sonchus asper Vill. 0.04 0.09 0.17 0.10 1 . Arnebia hispidissima (Lehm.) A.DC. 0.27 0.20 0.35 0.27 6. Boraginaceae 2 . Heliotropium crispum Desf. 0.04 0.06 0.17 0.09 1 . Eruca sativa Mill. 0.08 0.09 0.17 0.11 7. Brassicaceae 2 . Malcolmia africana (Linn.) R.Br. 0.38 0.20 0.17 0.25 8. Cannabaceae 1 . Cannabis sativa Linn. 0.62 0.55 1.04 0.74 9 . Capparidaceae 1 . Capparis spinosa Linn. 2.01 1.69 1.92 1.87 1 . Vaccaria hispanica (Miller.) Rauschert. 2.28 2.27 2.09 2.21 2 . Silene conoidea Linn. 0.72 0.64 1.39 0.92 10 . Caryophyllaceae 3 . Silene gonosperma Rupr. 0.76 0.55 0.52 0.61 4 . Spergula rubra Linn. 1.48 1.13 0.87 1.16 5 . Stellaria media (Linn.) Vill. 0.70 0.52 0.70 0.64 1 . Atriplex crassifolia C.A.Mey. 6.12 3.17 4.18 4.49 2 . Chenopodium murale Linn. 3.81 2.85 3.48 3.38 11 . Chenopodiaceae 3 . Haloxylon stocksii (Boiss.) Benth. & Hook. 0.88 1.22 1.74 1.28 4 . Kochia indica Wight. 1.90 2.18 1.92 2.00

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5 . Suaeda fruticosa Forssk. 0.84 0.70 1.57 1.03 12 . Colchicaceae 1 . Colchicum luteum Baker. 0.68 0.70 1.22 0.87 1 . Convolvulus arvensis Linn. 0.84 0.73 1.39 0.99 13 . Convolvulaceae 2 . Convolvulus prostratus Forssk. 0.36 0.29 0.87 0.51 1 . Citrullus colocynthis (Linn.) Schrad. 5.17 6.74 3.31 5.07 14 . Cucurbitaceae 2 . Coccinia grandis (Linn.) Voigt. 1.06 1.22 0.52 0.93 1 . Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. 1.75 0.67 1.04 1.15 15 . Cuscutaceae 2 . Cuscuta campestris Yuncker. 1.98 3.83 1.22 2.34 16 . Cyperaceae 1 . Cyperus rotundus Linn. 1.14 0.64 0.87 0.88 17 . Ephedraceae 1 . Ephedra ciliata Fisch. & Mey. 0.02 0.06 0.17 0.08 18 . Equisetaceae 1 . Equisetum debile Roxb. 0.31 0.14 0.17 0.21 1 . Chrozophora tinctoria (Linn.) Raf. 0.23 0.14 0.17 0.18 2 . Croton bonplandianus Baill. 0.34 0.67 0.52 0.51 3 . Euphorbia helioscopia Linn. 0.57 0.73 0.52 0.61 19 . Euphorbiaceae 4 . Euphorbia hirta Linn. 1.66 0.96 1.92 1.51 5 . Euphorbia serpens Kunth. 0.10 0.29 0.32 0.24 6 . Euphorbia prostrata Ait. 0.27 0.29 0.96 0.51 7 . Euphorbia pulcherrima Willd. ex Klotzsch. 0.07 0.05 0.32 0.15 20 . Fumariaceae 1 . Fumaria indica (Hausskn.) Pugsley. 0.39 0.43 0.32 0.38

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1 . Ocimum basilicum Linn. 0.14 0.13 0.48 0.25 21 . Lamiaceae 2 . Salvia plebeia R. Br. 0.03 0.16 0.16 0.12 22 . Lythraceae 1 . Lawsonia inermis Linn. 0.28 0.22 0.32 0.27 23 . Malvaceae 1 . Abutilon indicum (Linn.) Sweet. 0.21 0.83 0.96 0.67 24 . Mimosaceae 1 . Mimosa pudica Linn. 0.30 0.59 0.96 0.62 25 . Molluginaceae 1 . Glinus lotoides Linn. 0.03 0.11 0.16 0.10 26 . Nyctaginaceae 1 . Boerhavia procumbens Banks ex Roxb. 0.18 0.62 0.32 0.37 27 . Nymphaceae 1 . Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. 0.67 1.23 0.64 0.85 28 . Orobanchaceae 1 . Cistanche tubulosa (Schrenk.) Hook. 1.09 1.31 1.45 1.28 1 . Oxalis corniculata Linn. 0.21 0.40 0.32 0.31 29 . Oxalidaceae 2 . Oxalis Corymbosa DC. 0.05 0.13 0.32 0.17 1 . Argemone ochroleuca Sweet. 0.35 0.54 0.32 0.40 30 . Papaveraceae 2 . Papaver somniferum Linn. 0.21 0.35 0.64 0.40 1 . Alhaji maurorum Medic. 0.03 0.08 0.16 0.09 2 . Indigofera linifolia (Linn.f.) Retz. 1.96 1.42 1.61 1.66 31 . Papilionaceae 3 . Lathyrus aphaca Linn. 0.50 0.70 0.64 0.61 4 . Medicago laciniata Linn. 0.03 0.08 0.16 0.09 5 . Melilotus indica (Linn.) All. 0.45 0.40 0.32 0.39 32 . Poaceae 1 . Apluda mutica Linn. 0.25 0.70 0.64 0.53

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2 . Avena sativa Linn. 0.14 0.19 0.32 0.22 3 . Cynodon dactylon (Linn.) Pers. 8.48 5.96 7.32 7.25 4 . Dactyloctenium scindicum Boiss. 0.21 0.27 0.48 0.32 5 . Desmostachya bipinnata (Linn.) Stapf. 1.12 0.86 0.32 0.77 6 . Dicanthium annulatum (Forssk.) Stapf. 0.02 0.03 0.16 0.07 7 . Digitaria violascens Link. 5.13 2.68 3.54 3.78 8 . Echinochloa colona (Linn.) Link. 4.74 4.18 5.15 4.69 9 . Eleusine indica (Linn.) Gaertn. 1.54 0.78 1.13 1.15 10 . Poa annua Linn. 6.17 4.40 3.86 4.81 11 . Polypogan monspeliensis (Linn.) Desf. 0.80 0.51 1.13 0.81 12 . Setarria verticillata (Linn.) P. Beauv. 0.96 1.02 1.93 1.30 13 . Setaria viridis (Linn.) P. Beauv. 0.65 0.51 1.61 0.92 14 . Sorghum halepense (Linn.) Pers. 0.53 0.32 0.16 0.34 1 . Persicaria barbata (Linn.) Hara. Var . barbata 2.17 2.28 0.96 1.81 2 . Persicaria glabra (Willd.) M. Gomes. 0.25 0.19 0.32 0.25 33 . Polygonaceae 3 . Polygonum plebejum R. Br. 0.28 0.22 0.48 0.33 4 . Rumex dentatus Linn. 2.11 4.56 1.45 2.70 1 . Portulaca oleracea Linn. 0.03 0.13 0.16 0.11 34 . Portulacaceae 2 . Porulaca quadrifida Linn. 0.10 0.11 0.16 0.12

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35 . Primulaceae 1 . Anagallis arvensis Linn. var. coerulea (Linn.) Gouan. 0.07 0.03 0.16 0.09 1 . Ranunculus muricatus Linn. 0.21 0.05 0.16 0.14 36 . Ranunculaceae 2 . Ranunculus sceleratus Linn. 1.23 0.88 1.13 1.08 37 . Resedaceae 1 . Oligomeris linifolia (Vahl.) Macbride. 0.25 0.48 0.32 0.35 1 . Datura fastuosa Linn. 0.10 0.13 0.16 0.13 2 . Nicotiana plumbaginifola Viv. 0.18 0.22 0.16 0.18 38 . Solanaceae 3 . Solanum nigrum Linn. var. nigrum 0.49 0.81 1.61 0.97 4 . Withania somnifera (Linn.) Dunal. 0.05 0.32 0.35 0.24 1 . Corchorus depressus (Linn.) Stocks. 0.09 0.14 0.52 0.25 39 . Tiliaceae 2 . Corchorus tridens Linn. 0.08 0.06 0.35 0.16 1 . Phyla nodiflora (Linn.) Greene. 0.14 0.46 0.35 0.32 40 . Verbenaceae 2 . Verbena officinalis Linn. 0.17 0.09 0.35 0.20 1 . Fagonia indica Burm. f. var. schweinfurthii. Hadidi. 0.53 1.02 0.17 0.57 41. Zygophyllaceae 2 . Peganum harmala Linn. 0.63 0.76 0.87 0.75 3 . Tribulus terrestris Linn. 0.73 0.32 0.52 0.52 Key : RC, RD and RF stands for relative cover, relative density and relative frequency respectively.

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4.2 .4 Phytosociology of Sahiwal Division In the phytosociological survey of Sahiwal Division 159 plant species belonging to 44 families were recorded. Two families were found to belonging Pteridophytes, one family to Gymnosperms and four families to monocots. Family P oaceae was found a major family of the division. Poaceae was represented by 22 plant species viz., Apluda mutica , Avena sativa , Brachiaria ramose , Cenchrus biflorus , Cynodon dactylon, Dactyloctenium aegyptium, Dactyloctenium scindicum , Desmostachya bipinna ta , Dicanthium annulatum, Digitaria violascens, Echinochloa colona, Eleusine indica, Imperata cylindrica, Ochthochloa compressa, Panicum antidotale , Paspalidium flavidum, Pennisetum glaucum, Poa annua, Polypogan monspeliensis , Setarria verticillata, Setari a viridis and Sorghum halepense possessing IVI value as 0.34, 0.61, 0.19, 0.2, 0.13, 0.48, 0.44, 0.43, 0.06, 1.88, 2.02, 0.46, 0.16, 0.46, 0.6, 0.33, 0.16, 2.04, 1.04, 0.59, 0.51 and 1.06 respectively. Asteraceae was represented by 20 plant spe cies viz., Ageratum conyzoides, Artemisia scoparia, Blumea lacera, Carthamus oxycantha, Cichorium intybus, Cnicus arvensis, Conyza ambigua, Cotula hemispherica , Eclipta alba, Gnaphalium polycaulon, Ifloga spicata, Launia nudicaulis, Pseudoconyza viscosa , Pseudognaphalium luteo - album, Pulicaria undulate, Sonchus arvensis, Sonchus asper, Sonchus oleraceous, Vernonia cinerascens and Xanthium strumarium, having IVI value as 0.34, 0.26, 0.36, 0.2, 0.17, 0.21, 0.2, 0.83, 0.29, 0.48, 0.79, 0.25, 0.16, 1.93, 0.38, 0.32, 0.08, 0.3, 0.68 and 1.03 respectively. Brassicaceae was represented by nine members’ viz., Capsella bursa - pastoris, Coronopus didymus, Eruca sativa, Farsetia jacquemontii, Goldbachia laevigata, Lepidium sativum, Malcolmia africana, Roripp a islandica and Sisymbrium irio having IVI value as 0.6, 0.27, 0.21, 0.07, 1.34, 0.46, 0.13, 0.49 and 0.07 respectively. There were two families, which had eight members. Amaranthaceae has 8 plant species as reprsentatives viz., Achyranthes aspera, Aerva j avanica, Alternanthera pungens, Alt ernanthera sessilis, Amaranthus spinosus, Amaranthus viridis, Celosia argentea and Digera muricata . Having IVI value as 1.92, 0.26, 0.37, 0.26, 0.21, 0.25, 3.51 and 0.53 respectively. Chenopodiaceae had 8 plant species viz., Atriplex crassifolia, Chenopodium album, Chenopodium ambrosioides, Chenopodium murale, Haloxylon stocksii, Kochia indica, Salsola imbricata and Suaeda fruticosa having IVI value as 1.84, 3.89, 0.65, 1.89, 0.88, 0.94, 1.46 and 0.46 respectively.

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There were also two families which were represented by seven members. Euphorbiaceae had seven representative plant species viz., Ch rozophora tinctoria, Croton bonplandianus, Euphorbia helioscopia, Euphorbia hirta, Euphorbia serpens , Euphorbia prostrata and Euphorbia pulcherrima having IVI value as 0.19, 0.67, 0.38, 0.8, 0.64, 1.19 and 0.57 respectively. Papilionaceae had 7 plant speci es viz., Alhaji maurorum, Crotalaria burhia , Indigofera linifolia, Lathyrus aphaca , Medicago laciniata, Melilotus indica and Rhynchosia minima having IVI as 0.15, 0.74, 0.97, 0.49, 0.07, 2.34 and 0.46 respectively. Solanaceae had 6 reprsentative plant species viz. Datura fastuosa , Nicotiana plumbaginifola , Physalis divaricata , Solanum nigrum, Solanum surattense and Withania somnifera having IVI Value as 0.18, 0.29, 0.38, 0.33, 0.71 and 0.19 respectively. There were three families, repre sented by five members each. Boraginaceae was represented by five plant species viz., Arnebia hispidissima, Heliotropium crispum , Heliotropium europaeum, Heliotropium strigosum and Nonnea pulla having IVI value 0.34, 0.07, 0.25, 0.13 and 0.32 respectively. Caryophyllaceae had five plant species as representative viz., Vaccaria hispanica , Silene conoidea, Silene gonosperma, Spergula rubra and Stellaria media having IVI as 0.7, 0.5, 0.2, 1.41 and 2.24 respectively. Malvaceae had 5 plant species as Abutilon i ndicum, Malva neglecta, Malva parviflora, Malvastrum coromandelianum and Sida cordifolia having IVI value 0.41, 0.27, 0.18, 0.09 and 0.41 respectively. There were two families, which had 4 members each. Aizoaceae had 4 representative plant species viz., Gi sekia pharnaceoides, Trianthema portulacastrum, Trianthema triquetra and Zaleya pentandra having IVI value as 0.78, 0.41, 2.5 and 0.28 respectively. Polygonaceae had 4 plants as representative species viz., Persicaria barbata , Persicaria glabra, Polygonum plebejum and Rumex dentatus having IVI value 0.61, 0.25, 0.18 and 1 respectively. There were three families, which were represented by three members. Capparidaceae had 3 plant species as representatives viz., Capparis spinosa,Cleome brachycarpa and Cleome viscosa having IVI value as 0.65, 0.35 and 0.26 respectively. Cucurbitaceae had 3 plant species viz., Citrullus colocynthis, Coccinia grandis and Mukia maderaspatana having IVI value as 1.43, 0.55 and 0.1 respectively. Zygophyllaceae had three p lant species as representative viz., Fagonia

138 indica , Peganum harmala and Tribulus terrestris having IVI value as 0.35, 0.37 and 0.18 respectively. There were twelve families which were represented by two members. Apiaceae had two plant species vi z. Centella asiatica and Oenanthe javanica having IVI value as 0.36 and 0.13. Asclepiadaceae had two representative plant species viz., Oxystelma esculentum and Pentatropis spiralis having IVI value as 0.71 and 0.06. Asphodelaceae had two plant species viz. Aloe vera and Asphodelus tenuifolius with IVI value 1.24 and 0.65. Convolvulaceae was represented by two plant species viz. Convolvulus arvensis and Convolvulus prostratus having I VI value 0.53 and 1.63. Cuscutaceae had two plant species as representative species like Cuscuta reflexa and Cuscuta campestris with IVI value 0.42 and 0.89. Lamiaceae had two plant species viz. Ocimum basilicum and Salvia plebeia having IVI value as 0.15 and 0.11. Oxalidaceae had two plant species viz. Oxalis corniculata and Oxalis Corymbosa with IVI value 0.27 and 0.17. Papaveraceae had two plant species viz. Argemone ochroleuca and Papaver somniferum with IVI value 0.19 and 0.32 respectively. Portulacace ae had two plant species as Portulaca oleracea and Porulaca quadrifida with IVI 0.14 and 0.4. Ranunculaceae had two plant species as Ranunculus muricatus and Ranunculus sceleratus with IVI value 0.66 and 0.87. Tiliaceae had two plant species viz. Corchorus depressus and Corchorus tridens with IVI 0.2 and 0.13. Verbenaceae had two plant species as Phyla nodiflora and Verbena officinalis with IVI value as 0.38 and 0.18. Sixteen families had only one plant soecies in each family. These were Acanthac eae, Adiantaceae, Cannabaceae, Colchicaceae , Cyperaceae, Ephedraceae, Equisetaceae, Fumariaceae, Lythraceae, Mimosaceae, Molluginaceae, Nyctaginaceae, Nymphaceae, Orobanchaceae, Primulaceae and Resedaceae, represented by Peristrophe paniculata , Adiantum ca pillus - veneris , Cannabis sativa, Colchicum luteum, Cyperus rotundus, Ephedra ciliata, Equisetum debile, Fumaria indica, Lawsonia inermis, Mimosa pudica, Glinus lotoides , Boerhavia procumbens, Nelumbo nucifera, Cistanche tubulosa, Anagallis arvensis . and O ligomeris linifolia with IVI 0.49, 0.53, 1.14, 0.43, 2.48, 0.21, 0.31, 0.28, 3.41, 0.4, 0.25, 0.29, 0.33, 0.45, 0.4 and 0.98 respectively.

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Table 4.2 . 4: Importance Value Index (IVI) of Plant Species of Sahiwal Division Family Name RC RD RF IVI 1 . Acanthaceae 1 . Peristrophe paniculata (Forssk.) Brummitt 0.49 0.52 0.48 0.49 2 . Adiantaceae 1 . Adiantum capillus - veneris Linn. 0.47 0.39 0.74 0.53 3 . Aizoaceae 1 . Gisekia pharnaceoides Linn. 0.70 0.79 0.85 0.78 2 . Trianthema portulacastrum Linn. 0.23 0.37 0.62 0.41 3 . Trianthema triquetra Rottle and Willd. 1.97 3.79 1.73 2.50 4 . Zaleya pentandra (Linn.) Jeffrey. 0.07 0.04 0.75 0.28

4 . Amaranthaceae 1 . Achyranthes aspera Linn. var. pubescens Wall. ex Moq. 1.67 2.79 1.29 1.92 2 . Aerva javanica (Burm.f.) Juss. 0.30 0.27 0.21 0.26 3 . Alternanthera pungens Kunth. 0.12 0.44 0.55 0.37 4 . Alternanthera sessilis (Linn.) DC. 0.09 0.14 0.55 0.26 5 . Amaranthus spinosus Linn. 0.31 0.19 0.14 0.21 6 . Amaranthus viridis Linn. 0.23 0.28 0.25 0.25 7 . Celosia argentea Linn. 2.82 5.07 2.64 3.51 8 . Digera muricata (Linn.) Mart. 0.45 0.45 0.71 0.53 5 . Apiaceae 1 . Centella asiatica (Linn.) Urban. 0.18 0.39 0.50 0.36 2 . Oenanthe javanica (Blume.) DC. 0.19 0.07 0.14 0.13 6 . Asclepiadaceae 1 . Oxystelma esculentum (Linn.f.) R. 0.61 0.75 0.77 0.71

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2 . Pentatropis spiralis (Forssk.) Decne. 0.03 0.02 0.14 0.06 7 . Asphodelaceae 1 . Aloe vera (Linn.) Burm. f. 1.85 0.50 1.37 1.24 2 . Asphodelus tenuifolius Cav. 0.84 0.57 0.55 0.65 1 . Ageratum conyzoides Linn. 0.19 0.30 0.52 0.34 8 . Asteraceae 2 . Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & Kit. 0.23 0.22 0.34 0.26

3 . Blumea lacera (Burm.f.) DC. 0.43 0.32 0.34 0.36

4 . Carthamus oxycantha Bieb. 0.12 0.11 0.38 0.20

5 . Cichorium intybus Linn. 0.05 0.18 0.27 0.17 6 . Cnicus arvensis (Linn.) Hoffm. 0.14 0.21 0.27 0.21 7 . Conyza ambigua DC. 0.08 0.12 0.42 0.20 8 . Cotula hemispherica (Roxb.) Wall. ex Benth. & Hook. f. 1.05 0.76 0.69 0.83 9 . Eclipta alba Hassk. 0.31 0.29 0.28 0.29 10 . Gnaphalium polycaulon Pers. 0.50 0.53 0.42 0.48 11 . Ifloga spicata (Forssk.) Sch. Bip. 1.06 0.74 0.55 0.79 12 . Launia nudicaulis Less ssp. fallax (Jaub. &Spach.) Jafri. 0.11 0.37 0.28 0.25 13 . Pseudoconyza viscosa Mill. 0.14 0.07 0.28 0.16 14 . Pseudognaphalium luteo - album (Linn.) O.M.Hilliard & B.L. Burrt. 4.01 0.26 1.52 1.93 15 . Pulicaria undulate (Linn.) C.A. 0.16 0.46 0.52 0.38 16 . Sonchus arvensis Linn. 0.19 0.32 0.45 0.32

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17 . Sonchus asper Vill. 0.03 0.08 0.13 0.08 18 . Sonchus oleraceous Linn. 0.14 0.49 0.25 0.30 19 . Vernonia cinerascens Schultz - Bip. 0.55 0.99 0.51 0.68 20 . Xanthium strumarium Linn. 0.90 1.05 1.15 1.03 9 . Boraginaceae 1 . Arnebia hispidissima (Lehm.) A.DC. 0.33 0.49 0.21 0.34 2 . Heliotropium crispum Desf. 0.03 0.05 0.14 0.07 3 . Heliotropium europaeum Linn. 0.17 0.32 0.25 0.25 4 . Heliotropium strigosum Willd. 0.04 0.11 0.25 0.13 5 . Nonnea pulla (Linn.) DC. 0.29 0.43 0.25 0.32

10 . Brassicaceae 1 . Capsella bursa - pastoris (Linn.) Medik. 0.52 0.60 0.69 0.60 2 . Coronopus didymus (Linn.) Smith. 0.14 0.26 0.42 0.27 3 . Eruca sativa Mill. 0.12 0.17 0.32 0.21 4 . Farsetia jacquemontii Hook.f.& Thoms. 0.03 0.06 0.13 0.07 5 . Goldbachia laevigata (M. Bieb.) DC. 1.62 1.14 1.28 1.34 6 . Lepidium sativum Linn. 0.42 0.42 0.55 0.46 7 . Malcolmia africana (Linn.) R.Br. 0.17 0.09 0.14 0.13 8 . Rorippa islandica (Oeder.) Borbas. 0.41 0.56 0.51 0.49 9 . Sisymbrium irio Linn. 0.03 0.06 0.13 0.07 11 . Cannabaceae 1 . Cannabis sativa Linn. 1.18 1.28 0.97 1.14

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12 . Capparidaceae 1 . Capparis spinosa Linn. 0.71 0.59 0.64 0.65 2 . Cleome brachycarpa Vahl ex DC. 0.26 0.39 0.39 0.35 3 . Cleome viscosa Linn. 0.18 0.19 0.40 0.26 13 . Caryophyllaceae 1 . Vaccaria hispanica (Miller.) Rauschert. 0.69 0.69 0.73 0.70 2 . Silene conoidea Linn. 0.53 0.48 0.50 0.50 3 . Silene gonosperma Rupr. 0.22 0.16 0.23 0.20 4 . Spergula rubra Linn. 1.84 1.09 1.30 1.41 5 . Stellaria media (Linn.) Vill. 2.45 1.94 2.33 2.24

14 . Chenopodiaceae 1 . Atriplex crassifolia C.A.Mey. 2.30 1.45 1.77 1.84 2 . Chenopodium album Linn. 5.08 3.52 3.06 3.89 3 . Chenopodium ambrosioides Linn. 0.66 0.41 0.89 0.65 4 . Chenopodium murale Linn. 1.97 1.55 2.15 1.89 5 . Haloxylon stocksii (Boiss.) Benth. & Hook. 0.63 0.69 1.33 0.88 6 . Kochia indica Wight. 1.00 1.00 0.82 0.94 7 . Salsola imbricata Forssk. 1.79 1.82 0.77 1.46 8 . Suaeda fruticosa Forssk. 0.38 0.30 0.69 0.46 15 . Colchicaceae 1 . Colchicum luteum Baker. 0.39 0.31 0.59 0.43 16 . Convolvulaceae 1 . Convolvulus arvensis Linn. 0.62 0.32 0.63 0.53 2 . Convolvulus prostratus Forssk. 1.97 1.61 1.30 1.63

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17 . Cucurbitaceae 1 . Citrullus colocynthis (Linn.) Schrad. 1.49 1.83 0.96 1.43 2 . Coccinia grandis (Linn.) Voigt. 0.57 0.53 0.55 0.55 3 . Mukia maderaspatana (Linn.) M.J. Roam. 0.09 0.09 0.13 0.10 18 . Cuscutaceae 1 . Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. 0.55 0.30 0.41 0.42 2 . Cuscuta campestris Yuncker. 0.85 1.21 0.60 0.89 19 . Cyperaceae 1 . Cyperus rotundus Linn. 2.98 1.99 2.46 2.48 20 . Ephedraceae 1 . Ephedra ciliata Fisch. & Mey. 0.20 0.21 0.22 0.21 21 . Equisetaceae 1 . Equisetum debile Roxb. 0.47 0.24 0.23 0.31

22 . Euphorbiaceae 1 . Chrozophora tinctoria (Linn.) Raf. 0.17 0.16 0.23 0.19 2 . Croton bonplandianus Baill. 0.53 0.58 0.89 0.67 3 . Euphorbia helioscopia Linn. 0.49 0.33 0.32 0.38 4 . Euphorbia hirta Linn. 0.71 0.55 1.15 0.80 5 . Euphorbia serpens Kunth. 0.55 0.79 0.59 0.64 6 . Euphorbia prostrata Ait. 1.07 1.52 0.99 1.19 7 . Euphorbia pulcherrima Willd. ex Klotzsch. 0.71 0.50 0.50 0.57 23 . Fumariaceae 1 . Fumaria indica (Hausskn.) Pugsley. 0.33 0.20 0.32 0.28 24 . Lamiaceae 1 . Ocimum basilicum Linn. 0.12 0.07 0.26 0.15 2 . Salvia plebeia R. Br. 0.05 0.16 0.13 0.11 25 . Lythraceae 1 . Lawsonia inermis Linn. 3.09 5.35 1.79 3.41

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26 . Malvaceae 1 . Abutilon indicum (Linn.) Sweet. 0.21 0.48 0.52 0.41 2 . Malva neglecta Wallr. 0.16 0.37 0.28 0.27 3 . Malva parviflora Linn. 0.08 0.19 0.28 0.18 4 . Malvastrum coromandelianum (Linn.) Garcke. 0.09 0.02 0.14 0.09 5 . Sida cordifolia Linn. 0.45 0.28 0.48 0.41 27 . Mimosaceae 1 . Mimosa pudica Linn. 0.43 0.28 0.49 0.40 28 . Molluginaceae 1 . Glinus lotoides Linn. 0.22 0.26 0.27 0.25 29 . Nyctaginaceae 1 . Boerhavia procumbens Banks ex Roxb. 0.26 0.36 0.27 0.29 30 . Nymphaceae 1 . Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. 0.26 0.43 0.31 0.33 31 . Orobanchaceae 1 . Cistanche tubulosa (Schrenk.) Hook. 0.44 0.44 0.48 0.45 32 . Oxalidaceae 1 . Oxalis corniculata Linn. 0.21 0.28 0.32 0.27 2 . Oxalis Corymbosa DC. 0.18 0.11 0.22 0.17 33 . Papaveraceae 1 . Argemone ochroleuca Sweet. 0.21 0.20 0.18 0.19 2 . Papaver somniferum Linn. 0.28 0.23 0.45 0.32 34 . Papilionaceae 1 . Alhaji maurorum Medic. 0.14 0.10 0.22 0.15 2 . Crotalaria burhia Buch. - Ham. Ex Benth. 0.53 0.64 1.05 0.74 3 . Indigofera linifolia (Linn.f.) Retz. 1.10 0.84 0.98 0.97 4 . Lathyrus aphaca Linn. 0.41 0.56 0.51 0.49 5 . Medicago laciniata Linn. 0.03 0.06 0.13 0.07

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6 . Melilotus indica (Linn.) All. 2.06 3.23 1.74 2.34 7 . Rhynchosia minima (Linn.) DC. 0.41 0.34 0.62 0.46 1 . Apluda mutica Linn. 0.22 0.42 0.38 0.34 35 . Poaceae 2 . Avena sativa Linn. 0.47 0.59 0.77 0.61

3 . Brachiaria ramose (Linn.) Stapf. 0.05 0.26 0.28 0.19

4 . Cenchrus biflorus Roxb. 0.08 0.12 0.42 0.20

5 . Cynodon dactylon (Linn.) Pers. 0.06 0.05 0.28 0.13

6 . Dactyloctenium aegyptium (Linn.) Willd. 0.50 0.53 0.42 0.48 7 . Dactyloctenium scindicum Boiss. 0.32 0.25 0.77 0.44 8 . Desmostachya bipinnata (Linn.) Stapf. 0.56 0.47 0.25 0.43 9 . Dicanthium annulatum (Forssk.) Stapf. 0.02 0.03 0.13 0.06 10 . Digitaria violascens Link. 2.42 1.45 1.79 1.88 11 . Echinochloa colona (Linn.) Link. 2.04 1.78 2.23 2.02 12 . Eleusine indica (Linn.) Gaertn. 0.49 0.41 0.47 0.46 13 . Imperata cylindrica (Linn.) Raeuschel. 0.14 0.07 0.28 0.16 14 . Ochthochloa compressa (Forssk.) Hilu. 0.44 0.81 0.14 0.46 15 . Panicum antidotale Retz. 0.52 0.60 0.69 0.60 16 . Paspalidium flavidum (Retz.) A. Camus. 0.15 0.23 0.59 0.33 17 . Pennisetum glaucum (Linn.) R. Br. 0.05 0.15 0.27 0.16

146

18 . Poa annua Linn. 2.58 1.82 1.74 2.04 19 . Polypogan monspeliensis (Linn.) Desf. 1.24 0.82 1.07 1.04 20 . Setarria verticillata (Linn.) P. Beauv. 0.43 0.43 0.90 0.59 21 . Setaria viridis (Linn.) P. Beauv. 0.45 0.43 0.65 0.51 22 . Sorghum halepense (Linn.) Pers. 1.50 1.00 0.68 1.06 36 . Polygonaceae 1 . Persicaria barbata (Linn.) Hara. Var . barbata 0.68 0.67 0.48 0.61 2 . Persicaria glabra (Willd.) M. Gomes. 0.22 0.23 0.31 0.25 3 . Polygonum plebejum R. Br. 0.16 0.12 0.26 0.18 4 . Rumex dentatus Linn. 0.76 1.50 0.73 1.00 37 . Portulacaceae 1 . Portulaca oleracea Linn. 0.08 0.13 0.22 0.14 2 . Porulaca quadrifida Linn. 0.38 0.38 0.45 0.40 38 . Primulaceae 1 . Anagallis arvensis Linn. var. coerulea (Linn.) Gouan. 0.43 0.41 0.35 0.40 39 . Ranunculaceae 1 . Ranunculus muricatus Linn. 0.57 0.51 0.89 0.66 2 . Ranunculus sceleratus Linn. 0.88 1.01 0.71 0.87 40 . Resedaceae 1 . Oligomeris linifolia (Vahl.) Macbride. 0.91 1.36 0.68 0.98 41 . Solanaceae 1 . Datura fastuosa Linn. 0.10 0.24 0.20 0.18 2 . Nicotiana plumbaginifola Viv. 0.30 0.26 0.31 0.29 3 . Physalis divaricata D. Done. 0.26 0.35 0.53 0.38 4 . Solanum nigrum Linn. var. nigrum 0.17 0.25 0.56 0.33

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5 . Solanum surattense Burm. f. 0.84 0.59 0.71 0.71 6 . Withania somnifera (Linn.) Dunal. 0.05 0.26 0.28 0.19 42 . Tiliaceae 1 . Corchorus depressus (Linn.) Stocks. 0.08 0.12 0.42 0.20 2 . Corchorus tridens Linn. 0.06 0.05 0.28 0.13 43 . Verbenaceae 1 . Phyla nodiflora (Linn.) Greene. 0.25 0.46 0.45 0.38 2 . Verbena officinalis Linn. 0.11 0.11 0.32 0.18 44. Zygophyllaceae 1 . Fagonia indica Burm. f. var. schweinfurthii. Hadidi. 0.30 0.53 0.21 0.35 2 . Peganum harmala Linn. 0.32 0.38 0.41 0.37 3 . Tribulus terrestris Linn. 0.09 0.16 0.28 0.18 Key : RC, RD and RF stands for relative cover, relative density and relative frequency respectively.

148

4.2 .5 TWINSPAN analysis of District Sahiwal Two Way Indicator Species Analysis was applied on the values of quadrat analysis to identify the vegetation community and was anal yzed district wise as follows:

Fig 4.2 .1: Dendrogram of TWINSPAN for District Sahiwal

149

De scription Two - way indicator species analysis (TWINSPAN) of herbaceous flora of District Sahiwal had been performed to evaluate plant communities based on differential plant species, data was collected from 72 Quadrat and 100 plant species were recorded. TWINSPAN was divided into groups, sub groups and associations. It was divided into Group A (GA) and Group B (GB). GA (Group A) was further divided into GA1 and GA2. GA1 was further divided into two sub groups i.e., SG1 and SG2. SG1 of GA1 had 5 associations i.e. A1, A2, A3, A4 and A5. A1 of SG1 had 29 plant species viz., Peristrophe paniculata , Euphorbia hirta , Malva parviflora , Desmostachya bipinnata , Celosia argentea , Digera muricata, Cleome viscosa , Pentatropis spiralis , Colchicum luteum , Malcolmia Africana , Cnicus arvensis , Pseudognaphalium luteo - album , Arnebia hispidissima, Euphorbia pulch errima , Fumaria indica , Oxalis Corymbosa , Suaeda fruticosa , Convolvulus arvensis , Capsella bursa - pastoris , Mimosa pudica , Eichhornia crassipes , Portulaca oleraceae , Nicotiana plumbaginifola , Cistanche tubulosa , Dicanthium annulatum , Rumex dentatus , Citrullus colocynthis , Persicaria barbata and Avena sativa . A2 of SG1 had 9 plant species viz., Coronopus didymus , Ranunculus sceleratus , Phyla nodiflora , Cuscuta campestris , Setaria viridis , Cyperus rotundus , Ephedra ciliata , Physalis divaricata and Eupho rbia helioscopia . A3 of SG1 had 8 plant species viz., Boerhavia procumbens , Nelumbo nucifera, Oligomeris linifolia , Argemone ochroleuca, Oxalis corniculata , Porulaca quadrifida , Indigofera linifolia and Alhaji maurorum. A4 of SG1 had 7 plant species viz., Euphorbia prostrata , Glinus lotoides , Papaver somniferum , Rhynchosia minima , Melilotus indica , Lawsonia inermis and Apluda mutica. A5 of SG1 had 7 plant species viz., Digitaria violascens , Echinochloa colona , Ranunculus muricatus , Pennisetum glaucum , Anagallis arvensis , Paspalidium flavidum and Solanum surattense. SG2 of GA1 had 2 assocations; A1 and A2. A1 had 8 species viz., Adiantum capillus - veneris , Crotalaria burhia , Polygonum plebejum , Cichorium intybus , Centella asiatica , Aerva javanica , Cappari s spinosa and Pseudoconyza viscosa . A2 had 10 species viz., Lepidium sativum , Atriplex crassifolia , Euphorbia serpens , Persicaria glabra, Silene conoidea , Spergula rubra , Stellaria media and Verbena officinalis . GA2 had one association; A1, consisted of 10 plant species viz., Achyranthes aspera , Aloe vera , Ifloga spicata, Gnaphalium polycaulon , Launia nudicaulis, Conyza ambigua , Solanum nigrum , Asphodelus tenuifolius , Eclipta alba and Cotula hemispherica .

150

Group B had one association, A1 had 12 plant species viz., Cannabis sativa , Cuscuta reflexa , Cleome brachycarpa , Convolvulus prostratus, Crotalaria burhia , Malvastrum coromandelianum , Coccinia grandis , Sida cordifolia , Eleusine indica , Equisetum debile, Chrozophora tinctoria and Dactyloctenium scindicum .

151

4.2 .6 TWINSPAN analysis of District Pakpattan

Fig 4.2 .2: Dendrogram of TWINSPAN for District Pakpattan

152

De scription Two - way indicator species analysis (TWINSPAN) of herbeaous flora of District Pakpatan had been performed to evaluate plant communities based on differential plant species, data was collected from 78 Quadrat and 122 plant species were recorded. TWINSPAN was divided into groups, sub groups and associations. It was divided into Group A (GA) and Group B (GB). Group A had GA1 and GA2, GA1 had two subgroups; SG1 and SG2. SG1 had 7 plant associations i.e., A1, A2, A3, A4, A5, A6 and A7. A1 of SG1 had 9 plant species viz., Peristrophe paniculata , Cnicus arvensis , Heliotropium strigosum , Goldbachia laevigata , Ranunculus muricatus , Gisekia pharnaceoides , Ochthochloa compressa , Stellaria media and Ageratum conyzoides. A2 of SG1 had 11 plant species viz., Trianthema portulacastrum , Xanthium strumarium, Trianthema triquetra , Melilotus indica , Asphodelus tenuifolius , Rorippa i slandica, Kochia indica , Salvia plebeian , Dactyloctenium aegyptium , Panicum antidotale and Paspalidium flavidum . A3 of SG1 had 22 plant species viz., Achyranthes aspera, Sonchus asper, Sonchus oleraceous , Convolvulus prostratus, Eleusine indica , Salsola im bricate , Cuscuta reflexa , Brachiaria ramose , Cenchrus biflorus, Cynodon dactylon , Aloe vera , Amaranthus viridis, Eichhornia crassipes , Chenopodium album , Convolvulus arvensis , Heliotropium europaeum, Silene gonosperma, Nonnea pulla, Citrullus colocynthis , Euphorbia pulcherrima , Ephedra ciliata and Peganum harmala. A4 of SG1 had 6 plant species viz., Colchicum luteum , Phyla nodiflora , Persicaria barbata, Equisetum debile, Pennisetum glaucum and Poa annua. A5 of SG1 had 10 plant species viz., Artemisia scoparia, Sonchus arvensis, Vaccaria hispanica, Capparis spinosa , Imperata cylindrica , Cichorium intybus , Cleome viscosa , Spergula rubra , Eruca sativa and Cleome brachycarpa. A6 of SG1 had 6 plant species viz., Atriplex crassifolia , Tribulus terrestris , Ni cotiana plumbaginifola , Fagonia indica , Physalis divaricata and Solanum nigrum . A7 of SG1 had 9 plant species viz., Digera muricata, Blumea lacera , Ranunculus sceleratus , Pulicaria undulate , Sisymbrium irio , Chenopodium album , Polypogan monspeliensis , Olig omeris linifolia and Silene conoidea. SG2 of GA1 had one association; A1 had 8 plant species viz., Euphorbia hirta , Malva neglecta , Cistanche tubulosa , Nelumbo nucifera , Oxalis corniculata , Argemone ochroleuca and Papaver somniferum . GA2 had three associat ions; A1, A2 and A3. A1 of GA2 had 10 plant species viz., Adiantum capillus - veneris , Persicaria glabra, Portulaca oleraceae , Solanum surattense, Oxystelma esculentum , Vernonia

153 cinerascens, Rhynchosia minima , Chenopodium murale , Porulaca quadrifida and Anagallis arvensis . A2 of GA2 had 8 plant species viz., Celosia argentea , Carthamus oxycantha , Croton bonplandianus , Polygonum plebejum , Haloxylon stocksii, Farsetia jacquemontii , Centella asiatica and Verbena officinalis . A3 of GA2 had 9 plant species vi z., Cuscuta campestris , Cyperus rotundus , Setarria verticillata , Chrozophora tinctoria , Euphorbia helioscopia , Sorghum halepense , Euphorbia serpens , Setaria viridis and Datura fastuosa . Group B was represented by two associations; A1 and A2. A1 of GB had 10 plant species viz., Coccinia grandis , Ocimum basilicum , Abutilon indicum , Mimosa pudica , Euphorbia prostrata , Sida cordifolia , Alhaji maurorum , Oxalis Corymbosa , Fumaria indica and Rumex dentatus. A2 of GB had 4 plant species viz., Mukia maderaspatana , Crotalaria burhia , Boerhavia procumbens and Indigofera linifolia .

154

4.2 .7 TWINSPAN analysis of District Okara

Fig 4.2 .3: Dendrogram of TWINSPAN for District Okara

155

De scription Two - way indicator species analysis (TWINSPAN) of herbeaous flora of District Okara was performed to evaluate plant communities based on differential plant species, data was collected from 72 Quadrat and 108 plant species were recorded. TWINSPAN was divided into groups, sub groups and associations. It was divided into Group A (GA) and Group B (GB). GA (Group A) was further divided into GA1 and GA2. GA1 was further divided into two sub groups i.e., SG1 and SG2. SG1 of GA1 had three plant associations i.e., A1 , A2 and A3. A1 had 11 plant species viz. Gisekia pharnaceoides , Aloe vera , Asphodelus tenuifolius , Blumea lacera , Sonchus arvensis, Tribulus terrestris , Alternanthera sessilis, Atriplex crassifolia , Centella asiatica , Oenanthe javanica and Solanum nigrum . A2 of SG1 had been represented by 19 plant species viz., Ageratum conyzoides , Eclipta alba , Cotula hemispherica , Pulicaria undulate , Verbena officinalis , Heliotropium crispum , Malcolmia Africana , Desmostachya bipinnata , Dicanthium annulatum , Eruca sativa, Withania somnifera , Silene gonosperma, Datura fastuosa, Arnebia hispidissima, Cistanche tubulosa , Cannabis sativa , Boerhavia procumbens , Apluda mutica and Lathyrus aphaca . A3 of SG1 had 10 plant species as association i.e., Achyranthes aspera, Capparis sp inosa , Spergula rubra , Digera muricata, Stellaria media , Artemisia scoparia, Aerva javanica , Alternanthera pungens, Vaccaria hispanica and Silene conoidea . SG2 of GA1 had two associations; A1 and A2. A1 of SG2 had 11 plant species in association viz., Tria nthema portulacastrum , Zaleya pentandra , Trianthema triquetra , Sonchus asper, Convolvulus arvensis , Glinus lotoides , Nelumbo nucifera, Papaver somniferum , Argemone ochroleuca, Alhaji maurorum and Phyla nodiflora . A2 of SG2 had nine plant species viz. Lawso nia inermis , Abutilon indicum , Medicago laciniata , Melilotus indica , Mimosa pudica , Oxalis corniculata , Oxalis Corymbosa , Avena sativa and Indigofera linifolia . As Group A (GA) was also subdivived into GA2 which had two associations; A1 and A2. A1had 11 p lant species viz. Dactyloctenium scindicum , Echinochloa colona , Peganum harmala , Eleusine indica , Portulaca oleraceae , Porulaca quadrifida , Eichhornia crassipes , Persicaria barbata, Rumex dentatus , Persicaria glabra and Polygonum plebejum , A2 of GA2 had 8 plant species viz. Poa annua , Setaria viridis , Polypogan monspeliensis , Setarria verticillata , Anagallis arvensis , Ranunculus muricatus , Ranunculus sceleratus and Oligomeris linifolia .

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Group B was also subdivided into two groups GB1 and GB2. GB1 had two pl ant associations i.e. A1 and A2. A1 of GB1 had 5 plant species viz. Chenopodium murale , Digitaria violascens , Nicotiana plumbaginifola , Corchorus tridens and Fagonia indica. A2 of GB1 had 7 plant species viz. Suaeda fruticosa , Euphorbia prostrata , Ephedra ciliata , Equisetum debile, Euphorbia pulcherrima , Corchorus depressus and Chrozophora tinctoria . GB2 of Group B had three plant associations i.e., A1, A2 and A3. A1 has 5 plant species viz., Haloxylon stocksii, Euphorbia helioscopia , Cuscuta reflexa , Ocimum basilicum and Cuscuta campestris . A2 of GB2 had 7 plant species viz. Kochia indica , Colchicum luteum , Euphorbia serpens, Convolvulus prostratus, Coccinia grandis , Citrullus colocynthis and Sorghum halepense . A3 of GB2 had 5 plant species viz., Cyper us rotundus , Euphorbia hirta , Croton bonplandianus, Fumaria indica and Salvia plebeian .

157

4.2 .8 TWINSPAN analysis of Sahiwal Division

Fig 4.2 .4: Dendrogram of TWINSPAN for Sahiwal Divison

158

De scription Two - way indicator species analysis (TWINSPAN) of herbeaous flora of Sahiwal Divsion had been performed to evaluate plant communities based on differential plant species, data was collected from 222 Quadrat and 159 plant species were recorded. TWINSPAN was divided into groups, sub groups and associations. It was divided into Group A (GA) and Group B (GB). GA (Group A) was further divided into Six associations; A1, A2, A3, A4, A5 and A6. A1 of GA had 43 plant species viz., Peristrophe paniculata , Heliotropium strigosum , Goldbachia laevigata , A chyranthes aspera , Artemisia scoparia, Chenopodium album , Amaranthus viridis, Pseudognaphalium luteo - album , Heliotropium crispum , Chenopodium ambrosioides , Heliotropium europaeum, Imperata cylindrica , Rorippa islandica, Arnebia hispidissima, Carthamus oxycantha , Sonchus oleraceous , Farsetia jacquemontii , Celosia argentea , Cleome viscosa , Eruca sativa, Cleome brachycarpa , Oxystelma esculentum , Vernonia cinerascens, Chenopodium murale , Dactyloctenium aegyptium , Panicum antidotale , Setarria verticillata , A lternanthera sessilis, Oenanthe javanica , Atriplex crassifolia , Tribulus terrestris , Pentatropis spiralis , Cnicus arvensis , Lepidium sativum , Malcolmia africana , Sisymbrium irio , Malva parviflora , Dicanthium annulatum , Eichhornia crassipes , Portulaca olera cea , Porulaca quadrifida and Peganum harmala . A2 of GA had 14 plant species viz., Gisekia pharnaceoides , Ochthochloa compressa , Asphodelus tenuifolius , Blumea lacera , Sonchus arvensis, Ageratum conyzoides , Cotula hemispherica , Eclipta alba , Pulicaria undul ate , Aloe vera , Conyza ambigua , Gnaphalium polycaulon , Ifloga spicata and Launia nudicaulis . A3 of GA had 12 plant species viz., Digera muricata, Nonnea pulla, Physalis divaricata , Salsola imbricata , Cenchrus biflorus, Cynodon dactylon , Brachiaria ramose , Polypogan monspeliensis , Oligomeris linifolia , Colchicum luteum , Pennisetum glaucum and Poa annua . A4 of GA had 8 plant species viz., Digitaria violascens , Anagallis arvensis , Solanum nigrum , Echinochloa colona , Ranunculus muricatus, Eleusine indica , Paspa lidium flavidum and Solanum surattense. A5 of GA had 9 plant species viz., Adiantum capillus - veneris , Aerva javanica , Cistanche tubulosa , Polygonum plebejum , Pseudognaphalium luteo - album , Capparis spinosa , Coronopus didymus , Ranunculus sceleratus and Phyla nodiflora . A6 of GA had 6 plant species viz., Alternanthera pungens, Silene conoidea , Vaccaria hispanica, Spergula rubra , Stellaria media and Persicaria glabra.

159

Group B was further divided into two sub groups GB1 and GB2, GB1 had three associations; A1, A 2 and A3. A1 had 26 plant species viz., Trianthema portulacastrum , Trianthema triquetra , Zaleya pentandra , Sonchus asper, Convolvulus arvensis , Fagonia indica , Capsella bursa - pastoris , Mimosa pudica , Abutilon indicum , Alhaji maurorum , Oxalis Corymbosa , Lawsonia inermis , Apluda mutica, Papaver somniferum , Rhynchosia minima , Rumex dentatus , Mukia maderaspatana , Crotalaria burhia , Boerhavia procumbens , Cuscuta reflexa , Cannabis sativa , Convolvulus prostratus, Croton bonplandianus , Coccinia grandis , Malvastr um coromandelianum and Sida cordifolia . A2 of GB1 had 7 plant species viz., Malva neglecta , Glinus lotoides , Cistanche tubulosa , Oxalis corniculata , Argemone ochroleuca, Nelumbo nucifera and Indigofera linifolia . A3 of GB1 had six plant species viz., Lathy rus aphaca , Medicago laciniata , Avena sativa , Dactyloctenium scindicum , Melilotus indica and Desmostachya bipinnata . GB2 also had 3 assocations; A1, A2 and A3. A1 had 9 plant species viz., Amaranthus spinosus , Xanthium strumarium, Equisetum debile, Chrozo phora tinctoria , Kochia indica , Citrullus colocynthis , Euphorbia pulcherrima , Suaeda fruticosa and Euphorbia prostrata . A2 of GB2 had 10 Plant species viz., Silene gonosperma, Coronopus didymus , Corchorus tridens , Withania somnifera , Salvia plebeia , Fumaria indica , Haloxylon stocksii, Ocimum basilicum , Euphorbia helioscopia and Euphorbia hirta . A3 of GB2 had 10 plant species viz., Cuscuta campestris , Cyperus rotundus , Ephedra ciliata , Euphorbia serpens , Setaria viridis , Datura fastuosa, Sorghum halepe nse , Persicaria barbata, Nicotiana plumbaginifola and Verbena officinalis .

160

Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) of Sahiwal Division Total 159 plant species collected from Districts i.e., Sahiwal, Pakpattan and Okara from 222 quadrat samples. In order to determine the effect of the physicochemical properties of soil, the CCA of plant species and these variables were performed in each district. The district wise illustration of these results is given as: 4.2 .9 CCA of District Sahiwal The CCA sca tter biplot of Sahiwal district was comprised of 100 herbaceous plant species and the soil variables viz. soil pH, % water contents, EC, organic matter, chlorides, bicarbonates, calcium, magnesium, sodium and sodium adsorption ratio (SAR). It was observed from CCA (Canonical correspondence Analysis), that most of the species were centrally marginalized around the axis along with the variables of the soil as shown in Figure 4.4.5. Presence of most of plant species along with the soil variables were found to be strongly correlated with the parameters as compared to the plant species present away fro the central axis. Presence of such plant species away from the central axis indicated no direct relationship with soil parameters in their distribution pattern in district Sahiwal. The species found on the edges of the biplot axis were Euphorbia pulcherrima, Indigofera linifolia, Arnebia hispidissima , Capsella bursa - pastoris , Eichhornia crassipe , Portulaca oleracea, Mimosa pudica , Convolvulus arvensis , Suaeda fruticosa , Euphorbia prostrate, Cleome brachycarpa , Croton bonplandianus and Convolvulus prostrates.

Fig4.2 .5: Biplot Scatter Diagram of herbaceous plant species against soil variables of District Sahiwal

161

4.2 .10 CCA of District Pakpattan The CCA scatter biplot of Okra district was comprised of 122 herbaceous plant species and the soil variables viz. soil pH, % water contents, EC, organic matter, chlorides, bicarbonates, calcium, magnesium, sodium and sodium adsorption ratio (SAR). It was o bserved from CCA (Canonical correspondence Analysis), that most of the species were centrally marginalized around the axis along with the variables of the soil as shown in Figure 4.4.6. Presence of most of plant species along with the soil variables were f ound to be strongly correlated with the parameters as compared to the plant species present away fro the central axis. Presence of such plant species away from the central axis indicated no direct relationship with soil parameters in their distribution pat tern in district Pakpattan. The species found on the edges of the biplot axis were Xanthium strumarium, Mukia maderaspatana, Cuscuta reflexa, Citrullus colocynthis, Sonchus asper, Euphorbia pulcherrima, Carthamus oxycantha, Coccinia grandis, Ocimum basilicum, Sida cordifolia, Cuscuta campestris, Cenchrus biflorus, Sonchus oleraceous and Atriplex crassifolia.

Fig4.2 .6: Biplot Scatter Diagram of herbaceous plant species against soil variables of District Pakpattan

162

4.2 .11 CCA of District Okara The CCA scatter biplot of Okra district was comprised of 108 herbaceous plant species and the soil variables viz. soil pH, % water contents, EC, organic ma tter, chlorides, bicarbonates, calcium, magnesium, sodium and sodium adsorption ratio (SAR). It was observed from CCA (Canonical correspondence Analysis), that most of the species were centrally marginalized around the axis along with the variables of the soil as shown in Figure 4.4.7. Presence of most of plant species along with the soil variables were found to be strongly correlated with the parameters as compared to the plant species present away fro the central axis. Presence of such plant species away from the central axis indicated no direct relationship with soil parameters in their distribution pattern in district Okara. The species found on the edges of the biplot axis were Trianthema triquetra, Alternanthera pungens , Alternanthera sessilis, Centell a asiatica, Oenanthe javanica, Blumea lacera, Asphodelus tenuifolius, Aloe vera, Pulicaria undulate, Coronopus didymus, Silene conoidea, Vaccaria hispanica, Trianthema portulacastrum, Malcolmia Africana, Cotula hemispherica, Ageratum conyzoides and Dicanthium annulatum.

Fig 4.2 .7: Biplot Scatter Diagram of herbaceous plant species against soil variables of District Okara

163

4.3 Physico - chemical Analysis of Soil As the Division Sahiwal consisted of three districts, so the soil samples were collected and analyzed on district basis. 4.3 .1 Physico - c hemical Analysis of the Soil of District Sahiwal Soil texture of the samples collected from the District Sahiwal consisted of loam, clayey loam and sandy loam. Moisture contents were in the range of 3.5 - 6.35 % with mean value 5.08± 0 .38 %. Value of the pH of the soil samples was varying from 7.46 - 7.8 0 wit h mean value 7.61± 0 .05. In the same way the value of electric conductivity was in the range of 272 - 1058 µs, with mean value 587±153 µs. Organic matter of the soil of the area was varying from 1.39 - 3.16 % with mean value 2.05± 0 .25 %. Chlorides of the soil o f the study area were in the range of 10.01 - 18.75 me/ L with mean value 14.93±1.2 me/ L. Carbonates were found to be absent in the soil sample s collected from the study area, w hile bicarbonates were found present in the range of 3.73 - 5.88 me/ L with mean valu e 4.52± 0 .34 me/ L. Ca +2 was found to be present in the range of 18 - 27.75 me/ L with mean value 23.21±1.29 me/ L. Like wise Mg +2 was present in the range of 11 - 20.5 me/ L with the mean value 16.72±1.3 me/ L. Na +1 was reported as present in the soils of the study area within the range of 9.25 - 24.75 me/ L with mean value 15.29±2.8 me/ L. SAR was calculated on the basis of values of Na +1 , Ca +2 and Mg +2 of the soil and was found in the range of 2.32 - 5.44 with mean value 3.8±0.55. To analyse the range of readings all the values were expressed in the form of Standard Errror of Mean (SEM).

164

Table 4.3 .1: Physico - c hemical Analysis of Soil of District Sahiwal

Soil - 1 - 2 - 1 +2 +2 +1 Organic Cl CO 3 HCO 3 Ca Mg Na Samples Soil Texture M/C pH EC ( µs ) SAR Matter ( % ) ( me/ L ) (me/ L ) ( me/ L ) ( me/L ) ( me/L ) ( me/L ) (S) ( % )

S1 Clayey loam 5.17±.91 7.8±.05 531±27 2.1±.43 14.56±2.2 - 5.05±.97 22.75±1.53 17±1.05 9.25±0.55 2.32±0.2

S2 Sandy loam 5.15±.79 7.5±.01 1053±45 3.16±.39 13.86±.92 - 3.73±.03 27.75±1.12 20.5±1.33 24.75±1.8 5.44±.64

S3 Loam 5.5±.14 7.63±.08 1058±90 1.67±.25 15.88±.84 - 3.8±0.16 22.75±1.89 16.5±0.38 12.25±0.9 3.56±.91 S4 Clayey loam 6.35±.12 7.69±.02 302±59 1.39±.29 10.01±.26 - 4.53±.88 23.5±1.53 17.5±0.46 23.25±1.4 5.38±.56

S5 Loamy sand 3.5±.96 7.46±.15 272±38 2.07±.47 18.75±.82 - 5.88±.56 18±1.69 11±1.35 9.25±0.63 2.51±.11

S6 Sandy loam 4.8±.52 7.6±.21 304±56 1.9±.84 16.5±.93 - 4.1±0.32 24.5±2.34 17.8±0.84 13±0.94 3.6±0.93

Mean 5.08±.38 7.61±.05 587±153 2.05±.25 14.93±1.2 - 4.52±.34 23.21±1.29 16.72±1.3 15.29±2.8 3.8±0.55

165

4.3 .2 Physico - c hemical Analysis of the Soil of District Pakpattan Soil texture of the samples collected from the District Pakpattan consisted of loam, Loamy sand to clayey loam, with moisture contents in the range of 4.25 - 9.15 % with mean value 6.67±0.91 %. pH value of the soil samples was varying from 7.59 - 8.04 with mean value 7.75±0.07. T he value of electric conductivity was in the range of 379 - 1166 µs, with mean value 921±118 µs. Organic matter of the soil of the area was varying from 1.16 - 4.1 1 % with mean value 2.09±0.43 %. Chlorides of the soil samples of the study area were in the range of 6.43 - 18.06 me/L with mean value 12.2±2.05 me/L. Carbonates were found absent in the soil samples collected from the study area, while Bicarbonates were fo und present in the range of 3.48 - 7.4 me/L with mean value 6.04±0.58 me/L. Ca +2 was found to be present in the range of 36 - 21.25 me/L with mean value 27.83±2.22 me/L. While Mg +2 was present in the range of 15 - 26.75 me/L with the mean value 17.54±2.1 me/L. I n the same way Na +1 was present in the soils of the study area within the range of 13.5 - 29.75 me/L with mean value 24.54±2.6 me/L. SAR was calculated on the basis of values of Na +1 , Ca +2 and Mg +2 of the soil and was found in the range of 3.08 - 6.22 with mea n value 5.2±0.48 .

166

Table 4.3 .2: Physico - c hemical Analysis of Soil District Pakpattan Soil - 1 - 2 - 1 +2 +1 Organic Cl CO 3 HCO 3 Mg Na Samples Soil M/C pH EC µs Ca +2 me/L SAR Matter % me/ L me/ L me/ L me/L me/L (S) Texture % Clayey S1 loam 8.03±0.08 7.7±0.1 1104±76 2.05±.35 11.8±0.57 - 7.4±0.34 30.5±1.68 19.5±1.25 29±1.5 5.77±.42 Loamy S2 sand 9.15±0.76 7.59±.17 836±67 4.11±.61 6.43±0.53 - 5.78±.65 25.5±1.09 14±0.45 25.5±1.53 5.88±.69 Loam S3 5.4±0.22 7.61±0.1 1166±69 1.56±.32 18.06±.14 - 7.25±0.3 21.25±1.99 12.75±.11 20.75±1.2 4.55±.49 Sandy S4 loam 4.45±0.83 7.74±.21 962±64 1.53±.67 6.43±0.4 - 3.48±.79 36±1.7 26.75±.25 13.5±1.26 3.08±.06 Clayey S5 loam 8.75±0.63 8.04±.33 1079±35 2.12±.09 16.97±1.1 - 5.83±.56 30.25±1.29 17.25±.79 29.75±1.8 5.69±.63 Clayey S6 loam 4.25±0.63 7.81±.13 379±23 1.16±.33 13.51±1.2 - 6.5±.87 23.5±0.84 15±0.76 28.75±1.6 6.22±.42

Mean 6.67±0.91 7.75±.07 921±118 2.09±.43 12.2±2.05 - 6.04±.58 27.83±2.22 17.54±2.1 24.54±2.6 5.2±0.48

167

4.3 .3 Physico - c hemical Analysis of the Soil of Dist ict Okara Texture of the soil samples collected from the District Okara consisted of loam, clayey loam , sandy loam and clayey. Moisture contents were in the range of 3.6 - 7.15 % with mean value 5.33±0.52 %. While pH value of the soil samples was varying from 7.48 - 7.78 with mean value 7.65±0.06. The values of electric conductivity was in the range of 326 - 1674 µs, with mean value 761.±211 µs. Organic matter of the soil of the area was varying from 1.56 - 3.62 % with mean value 2.47±0.35 %. Chlorides of the soil samples of the study area were in the range of 7.45 - 15.8 me/L with mean value 12.09±1.24 me/L. Carbonat es were found to be absent in the soil samples collected from the study area, while bicarbonates were found present in the range of 3.4 - 5.15 me/L with mean value 3.91±0.31 me/L. Ca +2 was found to be present in the range of 9.75 - 19.25 me/L with mean value 1 3.71±1.43 me/L. In the same way Mg +2 was present in the range of 6.75 - 13.75 me/L with the mean value 9.67±1.08 me/L, while Na +1 was reported as present in the soils of the study area within the range of 2.75 - 10.5 me/L with mean value 6.83±1.2 me/L. SAR was calculated on the basis of values of Na +1 , Ca +2 and Mg +2 of the soil and was found in the range of 0.89 - 3.55 with mean value 2.15±0.38.

168

Table 4.3 .3: Phsico - c hemical Analysis of Soil of District Okara Soil - 1 - 2 - 1 +1 Organic Cl CO 3 HCO 3 Na Samples Soil M/C pH EC µs Ca +2 me/L Mg +2 me/L SAR Matter % me/ L me/ L me/ L me/L (S) Texture % Clayey S1 loam 7.15±0.76 7.51±0.23 1674±69 2.81±0.42 14.58±1.47 - 4.03±0.79 19.25±0.54 13.75±0.78 7.75±1.31 2.02±0.24

S2 Loam 5.23±0.97 7.59±0.13 910±45 3.15±0.68 11.21±0.78 - 4.33±0.75 9.75±0.2 7±0.58 5±1.41 1.85±0.63 Sandy S3 loam 3.6±0.57 7.74±0.13 883±59 1.95±0.50 10.43±1.29 - 3.4±0.62 13.75±0.76 10±0.34 5.5±1.76 1.76±0.53 Sandy S4 loam 4.25±0.81 7.78±0.10 423±29 1.56±0.24 7.45±1.4 - 3.5±0.83 10.25±0.59 6.75±1.14 2.75±1.11 0.89±0.21

S5 Clayey 5.98±0.05 7.77±0.14 352±48 1.7±0.45 13.05±0.11 - 3.05±0.40 15.5±0.86 11.25±1.92 10.5±1.55 3.55±0.81 Clayey S6 loam 5.75±0.54 7.48±0.11 326±35 3.62±0.85 15.8±1.63 - 5.15±0.85 13.75±0.84 9.25±0.10 9.5±1.55 2.83±0.11

Mean 5.33±0.52 7.65±0.06 761.±211 2.47±0.35 12.09±1.24 - 3.91±0.31 13.71±1.43 9.67±1.08 6.83±1.2 2.15±0.38

169

4.3 .4 Physico - c hemical Analysis of the Soil of Sahiwal Division In overall view of the physico - chemical soil analysis of the whole Sahiwal Division soil was consisted of clayey to sandy loam texture. Values of moisture contents and pH were ranging from 3.5 to 9.15 with average value 5.69±0.49 % and 7.46 to 8.04 with av erage value 7.67±0.04 respectively. In the same way EC value was in the range of 272 - 1674 µs with mean value 756±96 µs , Organic matter value was in the range of 1.16 - 4.11 % with mean value 2.2±0.13 % , Chlorides value was in the range of 6.43 - 18.75 me/ L with mean value 13.07±0.93 me/ L , Carbonate was absent, Bicarbonate value was in the range of 3.78 - 7.78 me/ L with mean value 4.82±0.63 me/ L , Ca +2 value was in the range of 9.75 - 36 me/ L with mean value 21.58±4.16 me/ L , Mg +2 value was in the range of 7 - 26.75 me/ L with mean value 14.64±2.5 me/ L , Na +1 value was in the range of 2.75 - 29.75 me/ L with mean value 15.55±5.11me/ L and SAR value was in the range of 0.89 - 6.22 with mean value 3.72±0.88.

170

Table 4.3 .4: Physico - c hemical Analysis of Soil of Sahiwal Division

Soil Organic Cl - 1 CO - 2 HCO - 1 3 3 +2 +2 +1 Samples Soil Texture M/C pH EC µs Ca me/L Mg me/L Na me/L SAR Matter % me/ L me/ L me/ L (D) % Clayey/sandy D1 loam 5.08±.38 7.61±0.05 587±153 2.05±0.25 14.93±1.2 - 4.52±0.34 23.21±1.29 16.72±1.28 15.29±2.83 3.8±0.55 Clayey/sandy D2 loam 6.67±0.91 7.75±0.07 921±118 2.09±0.43 12.2±2.05 - 6.04±0.58 27.83±2.22 17.54±2.09 24.54±2.59 5.2±0.48 Clayey/sandy D3 loam 5.33±0.52 7.65±0.06 761.±211 2.47±0.35 12.09±1.24 - 3.91±0.31 13.71±1.43 9.67±1.08 6.83±1.2 2.15±0.38

Mean 5.69±0.49 7.67±0.04 756±96 2.2±0.13 13.07±0.93 - 4.82±0.63 21.58±4.16 14.64±2.5 15.55±5.11 3.72±0.88

171

4.4 Ethnopharmacological Analysis Following five local plants of Sahiwal Division were selected for their ethnopharmacological features, on the bases of their ethnobotanical values.  Aerva javanica (Burm. f.) Juss. o Family : Amaranthaceae  Cistanche tubulosa (Schrenk) Hook. f. o Family : Orobanchaceae  Cuscuta campestris Yuncker. o Family : Cuscutaceae  Heliotropium europaeum L. o Family : Boraginaceae  Persicaria glabra (Willd.) M. Gomes o Family : Polygonaceae

4.4.1 Percentage Yield The extracts of the powder of these dried plant s were prepared in both po lar and non - polar solvents, for the exploration of their antioxidant, antimicrobial and anthelmintic activit ies . The percent age yield o f these plant extract was evaluated and used for further calculations. In extract wise survey, the distilled water extrac ts had the maximum % age yield and n - Hexane had the minimum, while overall polar solvent ha d more % age yield than non - polar solvents. In plant wise survey, the Cistanche tubulosa and Cuscuta campestris gave maximum , where as Heliotropium europaeum ha d moderate and Persicaria glabra minimum % age yield and Aerva javanica was second last on position having minimum yield. In over all results distilled water extrac t of Cuscuta campestris had shown maximum and n - Hexane extract of Aerva javanica had shown mi nimum yield i.e. 12.18 % and 0.18 % respectively.

172

Table 4.4.1: Percentage yield of the different plant extracts Sr. No. Plant name Solvent % Yield 01 Aerva javanica n - Hexane 0.18 02 - do - Chloroform 0.60 03 - do - Methanol 1.30 04 - do - Dist. Water 5.90 05 Cistanche tubulosa n - Hexane 0.68 06 - do - Chloroform 2.29 07 - do - Methanol 7.10 08 - do - Dist. Water 11.10 09 Cuscuta campestris n - Hexane 0.61 10 - do - Chloroform 2.19 11 - do - Methanol 6.17 12 - do - Dist. Water 12.18 13 Heliotropiu europaeum n - Hexane 0.44 14 - do - Chloroform 8.41 15 - do - Methanol 1.46 16 - do - Dist. Water 9.71 17 Persicaria glabra n - Hexane 0.97 18 - do - Chloroform 2.56 19 - do - Methanol 1.13 20 - do - Dist. Water 3.11

14 12 e g 10 a t

n 8 e

c 6 r n - Hexane e 4 P 2 Chloroform 0 Methanol Dist. Water

Plant Resources

Fig No. 4.4.1: Graph ical presentation of plant wise yield

173 4.4.2 A ntioxidant activity Antioxidant assessment was evaluated using the following assays: ABTS + Assay This assay evaluated in the form of TEAC values ( µg/g ), showed that dist. water extract of C. tubulosa had maximum TEAC value, while methanol extract of C. campestris had minimum TEAC value, i.e. 17.97 ±1 .17 and 0.83 ±0.59 µg/g , respectively . Over all, A. javanica had shown maximum TEAC values, while the extrac ts of remaining four plants had shown the TEAC v alues within the same range. When we examine these values solvent wise, extracts in distilled water had maximum while methanol extract had minimum values moreover, non - polar extracts had more TEAC values than polar extracts. Values were expressed as mean v alue of triplet ± SEM expressed by the following table and fig. Table 4.4.2: TEAC Values of the extracts of selected plants Plant \ Solvent n - Hexane Chloroform Methanol Dist. Water A. javanica 17.41±0.56 16.65±0.23 11.35±0 .64 17.41±0 .38 C. tubulosa 8.92±0.23 13.0±0.34 9.25±0.28 17.97±1 .17 C. campestris 13.42±0.79 16.97±0.12 0.83±0.59 15.9±0.78 H. europaeum 3.88±0.26 13.63±0.45 16.99±9.38 15.79±0.49 P. glabra 15.75±0.66 13.99±0.34 5.12±0.21 16.95±0.29

ABTS Assay

15 n - Hexane 10 Chloroform

5 Methanol Dist. water 0 A. javanica C. tubulosa C. H. P. glabra campestris europaeum

Fig ure 4.4.2: TEAC values of the extracts of selected plants

174 DPPH Assay Chloroform extract of P. glabra had shown the maximum while methanol extract of C. campestris had shown minimum % DPPH value, i.e. 37.2±0.47 % and 7.2 ±0.83 %, respectively. In over all plant wise view H. europaeum had maximum while C. campestris has the minimum % DPPH values. While extract wise chloroform had maximum, n - Hexane and distilled water had adequate and methanol had minimum % DPPH scavenging values. I n this activity, non - polar solvents had shown more scavenging activity than the polar solvents. Table 4.4.3: Percentage DPPH radical scavenging potential Plant \ Solvent n - Hexane Chloroform Methanol Dist. Water A. javanica 21.23±0.04 12.97±0.37 14.0±0.32 16.33±0.77 C. tubulosa 19.0±0.88 19.43±0.31 14.17±0.14 14.3±0.38 C. campestris 12.1±0.23 27.57±039 7.2±0.83 12.57±0.77 H. europaeum 15.67±0.18 36.33±0.66 9.87±0.76 24.6±0.36 P. glabra 13.9±0.11 37.2±0.47 12.03±.19 12.23±0.42

DPPH Kinetic curve of A. javanica samples against standards

Dist. Water Methanol Chloroform Hexane Trolox BHA blank

g 150 n i n i

a 100 m e R

50 e g a 0 % 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Time (Min)

Fig 4.4.3: Percentage DPPH radical scavenging potential of the extracts of Aerva javanica (Burm. f.) Juss. As shown by the DPPH Kinetic curve of the different extracts of A. javanica against the standards of Trolox and BHA, but all the extracts had low % DPPH values than

175 standard one and after the ten minutes had no change in the absorption and reduction level.

DPPH Kinetic curve of C. tubulosa samples against standards

Dist. Water Methanol Chloroform Hexane Trolox BHA blank

g 150 n i n i

a 100 m e R

50 e g a 0 % 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Time (Min)

Fig 4.4.4: Percentage DPPH radical scavenging potential of the extracts of Cistanche tubulosa (Schrenk) Hook. f.

Here also all the extracts had low % DPPH values than standard one and after the five minutes had very slow change in the absorption and reduction level.

DPPH Kinetic curve of C. campestris samples against standards

Dist. Water Methanol Chloroform Hexane Trolox BHA blank

g 150 n i n i

a 100 m e R

50 e g a 0 % 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Time (Min)

Fig 4.4.5: Percentage DPPH radical scavenging potential of the extracts of Cuscuta campestris Yuncker. This figure had shown that the DPPH Kinetic curve of the different extracts of C. campestris against the standard curves of Trolox and BHA, all the extracts had low %

176

DPPH values than standards and after the five minutes had very slow change and next to twenty five minutes there was no change in the absorption and reduction values.

DPPH Kinetic curve of H. europaeum samples against standards

Dist. Water Methanol Chloroform Hexane Trolox BHA blank

g 150 n i n i

a 100 m e R

50 e g a 0 % 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Time (Min)

Fig 4.4.6: Percentage DPPH radical scavenging potential of the extracts of Heliotropium europaeum Linn. In this brief view of t he DPPH Kinetic curve of the different extracts of H. europaeum against the standard curves of Trolox and BHA, here also all the extracts had low % DPPH values than standard one while curve of chloroform lies in between the standards and experimental curve s.

DPPH Kinetic curve of P. glabra samples against standards

Dist. Water Methanol Chloroform Hexane Trolox BHA blank

g 150 n i n i

a 100 m e R

50 e g a 0 % 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Time (Min)

Fig 4.4.7: Percentage DPPH radical scavenging potential of the extracts of Persicaria glabra (Willd.) M. Gomes . This fig. had shown DPPH Kinetic curve of the different extracts of P. glabra against the standard curves of Trolox and BHA, here also all the extracts had low % DPPH

177 values than standard one while curve of chloroform lies in between the standards and experimental curves. After the five minutes had very slow change and after 25 mi nutes no change in the absorption by DPPH. Total Phenolic C ontent s determination (TPC) TPC of the selected plants were evaluated in the form of Gallic acid equivalent (μg/m l ) . Highest Gallic acid equivalent (μg/ml ) value was observed in methanol extract of P. glabra and the lowest value was observed in distilled water extract of H. europaeum , i.e. 3061.75 and 379.25 (μg/ml ) respe ctively. In an overall plant wise TPC study , A. javanica had maximum while C. tubulosa had minimum Gallic acid equivalent values out of all the selected plants. While studying extract wise TPC values , methanol extract had maximum and distilled water had minimum Gallic acid equivalent values, more over non - polar solvents showed more Gallic ac id equivalent values than polar solvents. Table 4.4.4 : Total Phenolic Contents (TPC) Plant \ n - Hexane Chloroform Methanol Dist. Water Solvent μg/ml μg/ml μg/ml μg/ml A. javanica 2026.7±1.46 2381.8±2.23 2189.3±2.48 2419.3±2.22 C. tubulosa 979.2±0.86 566.7±0.88 2681.8±3.45 1294.3±1.29 C. campestris 1236.7±1.99 1196.7±1.26 1484.4±1.56 2501.8±2.32 H. europaeum 2331.8±2.19 2424.2±1.89 2284.3±1.41 379.3±2.34 P. glabra 1276.7±1.28 1396.8±2.56 3061.8±2.88 529.3±0.78

TPC Values (μg/mL)

3500 3000 2500 n - Hexane 2000 1500 Chloroform 1000 Methanol 500 Dist. water 0 A. javanica C. tubulosa C. H. P. glabra campestris europaeum

Fig 4.4.8: TPC Values of the selected medicinal plants

178 Total Flavonoids C ontent determination (TFC) The values of Total Flavonoid Contents (TFC) were expressed as Quercetin equivalents (Q E) in μg/ml of plant macerate. When we study all selected plants comparatively, C. campestris had shown maximum and P. glabra had shown minimum TFC values while solvent wise, methanol had maximum and chloroform had minimum TFC values, plant extracts of pol ar solvents had shown more TFC values than non - polar solvents. When we study TFC values individually, methanol extract of C. tubulosa had maximum TFC value and chloroform extract of H. europaeum had shown minimum TFC values, i.e. 3723 ±2.78 and 693 ±1.24 Que rcetin equivalents μg/ml, respectively. Table 4.4.5: Total Flavonoid Contents (TFC) Plant \ n - Hexane Chloroform Methanol Dist. Water Solvent μg/ml μg/ml μg/ml μg/ml A. javanica 3010±4.98 1253±1.34 746±1.49 2876±9.45 C. tubulosa 1935±2.34 742±0.78 3723±2.78 3644±4.42 C. campestris 828±0.75 3196±2.46 3644±5.56 2632±2.26 H. europaeum 2698±4.65 693±1.24 2942±3.65 2698±2.88 P. glabra 1941±2.25 991±1.56 2736±4.35 1678±1.29

TFC Values (μg/ml)

4000 3500 3000 2500 n - Hexane 2000 Chloroform 1500 Methanol 1000 Dist. water 500 0 A. javanica C. tubulosa C. H. P. glabra campestris europaeum

Fig 4.4.9: TFC values of the selected medicinal plants

179 Metal Chelating Activity Results of metal chelating activity were expressed as the percentage of bounded iron. When we study the metal chelating value of different selected plants, C. campestris had shown the maximum and C. tubulosa had shown minimum perce ntage of bounded iron, while solvent wise extracts in distilled water had maximum and extracts in chloroform had minimum value of percentage - bounded iron. Meanwhile extracts of the polar solvents had shown more meal chelating activity than the extracts of non - polar solvents. In over all scenario n - hexane extract of H. eurpaeum had shown maximum and chloroform extract of C. tubulosa had shown minimum percent bounded iron, i.e. 92.6898±3.38 and 0.42174±0.06, respectively . Table 4.4.6: Metal Chelating Values (% age) Plant \ Solvent n - Hexane Chloroform Methanol Dist. Water A. javanica 11.4339±0.54 8.29428±0.69 9.70009±0.43 88.8941±3.45 C. tubulosa 12.1837±0.64 10.5436±0.48 8.66917±0.36 10.2624±0.45 C. campestris 10.6842±0.48 0.42174±0.06 61.3871±3.45 71.0403±2.88 H. europaeum 92.6898±3.38 19.5408±o.68 12.3711±0.58 8.85661±042 P. glabra 12.5586±0.58 12.5117±0.58 5.57638±0.23 72.1649±2.23

Metal Chelating Values (% age) 100 80 60 40 n - Hexane 20 Chloroform 0 Methanol A. javanica C. C. H. P. glabra Dist. water tubulosa campestris europaeum

Fig 4.4.10: Metal chelating values of the selected medicinal plants

180 Total Anti - Oxidant Activity This activity was based on the reduction of Phosphate - Molybdenum Vl to V. When we study the results of Total Antioxidant Activity of the selected medicinal plants, C. campestris had shown maximum and P. glabra had shown the minimum anti - oxidant values, whi le solvent wise methanol had shown maximum and chloroform had shown minimum values and polar solvents had shown more activity than the non - polar solvents. In over all view methanol extract of C. tubulosa had shown the maximum and chloroform extract of H. e uropaeum had shown the minimum total antioxidant activity, i.e. 1.569±0.069 mg/g and 0.236±0.026 mg/g respectively . Table 4.4.7: Total Anti - Oxidant Activity Values ( mg/g of Ascorbic acid eq. ) Plant \ Solvent n - Hexane Chloroform Methanol Dist. Water A. javanica 1.256±0.036 0.483±0.023 0.258±0.029 1.197±0.082 C. tubulosa 0.783±0.015 0.257±0.018 1.569±0.069 1.535±0.076 C. campestris 0.296±0.012 1.337±0.067 1.535±0.072 1.089±0.048 H. europaeum 1.118±0.056 0.236±0.026 1.226±0.048 1.118±0.057 P. glabra 0.785±0.018 0.367±0.037 1.135±0.036 0.669±0.036

Total Anti - Oxident Activity (mg/g of Ascorbic acid eq.)

1.6 1.4 1.2 1 n - Hexane 0.8 Chloroform 0.6 Methanol 0.4 Dist. water 0.2 0 A. javanica C. tubulosa C. H. P. glabra campestris europaeum

Fig 4.4.11: Total Anti - Oxidant activity values of the selected medicinal plants

181 4.4.3 Antimicrobial Activity 4.4.3.1 Zone of Inhibition Zone of Inhibition on Standard Anti - Biotic Discs a gainst Bacterial Strains Antimicrobial activities were evaluated against different selected pathogenic microbes through zone of inhibition on standard antibiotic discs, for comparison with the plant extracts. The values of z one of inhibition were expressed in mean value of triplet in mm ± SEM . As a result of this assay, Azithromycin antibiotic standard disc showed the best zone of inhibition against all standard selected pathogenic microbes, while Ampicillin showed least poten tial against S. aureus and E. coli and no activity against P. aeruginosa and B. subtilis . Table 4.4. 8: Z one of inhibition (mm) produced by bacterial strains against standard antibiotic discs Antibiotic Con. Zone of Inhibition (mm) ±SEM Std. Disc (µg) S. aureus E. coli P.aeruginosa B. subtilis Azithromyci n 15 16.33 ±0.67 15.00 ±0.58 10.33 ±0.33 22.33 ±0.88 Piperacillin 15 - 31.33 ±0.88 20.67 ±0.67 - Amoxicillin 20 12.33 ±0.33 25.33 ±0.58 - 10.33 ±0.33 Ampicillin 10 7.67 ±0.33 9.33 ±0.33 - - Ceftazidime 30 8.33 ±0.33 21.67 ±0.88 - - Cefotaxime 10 35.00 ±0.58 13.33 ±0.88 - 7.67 ±0.33 Amikacin 30 18.33 ±0.33 - 21.67 ±0.33 - Final Response Resistant - Intermediate Resistant - Susceptible Susceptible Susceptible Susceptible

Zone of Inhibition on Standard Anti - Biotic Discs against Fungal Strains In the same way, standard antibiotic discs were tested against selected fungal strains to make comparison with plant extracts. Tezole had shown maximum potential against selected fungal strains , i.e. 22.67 ±0.67 mm against A. niger and 69.33 ±0.88 mm against A. oryzae as compared with other antibiotics, while Griseofluvin exhibited minimum potential than others , i.e. 22.67 ±0.33 mm against A. niger and 27.33 ±0.33 mm. Nystatin and Fungivin both had shown an intermediate potential.

182

Table 4.4.9: Zone of inhibition (mm) produced by fungal strains against standard antibi otic discs Antibiotic Con. Zone of Inhibition (mm) Standard Disc (µg) A. niger A. oryzae Nystatin 100 24.33±0.88 32.67 ±0.67 Tezole 100 22.67 ±0.67 69.33 ±0.88 Fungivin 100 15.33 ±0.33 42.67 ±0.67 Griseofulvin 100 22.67 ±0.33 27.33 ±0.33 Final Response Intermediate Intermediate

Negative Control Only the solvents were used as negative control against selected bacterial and fungal strains, yet failed to give any response against selected microbial strains.

Table 4.4.10: Zone of inhibition (mm) produced by negative control against selected microbes Solvents Qnty. Zone of Inhibition (mm) ± ( ml ) S. E. P.aerugi - B. A. A. O ryz aureus coli nosa subtilis Niger ae n Hexane 1 0 ±0.0 0 ±0.0 0 ±0.0 0 ±0.0 0 ±0.0 0 ±0.0 Chloroform 1 0 ±0.0 0 ±0.0 0 ±0.0 0 ±0.0 0 ±0.0 0 ±0.0 Methanol 1 0 ±0.0 0 ±0.0 0 ±0.0 0 ±0.0 0 ±0.0 0 ±0.0 D. Water 1 0 ±0.0 0 ±0.0 0 ±0.0 0 ±0.0 0 ±0.0 0 ±0.0 Final Response Negligible

183

Zone of Inhibition produced by plant extracts against S. aureus In this assay Aerva javanica had shown maximum and Cascuta campestris had shown minimum potential out of all the selected plants, i.e. 82.66 and 57.67 mm (by summation), respectively . Aqueous extract of all the selected plants failed to show any activity. Chloroform extract had shown the maximum inhibition than all other extracts of the selected plants. In over al view chloroform extract of A. javanica had shown maximum antibacterial p otential, i.e. 45±1.15 mm than all. All the extracts that had shown somewhat inhibition, except one all the values of zone of inhibition were more than the positive control having value 16.33 mm. The results reported were run in triplicate and presented in Mean ± SEM. Table 4.4.11: Zone of inhibition against microbe S. aureus Name of Zone of Inhibition (mm) Plant Extract n - Hexane Chloroform Methanol Dist. Water A. javanica 0.00±0.00 45 ±1.15 21.33±0.88 0.00±0.00 C. tubulosa 0.00±0.00 36 ±0.58 20.33±0.88 0.00±0.00 C. campestris 0.00±0.00 20.67 ±1.76 20.67±0.67 0.00±0.00 H. europaeum 22.33 ±0.88 17 ±0.58 15 ±0.58 0.00±0.00 P. glabra 0.00±0.00 22.67 ±0.67 19.67±0.88 0.00±0.00

Zone of Inhibtion against S.aureus ( mm )

45 40 35 30 n Hexane 25 Chloroform 20 Methanol 15 10 Dist. Water 5 Azithromycin 0 A. C. C. H. P. glabra javanica tubulosa campestris eurpaeum

Fig 4.4.12: Zone of inhibition produced by different plant extracts along with standard, against S. aureus

184 Zone of Inhibition produced by plant extracts against E . coli There was no effect of n - Hexane and aqueous extracts of all plants on the inhibition of the growth of E. coli , yet chloroform extracts had shown more potential than of methanol. A. javanica had shown maximum potential (by summation) than the all selected p lants. In overall view all the plant extracts that had shown some potential, had more potential than the positive control that had value of zone 15mm. Chloroform extracts of C. tubulosa and H. europaeum and Methanol extract of A. javanica had shown maximum potential, i.e. 20.33 ±0.88 mm, 22.33 ±1.45 mm and 22.33 ±0.88 mm, respectively. Table 4.4.12: Zone of inhibition against microbe E. coli Name of Zone of Inhibition (mm) Plant Extract n - Hexane Chloroform Methanol Dist. Water A. javanica 0.00±0.00 20 ±1.15 22.33 ±0.88 0.00±0.00 C. tubulosa 0.00±0.00 20.33 ±0.88 15.33 ± 0.33 0.00±0.00 C. campestris 0.00±0.00 22.33 ±1.45 15.33 ±0.88 0.00±0.00 H. europaeum 0.00±0.00 22 ±0.58 16 ±0.58 0.00±0.00 P. glabra 0.00±0.00 0.00±0.00 0.00±0.00 0.00±0.00

Zone of Inhibition against E. coli (mm)

20 n Hexane 15 Chloroform 10 Methanol Dist. Water 5 Azithromycin 0 A. javanica C. tubulosa C. H. P. glabra campestris eurpaeum

Fig 4.4.13: Zone of inhibition produced by different plant extracts along with standard, against E. coli.

185 Zone of Inhibition produced by plant extracts against P. aeruginosa In this assay, out of all extracts n - Hexane extracts had shown maximum potential and out of all the selected medicinal plants P. glabra had shown maximum potential. In overall view n - Hexane extract of P. glabra had shown maximum potential, i.e. 64.33 ±1.20 mm. Aqueous extracts of A. javanica , C. campestris and H. europaeum had shown no response in inhibition of microbe P. aeruginosa. Moreover, non - polar solvents had shown maximum antimicrobial potential than polar solvents. All the potentially active extracts had shown more potential than the positive control having value 10.33 mm. Table 4.4.13: Zone of inhibition against microbe P. aer uginosa Name of Zone of Inhibition (mm) Plant Extract n - Hexane Chloroform Methanol Dist. Water A. javanica 31.33 ±0.88 24 ±0.58 35 ±1.15 0.00±0.00 C. tubulosa 21.67 ±0.67 19.33 ±0.88 34 ± 1.53 20.67 ±1.2 C. campestris 39 ±1.73 21.33 ±0.33 22.67 ±0.88 0.00±0.00 H. europaeum 23 ±0.58 20 ±0.58 30.33 ±1.45 0.00±0.00 P. glabra 64.33 ±1.20 22.33 ±0.88 41 ±2.08 46.33 ±1.45

Zone of Inhibtion against P .aeruginosa (mm)

70 60 50 n Hexane 40 Chloroform 30 Methanol 20 Dist. Water 10 Azithromycin 0 A. javanica C. tubulosa C. H. P. glabra campestris eurpaeum

Fig 4.4.14: Zone of inhibition produced by different plant extracts along with standard, against P. aeruginosa .

186 Zone of Inhibition produced by plant extracts against B. Subtilis In this assay extracts of all the selected plants were applied against the growth of microbe, B. subtilis. As a result, plant wise P. glabra and solvent wise n - Hexane had shown maximum poten tial. Aqueous extracts had not shown any response. n - Hexane extract of P. glabra had shown maximum potential, i.e. 53.33 ±1.45 mm, while most of the extracts that had shown positive response had potential above than the standard antibiotic potential, i.e. 22.33 mm. Here again non - polar solvents had shown more antimicrobial potential than the polar solvents. Table 4.4.14: Zone of inhibition against microbe B. subtilis Name of Zone of Inhibition (mm) Plant Extract n - Hexane Chloroform Methanol Dist. Water A. javanica 43 ±1.15 25 ±0.58 15.67 ±0.67 0.00±0.00 C. tubulosa 30 ±1.15 20.67 ±0.67 26.33 ±0.88 0.00±0.00 C. campestris 21.33 ±0.88 30.33 ±1.45 24.33 ±0.88 0.00±0.00 H. europaeum 39.67 ±1.76 21 ±0.58 22.33 ±0.33 0.00±0.00 P. glabra 53.33 ±1.45 22.33 ±0.88 35.33 ±0.88 0.00±0.00

Zone of Inhibition against B. Subtilis (mm)

40 n Hexane

30 Chloroform Methanol 20 Dist. Water 10 Azithromycin 0 A. javanica C. tubulosa C. H. P. glabra campestris eurpaeum

Fig 4.4.15: Zone of inhibition produced by different plant extracts along with standard, against B . subtilis.

187 Zone of Inhibition produced by plant extracts against A. o ryzae In this assay antimicrobial activity of the extracts of the selected plants were checked against microbe A. oryzae. Plant wise P. glabra and solvent wise methanol extract had shown maximum potential (by summation) than all, while individually same plant in n - Hexane extract had shown maximum potential, i.e. 22.33 ±0.88 mm . Here aqueous extract had shown zero potential in all the plant extracts. The plant extracts that had shown somewhat positive response, had potential less than the standard antibiotic and antifungal having value, i.e. 27.33 mm.

Table 4.4.15: Zone of inh ibition against microbe A. oryzae Name of Zone of Inhibition (mm) Plant Extract n - Hexane Chloroform Methanol Dist. Water A. javanica 18.33 ±0.88 15.67 ±0.67 17 ±0.58 0.00±0.00 C. tubulosa 0.00±0.00 20.67 ±1.76 15.67 ±0.67 0.00±0.00 C. campestris 0.00±0.00 0.00±0.00 17.33 ±0.88 0.00±0.00 H. europaeum 0.00±0.00 22 ±0.58 0.00±0.00 0.00±0.00 P. glabra 22.33 ±0.88 0.00±0.00 21.33 ±0.88 0.00±0.00

Zone of Inhibtion against A. oryzae (mm)

20 n Hexane

15 Chloroform Methanol 10 Dist. Water 5 Griseofulvin 0 A. javanica C. tubulosa C. H. P. glabra campestris eurpaeum

Fig 4.4.16: Zone of inhibition produced by different plant extracts along with standard, against A. o ryzae

188 Zone of Inhibition produced by plant extracts against A. niger In this assay, potential of the selected medicinal plant extracts was evaluated against a pathogenic fungal A. niger . Aqueous extracts of all the plant had not shown any response. While pant wise P. glabra and solvent wise n - Hexane had shown maximum response than all ones. Also in over all view n - Hexane extract of P. glabra had shown maximum potential than all extracts, i.e. 52 ±0.33 mm. The plant extracts that had show somewhat positive values, their potential lies near about the value of the positive control that was used Griseofulvin having value 27.33mm.

Table 4.4.16: Table Zone of inhibition against microbe A. niger Name of Zone of Inhibition (mm) Plant Extract n - Hexane Chloroform Methanol Dist. Water A. javanica 22.67 ±0.88 15.33 ±0.88 17 ±0.58 0.00±0.00 C. tubulosa 21.67 ±0.67 21.33 ±1.33 13.67 ±0.67 0.00±0.00 C. campestris 0.00±0.00 40.67 ±1.45 11.33 ±0,88 0.00±0.00 H. europaeum 12.33 ±0.33 0.00±0.00 11.33 ±0.88 0.00±0.00 P. glabra 52 ±0.33 22.33 ±0.88 12.33 ±0.58 0.00±0.00

Zone of Inhibition against A. niger

40 n Hexane

30 Chloroform Methanol 20 Dist. Water 10 Griseofulvin 0 A. javanica C. tubulosa C. H. P. glabra campestris eurpaeum

Fig 4.4.17: Zone of inhibition produced by different plant extracts along with standard, against A. niger

189 4.4.3.2 Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) This protocol was followed according to Murray et al ., (1999), to find out the minimum concentration of methanol extracts of ethnobotanically selected medicinal plants, required to prevent the visible growth of concer ned microorganism. The MIC results had been de scribed plant wise as follows:

MIC of A. javanica against bacterial and fungal strains MIC values of A. javanica for E. coli were found 0.145 ±.007 , for S. aureus 0.175 ±.004 , for P. aeruginosa 0.096 ±.003 , for B. subtilis 0.219 ±.002 , for A. oryzae 0.012 ±.002 and for A. niger 0.079 ±.004 at the concentrations 1.0, 1.0, 0.3, 1.0, 0.3 and 0.3 mg/ml, respectively, first four for bacterial and last two for fungal stains. The extract of the reported plant seemed to be more effective against P. aeruginosa, A. oryzae and A. niger than the other remaining bacterial and fungal strains. 0.3 mg/ml and 1.0 mg/ml concentrations were found to be such adequate concentrations having MIC values of maximum fungal strains and bacterial strains, respectively.

Table 4.4.17: MIC values of A. javanica against the bacterial and fungal strains Con. Bacterial strains Fungal strains mg/ml E. Coli S.aureus P.aeruginosa B. subtilis A. oryzae A. niger 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.096 ±.003 0 .012 ±.00 2 0.079 ±.004 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 0.145 ±.007 0.175 ±.004 0.219 ±.002

190

MIC values of A. javanica extract

0.45

0.4

0.35

L 0.3 m / g m

0.25

C E. coli I

M 0.2 S.aureus 0.15 P.aeruginosa

0.1 B. subtilis

0.05

0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 Concentration

Fig 4.4.18: MIC of A. javanica against bacterial strains

MIC values of A. javanica extract 0.25

0.2

m 0.15 / g m

I 0.1 A. oryzae

M A. niger

0.05

0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 Concentration

Fig 4.4.19: MIC of A. javanica against fungal strains

191

MIC of C . tubulosa against bacterial and fungal strains The MIC values of C. tubulosa were found to be 0.35 1 ± .002 for E. Coli , 0.28 2 ± .001for S. aureus , 0.299 ± .002 for P. aeruginosa , 0.187 ± .001 for B. Subtilis , 0.09 ± .001 for A. oryzae and 0.069 ± .001for A. niger at the concentrations 0.7, 0.5, 0.1, 1.0, 0.1 and o.3 mg/ ml, respectively, first four values were for bacterial and last two for fungal strains. The extract of the reported plant was seemed to have a maximum potential against P. aeruginosa and A. oryzae and moderate potential against A. niger , S. aureus and E. coli. Concentration 0.1 mg/ml was found to be most adequate concentration, having maximum numbers of MIC values.

Table. 4.4.18: MIC values of C. tubulosa against the bacterial and fungal str ains Con. Bacterial strains Fungal strains mg/ml E. Coli S.aureus P.aeruginosa B. subtilis A. oryzae A. niger 0.1 0.299 ± .002 0.092 ± .001

0.2

0.3 0.069 ± .001

0.4

0.5 0.282 ± .001

0.6

0.7 0.351 ± .002

0.8

0.9

1 0.187 ± .001

192

MIC values of C. tubulosa extract 0.5 0.45 0.4 0.35

m 0.3 / g E. coli m 0.25

C I 0.2 S.aureus M 0.15 P.aeruginosa B. subtilis 0.1 0.05 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 Concentration

Fig 4.4.20: MIC of C. tubulosa against bacterial strains

MIC values of C. tubulosa extract 0.3

0.25

0.2 L m / g

m 0.15

I A. oryzae

M 0.1 A. niger

0.05

0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 Concentration

Fig. 4.4.21 MIC of C. tubulosa against fungal strains

193

MIC of C. campestris against bacterial and fungal strains In this assay, minimum inhibitory concentration of C. campestris was evaluated against selected bacterial and fungal strains. The MIC value s were found as 0.181±.002 for E. coli , 0.109±.001 for S. aureus , 0.055±.001 for P. aeruginosa , 0.134±.002 for B. subtilis , 0.14±.001 for A. oryzae and 0.14±.002 for A. niger at the concentrations 1.0, 0.1, 1.0, 1.0, 0.2 and 0.2 mg/ml, respectively, while first four were bacterial and last two were fungal strains. The selected plant C. campestris had shown maximum pote ntial against S. aureus , moderate potential against A. oryzae and A. niger (both fungal strains). The concentration1.0 mg/ml had the maximum number of MIC values working against pathogenic microbes.

Table 4.4.19 : MIC values of C. campestris against bacte rial and fungal strains Con. Bacterial strains Fungal strains mg/ml E. Coli S.aureus P.aeruginosa B. subtilis A. oryzae A. niger 0.1 0.109±.001

0.2

0.3 0.14±.001 0.14±.002

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1 0.181±.002 0.055±.001 0.134±.002

194

MIC values of C. campestris extract 0.9 0.8 0.7

L 0.6 m / g

m 0.5 E. coli C I 0.4 M S.aureus 0.3 P.aeruginosa 0.2 B. subtilis 0.1 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 Concentration

Fig 4.4.22: MIC of C. campestris against bacterial strains

MIC values of C. campestris extract 0.8

0.7

0.6

L 0.5 m / g

m 0.4

I A. oryzae 0.3 M A. niger 0.2

0.1

0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 Concentration

Fig 4.4.23: MIC of C. campestris against fungal strains

195

MIC of H. europaeum against bacterial and fungal strains In this assay, antimicrobial potential of H. europaeum was analyzed in terms of minimum inhibitory concentration against the selected microbes that consisted of four bacterial strains and two fungal strains. The MIC values were found as 0.088±.002 against E. Coli , 0.073±.003 against S. aureus , 0.097±.003 against P. aeruginosa , 0.088±.003 against B. subtilis , 0.032±.002 against A. oryzae and 0.031±.001 against A. niger at concentrations 0.1, 0.2,1.0, 0.1, 0.1 and 0.7 mg/ml, respectively. The extract of that plant showed very high potential against E. coli, S. aureus, B. subtilis and A. oryzae , medium potential against A. niger and low potential against P. aeruginosa. Ou t of six microbe three microbes were settled at quite low concentration and it was a clear evidence supporting the good antimicrobial nature and high potential of a selected medicinal plant.

Table 4.4.20 : MIC values of H. europaeum against bacterial and fungal strains Con. Bacterial strains Fungal strains mg/ml E. Coli S.aureus P.aeruginosa B. subtilis A. oryzae A. niger 0.1 0.088±.002 0.088±.003 0.032±.002

0.2 0.073±.003

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7 0.031±.001

0.8

0.9

1 0.097±.003

196

MIC values of H. europaeum extract 0.45

0.4

0.35

L 0.3 m / g m

0.25

C E. coli I

M 0.2 S.aureus 0.15 P.aeruginosa

0.1 B. subtilis

0.05

0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 Concentration

Fig 4.4.24: MIC of H. europaeum against bacterial strains

MIC values of H. europaeum extract 0.5 0.45

0.4

0.35

L 0.3 m / g

m 0.25

I A. oryzae 0.2 M A. niger 0.15 0.1

0.05

0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 Concentration

Fig 4.4.25: MIC of H. europaeum against fungal strains

197

MIC of P. glabra against bacterial and fungal strains In this assay antimicrobial potential of P. glabra was analyzed against selected microbes in the terms of minimum inhibitory concentration. The MIC values were found as 0.154 ±.00 3 against E. Coli , 0.017 ±.00 2 against S. aureus , 0.031 ±.00 2 against P. aeruginosa , 0.154 ±.00 3 against B. subtilis 0.063 ±.00 2 against A. oryzae and 0.064 ±.00 2 against A. niger at the concentrations 0.3, 1.0, 0.5, 0.3, 0.3 and 0.7 mg/ml respectively first four for bacterial strains and last two for fungal strains. The concentration 0.3 mg/ml as minimum inhibitory concentration was an ideal and average one for three microbes, i.e. E. coli, B. subtilis and A. oryzae. While the concentrations 0.5 mg/ml and 0.7 mg/ml as medium and 1.0 mg/ml as the highest MIC values.

Table 4.4.21 : MIC values of P. glabra against bacterial and fungal strains Con. Bacterial strains Fungal strains mg/ml E. Coli S.aureus P.aeruginosa B. subtilis A. oryzae A. niger 0.1

0.2

0.3 0.154±.003 0.154±.003 0.063±.002

0.4

0.5 0.031±.002

0.6

0.7 0.064±.002

0.8

0.9

1 0.017±.002

198

MIC values of P. glabra extract 0.5 0.45 0.4 0.35 L

m 0.3 / g E. coli m 0.25

C S.aureus I 0.2 M 0.15 P.aeruginosa 0.1 B. subtilis 0.05 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 Concentration

Fig 4.4.26: MIC of G. glabra against bacterial strains

MIC values of P. glabra extract 0.45

0.4

0.35

0.3 L m

/ 0.25 g m 0.2 C A. oryzae I

M 0.15 A. niger

0.1

0.05

0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 Concentration

Fig 4.4.2 7 : MIC of G. glabra against fungal strains

199

4.4.4 Anthelmintic Activity Time interval occupied by worms for paralysis as well as death was recorded. As the time was taken in hours, there was no concordant difference in the results of both parameters, so for only number of died worms were reported for easy tabulation. Tabl e 4.4.22 : Effect of Control, Standard and different Plant extracts on mortality of Haemonchus contortus in the form of Mean±S.D. Extract Con. Died till 1st Died till Died till 3rd Died till 4th Tag (mg/ml) hour 2nd hour hour hour Mean±S.D Mean±S.D Mean±S.D Mean±S.D Control 0.9 % 0.00±0.00 0.00±0.00 0.00±0.00 0.00±0.00 Standard 10 mg/ml 2.67±0.58 4.67±0.58 5.00±0.00 5.00±0.00 A - 1/100 100 mg/ml 3.00±0.00 5.00±0.00 5.00±0.00 5.00±0.00 A - 1/50 50 mg/ml 2.67±0.58 4.67±0.58 5.00±0.00 5.00±0.00 A - 1/20 20 mg/ml 2.00±0.00 2.67±0.58 3.67±0.58 4.00±0.00 A - 1/10 10 mg/ml 0.67±0.58 2.33±0.58 3.00±0.00 3.67±0.58 B - 1/100 100 mg/ml 3.67±0.58 4.67±0.58 5.00±0.00 5.00±0.00 B - 1/50 50 mg/ml 2.67±0.58 3.67±0.58 4.67±0.58 5.00±0.00 B - 1/20 20 mg/ml 2.33±0.58 3.33±0.58 4.00±1.00 3.33±0.58 B - 1/10 10 mg/ml 1.67±0.58 2.00±1.00 2.67±0.58 3.67±0.58 C - 1/100 100 mg/ml 1.67±0.58 2.67±0.58 3.67±0.58 4.67±0.58 C - 1/50 50 mg/ml 0.33±0.58 0.67±0.58 1.67±0.58 2.67±0.58 C - 1/20 20 mg/ml 0.00±0.00 0.33±0.58 1.33±0.58 1.67±0.58 C - 1/10 10 mg/ml 0.00±0.00 0.00±0.00 0.67±0.58 1.33±0.58 D - 1/100 100 mg/ml 2.67±0.58 4.00±1.00 4.67±0.58 5.00±0.00 D - 1/50 50 mg/ml 2.00±0.00 3.67±0.58 4.33±0.58 4.67±0.58 D - 1/20 20 mg/ml 1.67±0.58 2.67±0.58 3.67±0.58 4.33±0.58 D - 1/10 10 mg/ml 0.67±0.58 2.33±0.58 3.33±0.58 4.00±1.00 E - 1/100 100 mg/ml 3.00±1.00 4.33±0.58 5.00±0.00 5.00±0.00 E - 1/50 50 mg/ml 2.33±0.58 3.67±0.58 4.67±0.58 5.00±0.00 E - 1/20 20 mg/ml 1.33±0.58 2.33±0.58 3.00±1.00 3.67±0.58 E - 1/10 10 mg/ml 1.00±0.00 2.00±1.00 2.33±0.58 2.67±0.58 A - 2/100 100 mg/ml 3.33±0.58 4.33±0.58 5.00±0.00 5.00±0.00 A - 2/50 50 mg/ml 2.33±0.58 3.00±1.00 4.33±0.58 4.67±0.58

200

A - 2/20 20 mg/ml 1.67±0.58 2.67±0.58 3.67±0.58 4.33±0.58 A - 2/10 10 mg/ml 1.33±0.58 1.67±0.58 2.67±0.58 4.00±1.00 B - 2/100 100 mg/ml 4.67±0.58 5.00±0.00 5.00±0.00 5.00±0.00 B - 2/50 50 mg/ml 4.33±0.58 4.67±0.58 5.00±0.00 5.00±0.00 B - 2/20 20 mg/ml 3.33±0.58 4.33±0.58 4.67±0.58 5.00±0.00 B - 2/10 10 mg/ml 2.33±0.58 2.67±0.58 3.33±0.58 4.00±1.00 C - 2/100 100 mg/ml 4.67±0.58 5.00±0.00 5.00±0.00 5.00±0.00 C - 2/50 50 mg/ml 4.33±0.58 4.67±0.58 5.00±0.00 5.00±0.00 C - 2/20 20 mg/ml 2.67±0.58 3.33±0.58 4.33±0.58 4.67±0.58 C - 2/10 10 mg/ml 2.33±0.58 2.67±0.58 3.67±0.58 4.33±0.58 D - 2/100 100 mg/ml 0.33±0.58 0.67±0.58 1.33±0.58 1.67±0.58 D - 2/50 50 mg/ml 0.00±0.00 0.33±0.58 1.00±0.00 1.33±0.58 D - 2/20 20 mg/ml 0.00±0.00 0.00±0.00 0.33±0.58 0.67±0.58 D - 2/10 10 mg/ml 0.00±0.00 0.00±0.00 0.00±0.00 0.33±0.58 E - 2/100 100 mg/ml 4.67±0.58 5.00±0.00 5.00±0.00 5.00±0.00 E - 2/50 50 mg/ml 4.33±0.58 4.67±0.58 5.00±0.00 5.00±0.00 E - 2/20 20 mg/ml 3.67±0.58 4.00±0.00 4.33±0.58 4.67±0.58 E - 2/10 10 mg/ml 2.33±0.58 2.67±0.58 3.67±0.58 4.00±0.00 A - 3/100 100 mg/ml 4.67±0.58 5.00±0.00 5.00±0.00 5.00±0.00 A - 3/50 50 mg/ml 4.33±0.58 4.67±0.58 5.00±0.00 5.00±0.00 A - 3/20 20 mg/ml 3.33±0.58 4.33±0.58 4.67±0.58 5.00±0.00 A - 3/10 10 mg/ml 2.33±0.58 2.67±0.58 3.67±0.58 4.00±0.00 B - 3/100 100 mg/ml 3.33±0.58 4.33±0.58 5.00±0.00 5.00±0.00 B - 3/50 50 mg/ml 2.33±0.58 3.67±0.58 4.67±0.58 5.00±0.00 B - 3/20 20 mg/ml 2.00±1.00 2.67±0.58 4.00±1.00 4.33±0.58 B - 3/10 10 mg/ml 0.67±0.58 1.67±0.58 2.33±0.58 3.33±0.58 C - 3/100 100 mg/ml 5.00±0.00 5.00±0.00 5.00±0.00 5.00±0.00 C - 3/50 50 mg/ml 4.33±0.58 5.00±0.00 5.00±0.00 5.00±0.00 C - 3/20 20 mg/ml 3.33±0.58 4.00±1.00 4.33±0.58 4.67±0.58 C - 3/10 10 mg/ml 2.33±0.58 2.67±0.58 3.33±0.58 4.00±1.00 D - 3/100 100 mg/ml 0.67±0.58 1.67±0.58 2.33±0.58 3.67±0.58 D - 3/50 50 mg/ml 0.33±0.58 0.67±0.58 1.67±0.58 2.67±0.58

201

D - 3/20 20 mg/ml 0.00±0.00 0.33±0.58 1.33±0.58 2.33±0.58 D - 3/10 10 mg/ml 0.00±0.00 0.00±0.00 0.67±0.58 1.33±0.58 E - 3/100 100 mg/ml 2.67±0.58 4.33±0.58 5.00±0.00 5.00±0.00 E - 3/50 50 mg/ml 2.33±0.58 2.67±0.58 4.00±1.00 4.33±0.58 E - 3/20 20 mg/ml 0.67±0.58 1.67±0.58 2.67±0.58 3.67±0.58 E - 3/10 10 mg/ml 0.33±0.58 1.00±0.00 2.33±0.58 2.67±0.58 A - 4/100 100 mg/ml 3.00±1.00 4.00±1.00 4.33±0.58 5.00±0.00 A - 4/50 50 mg/ml 2.33±0.58 3.33±0.58 4.33±0.58 5.00±0.00 A - 4/20 20 mg/ml 0.67±0.58 2.33±0.58 3.00±1.00 3.33±0.58 A - 4/10 10 mg/ml 0.33±0.58 1.33±0.58 2.33±0.58 2.67±0.58 B - 4/100 100 mg/ml 1.67±0.58 2.67±0.58 4.67±0.58 5.00±0.00 B - 4/50 50 mg/ml 0.67±0.58 1.67±0.58 2.67±0.58 4.33±0.58 B - 4/20 20 mg/ml 0.33±0.58 1.33±0.58 2.33±0.58 4.00±1.00 B - 4/10 10 mg/ml 0.00±0.00 0.67±0.58 1.67±0.58 3.00±1.00 C - 4/100 100 mg/ml 2.67±0.58 4.00±1.00 4.67±0.58 5.00±0.00 C - 4/50 50 mg/ml 2.33±0.58 3.33±0.58 4.00±1.00 4.33±0.58 C - 4/20 20 mg/ml 0.67±0.58 1.67±0.58 2.67±0.58 4.00±1.00 C - 4/10 10 mg/ml 0.33±0.58 1.33±0.58 2.33±0.58 3.33±0.58 D - 4/100 100 mg/ml 3.33±0.58 4.00±1.00 4.67±0.58 5.00±0.00 D - 4/50 50 mg/ml 2.67±0.58 3.67±0.58 4.33±0.58 4.67±0.58 D - 4/20 20 mg/ml 2.33±0.58 3.00±1.00 4.00±1.00 4.33±0.58 D - 4/10 10 mg/ml 1.00±1.00 1.67±0.58 3.00±1.00 4.00±1.00 E - 4/100 100 mg/ml 0.33±0.58 0.67±0.58 1.67±0.58 2.00±0.00 E - 4/50 50 mg/ml 0.00±0.00 0.33±0.58 1.00±0.00 1.33±0.58 E - 4/20 20 mg/ml 0.00±0.00 0.00±0.00 0.67±0.58 1.00±1.00 E - 4/10 10 mg/ml 0.00±0.00 0.00±0.00 0.33±0.58 0.67±0.58

202

Solvent wise LD 50 Analysis

Table 4.4.2 3 : Anthelmintic activity of the plant extracts in the form of LSD 50

Plant Plant LD 50 value (mg/ml) extract wise Tag. Name n - Hexane Methanol Chloroform Dist. Water A Aerva javanica 4.27 1.91 0.59 9.59 B Cistanche tubulosa 5.8 0.59 4.54 6.9 C Cuscuta campestris 27.06 0.48 1.3 5.43 D Heliotropium europaeum 1.91 215.44 31.46 1.91

E Persicaria glabra 8.77 1.3 9.35 230

Lethal Dose 50 Analysis

100 90 80 70 l n - Hexane Extract m

/ 60 g Methanol Extract m

50 e s Chloroform Extract o 40 D 30 Dist. Water Extract 20 10 0 A. javanica C. tubulosa C. campestris H. europaeum P. glabra

Fig 4.4.28: Plant extracts wise LD 50 Analysis Note: Dose values conceding 100 mg/ml have actu al values 215.44 and 230 mg/ml.

203 Plant wise Antelminitic Extract wise Anthelmintic Efficacy Efficacy

30 35 25 30 20 25 20 15 15 10 10 5 5 0 0

Fig. 4.4.29: Graphical view of plant Fig. 4.4.30: Graphical view of extract wise Anthelmintic efficacy wise Anthelmintic efficac y

All the five selected plants were found to have anthelmintic activity. By gradation method based on LD 50 values, solvent wise and plant wise anthelmintic efficacy was reported , respectively as follows : n - Hexane > Chloroform > distilled water > methanol C. campestris > C. tubulosa > H. europaeum > A. javanica > P. Glabra Ove r all, medicinal contents responsible of anthelmintic activity were best observed in non polar solvents than in polar solvents and C. campestris had maximum, while other four plants were found to have adequate anthelmintic activity. When we come to the neg ative scoring, out of twenty plant extracts only four plant extracts, i.e. n - hexane extract of C. campestris , chloroform extract and methanol extract of

H.europaeum and distilled water extract of P. glabra had more LD 50 values and showing least anthelmi ntic efficacy while other sixteen plant extracts had shown very low LD 50 values and showing optimum anthelmintic efficacy. The chloroform extract of Cistanche tubulosa , Cuscuta campestris and Persicaria glabra while m ethanolic extract of Aerva javanica and Cuscuta campestris were the most effective. The n - hexane extract of Heliotropium europaeum was effective at second level.

204 Discussion The present research work was carried out to study the floristic composition, phytosociological attributes including community structure and the documentation of ethnobotanical data on the local herbaceous flora of Sahiwal Division. As an adjunct, the ethn opharmacological potential of some medicinally important local plants was also explored for their possible role as antioxidant, antimicrobial and anthelmintic agents. Ethnobotany The study area is well famous for the different agricultural crops, which ar e generally cultivated such as, wheat, rice, sugarcane, cotton, etc. It is the hub of different anthropological activities, especially an increased urbanization. New roads have been laid down in the residential schemes. These areas were some times thickly populated with the herbaceous flora, but at present, the overall areas available for the growth of wild plants had been reduced, due to an increase in the conversion of forest land in to agricultural land. For example, there was a time when local people we re used to collect Amaranthus viridis (Choli), Chenopodium album (Bathoo) and Digera muricata (Tandla), Lathyrus aphaca (Matri) and several others easily from the agricultural fields, ground and other open areas. These plants are commonly used as vegetable s not only by the poor people but even by the others, because these are the integral component of the local traditional dishes. Now the situation is different, because of their less availability in the study area, instead these are sold at the grocery/ veg etable shops. Similar is the situation with locally found herbal plants. For example Chrozophora tinctoria (Bakwachal Booti), Croton bonplandianus ( Jaml ghota ), Euphorbia helioscopia (Dodhak), Glinus lotoides ( Zakham a hayat ), Solanum nigrum (Mako), Tribul us terrestris (Bhakra), Withania somnifera (Aksan) and several others were easily collected in the study area. But at present they are not available for collection and use against the local minor human ailments as well as against the ailments of domestic d airy animals. These are brought from other parts of the province of Punjab. In the new residential colonies various exotic and local plants are cultivated as ornamental. Such an unmanaged plantation is threatening the herbaceous flora of the study area. Th e conditions are becoming adverse due to the modern agricultural techniques, including the conversion of forest land in to agricultural fields, the ruthless use of herbicides and indirectly the insecticides, threatening the local herbaceous flora as report ed also by Delcourt et al. (1986); Hamayun (2003) .

205

The present study was planned with this intrusion that such study may help in planning the policies on agricultural, health and residential schemes at national level at least. The present research work has not been carried out in the study area before, although such studies are the dire need of the day and have been conducted nationally in other parts of the country. T his rapid change of loss of traditional knowledge is just as irreversible loss of species (Joshi and Kunjani , 2005). The land of the study area consisted of plains of the three rivers i.e. Bias, Ravi and Satluj much famous for cultivation due to its proper level, soil fertility, water table and enriched soil chemistry (Akbar et al. , 2003). The occurrence of herbs is only limited to canal banks, uncultivated river sides, road sides, Railway track waste lands, drainage patches of the home filth water bodies in the villages etc or in unused corners of parks, graveyards etc. In short flora was found to be under great anthropogenic pressure (Barkatullah and Ibrar, 2011). In the present study 180 plant species consisted of one member gymnosperms, two members’ Pteridophytes and remaining 177 members’ angiosperms. Out of these 177, 31 belong to monocots while remaining 146 to dicots. Out of the total of 180 species 21 being the cultivated herbs were not considered for their phytosociological studies. The use of plant resources for the existence of human being is as old practice as human race itself (Jan, et al . 2008). During the ethnobotanical survey maximum plant species were found having multi - purpose usage, while some having single usage. Similar studies with very valuable findings have been conducted by other researchers like Hussain et al. (2005); Ibr ar et al. (2007); Jan et al. (2008); Qureshi et al. (2008); Barkatullah et al. (2009). The plants were in use as fodder for grazers, as food, condiments, medicinal or other uses by local inhabitants and their domestic animals (Hussain and Khaliq, 1996; Ham ayun, 2003). The list of ailments for which these herbs were found in use being used as medicines was also much long, consisting of diseases of liver, stomach and skin, snake bite, sexual disorders of genders, urinary disorders and piles. Such reports have also been recorded by Panhwar and Abro (2007). No doubt more than one plant resources were reported for a single ailment from different resource persons as reported by different workers Ahmad et al. (2003); Ashfaq et al. (2003). Most of the resource perso ns were aware of about the usage but unaware of the area of the occurrence of herbs. The local people were found remembering the local useful herbal plants in the folk lore as heritage, which is in favor of the ethnic

206 uses of the local plants. This has als o been supported by Jan et al. (2008). Similar study was conducted by Sardar and Khan (2009) on the documentation of indigenous knowledge collected from the local people of Tehsil Shakargarh, District Narowal, Pakistan. Phytosociology Many plant species had shown a very effective importance value index and other phytosociological attributes. It is interesting to record that all different types of soil texture were found in the study area, although the research area is very large, i.e. h aving three districts of six tehsils (Ahmad, 1986). Moreover, soil parameters had no much difference district wise, yet ecological parameters including community structure were showing heterogeneity, changing district wise. In overall study, the mean value of pH, EC, Organic matter, Chlorides, Carbonate, Bicarbonate, Ca +2 , Mg +2 , Na +1 and SAR was 7.67±0.04, 756±96 µs , 2.2±0.13% , 13.07±0.93 me/ L , 0±0.0 , 4.82±0.63 me/ L , 21.58±4.16 me/ L , 14.64±2.5 me/ L , 15.55±5.11 me/ L and 3.72±0.88 respectively, which is an agreement with Memon et al . (1992); NFDC (1993 ). It was found that there is a close relationship between vegetation and soil of the area, very rightly was also disclosed by Malik et al. (2000). In quadrat study Celosia a rgentea Linn., Aloe vera , Cyperus rotundus , Lawsonia inermis , Melilotus indica and Cynodon dactylon had shown maximum importance value index i.e. >4 in the vegetation of District Pakpattan. While Spergula rubra , Stellaria media and Chenopodium album were found abundant in District Pakpattan, Achyranthes aspera Linn., Atriplex crassifolia , Citrullus colocynthis , Cynodon dactylon , Echinochloa colona and Poa annua were found abundant in District Okarar . Abundance of such species was also described by Sh ukla et al. (2011). In Sahiwal division Trianthema triquetra , Celosia argentea , Stellaria media , Chenopodium album Linn., Cyperus rotundus , Lawsonia inermis , Melilotus indica , Echinochloa colona and Poa annua were found abundant having IVI more than 2. Yet abundance of few numbers of species in the so vast area due to unfavorable habitat and human disturbances was also reported by Akbar et al. (2003). When we study the distribution of these plants species with the help of TWINSPAN, different numbers of grou ps, subgroups and associations were found as illustrated by Bashir et al. (2016). The herbaceous flora of District Sahiwal was found to be consisted of 100 plant species recorded in 72 quadrats, divided in to two groups; GA and GB, GA was the largest group , further divided in to GA1 and GA2. GA1 was

207 again divided in to two sub groups; SG1 and SG2. SG1, first sub - group had five associations i.e. A1, A2, A3, A4 and A5 consisted of 29, 9, 8, 7 and 7 plant species respectively. In the same way SG2, the second s ub - group, had two associations; A1 and A2, consisted of 8 and 10 plant species. GA2 had one association i.e. A1, consisted of 10 plant species only. While GB i.e. the second group had only one association i.e. A1 consisted of 12 plant species only. TWINSPA N analysis for 122 plant species, found in 78 quadrats recorded from District Pakpattan divided the vegetation in to two groups i.e. GA and GB, GA consisted of GA1 and GA2. GA1 consisted of two sub groups SGA1 and SGA2, while SGA1 had 7 plant associations i.e. A1, A2, A3, A4, A5, A6 and A7 consisted of 9, 11, 22, 6, 10, 6 and 9 plant species. SGA2 had one association of 8 plant species. GA2 had three associations consisted of 10, 8 and 9 plant species. Group B was represented by 2 associations of 10 and 4 p lant species. Similar results were achieved by Ahmd and Jabeen (2009). In the same way 108 plant species were recorded through 72 quadrats in District Okara. TWINSPAN analysis divided the whole vegetation in to two groups, GA1 and GA2, GA1 was further divi ded in to SGA1 and SGA2. SGA1 and three plant associations consisted of 11, 19 and 10 plant species. SGA2 had 2 associations consisted of 11 and 9 plant species. GA2 had two associations, consisted of 11 and 8 plant species. GB1 had two associations consis ted of 5 and 7 plant association, while GB2 had three associations consisted of 5, 7 and 5 plant species. Same types of results based on the TWINSPAN on the vegetation of Central Punjab were found by Zareen (2011). In this way vegetation of the whole Sahiw al Division consisted of 159 plant species recorded through 222 quadrats. By TWINSPAN analysis whole vegetation was divided in to two groups, GA and GB. GA was further divided in to 6 associations consisted of 43, 14, 12, 8, 9 and 6 plant species. GB was f urther divided in to GB1 and GB2. GB1 had three associations, consisted of 23, 7 and 6 plant species, while GB2 had three associations consisted of 9, 10 and 10 plant species. Similar study was conducted by Ahmad (2013) by applying TWINSPAN on the Motor - wa y vegetation, consequently dividing 45 species in to two groups and 14 sub - groups. Some species such as Cynodon dactylon had shown similar results by Ali et al. (2004) in Importance value index as well as in TWINSPAN, proving the similarity in results of both methods. Ethnopharmacology On the basis of the results of ethnopharmacological analysis of the ethnobotanically important five local medicinal plants, it wa s noticed that these plants possess some

208 agents responsible to fight against microbial diseases. This finding is very much in line with that of Chariandy et al. (1999). The results were found very encouraging. Plants possess such biologically active compou nds, which had shown antimicrobial activities (Cowan, 1999). Polar solvents had shown maximum yield than non polar solvents. Cistanche tubulosa and Cuscuta campestris had shown maximum yield, i.e. 21.27% and 21.15% out of all the selected medicinal plants. Although these contents vary between species to species, varieties, according to the conditions of cultivation or germination, degree of maturity and harvesting conditions, was also noted by Karmas and Harris (1988). In the same way when we analyze the r esults of antioxidant activity, ABTS + Assay was evaluated in the form of TEAC values (mM) and dist. water extract of C. tubulosa had maximum TEAC value i.e. 17.97±9.17 mM, out of all selected plants. In over all study plant wise, A. javanica and solvent wi se, distilled water had shown maximum TEAC values. In DPPH Assay Chloroform extract of P. glabra had shown the maximum DPPH value, i.e. 37.2±0.47 %. In over all study plant wise, H. europaeum and solvent wise chloroform had shown maximum DPPH values but all the values were less than standard of Trolox and BHA . These free radicals perform a crucial role in normal aging and neurological disorders, as a result of their complex interplay (Beal, 19 95). When we analyze the results of Total Phenolic Contents determination (TPC) of the selected plants in the form of Gallic acid equivalent (μg/ml), methanol extract of P. glabra had shown the maximum value, i.e. 3061.75 (μg/ml). While in an overall plant wise, A. javanica and solvent wise methanol extract had shown maximum Gallic acid equivalent values, more over non - polar solvents showed more Gallic acid equivalent values than the polar solvents. In the study of Total Flavonoids Content (TFC), values wer e expressed as Quercetin equivalents (QE) in μg/ml. Methanol extract of C. tubulosa had shown maximum TFC value i.e. 3723±2.78 μg/ml. In over all study, plant wise C. campestris and solvent wise methanol had shown maximum TFC values, while plant extracts o f polar solvents had shown more TFC values than the non polar solvents. During the study of Metal Chelating Activity r esults were expressed as the percentage of bounded iron, n - hexane extract of H. eurpaeum had shown maximum percent bounded iron, i.e. 92.6 898±3.38 %. While in over all study, plant wise C. campestris and solvent wise extracts in distilled water had shown maximum value of percentage - bounded iron. Meanwhile extracts of the polar solvents had shown more meal chelating activity than the extracts of non - polar solvents. Since all the antioxidants show a cumulative

209 performance, so to examine the activity of only one antioxidant in isolation from the rest may be unable to show the true results as in combined effect. Such a need to focus on the Total Anti - Oxidant Analysis was also realized by Halliwell (1996). During the study of Total Anti - Oxidant Activity, based on the reduction of Phosphate - Molybdenum Vl to V, methanol extract of C. tubulosa had shown the maximum total antioxidant activity, i.e. 1.5 69±0.069. In over all study, plant wise C. campestris and solvent wise methanol extract had shown maximum values and polar solvents again had shown more activity than the non - polar solvents. Such antioxidant activities are closely related with the degenera tive illness, such as cancer, cardiovascular, neurological diseases and other oxidative stress based malfunctions, was noted by Gey et al. (1991); Frei (1994) and Schwartz (1996). Due to ever increasing resistance in microbes against allopathic antibiotics , there was a need of constant effective therapeutic agents (Bhavnani and Ballow, 2000). In the protocol of ethnopharmacological analysis, next major series was Antimicrobial activity. This activity was analyzed against different selected pathogenic bacter ial and fungal microbes, firstly on standard discs and then on the plates used for plant extracts by well diffusion method. Four bacterial strains, i.e. Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Echerichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (first two Gram positive and last two Gram negative) and two fungal strains, i.e. Aspergillus niger and Aspergillus oryzae were used for this study. The values of zone of inhibition were expressed in the form of mean value of triplet in mm± SEM. As a resu lt of this assay during antibacterial activity, Azithromycin antibiotic standard disc showed the best zone of inhibition against all standard selected pathogenic bacterial microbes, while Ampicillin showed least potential against S. aureus and E. coli and no activity against P. aeruginosa and B. subtilis while during antifungal activity, Tezole had shown maximum potential against A. niger and A. oryzae as compared with other antibiotics, while Griseofluvin exhibited minimum potential than others against A. niger . Nystatin and Fungivin both had shown an intermediate potential. After that only the solvents were used as negative control against selected bacterial and fungal strains, yet no response was observed against selected microbial strains. Similar result s were found by Duraipandiyan et al. (2006). In case of antibacterial activity, especially S. aureus, chloroform extract of A. javanica had shown maximum antibacterial potential, i.e. 45±1.15 mm while all the extracts had shown somewhat inhibition, except one all the values of zone of

210 inhibition were more than the positive control having value 16.33 mm. In case of E. coli, the plant extracts that had shown some potential, had more value than the positive control, i.e. 15mm. Chloroform extracts of C. tubulos a and H. europaeum and Methanol extract of A. javanica had shown maximum potential, i.e. 20.33 ±0.88mm, 22.33 ±1.45mm and 22.33 ±0.88mm, respectively. While values >8 were considered as active against microorganisms by Nayan and Bhalodia (2011). In case of P. aeruginosa n - Hexane extract of P. glabra had shown maximum potential, i.e. 64.33 ±1.20 mm. All the potentially active extracts had shown more potential than the positive control, having value 10.33mm. While some plant extracts in both cases had not shown any response. In case of B. Subtilis n - Hexane extract of P. glabra had shown maximum potential, i.e. 53.33±1.45 mm, while the standard antibiotic potential was 22.33 mm and non - polar solvents had shown more antimicrobial potential than the polar solvents. In case of A. oryzae P. glabra had shown maximum potential, i.e. 22.33 ±0.88 mm while the standard antifungal value was 27.33 mm and aqueous extract had shown zero potential in all the plant extracts. In case of A. niger . aqueous extracts had not shown any response, while pant wise P. glabra and solvent wise n - Hexane had shown maximum potential. In over all view n - Hexane extract of P. glabra had shown maximum potential than all extracts, i.e. 52 ±0.33 m m, while the value of the positive control (Griseofulvin) was 27.33mm. As both types (Gram + & - ) of bacterial strains were used, yet Gram – ve strains were found to be more resistant may be because of the nature of their cell membrane was also reported by Tortora et al. (2001). Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), the minimum amount of plant extract required to prevent the possible growth of micro organism was carried out only for methanolic extracts of the selected plants. MIC values of A. javanica against E. coli, S. aureus, P. aeruginosa, B. subtilis, A. oryzae and A. niger were found 0.145 ±.007, 0.175 ±.004, 0.096 ±.003, 0.219 ±.002, 0.012 ±.002 and 0.079 ±.004 at the concentrations 1.0, 1.0, 0.3, 1.0,0.3 and 0.3 mg/ml, respectively. As a result the p rescribed plant extract had shown very effective MIC values against P. aeruginosa, A. oryzae and A. niger . In the same way MIC values of C. tubulosa against E. coli, S. aureus, P. aeruginosa, B. subtilis, A. oryzae and A. niger were found to be 0.351±.002, 0.282±.001, 0.299±.002, 0.187±.001, 0.09±.001 and 0.069±.001 a t the concentrations 0.7, 0.5, 0.1, 1.0, 0.1 and o.3 mg/ ml, respectively, showing that the extract of the reported plant was found to have maximum potential against P. aeruginosa and A. oryzae . It was reported clearly that same plant extract had shown

211 different MIC values against different microbial strains by Liu et al. (2006) . The possible reason was that an extract had multiple compounds responsible of antimicrobial growth. If that responsible compound was of low molecular weight, would show MIC values at low concentration as easier to penetrate the cell membrane than the mol ecules of large molecular weight that contribute to leakage of protein and other intracellular components of microbes, resulting in the impairment of vital microbial activities and consequently requiring high MIC values (Jiang, 2011). In case of MIC values of C. campestris against E. coli, S. aureus, P. aeruginosa, B. subtilis, A. oryzae and A. niger were found to be 0.181±.002, 0.109±.001, 0.055±.001, 0.134±.002, 0.14±.001 and 0.14±.002 at the concentrations 1.0, 0.1, 1.0, 1.0, 0.2 and 0.2 mg/ml respective ly, showing that extract of prescribed plant had shown maximum antimicrobial potential against S. aureus , A. oryzae and A. niger . In case of MIC values of H. europaeum against microbes; E. coli, S. aureus, P. aeruginosa, B. subtilis, A. oryzae and A. niger were found to be 0.088±.002 , 0.073±.003 , 0.097±.003 , 0.088±.003 , 0.032±.002 and 0.031±.001 at concentrations 0.1, 0.2, 1.0, 0.1, 0.1 and 0.7 mg/ml, respectively, showing that extract of prescribed plant had maximum potential against E. coli, S. aureus, B. subtilis and A. oryzae. This analysis was presenting clear evidence about the efficacy of the selected plant for pharmacological recommendations. In the same way MIC values of P. glabra against prescribed microbes; E. coli, S. aureus, P. aeruginosa, B. subtilis, A. oryzae and A. niger were found to be 0.154±.003 , 0.017±.002 , 0.031±.002 , 0.154±.003, 0.063±.002 and 0.064±.002 at the concentrations 0.3, 1.0, 0.5, 0.3, 0.3 and 0.7 mg/ml respectively, showing that the ext ract of prescribed plant had a good antimicrobial potential against microbes, E. coli, B. subtilis and A. oryzae. Same types of results were obtained from the antimicrobial study conducted by Bhalodia and Shukla (2011) on the leaf extracts of Cassia fistul a Linn. In case of anthelmintic activity of the extracts of ethnobotanically selected local medicinal plants, C. campestris had maximum. Minimum LD 50 values reflect the maximum anthelmintic activity of the prescribed medicinal plant. The chloroform extract of Cistanche tubulosa, Cuscuta campestris and Persicaria glabra while ethanolic extract of Aerva javanica and Cuscuta campestris were the most effective. Khan et al. (2014) used the methanolic extract of Fumaria indica to evaluate in vitro anthelmintic efficacy against Haemonchus contortous using adult motility assay and found highest mortality i.e. 95 % of worms at 8 th hour after post exposure @ 50mg/ml

212 and 100 % at 4 th hour after post exposure to methanol extract and Levamisole (as standa rd drug).The difference in the results of different plant extracts may be due to the type of solvent used for extraction, origin of the plant material, stage of development at harvesting, environmental factors at drying and storage time and place of harves ting was also noticed by Badar et al. (2011). The different degree of helminthiasis of different extracts may also be due to the level of tannins present in different plants. Tannins are the polyphenolic compounds, involved in energy generation by uncoupli ng oxidative phosphorylation, or binds to glycoprotein on the cuticle of parasite, causing death (Thompson and Geary, 1995). Extracellular matrix (ECM) of nematode, enriched with collagen provides cuticle that forms exoskeleton. Collagen is a kind of prote in, modified by a range of co and post translational modifications, prior to assembly in to higher complex order. Very complex ordered reactions occurring between the cuticle of nematode and tannins of plant extracts, results in the loss of flexibility and toughness in the skin, this makes the worm immobile and non functional, leading to paralysis and followed by death. Similar findings were evaluated by Vidyadhar et al. (2010). After all this practice of ethnopharmacological analysis, ethnobotanically sel ected local plants were found to be effective medicinal. Yet ethnopharmacological studies of such plants are quite different from natural product pharmacology in different aspects (Etkin, 2001) as the latter is meaningful on commercial bases, while ethnobo tanical and Phytoecological studies were found to be quite supportive for the exploration of the local flora.

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Recommendations As per detailed discussion on the ethnoecological studies on the herbaceous flora of Sahiwal Division, Punjab, Pakistan, following recommendations are proposed for implementation; 1 - A lot of ethnobotanical information and human resources are to be explored in the study area , hence extensive, long t erm and comprehensive stud ies are yet required . 2 - D ue to tremendous anth ropogenic activities in the study area and installation of coal fired power plant, regular and long term ethnoecological surveys are required on seasonal basis each year to monitor the sustainable occurance of ethnobotanically important flora and fauna of the study area. 3 - Though there are three man made forests in the study areae for plant conservation , yet their proper working needs improvements, upgradations and extensions. 4 - Further extensive ethnopharmacological work is required on a number of medicinal plants found in the study area . 5 - Cultivation and propagation of most wanted local plants , such as bathoo , bhakra, chulai, it - sit, khulfa, etc. at commercial level is recommended, to conserve these plants under severe harvesting pressure. 6 - Various awareness programs for the local people be arranged, especially on the conservation of ethnomedicinally important weeds of various seasonal crops, instead of weeding these out by using herbicides etc.

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Annexure l

Questionnaire

Section 1.

Date …………………….. Name of informant………. Age……………………… Profession………………..

Section 2.

Local Name of the plant Folk uses: Medicinal Fodder Vegetable Ornamental

Fuel Thatching Poisonous Others

If medicinal: In which form it is used:

Fresh Dried Decoction Powdered Others

How plant is used:

Whole plant Part of plant Mixed

For the treatment of humans and animals diseases:

Name of human diseases

Name of animal diseases

Do you collect this plant yourself?

Yes No

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Annexure ll

( a ) MAP OF PAKISTAN N

W -- ↑ -- E

230

( b ) MAP OF PUNJAB Showing S ahiwal Division

W -- ↑ -- E

Area covered by red and white boundary is showing

The Sahiwal Division,

Consisting of three districts as

Okara, Pakpattan and Sahiwal.

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Annexure lll

List of herbaceous p lant species of Sahiwal Division

Family No Plant Name Voucher No. Peristrophe paniculata (Forssk.) GC.Herb.Bot.3111 Acanthaceae Brummitt 1 Adiantaceae Adiantum capillus - veneris Linn. GC.Herb.Bot.3112 2 Aizoaceae Gisekia pharnaceoides Linn. GC.Herb.Bot.3113 3 Trianthema portulacastrum Linn. GC.Herb.Bot.3114 4 Trianthema triquetra Rottle and Willd. GC.Herb.Bot.3115 5 Zaleya pentandra (Linn.) Jeffrey. GC.Herb.Bot.3116 6 Alliaceae Allium cepa Linn. GC.Herb.Bot.3117 7 Achyranthes aspera Linn. var. GC.Herb.Bot.3 118 Amaranthaceae pubescens Wall. ex Moq. 8 Aerva javanica (Burm.f.) Juss. GC.Herb.Bot.3 119 9 Alternanthera pungens Kunth. GC.Herb.Bot.3 120 10 Alternanthera sessilis (Linn.) DC. GC.Herb.Bot.3 121 11 Amaranthus spinosus Linn. GC.Herb.Bot.3 122 12 Amaranthus viridis Linn. GC.Herb.Bot.3 123 13 Celosia argentea Linn. GC.Herb.Bot.3 124 14 Digera muricata (Linn.) Mart. GC.Herb.Bot.3 125 15 Apiaceae Centella asiatica (Linn.) Urban. GC.Herb.Bot.3 126 16 Foeniculum vulgare Mill. GC.Herb.Bot.3 127 17 Oenanthe javanica (Blume.) DC. GC.Herb.Bot.3 128 18 Asclepiadaceae Oxystelma esculentum (Linn.f.) R. GC.Herb.Bot.3 129 19 Pentatropis spiralis (Forssk.) Decne. GC.Herb.Bot.3 130 20 Asphodelaceae Aloe vera (Linn.) Burm. f. GC.Herb.Bot.3 131 21 Asphodelus tenuifolius Cav. GC.Herb.Bot.3 132 22 Asteraceae Ageratum conyzoides Linn. GC.Herb.Bot.3 133 23 Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & Kit. GC.Herb.Bot.3 134 24 Blumea lacera (Burm.f.) DC. GC.Herb.Bot.3 135 25 Carthamus oxycantha Bieb. GC.Herb.Bot.3 136 26 Cichorium intybus Linn. GC.Herb.Bot.3 137 27

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Cnicus arvensis (Linn.) Hoffm. GC.Herb.Bot.3 138 28 Conyza ambigua DC. GC.Herb.Bot.3 139 29 Cotula hemispherica (Roxb.) Wall. ex GC.Herb.Bot.3 140

Benth. & Hook. f. 30 Eclipta alba Hassk. GC.Herb.Bot.3 141 31 Gnaphalium polycaulon Pers. GC.Herb.Bot.3 142 32 Ifloga spicata (Forssk.) Sch. Bip. GC.Herb.Bot.3 143 33 Launia nudicaulis Less ssp. fallax GC.Herb.Bot.3 144

(Jaub. & Spach.) Jafri. 34 Pseudoconyza viscosa Mill. GC.Herb.Bot.3 145 35 Pseudognaphalium luteo - album (Linn.) GC.Herb.Bot.3 146

O.M.Hilliard & B.L. Burrt. 36 Pulicaria undulate (Linn.) C.A. GC.Herb.Bot.3 147 37 Sonchus arvensis Linn. GC.Herb.Bot.3 148 38 Sonchus asper Vill. GC.Herb.Bot.3 149 39 Sonchus oleraceous Linn. GC.Herb.Bot.3 150 40 Vernonia cinerascens Schultz - Bip. GC.Herb.Bot.3 151 41 Xanthium strumarium Linn. GC.Herb.Bot.3 152 42 Boraginaceae Arnebia hispidissima (Lehm.) A.DC. GC.Herb.Bot.3 153 43 Heliotropium crispum Desf. GC.Herb.Bot.3 154 44 Heliotropium europaeum Linn. GC.Herb.Bot.3 155 45 Heliotropium strigosum Willd. GC.Herb.Bot.3 156 46 Nonnea pulla (Linn.) DC. GC.Herb.Bot.3 157 47 Brassica rapa Linn. ssp. c ampestris GC.Herb.Bot.3 158 Brassicaceae (Linn.) Clapham. 48 Capsella bursa - pastoris (Linn.) Medik. GC.Herb.Bot.3 159 49 Coronopus didymus (Linn.) Smith. GC.Herb.Bot.3 160 50 Eruca sativa Mill. GC.Herb.Bot.3 161 51 Farsetia jacquemontii Hook.f.& GC.Herb.Bot.3 162

Thoms. 52 Goldbachia laevigata (M. Bieb.) DC. GC.Herb.Bot.3 163 53 Lepidium sativum Linn. GC.Herb.Bot.3 164 54

233

Malcolmia africana (Linn.) R.Br. GC.Herb.Bot.3 165 55 Raphanus sativus Linn. var. sativus . GC.Herb.Bot.3 166 56 Rorippa islandica (Oeder.) Borbas. GC.Herb.Bot.3 167 57 Sisymbrium irio Linn. GC.Herb.Bot.3 168 58 Cannabaceae Cannabis sativa Linn. GC.Herb.Bot.3 169 59 Capparidaceae Capparis spinosa Linn. GC.Herb.Bot.3 170 60 Cleome brachycarpa Vahl ex DC. GC.Herb.Bot.3 171 61 Cleome viscosa Linn. GC.Herb.Bot.3 172 62 Caryophyllaceae Vaccaria hispanica (Miller.) Rauschert. GC.Herb.Bot.3 173 63 Silene conoidea Linn. GC.Herb.Bot.3 174 64 Silene gonosperma Rupr. GC.Herb.Bot.3 175 65 Spergula rubra Linn. GC.Herb.Bot.3 176 66 Stellaria media (Linn.) Vill. GC.Herb.Bot.3 177 67 Chenopodiaceae Atriplex crassifolia C.A.Mey. GC.Herb.Bot.3 178 68 Beta vulgaris Linn. GC.Herb.Bot.3 179 69 Chenopodium album Linn. GC.Herb.Bot.3 180 70 Chenopodium ambrosioides Linn. GC.Herb.Bot.3 181 71 Chenopodium murale Linn. GC.Herb.Bot.3 182 72 Haloxylon stocksii (Boiss.) Benth. & GC.Herb.Bot.3 183

Hook. 73 Kochia indica Wight. GC.Herb.Bot.3 184 74 Salsola imbricat a Forssk. GC.Herb.Bot.3 185 75 Spinacia oleracea Linn. GC.Herb.Bot.3 186 76 Suaeda fruticosa Forssk. GC.Herb.Bot.3 187 77 C olchicaceae Colchicum luteum Baker. GC.Herb.Bot.3 188 78 Convolvulaceae Convolvulus arvensis Linn. GC.Herb.Bot.3 189 79 Convolvulus prostrat u s Forssk. GC.Herb.Bot.3 190 80 Cucurbitaceae Citrullus colocynthis (Linn.) Schrad. GC.Herb.Bot.3 191 81 Coccinia grandis (Linn.) Voigt. GC.Herb.Bot.3 192 82 Luffa acutangula (Linn.) Roxb. var. GC.Herb.Bot.3 193

Acutangula 83 Momordica charantia Linn. GC.Herb.Bot.3 194 84

234

Mukia maderaspatana (Linn.) M.J. GC.Herb.Bot.3 195

Roam. 85 Cuscutaceae Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. GC.Herb.Bot.3 196 86 Cuscuta campestris Yuncker. GC.Herb.Bot.3 197 87 Cyperaceae Cyperus rotundus Linn. GC.Herb.Bot.3 198 88 Ephedraceae Ephedra ciliata Fisch. & Mey. GC.Herb.Bot.3 199 89 Equisetaceae Equisetum debile Roxb. GC.Herb.Bot. 3200 90 Euphorbiaceae Chrozophora tinctoria (Linn.) Raf. GC.Herb.Bot.3201 91 Croton bonplandianus Baill. GC.Herb.Bot.3202 92 Euphorbia helioscopia Linn. GC.Herb.Bot.3203 93 Euphorbia hirta Linn. GC.Herb.Bot.3204 94 Euphorbia serpens Kunth. GC.Herb.Bot.3205 95 Euphorbia prostrata Ait. GC.Herb.Bot.3206 96 Euphorbia pulcherrima Willd. ex GC.Her b.Bot.3207

Klotzsch. 97 Fumariaceae Fumaria indica (Hausskn.) Pugsley. GC.Herb.Bot.3208 98 Lamiaceae Mentha arvensis Linn. GC.Herb.Bot.3209 99 Ocimum basilicum Linn. GC.Herb.Bot.3210 100 Salvia plebeia R. Br. GC.Herb.Bot. 3211 101 Lythraceae Lawsonia inermis Linn. GC.Herb.Bot. 3212 102 Malvaceae Abutilon indicum (Linn.) Sweet. GC.Herb.Bot.3213 103 Malva neglecta Wallr. GC.Her b.Bot.3214 104 Malva parviflora Linn. GC.Herb.Bot.3215 105 Malvastrum coromandelianum (Linn.) GC.Herb.Bot.3216

Garcke. 106 Sida cordifolia Linn. GC.Herb.Bot.3217 107 Mimosaceae Mimosa pudica Linn. GC.Herb.Bot. 3218 108 Molluginaceae Glinus lotoides Linn. GC.Herb.Bot. 3219 109 Nyctaginaceae Boerhavia procumbens Banks ex Roxb. GC.Herb.Bot.3220 110 Nymphaceae Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. GC.Her b.Bot.3221 111 Orobanchaceae Cistanche tubulosa (Schrenk.) Hook. GC.Herb.Bot.3222 112 Oxalidaceae Oxalis corniculata Linn. GC.Herb.Bot.3223 113

235

Oxalis Corymbosa DC. GC.Herb.Bot.3224 114 Papaveraceae Argemone ochroleuca Sweet. GC.Herb.Bot. 3225 115 Papaver somniferum Linn. GC.Herb.Bot. 3226 116 Papilionaceae Alhaji maurorum Medic. GC.Herb.Bot.3227 117 Arachis hypogaea Linn. GC.Her b.Bot.3228 118 Cicer arietinum Linn. GC.Herb.Bot.3229 119 Crotalaria burhia Buch. - Ham. Ex GC.Herb.Bot.3230

Benth. 120 Indigofera linifolia (Linn.f.) Retz. GC.Herb.Bot.3231 121 Lathyrus aphaca Linn. GC.Herb.Bot. 3232 122 Medicago laciniata Linn. GC.Herb.Bot. 3233 123 Melilotus indica (Linn.) All. GC.Herb.Bot.3234 124 Rhynchosia minima (Linn.) DC. GC.Her b.Bot.3235 125 Trigonella foenum - graecum Linn. GC.Herb.Bot.3236 126 Poaceae A pluda mutica Linn. GC.Herb.Bot.3237 127 Avena sativa Linn. GC.Herb.Bot.3238 128 Brachiaria ramose (Linn.) Stapf. GC.Herb.Bot. 3239 129 Cenchrus ciliaris Linn. GC.Herb.Bot. 3240 130 Cynodon dactylon (Linn.) Pers. GC.Herb.Bot.3241 131 Dactyloctenium aegyptium (Linn.) GC.Her b.Bot.3242

Willd. 132 Dactyloctenium scindicum Boiss. GC.Herb.Bot.3243 133 Desmostachya bipinnata (Linn.) Stapf. GC.Herb.Bot.3244 134 Dicanthium annulatum (Forssk.) Stapf. GC.Herb.Bot.3245 135 Digitaria violascens Link. GC.Herb.Bot. 3246 136 Echinochloa colona (Linn.) Link. GC.Herb.Bot. 3247 137 Eleusine indica (Linn.) Gaertn. GC.Herb.Bot.3248 138 Imperata cylindrica (Linn.) Raeuschel. GC.Her b.Bot.3249 139 Ochthochloa compressa (Forssk.) Hilu. GC.Herb.Bot.3250 140 Oryza sativa Linn. GC.Herb.Bot.3251 141 Panicum antidotale Retz. GC.Herb.Bot.3252 142

236

Paspalidium flavidum (Retz.) A. GC.Herb.Bot. 3253

Camus. 143 Pennisetum glaucum (Linn.) R. Br. GC.Herb.Bot. 3254 144 Poa annua Linn. GC.Herb.Bot.3255 145 Polypogan monspeliensis (Linn.) Desf. GC.Her b.Bot.3256 146 Setarria verticillata (Linn.) P. Beauv. GC.Herb.Bot.3257 147 Setaria viridis (Linn.) P. Beauv. GC.Herb.Bot.3258 148 Sorghum halepense (Linn.) Pers. GC.Herb.Bot.3259 149 Triticum aestivum Linn. GC.Herb.Bot. 3260 150 Persicaria barbata (Linn.) Hara. Var . GC.Herb.Bot. 3261 Polygonaceae barbata 151 Persicaria glabra (Willd.) M. Gomes. GC.Herb.Bot.3262 152 Polygonum plebejum R. Br. GC.Her b.Bot.3263 153 Rumex dentatus Linn. GC.Herb.Bot.3264 154 Portulacaceae Portulaca oleracea Linn. GC.Herb.Bot.3265 155 Porulaca quadrifida Linn. GC.Herb.Bot.3266 156 Anagallis arvensis Linn. var. coerulea GC.Herb.Bot. 3267 Primulaceae (Linn.) Gouan. 157 Ranunculaceae Ranunculus muricatus Linn. GC.Herb.Bot. 3268 158 Ranunculus sceleratus Linn. GC.Herb.Bot.3269 159 Resedaceae Oligomeris linifolia (Vahl.) Macbride. GC.Her b.Bot.3270 1 60 Solanaceae Capsicum annuum Linn. GC.Herb.Bot.3271 1 61 Datura fastuosa Linn. GC.Herb.Bot.3272 1 62 Hyoscyamus niger Linn. GC.Herb.Bot.3273 1 63 Lycopersicon esculantum Miller. GC.Herb.Bot. 3274 1 64 Nicotiana plumbaginifola Viv. GC.Herb.Bot. 3275 1 65 Nicotiana tabacum Linn. GC.Herb.Bot.3276 1 66 Physalis divaricata D. Done. GC.Her b.Bot.3277 1 67 Solanum nigrum Linn. var. nigrum GC.Herb.Bot.3278 1 68 Solanum tuberosum Linn. GC.Herb.Bot.3279 1 69 Solanum surattense Burm. f. GC.Herb.Bot.3280 1 70 Withania somnifera (Linn.) Dunal. GC.Herb.Bot. 3281 1 71

237

Tiliaceae Corchorus depressus (Linn.) Stocks. GC.Herb.Bot. 3282 1 72 Corchorus tridens Linn. GC.Herb.Bot.3283 1 73 Verbenaceae Phyla nodiflora (Linn.) Greene. GC.Her b.Bot.3284 1 74 Verbena officinalis Linn. GC.Herb.Bot.3285 1 75 Zingiberaceae Curcuma longa Linn. GC.Herb.Bot.3286 1 76 Zingiber officinale Roscoe. GC.Herb.Bot.3287 1 77 Fagonia indica Burm. f. var. GC.Herb.Bot. 3288 Zygophyllaceae schweinfurthii. Hadidi. 1 78 Peganum harmala Linn. GC.Herb.Bot. 3289 1 79 Tribulus terrestris Linn. GC.Herb.Bot.3290 1 80

238

A B

C C

D E

Plate 3.4.1 : P lants selected for Ethnopharmac ological studies. A, B, C, D & E stand

for Aerva javanica, Cistanche tubulosa, Cuscuta campestris, Heliotropium europaeum

and Persicaria glabra respectively.

239