In the ext Issue: ril 1948 olume ' I N Ap . V II, No. 3

i l Li e and the Dr eam b Mar 1 . The Irish Rev va : f , y y Colum

l f he orth's : The Ha ri s ner b Moni a Dic en 2 . Tria s o t N ppy P o , y c k s

h e s ur Dr a b Ar hemif 's Go 2 . Woman of C arm : Gw U O e m, y t e ertz

1 900 : Lin den on the aar ue ranch b Elliot aul 1 . Boston Suburb S g B , y P

i wr h B or ias : rince o Foxes b Samue She la ar er 1 . Sk ll Out ts t e g P f , y l l b g

mer cans A ro d The a ller b oh Hor B n 2. A i a : n ne ur b G y, y J s

CHAPTER VIII . OUR O CCUPATION POLICY

1 . A un h at Broad a : The axon harm b rede ic Wa e a P c w y S C , y F r k k m n

’ 1 . A S ientist s uandar : N othin o a e m i c ' y g S S tr ng , b y J a es H lton

Warner Brace THE UNIVERSITY O F NO RTH CAROLINA LIBRARY E' T ENSIO N PUBLICATIO N

13 U 4 8 N O . 2 VO L. JAN ARY 19

PLAYS AND THE THEAT RE

KAI JU RG E NSE N

Assistant Professor of Dramatic Art

Pub lished six times a ear ctober Januar A ri M a e nd Jul y , O , y, p l, y, Jun , a y,

b the Universit o N orth arolin P - y y f C a ress. Entered as second clan ma tter ebruar 5 1 92 6 unde F y , , r the a ct of August 24, 1 91 2 . ha el H l C p il , N . C .

T able of C ontents

A E CHAPTER I . PLAY XTEMPORE

? 1 h h Theat re . W y DO We GO to t e

2 Lo f Dra Ar I an n stinct . ve o matic t s I

T nn i een Li an d the Theatre 3 . he Co ect on betw fe

’ L CHAPTER II . THE DRAMA S AWS

1 T 4 ” . heatrical Production

2 Dr m i A i . a at c ct on A, h I 3 . W at s a Play?

’ 4 L ri . et s W te a Play

T I T CHAPTER III . SOME MORAL LE T EACH

1 . Primitive Drama

2 E ar e . ly R ligious Plays

3 . The B ook Of Job

T RA I CHAPTER IV . HE T C C MUSE

~ 1 . The Greek Theatre

h r 2 . T e G eek Pl aywright s

3 Emotiona i . l ' ual ty Of the G reek Plays

’ O B CHAPTER V . GOD S PR PHETS OF THE EAUTIFUL

tories b ehi h re la s 1 . S nd t e G ek P y 2 A m h . g a emn on ( Aesc ylus )

edi us R ex o h es 3 . O p ( S p ocl )

4 M edea E i i . ( ur p des )

5 Th Fr s r s . e og ( A i t ophan es )

CHAPTER VI . WEDDED TO CALAMITY

1 h I ‘ . W at s a T ragedy ? 2 I . s Tragedy Etern al ?

THE M - H CHAPTER VII . ANY EADED MONSTER ( The Roman )

1 . The Roman Theatre

2 . The Roman Pl aywrights

3 . The Roman Plays C L HAPTER VIII . OOK HERE AND YONDER

1 Th M e Th . e dieval eat re

The M 2 . edieval Pl aywrights h M 3 . T e ediev al Plays

F L C HAPTER IX . AIR AND OF C HIVALRY

1 . Th e Renaissance

2 . The Renaissance Theatre

3 Th R n i n . e e a ssa ce Plays

C THE AGE i iam h a es eare HAPTER X . SOUL OF THE ( W ll S k p )

’ 1 h a es ea re s Times an d Theatre . S k p

2 h a es e re h a ri ht . S k p a , t e Pl yw g

’ 3 ha es ea re s a s . S k p Pl y

A MEN French a ssicism CHAPTER XI . SUCCESSION OF SPLENDID ( Cl )

1 Fr n T . e ch Cl a ssic heatre

2 Th Fren h a ssic ri hts . e c Cl Pl ayw g

3 Th Fre h a ssi a . e nc Cl c Pl ys

T HE D MAN B e r h Fren CHAPTER XII . ISCONTENT OF ( fo e t e ch

“ 1 Th G a e H . e t way t o ell

The P re- Re o i n i 2 . v lut o ary Pl aywr ght s 3 . Pl ays O f the Eighteenth Century

B IBLIOGRAPHY

DIRECTORY OF PUBLISHERS

48-49

UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA LIBRARY EXTENSION DEPARTMENT

STUDY OUTLINES 51 - 54 CHAPTER I

A PLAY E' TEMPORE

(What is the Theatre ?)

' Host ess a to the doors at h ni h m o l , cl p ; w c t o g t , p ray t o orr w . Ga

ant s a ds o s hea rt s Of o d ll th e i l f ood e o shi l , l , b y , g l , a t t es O g f ll w p

ome t o ou ' h t sha w b m r ? h w h a a c y W a , ll e e e ry S all e ave pl y ” ex em ore ? — h Henr I P t t a es eare ar 1 . p S k p , y V,

Of all the arts, that Of the theatre is probab ly the cl osest to us o s who n o s n rdinary human play in trument , wield o b rush , no b oo s We e o o o . W s . and write k all act . act alm t c ntinu usly The only difference b etween us and the professional actor is that he is o s m re kilful at it , and we all love to watch him exercise his i S . s f kill Acting an imitation O an acti on , long since learned . It is o Of o s o s is a repetiti n w rd , l ng ince memorized . It to pretend ou so o that y are mething which you really are not , or that y u are “ so s If o e . ou so ou o o s s HOW me ne el y live in ciety , y act . S me ne ay , ” “ ” o ? Yo a F are y u u s y, ine , but you have a dreadful headache .

You s ou o a ou are acting . Perhap y w uld rather s y that y are exercising social conventions but they are nothing but pretense

b e t end se from ginning o and , con quently acting .

hI so ia l a ctin It would be hard to tell j u st when t S c g began . ’ Undoub tedly it developed side by side with peoples habit Of living in communities ; in the b eginning it was merely pantomime o n Of o Of one kind r another , made up o the spur the m ment .

the Of s f Hence title thi chapter . Eventually the art O the theatre passed from extemporaneous pantomine to planned entertain

oe f actors. ment, written by a p t and per ormed by specially trained

We e a e e the e e is s o s The liv in an g wh n th atr taken eri u ly . the atrical age in which We li ve was founded b y the great and sol emn

e e r w O roblem la s— s lat ninet enth centu y riters f p p y Henrik Ib en ,

st B x Gerhart Hauptmann , Augu Strindberg, Eugene rieu , and

o ss o r o s us esso c untle the s . They wr te play in order to teach a l n b o o s s or b o a ut ur elve a ut the society in which we live . Hardly

b o o s t s e b s of o any dy g e o e their plays today . Great num er pe ple

o to see C ran o B er e a e o or g y de g r c, or Haml t, or The Scho l f

Scan da l or O edi us Rex It r o , p . would b e worth ou while to w nder why .

r s i o stor The prima y rea on s contained within a single w rd : y. Old Any , wandering Irish story teller can tell you what people 6 PLAYS AND THE THEATRE

to x f like to hear . They like hear e citing tales o love and hate , ’ Of war and heroism, of fear and the victory over fear, of man s s s is f l truggle again t nature . That the kind O stories the O d man s is f s oo s F tell . That the kind o storie g d play tell . or plays are

o o - merely an ther f rm Of story telling, and the better and the

o s o i s m re exciting the t ry s, the b etter the play . If the tory is no i n — n g ood, the play s o good o matter how edifying the moral Of

i e b r it s. SO l t uS forget a out sermons and morals in ou study Of plays. Let us enj oy ourselves, b ecause that is what the theatre i f or s .

B s s us s efore we leave thi ubject , however , let add thi : in Spite Of the fact that a good play is f or entertainment purposes

is n o o primarily , it only partly good if it does ot have a p int . N ne Of us likes t o waste two hours of good time and two dollars Of good money without getting something b esides a few laughs out

O o he f it . We all like to carry something away with us fr m t the

o not t o atre . It d es mat er greatly whether we carry the p int

f s o r i o oo o the t ry in ou hearts or in our heads . A play s nly a p r thing if it give s us nothing to enj oy after we get home , if there b i o r o . W s nothing to think ab ut afterwards, o to talk a ut hen you leave the theatre after a goo d performance of a good play, you carry with you a hushed sense Of having participated in an ou experience that has made you, perhap s, a little b etter than y e were , a little wiser , a little richer in human exp rience and under s d oo ou s o f tan ing . The g d playwright will give y thi w nder ul f o b Of You ou eeling with ut your eing aware it at all . think y are f b . eing entertained , b ut actually you are participating in li e The “ b ad playwright ( and most Of the SO- called prob lem- play ” wrights ) will make you SO c on sci ou s of the message that you

n o et o s f s do t g a chance to forget yourself, to l ose y ur el in the live

o s . up there on the stage and , thus, to enj y your elf

1 WHY DO E GO TO T ? . W THE HEATRE

The ta e in A cti on b amue e d n h a er S g , y S l S l e , C pt I

r Che them Discuss th e three reason s why p eople g o t o th e theat e. ck

a c rdin r co g t o you own rea son s. A PLAY EXTEMPORE 7

LO OF D ART I s 2 . VE RAMATIC AN INSTINCT

he Thea tr e b he don hen e ha ters n d T , y S l C y, C p I a II Discuss the p rimitive connections between man and his desire to ex — press himself with whatever tOOl S come in handy in this case his body nd hi i a s vo ce.

n r la d o t C o side p nne a cting in conn ection with s ci a l a c ing .

Tr he de e m r m a i r r m h r r e innin s a ce t v lop ent of d a t c a t f o t e ve y fi st b g g .

3 THE E . CONNECTION BETWEEN LIF AND THE THEATRE

The Theor o the Thea tre b a t n Hamilt n ha ter y f , y Cl y o o , C p II “ ” What are the crowd qualities of an audience and h ow do they manifest themselves ? How do they influence the form and contents of dram atic entertainment ?

' If you have time get a discu ssion going on the fa scin ating connection

et een art and i e s ex ressed in the ol or u li e on the sta e. b w l f , a p c f l f g CHAPTER II

THE DRAMA’ S LAWS

(What is a Play ?)

’ ’ The drama s a s th dram a s at ron s ive. l w , e p g

w h s s e e For e iv e e mu t ase to iv . t at l e t o pl a , pl l

— ohn on P rolo u e o en b David S amu el J s , g . ( Sp k y

r i n n in Dr r Lane Theatre 1 4 G a r ck o op e g u y , 77 )

is r es o b o s on s b o an A play a epr entati n , y act r , a tage , ef re of s b audience, a truggle etween human wills, motivated by emotion rather than b intellect and expressed in terms Of oh ” y , i j ect ve acti on .

s is ho C o i ha t a Thi w layton Hamilt n ends h s chapter , W is P la ? is e or y It a n at statement and extremely correct, b ut f us who are not nece ssarily familiar with the meaning O f such ” ras s as r o b ph e s t uggle b etween human Wills, m tivated y ” o o e se s em ti n rath r than by intellect , and e xpres d in term ” O f Ob jective action , it may seem a little too pat . us o e Let , theref re , take this stat ment apart and examine the meaning of each phrase :

A Re resenta tion b Actors on a ta e p , y S g , b efore an Audi ence

is to b e not to b e A play written acted , read . Until the play ss O f o i is in the proce perf rmance it s merely a score , like a piece

o s d s no Of music . C n equently when we rea a play, we mu t t take

e e s b to O it at face valu . W mu t ring the reading f it a certain knowledge of how plays are staged , and what the limitations f i O s e a t o Mr . and p ossib lities the tag are . Hence my dvice read ’ h A a ra o a o t on T e rt n t r duc i . Hewitt s b ook , d C f f Pl y P After a careful st udy Of thi s volume you will find that you are ab le to s o stage a play in your mind a you read it . You will never enj y

- a play fully until you have mastered this pre requisite . After

sh e to see you have accompli ed it , you will b e ab l the play with ’ n s e o s r on e your mi d ye, and the wh le c ipt will take an entir ly new dimension and meaning to you. ’ THE DRAMA S LAWS 9

Of a Struggle B etween Human Wills

One Of the hardest things to get the students in a playwriting ust dea h class to rememb er is that a play m l wit conflict . Being young and ardent, they have many things they want to get Off f s their chests, SO , instead o writing play , they write vehicles f or

oso s b lonelin ss . their phil phical idea . One wants to write a out e His play deals with a character who talks about nothing but the o s o s s f ss s vari u , p etic pha e O loneline . Individually the line may b ss e very beautiful , and the descriptions of loneline very touch in f oe n act g and ef ective , b ut his character d s nothing . He does ot .

e ta k He mer ly l s . Another wants to write about the effects of the war on the o o American nation . He launches into long political and ec n mic

s ar ust talk not con lict not action . tirade , which e , f ,

When you point this out to the student playwrights they say, But surely it is better to have somethin to sa than j ust to ” g y n fo l write j u k r entertainment . They have it a l backwards. A — is play primarily entertainment . Entertainment comes first, and a ifi i n s s d cat o . fterward , if you are a great enough artist , come e — None Of these young students are great enough artists yet .

SO to b is a c Ob we try teach them that, j ust as a ta le ertain ject, t o SO is a built in a certain way , o serve a certain purp se , play

e O b to os . a c rtain ject, built a certain way, serve a certain purp e is on I o o s of It built Of c flict . ts purpose is to arouse the em ti n the audience ( arousing their intellects is a secondary matter) . When o f or the audience goes to the theatre , it is to see a s rt O mental

- emotional b oxing match b etween a good man and a bad man , a

’ o l ' s one Of her and a vi lain , or b etween other opposing force , one of which must b e good ( so the audience can b e f or it) , and s b e b s which mu t ad ( so the audience can b e again t it) . “ ’ ’ ” s O The drama laws, the drama s patrons give , S a play must deal with confli ct to satisfy the demand Of the audience f or a struggle in which they can cheer the winner and hiss the se lo r .

M otivated by E moti on Rather than by Intellect

o ’ The audience in the theatre is a cr wd. A crowd s instincts o s o o and reacti n are em ti nal rather than intellectual . C onsequent ly as as ff o s a play , well an e ective p litical peech , must appeal to

o o s b b - the em ti n y exhi iting the emotions . The ab ove mentioned 1 0 PLAYS AND T HE THEATRE

conflict, then , must deal almost invariab ly with an emotional struggle , motivated b y such elementary drives as love , hate , fear , or for no s o be desire revenge . I am t aying that a play cann t b n e s B ut s ased o an int llectual idea . Innumerab le play are . thi o o s o s intellectual idea mu st b e expressed through em ti nal ymb l .

E xpressed in Terms of Obj ective Action

s s is o Of Thi tatement the c re the definition . The word drama was o o ow f o riginally b rr ed r m the Greek and meant then , as now, “ ” ” do r Not t to o to . N o o . t to o , act talk pr gnosticate . Not to B ut to preach . externalize internal , emotional drives in terms Of outward action which can b e seen and recognized by the audience as s b o Of s elt b o s h s ym lical the thing f y the act r in t e tory . s is s Of Thi the harde t part playwriting, b ecause it is what o ce ot f r s the writer to devise a pl . You have no idea how simple i to c s o r os it s think up chara ter r situations o atm phere . But to f s think up a line O action , motivated carefully b y emotional drive , is f r e to i an entirely dif erent matte . Try it som time . Try imag ne

Of c r wh e f a c ouple chara te s o hate ach other, and then fill a hal hour ( f or a one- act play) or two hours (f or a full - length play) e with the things th y do to each other .

For a fine description of what constitutes dramatic action,

’ M r ld n see . Se e s Th a in A c on e 5 . e St ge ti , chapt r

B allads

s are e se e c r o s Play the way th y are , b ecau audi n es f o three th u and years have insisted that that is the way they want them .

re is no o r so r s of The the rea n . N O playw iting law any real value

r r s r s we e made b y playw ight or c itic . The only thing an audience recognizes and accepts as a play is the sort Of story describ ed ’ M r fi in . Hamilton s de nition .

ha b e r f or s This s e n so from the ve y beginning . Take , in tance, la e r s r o bal d . b the very a lie t fo m Of dramatic st ry, the The allad

wa as i o f o b r O f e Singer s, he s t day, a kind O act r with a num e littl He s o O o s his o . playlet , in the f rm f narrative S ng , in repert ry o o o traveled from t wn t t wn , gathering an audience wherever h he stopped and sang his stories, which dealt, invariably, wit emotional material such as l ove and hate and fear and heroism , o o the and which were told in the form of swift acti n . S metimes ’ THE DRAMA S LAWS 1 1

o s s of o b allad even c ntained natche dial g between, say, the hero o r the o an and the her ine, o between her d the villain . It is not going too far to supp ose that when the singer got to these pas sages he acted them Out by changing his voice f or the various s Yo se if character . u will e what I mean you read , in Carl Sand ’ “ ’ The American on ba s a b urg s S g g, uch ballads s Dis Mornin , ’ ” ” ” i “F F d s Evenin , SO Soon , or oggy , oggy Dew, or Casey Jones, “ ” “ AS ut s Of F or I Walked O in the Street Laredo. rankie and Johnny is one Of the most popular b allads with our young play s is n f s x wrights, simply becau e it o e O the mo t clearcut e amples a a x of a pure , dramatic story . Only two months go I s w an e cel lent dramatization Of it on the stage Of The Carolina P laymakers . This dramatization had followed the original b allad so closely s that actually nothing had b een added and nothing ub tracted . It i f s o Of s an ab solutely direct, dramatic development o a little t ry

- o love and j ealousy , externalized into very Simple acti n . ’ Why don t you read some of the other b allads in The American Songb ag and discuss how you would put them into direct- action ’ plays ? I b elieve you would find that it wouldn t be long b efore you discovered things ab out plays which you have never known o f r before . I am sure that you would f eel a great deal m re amilia w ith j ust exactly what it is that makes a play .

1 T O . HEATRICAL PR DUCTION

Art an d ra t o la rodu cti on b B rnar He i C f f P y P , y a d w tt

Di cuss the vari ha se f h ric r i s ous p s O t eat al p oduct on such as acting,

dire tin scener i htin ostumin etc. in rel ation to the materi l c g, y, l g g , c g , a h a re d re h r you ave l a y a d on t e theat e an d the audien ce.

2 D . RAMATIC ACTION

The ta e in A cti on b amuel e den Cha S g , y S S l , pter V Discu ss the three types of dram atic a ction with reference to pl ays “ o r a d no e i mi d h i y u al e y k w . K e p n n t at the most imp ortant is pursu t ” ad u ment A the heor f r i l d nd ee Of j st . pply t y O d amatic act on to b al a s a s h e i fi ow w ll t ts.

3 . WHAT IS A PLAY ?

The Theor o the Thea tre b l y f , y C ayt on Hamilton “ Read In their entiret the se tions of th e ook entitl h y c b ed, T e Theory ” “ ” Of the Theat re an d rob ems of the a ri P l Pl yw ght . 1 2 PLAYS AND THE THEATRE

Formul ate certain general conclusions pertaining to the theatre and he nature of a s th t es the onventions n h t pl y e yp , c , a d t e problems in

vo ved in th r i f er di ult ar I i h l e p act ce o a v y ffic t . t w ll elp you in your continuation Of this study if you have your mind clearly made up as to ust wha t s m o b e j a play ee s t .

4 L ’ ' . ET S WRITE A PLAY

e on b a a r n d r The Am ri can S g g, b y C l S a bu g

i f h ou now n o a ou a s i two or three On the b as s o w at y k w b t pl y , p ck ballads that lend them selves p articul arly well to dramatization and

amuse yourselves by di scussing h ow they could b e arranged a s pl ays. CHAPTER III

SOME MORAL LET IT TEACH

(The First Plays)

A on ex n d ri m l g , act, a se ou s co edy ;

In ever s en m m r e i h y c e so e o al l t t t eac ,

nd if it an at n c oth e n d re h A , c , o e b pl a se a p ac .

— o e E istle to Mi ss B loun t P p , p

In spite Of what I have j ust finished saying in the first two of chapters this study, the title of this chapter indicate s the pur os Of p e the very first written plays . These plays are invariably found among the religious remnants of civilizations long gone from the face of t he earth : the Egyptian civiliz ation and the e s ancient Hebr w civilization . An extremely intere ting parallel can b e drawn b etween the contents and purp ose O f the se ancient s o s o o s play and the c ntent and purpose Of the m re recent, religi u

s Of o play the Cath lic Church Of the Middle Ages . B o e t so th were int nded to instruc . There was very good rea n f or as this. The great mass Of the p opulace in ancient Egypt,

as o w s o was well in medieval Eur pe , a unab le to read . The p pulace

o o r s c ntr lled in b oth cases entirely b y the church , o , in the ca e Of Co s s to so Egypt, the temple . n equently the priest had lve the problem of how to instruct the people in the facts and greatne ss of o o s their religi n . There was not much sense in pub lishing bo k

b o s the s s a ut it , becau e students could not read . SO the prie t hit “ ” on f or s the ingeniou s device o the educational movie , , in thi “ ” s la s O f e o . Th f ca e , the ducati nal p y e purpose , then , O the earlie t all plays was to instruct the common people in the facts Of their

e r ligion . P f so In Egypt , the yramid Tex ts dealt with the ascent O the ul of a dead king, a divine b eing in the eye s of the ancient Egypt ians ; the Coronati on Festiva l Plays dealt with the renewal Of ’ s o the king p wer , divinely b estowed and divinely exercised , through a symb olical death and resurrection after the king had reigned some thirty years ; the Passion Plays dealt with the death

s o Of f o s os a l and re urrecti n their chie g d , m t particul r y Osiris ; M edicina l la s f and the P y with aith and magical healing, a very 1 4 PLAYS AND THE THEATRE

o f o e s Of s who a imp rtant act r in the car er prie ts were, s yet, only a s o tep fr m the primitive medicine man . Those are the very earliest plays of which we have any rec ord the . They are Simple in extreme . They appeal to the eye primarily through visual action and through gorgeous pageantry s to o and pectacle . They intended appeal m stly to the eye , for the intellectual capacity of the uneducated Egyptian populace was ’ low s not quite . It i n t that they were intelligent . It is simply that they had never had the practice in analytical thinking that read f o ing Of ers to a pe ple . b The ancient He rews were a little different . On the whole the educational system Of their civilization was founded more on re f e Of s s i l ction than that the Egyptian . Thi s apparent in the only two early Heb rew manuscripts we have which can in any way “ ” The on on h oo o be called plays : S g of S gs and T e B k of J b . “ ” Of s s s t o The Neither the e play appeal very much the eye . S ong of S ongs appeals to a highly developed sense of lyrical

f r o se s o s as b eauty , a delicate feeling o p etry , n u u and rich heady he B ok ob i o wine . T o of J s an intellectual m rality play which demands philosophical thinking on the part Of the audience . It is a very interesting fact that The S ong of Songs is includ ed in the religious collection Of ancient Heb rew history and litera o to o s s ture . It indicates an intellectual appr ach religi n which eem t s The Son o S on s o have been entirely alien to the Egyptian . g f g is in itself entirely secular in that it does not deal with any par is s o Of ticular aspect of religion or faith or worship . It a t ry s s o e o s o en u us love . Its connection with r ligi n Spring fr m the fact that it is included with the religious historical material of the Bible . The advent of secular interests eventually drove the drama ’ out Of or the o o s the church temple . All ver the w rld the theatre oo o o r ts are invariab ly in the soil Of religion , and all ver the w rld

v e o ss the theatre has , in ariab ly, sooner or later , b c me an embarra ment to the church as secular elements sneaked into the contents

Of has b e o the plays . And all over the world the church en f rced ,

a . eventually, to sk the drama to get out Of the church is In the ancient civilizations ( the best example Greece) , real s o s u i m and a growing interest in the early hist rical , ec lar heroes Of the country ended by making the pl ays unfit for the

es - o i s o Of temple . This inter t in long dead her es s a clear ympt m

CHAPTER IV

THE TRAGIC MUSE

( The Greeks)

To a e the sou b t ender stro es of r w k l y k a t, To raise the enius an d to me h g , nd t e heart ;

To m a e m an ind in con scious virtue d k k , bol , ’ Live o er each scen e an h , d b e w at they behold

For this the tra ic Muse rst t rod the g fi st age . ’ — o e P r olo u e to Addi s P p , g on s Ca to

’ s ou ou s Mr A thrill await y when y fir t read . Hamilton s chap ” ter e r and the r f , The Ath nian D ama Ame ican Audience, or you

s f or s o will meet, perhap the fir t time , an h nest, true , emotional appreciation of the enormous and deathless effect that Greek t r has on so of e e agedy the ul an audi nc . In the annals of theatre history ou find that in that , y ”will ’ a rt s long life of thirty centuries there actually have b een only

r or o r ea ess Two th ee f ur pe iods when it r lly has achieved greatn . of those periods are so far ab ove the others that they demand to o e o e n i o s be menti n d t geth r . O e s the period f the ancient Greek ; o so b e the ther is the period of Elizab ethan England . A rea na l “ question would be What is it that makes the drama of these , ” s o s ? periods o ut tanding, and why did it appear when it did The “ ”

e o . answ r can b e made in three words, P etry , faith , and pride

P oetry

You would not b e far wrong if you claimed that th e Greek and

e oetr Elizab ethan drama is a form of epic poetry . Epic p y, o to W b s is c rding e ter, a kin d of n arra tive p oetry in which i s treated a theme of

cti on in heroic r or i n n e In the Gree con e tion a p op t o s a d styl . k c p , i epic p oetry is distingui shed from lyric in b eing in t en ded for r ec

ta tion r th er th a in in a n S g g . The definiti on goes on t o state epic p oet ry is distinguished from dram atic ( p oetry)

in i r h ti A ordin to Aristotl e in be g del ve ed wit ou t i mita tive a c on . cc g ,

h n i i r ni heme or ani unit t e esse t als of an ep c p oem a e a dig fied t , g c y, ” d an rder r h ion an o ly p rog ess of t e act . In spite of the difference b etween epic p oetry and drama, as h mentioned b y the dictionary , you can see ow cl ose the two THE TRAGIC MUSE 1 7 fo c o h rms are to ea h ther . Invariably t e great drama of the world hovers somewhere close to the epic poetry of the nation in which

s o s f is it appear . H wever , that, in it el , hardly a particular reason f s or the greatne s of the drama in the two periods mentioned . The form of the poetry does not interest us SO much in this study as the very existence of the poetry— that and the magnitude of

he n s on of o t poetry . There can b e o que tion that e the chief reas ns f or the prominence of Greek and Elizabethan drama is the f act that the plays are written in the most magnificent poetry the

o ha e o on w rld s ver heard sp ken the stage . Consequently, when o s f y u read these play , try to lose yourself in the wonder ul rich

f or s o r You ne ss o the w d , the imagery, the music of the p et y . will find that reading the Greek and Elizab ethan plays aloud ,

rs i n s o either to you elf or to your group , s te time m re rewarding than reading them Silently .

Faith and Pride

Wh did the Greek and the Elizabethan drama appear when ”y it did ? An overall study of the hi story of the drama will reveal that the greatest drama has been written at the times when the national faith and pride of a country were at their highest

s f e o of p eak . The height o Ath nian civilizati n and the peak Eliz ab ethan culture were two of the highest level s that mankind h e s e oof as ever reached . The people of those days wer e ing pr all around them that their faith and their philosophies worked . s fs They were the conquerors, united in purpo e and belie , and their dramatic p oets merely expressed their tremendous feeling of national pride and unity in terms of a gl orious b ackground of the lives of national heroes who represented the most magnifi o cent attainments i their culture . o s This magnitude involved not only the virtue s of their her e ,

s h o a but also the ins of the villains, w o sinned with a p wer and

‘ courage and an ab andon far beyond the SCOpe of an average or

o e so o s i o medi cr ciety. C n equently there s s mething admirable

- I l s and awe nsp ring in the very greatne ss of their S in . s r In the Greek play we find our first, clea cut theatrical ex s of o h ample the struggle between g od and evil on the stage . T e stories deal with magnificently dramatized material such as love

f s of f o s o s and hate , the dif icultie amily relati n , her i m , revenge , ‘ 18 PLAYS AND THE THEATRE

war, murder all the violent acts and emotions that constitute

o of o human life and the gr wth a great nati n . And always, we find these exciting stories proj ect ed against a col orful b ack o Of e o s gr und r ligi u myth , legendary material , and the vagaries of their Gods .

The e s e ne s os t i Gr ek play r mai d alway cl e o relig on . That, too is e o so , a v ry imp rtant rea n f or their greatness. They never

b b - s o o r o da led in tawdry, middle cla s m rality as d ou m dern plays.

o o They dealt with imp rtant , national st rie s of important, na tional gods and demi- gods in which every memb er of the Athen

s - ian audience had a vital intere t . These historical legendary i o figures and their l ves in c ntact with the gods were the two, almost indi stingui shab le threads from which the pattern of the ’ s Athenian b urning faith was woven .

s e im ortant Thu , then , the plays w re p to the people in a manner i f or to o is o to that it s hard us c nceive . A play great in relati n its o t o h e r o im imp rtance o the pe ple w o s e o read it . The kind f p ortance that you find in the Greek drama is almost totally lack o ing in m dern plays. Thi s latter statement is as true of the c omedies as it is of the

s o o was o tragedie . The c mm n Athenian extremely p litically mind

in he s o his o o o ed . The great figures t hi t ry of c untry, the c ntemp ’ his o s rary political b igwigs, and the b ig name s in c untry litera ll ture were a familiar to him , and they were all a definite part

i f r so of s of h s li e . He ag eed with me them and he di agreed with

rs es e out e r s r e othe . When the comedi cam with th i ati e and th ir

- h f ese or o e the o o fun p oking , at t e exp ense o th imp tant pe pl , c mm n man in the audience understood every reference and laughed with the o s p et . The plays grew out of the religious convention of the dithy rum b arr n onor of Dion sus God of Fer . , a n ative so g in h y , tility

These songs were performed b y a chorus of men or boys. The o s Greek drama never g ot entirely away from this important ch ru , as ou see o s y will when y u read the play . Almost invariab ly the pl ots of the plays are solved by the ” na device of The God in the Machine ( Deus E x M achi ) , a device is o which regarded with contempt nowadays, when nly play w s who right cannot untangle their plots psychol ogically use it .

B ut to s was o t o the Greek it a very imp r ant theatrical c nvention , f or the Greek believed firmly that the lives of mortal men were THE TRAGIC MUSE 19 en e o ol of o tir ly within the c ntr the g ds. He believed that it was the gods who entangled the lives. of men and that it was the o s who o s e o g d , c n equ ntly , had t untangle them again . There is another very interesting fact pertaining to Greek os drama . The audience in th e days had known all the stories s To treated in the play ever Since they were children . Americans, wh n to f o are ot o appreciative o poetry or intellectual ex ercises , it is an amazing thing to consider that the excitements that at tracte d the huge Athenian crowds to the amphitheatres were h t e th o dra tic t e intellectual contest b e ween the po ts, e love f ma

oetr a a rea irmati on o heir aith p y, nd fl f t f . The plays were as popular then as baseball is to us '

H E T 1 . T GREEK HEATRE

Th Thea tre b he d n Chene Cha ter e , y S l o y, p III

His or the Thea tr Fr edl and Reeves Cha ter t y of e, b y e ey , p II B e sure to familiarize you rselves thoroughly with th e Greek stage

conventions in order t o g ain a real u n derstanding of th e Greek drama . Discuss these convention s an d p eculiarities b efore you t alk ab out the

n d es ri tion s of the h sica theat re the st a in of the plays . I clu e d c p p y l , g g

s m e cener mechan ica devices and the deve o m ent of the plays, c o tu s, s y, l l p “ ” - Greek dram a from religious ode to direct action plays.

HE 2 . T GREEK PLAYWRIGHTS

M a sters o the Drama b ohn a ssn r Ch a ters f , y J g , p II , III , IV , V

' a d ? eser e little that I s known ab out the lives of the Greek ramat

heir rt how it re urther and i st s an d then discuss the qualities of t a , g w f h he furth er away from religious practice an d how it flourished wit in t th t re an d how mu h it meant to physical limit ation s of the Greek ea , c

th n r e e ge e al populac .

OF G RE 3 . E MOTIONAL ' UALITY THE EK PLAYS

The Theor o the Thea re a on H mi ton ha ter ' VI y f t , by Cl yt a l , C p

Dis uss he en rmo m o i n l im a t of a Gree a and how it c t o us, e t o a p c k pl y, is an effect that is as p owerful t oday as it was three thousand years

a o n i e en the e f ect of Gree a s on g . Co s d r a comp arison betwe f k pl y m a odern audiences and the eff ect of modern pl ys. CHAPTER V

GOD ’S PROPHETS OF THE BEAUTIFUL

( The Greek Plays)

’ G od s ro het s of the B eauti u p p f l , h ” — T ese oets ere. E i ab eth B arrett B ro nin isi on o p w l z w g, V f P oets

W f e e i b hat a dif erenc th re s etween the three, great Greek

* edians ' We see Aesch lus reoccu ie h trag y , p p d with is religi on and

s r as or u ing d ama a ritual , hon ing the gods and Showing tiny man

the s of os c e o o s o in hand c mi fat ; while S ph cle , p pular , bel oved, p erfects drama as an artistic expression of nob le man ; and E urip ides violently using the tools prepared b y his predecessors to ra the th e f h r ss s h s c ck whip in e fac o t e opp e or , t e tyrant , the fools s o e s and the c undr l .

s of o In the ca e Greece , the gr wth of the temple ritual into drama is so cl early defined that Greek drama h as b ecome the

ss e e o cla ic example of this d v l pment .

A o s or1 1n of S menti ned in the la t chapter, the g Greek drama th amb o so o o f o s s di r . lay in the ch ral ng in h n r o Di ny u , called y This song was sung b y a chorus of men and b oys while the sacri

was r e as o the b o s flee to the god b eing p epar d , a part f cele rati n

i s i a s s connected with any one of several d onysiac fe t v l . Th e acri “ Th r f or o is tra os . ficial victim was a goat . e Greek wo d g at g Thus the chorus was called the tragic chorus and the dithyramb

- a s n . was sometimes referred to as the go t o g Hence our word , tragedy . The e arly Greek tragedies grew out of the dithyramb through '

e f anti h ona l . so the the simple expedi nt o making them p , that f s e e o leader of the chorus ( the first actOr) sang a ew line , wh r up n

f s o s- e the choru s answered him with another ew line . A ch ru l ader , i s s B . C . s Thespi , who lived and ang during the Sixth century , supposed to have added characterization and a certain amount f h s is so of pantomime to the work o t e leader . He al credited with e o s of the invention of the mask . He changed the m th d the

oat- son o s e s o r g g s that , in tead of mer ly Singing the t ry, the leade lot of t o and the chorus acted it out to some extent . A a tenti n o o s was s was focused on the Single actor, alth ugh the ch ru till the “ ” main character in the drama . ’ GOD S PROPHETS OF THE BEAUTIFUL 21

s o Aeschylus added a ec nd actor , which opened up many new as a possib ilities as far the dr matic elements were concerned . Sophocles added the third acto r and then the imp ortance of the

rl choru s became smaller and smaller, until finally E u pides made f s hardly any use o the choru at all , and wrote plays so far re moved from their original religious purp ose that they can

s as e realisti almost be clas ed p rfectly c pieces. All of this happened within the very Short peri od of ab out one hundred and fifty years ' It is interesting to note that comedy came from the same

‘ f s as B u s source and ollowed the ame path tragedy . t wherea tragedy developed out of the actual ritual of the professional arti ci ants eb s o o p p in the di onysiac cel ration , c medy devel ped

ro th f s ectators s s th ugh e antics o the p at the fe tival . o ss o The pr ce i n that b ore the goat to the place of sacrifice , the s o ss o - o s r ame pr ce i n that included the formal goat ch ru , was su

o e s o s s r unded and followed b y throngs of merry sp ctator . Di ny u , b of of od of e the ringer fertility, the maker wine , and the g pl nty, a w s a j olly, robust fellow , so the spectators were in a holiday oo o s o f m d . Am ng the e cr wds groups of young men , o ten driving

r o s ee r o as o cha i t , car ned through the th ong . Such a gr up w kn wn as Homos f r e a , and the memb ers o the g oup Show d their high

Spirits b y singing gay songs and flinging witticisms at the crowd , which answered in kind u ntil a sort of conventional repartee

e o so s e e so or as d vel ped . The ng ventually b came imp tant a part ‘ ut of the festival that they could not b e improvised any more , b

n h r e r s f o were planned a d re ea s d . Then the g oup o y ung men o s s comi c chorus so s rganized and called them elve the , and their ng

e e com edies r e or o . wer call d , and they we e not always nic pr per Tragedies dealt seriously and solemnly with the lives of the

o o s o g ds and the her e , b ut c medies just could not take anything s o s n oo eri u ly . The Greeks were o a much closer f ting with their

o s ar e o g d than we e with ours today , so no one minded if th y p ked f un o Nor o e ribald at them in the c medies. did any n mind when the comedies raked the most sacred matters in Greece over the

o s s o . c al ; great men , p olitical in titutions, learning, art , and p etry Comedy was sort of a safety valve whose value was recognized by the authorities. 22 PLAYS AND TH E THEATRE

There is only one really famous name among the many comedy r s— s o s o w iter Ari t phane . He lived and wr te during the fourth

century B C .

1 THE . STORIES BEHIND THE GREEK PLAYS

M tholo b B ulfinch ha er y gy, y , C pt s ' VII and XXVIII Since the Greeks were familia r with the st ories of the plays before they saw them it might b e well to emulate them and familiarize your selves with som e of the mythological b ackgroun d of the pl ays which ou are a out t o rea d y b . Discu ss the faithfuln ess and the ingeniousness with which the play ri hts dramati ed the m tho o ic ri w g z y l g al sto es. Discuss th e effect that knowl edge of these stories must have had

on the Gree audien e theatre an d l a i h k c , p yw g ts.

2 A am em o . g n n ( Aeschylu s ) “ Rea d p a ssages of the play and discuss th e p oetry and the pla ” y b i i h a l ty of t e pl ay . How do you suppose this pl ay wa s st aged? How did the actors

th ere ere on two or ossib three Sin ce this is a t ( w ly , p ly , la e play of ’ th e oet s an d h e m a h ve orro ed th third a ctor rom o h p , y a b w e f S p ocles by then ) change p art s ? Discuss the pl ay from the viewp oint of religion an d ag ain from the

vie oint of dram atic rt con siderin action characteri ation settin wp a , g , z , g ,

n d its en ter tainm en t va lu e a .

3 edi u s R ex o hoc es . O p ( S p l ) h This i s con sidered th e greatest of all t rag edies. W y? I S S ophocl es m oving away from the religious purp ose of G reek ? dram a ? How does th at Show it self Discu ss this pl ay p a rticul arly from th e vi ewp oint of dram atic

action rem emb erin th e t es discussed in the secon d cha ter of this , g yp p

stu dy .

4 M edea E uri ides . ( p ) ? Why does M edea act th e way She does f hi discuss h e theor th at Eu ri ides From your knowl edge o t s pl ay, t y p i s th e first of the r ea lists an d th at he ha s moved away from the religious

h r purp ose of the pl ays a ltog et e . I s his p erson al b itterness app arent in this pl ay ?

The Fr o s Aristo h an es 5. g ( p ) ? ? Whom does this pl ay satirize How ? ? Do you think it i s funny Why Rememb er th at it wa s staged

r a d i h m s n d th at th e au dience ne a l ot ab out th e ch ar b o ly, w t a ks, a k w

act ors in it .

Y ou would fin d it rewardin g t o r ea d p assa ges of this pl ay at your

m in e a ss es rom the oth er Gree a s. eet g , a s w ll a s p ag f k pl y

24 PLAYS AND THE THEATRE

’ The Englishman in Elizab eth s time was a true product of the

ss . b e s Renai ance He eliev d in him elf . He had j ust recently come out of the Middle Ages during which his thinking had been in b o to N o ndage the church . ow he had f und freedom to a certain x e tent, and with freedom had c ome the realization of individual resp onsib ility ; a true understanding of psychology ; a b elief that ’ is s own o o hi it a man fault if he g es t s destruction . The Eliza b ethan does not necessarily cl aim that the man c ould do some;

b o to s o has thing a ut the fault if he were di c ver that he it, b ut he claims that the seed of self- destruction lies dormant in all of a us, and a tr gic character is a man in whom the seed has b e

to o s K is s o oo s gun gr w . Thu ing Lear de tr yed b y f li h, paternal M “ ’ ” pride , acb eth b y vaulting amb ition , which o erleaps itself , and Othello meets his terrib le end b ecause of j eal ousy and trust in a villain . During the last fifty years we have witnessed the development

i . f of a new kind of tragedy . It s the tragedy o modern man , whose is interest in society . This interest started with the American

the F o o s Man h o s f f and rench rev luti n . , w o had t rn him el ree s e s s from spiritual b ondage du ring the R enais ance , r lea ed him elf from economic b ondage during the late eighteenth and early s o of nineteenth centuries, and with the re ultant vari us kinds democracy he developed a strong interest in the sociological study i or o of individual man in relation to h s fellowmen, the s ciety

e s of was os o in which he liv s . This tudy man cl ely c nnected with

of the - ss o social criticism , with the questioning middle cla m ral o s re u ity of modern society, of our m res and conventi on and p j s o o s w dice . S m dern tragedy generally deal ith an individual caught in the maze of middle - class prejudice s and pitting him se hi o or s o lf against these and s fellowmen . In ther w d , m dern tragedy deal s with man failing somehow to live as an individual s F r s b ut s of in the ma s. o men may b e herd animal , the law the

- o o s herd are super imposed on his ancient instincts and em ti n , s out and these instincts , always b oiling under the urface , break ’ n o is s s An ow and again int eruption . Such a tragedy Ib en

E nem o eo le o s ss- y f the P p , in which the her realize that ma think ‘ ing is b ound to b e founded on conventions and prejudices which f s m ss are years b ehind the times. He pits himsel again t the a ,

is b . Su h which of course is stronger than he , and he eaten c ’ t rset another is Maxwell Anderson s Mio in Win e , taking revenge WEDDED To CALAMIT'Y 25 into his own hands when he finds that the j udicial system in our a o ms country can m ke seri us i takes. He is destroyed because o society is str nger than he . The diff erence between tragedy and ordinary drama is this s of s or all writer tragedy, whether Greek, Engli h American , have realized that the makings of tragedy lie in the waste of im ortant m en of s p , and that the seed wa te must b e within the o man himself . Theref re even the Greeks, who believe in fate, gave the tragic hero a flaw that would lend psychological moti vation to the fact that he was walking straight into the j aws

f s s of z o de truction . And all great writer tragedy have reali ed that terror and awe , together with pity which bring ab out the powerful emotional effect known as catharsis (a sort of purg n f n a it i g of the soul o the spectator) go hand in ha d with m gn ude, and they have made their tragic characters men and women of importance to their fellowmen , in order that their destruo tion may seem imp ortant enough to make a deep impre ssion on o the minds of the spectat rs . The latter statement indicates the field in which the modern

s o e s o fe f writer mo t ft n fall down . In a dem cracy w men are o great enough individual imp ortance to produce a really powerful

o Li e M a azin e reaction to their destructi on . N t long ago f g pub lished an editorial which tried to explain the reasons f or our not having any really great tragedies written f or our theatre these was to our of days. The writer claimed that it due lack faith “ ” “ our so s o is of and national pride . In ciety , he aid , n thing o n f o s great imp rtance, and o aith or creed finds en ugh univer al u f so o acclamation , f or s to eel per nally t uched , deep in our f os o f hearts, by the all of a man cl ely c nnected with such a aith or creed . s is f I b elieve thi writer right . I believe that the uture of great tragedy in our country depends on the peace we make b e o of in the world . If we can pr ud it , if we can feel deeply that s o his the Spirit of man has, at la t , c nquered greed , perhaps we of o o shall see a renai ssance pr ud , p etic tragedy .

T G 1 . WHAT IS A RA EDY ?

The oetics o Aristotle b reston E s The ha t r en i l P f , y P pp ( C p e t t ed, 26 PLAYS AND THE T HEATRE

Usin the three G ree tra edies ou have read as ex m l g k g y a p es, discuss u the ex act n atur of tra e f lly e g dy .

Then com are the ori in a idea of t ra ed ith the moder dr p g l g y w n ama, ’ a s ou no it . Don t hesit at e t o b rin in h m i s h t e ov e . T e r dr y k w g y a e ama . Discuss articu a r the im ort an ce of lot tra ic aw ma nit p l ly p p , g fl , g ude,

the ca tharsis the r eversa l n h scen c n , a d t e e of r e ogni ti o .

2 E A ? . IS TRAGEDY TERN L

B r oa dwa M x r y, b y a well An de son ’ A ter h e in r M Selden s ch a r on Th Audi n f c ck g b a ck ove r . pte e e ce

n wh eo e com e t o - the heatre rea d thi ssa You i find a d t s . y p pl , e y w ll

h M r n er e h h i nt r in o A d s o s u rt er n M r de d . H e e s t t at . o d n g f t a . Sel n e the realm of the spirit an d reveals the inn er urge which h e thinks i s the m ost imp ortant factor in the m agic th at draws p eople into the “‘ ” h m e r plus t e pl s of B oadway .

N ow ith our no ed e of th e re i ious ur ose of ear Gree , w y k wl g l g p p ly k

t ra ed an d our ex erience ith the theatr an d th e movies discuss g y, y p w e , “ ” whether the theat re is n ot still a religious t empl e which m an enters “ ” t o some ex ten t to orshi I i s a a scin atin sub ect f or discussmn . , w p . t f g j CHAPTER VI I

THE MANY- HEADED MONSTER

( The R omans)

There still remains to mortify a wit

Th man - h d mon s er f h i - H e ea ed t o t e t . orace. y p Pope, ” o e a - s The R man audienc w s, indeed , a many headed mon ter . It had its own ideas as to what constitutes theatrical entertain s i ha o ment, and the e deas d n thing to do with p oetry, tragedy , or s o s o eri u thinking . The R man audience wanted entertain f s ment, the unnier the better . So the two great name of R oman ‘ r ar h hi playw iting e t ose of comedy writers, Plautus ( s name “ ” s flat - foo - f mean the ted , an ex carpenter) and Terence ( a reed who b o Slave, may have een a Negr ) . The R oman audience was a typical crowd f or a militaristic o s t s nati n , u ed o bloodshed and violence , chariot race , gladi atorial o b s - o C o os c m at , and huge sham sea b attles in the flo ded l s of Circus M aximus s eum , in the course of which hundred , and so s o s s f e o metime th u and , o slaves were killed . Th y fav red mag nificent r s s s s milita i tic pectacle , too, such a the triumphal entry of their conquering heroes . The people could not be satisfied with p oetic tragedies ; and the vote - hunting p oliticians who made them a present ( at elec tion time ) of theatrical entertainment did not dare to present o s o s as arce c medie that c ntained p olitical satire . The re ult w f , ” so- l e f n not the ca l d comedy of situation , harmless u that did ’ s on tep anyb ody s toes . The R omans originally had a drama which grew out of their pagan festivals and would no doub t have b lossomed out eventual l B t o o . u y int a fine , national drama , if it had been left al ne in of the manner conquerors, they appropriated cultural material o o s a fr m the nati n they c ontrolled . The national dram that eventually developed was b orrowed from Greece and slightly to o rewritten fit the R man stage . Except for Seneca there were few s of writer tragedy, f or comedy was what the audience want ed o was f s s o , and c medy what they got . Out o thi t len Greek

- material , the R omans developed farce comedy to a point where

b o - o it actually ecame a genuine R man art f rm , and a great in fluence on o all later c medy . ‘ 28 PLAYS AND THE T HEATRE

The stock characters they created have come down to this

r . s e s b ffoo s as M a ccus ve y day The e includ uch u n , the foolish

o r b o oarse st e s c unt y y, c , upid , impud nt , greedy . the forerun ner of M or e S e B ucco the b b er oo h tim r n rd ; , j a ing f l , t e swagger ’ ” s e the ro o e of o s s oo e P a u ing para it , p t typ t day t g ; and pp s, the o s old s or a of ridicul u mi er, father gu rdian the young g irl . He is the o o o o s to o fell w wh m the y ung l ver are trying f ol , who stands

f r e o . se o o s too in the way thei marriag The y ung l ver , , are an e o the o a s o is h inheritanc fr m R m n . S t e quack in Western es He se to e D osennus th s o . b e os a m vi u d , upp ed mir cle doctor . ’ He e s G ee s uare M edi cin e F app ar in Paul r n ' . inally, there is the miles loriosus the b r ar so e h g , agg t ldi r and coward , t e mon

ro s s er st u liar , making him elf a h o, continually talking ab out his e o s He is F ff f . s a o o rse er xpl it al t , c u , and in a c tain sense , he is

r d B er er Cy ano e g ac . It is significant that there was no Charlie Chaplin type among ’ t e o a e Mr s c s. he medy ch ract r . Chaplin s gentle , pathetic acting is much too close to sentimental tears and soft emotions to have ap to the ob s pealed r u t R oman audience .

o s the f The R man theatre mark end o the ancient drama . As the spectacl es and vast entertainments in the arena grew more and

’ ore b oo and e r e e h m l dy d p av d, in k eping with t e R oman s ever s s f or increa ing thir t excitement , the plays had a hard time at t o h tracting a crowd . It finally go t t e p oint where only ob scenity

o h e s and nudity w uld b ring people to t e theatr at all . The Chri tian c o Chur h and the Christian Emper rs eventually put a stop to it . M ntz i s Karl a u , an imp ortant Danish theatre historian , has “ said , and thus dramatic art in Europe ended its existence with ” eo s o a hid u , lascivi us grimace .

no r ix re ae It did t appea again until s hund d years l t r .

THE T 1 . ROMAN HEATRE

The Thea tr e b he don Chene h a t er , y S l y, C p IV

i r o the Thea tre b Freedl e ee e Cha t er H sto y f , y y and R v s, p III

s rib h his o i h Roman theatre Des ri e De c e t e t r cal developm ent of t e . c b

rr ed r h e how it b o ow ( o st ole ) from t e Gre ks. Discuss the contra st between th e highly civilized theat re of the G reeks an d the theat re which grew out of the t a stes of the Roman

do o i m et e a he death of this art - orm was p opul ace, wn t ts co pl e d c y . T f n symptomatic of the det erioration of the Roman n atio . THE MANY- HEADED MONSTER 29

2 . ROMAN PLAYWRIGHTS

a s ers o the Dram a b ohn Ga ssner Cha ter M t f , y J , p VI “ i r a n n o e Discuss the rel at ve me its Of Pl utus a d Tere ce. Pl autus wr t

h m n eo n d Teren e f or the aristo ra e r f or t e co mo p ple a c c cy. D sc ib e the

f h ir circum stances o t e lives .

3 THE . ROMAN PLAYS

The a ives a C pt , b y Pl utus

P hormi o, by Terence

Rea d a ssa es rom these a s at our meetin if ou h av tim p g f pl y y g ; y e e,

rea d a ho e a or et severa eo e t o t a e art s an d ive a dr w l pl y, g l p pl k p g a m i in n f h m i at c read g of o e o t ese co ed es. Why are these pl ays comic ? Why a re they called comedies rather “ ” than j ust pl ays ? Do they make you laugh or smile ? Why ? DO you recogniz e any of the ch aract ers

On of th m s r in h n i ion Dis uss e e o t p om ent t i gs about a farce is ts act . c

the a ction in one Of thes a s l in the theor rom the se ond e pl y , app y g y f c cha ter of thi p s booklet . CHAPTER VIII

LOOK HERE AND WONDER

( Drama in and out Of the Church)

Come e saint s oo her n , y , l k e a d wonder, See the place where J esus l ay ; He ha s burst his ban ds asun der ; He has b orn our sin s away ; o u idin J yf l t gs,

Y h L r h ” es t e o d s risen d Thom a e . , a t o ay . s K lly

Such was the spirit of drama when it made its appearance again in Europe six hundred years after it had passed into dis

at s of b oo o grace the hand the l dy R mans . The C hristians resur rected it b ecause the common populace could not read and could not e s The s - und r tand Latin . little play in the church served to illustrate two of the most imp ortant events in the history of o o b s the Cath lic religi n, the irth and the re urrection of Christ . It all began very simply with an antiphonal section of the s M ss s e r s o singing at Ea ter a . The e medi val plays we e imilar t di h a o s the Greek t yr mb . The m nk and the clerics were the first

s e s e o e s - s actor in th m . The fir t r c rd d play in the Engli h peaking world is a little religious playlet consisting Of fou r lines and a little b it of pantomime from the so- called R egularis C oncordia l n 65 5 as s os E h l o d 9 97 . w of St . t e w , written b etwee and It upp edly

s s s ess s of prepared by the b i hop , abb ot and abb e England at the s request Of King Edgar at a council in Winchester . It deal with

is the o r e of The M ale Animal Arsenic the Ascension . It f re unn r , a Ki an Tell a an L ce ss d . s d Old , and All the pl y written in the are s o English language de cended fr m it . It was not long after the appearance of this little scene b e f ore the conventi on of dramatized religion spread to other church — M o festivals to Christmas, with Shepherd and agi and Her d ’ s s to S s s s and St . Nichola play , and the aint day , when the play presented variou s events in the lives of the saints . Once a year the clerics let themselves go in a feast called

h a t Fools or The Feast o Asses or The Feast o T e Fe s of , f , f “ B Bisho o of M s to o the oy p . They elected a L rd i rule g vern their day of complete relaxation from the rigors Of the clerical o o k o the o o life. He r de a d n ey int church , after pr ceeding thr ugh

32 PLAYS AND THE THEATRE

M 3 . EDIEVAL PLAYS

’ a A bra ham M elchisedec and I saa c Th e econ d he herd s la Ad m ; , , ; S S p P y; The Wan dering S cholar fr om P ara dise ( Han s S a chs)

P oeti c Dra ma b A red re mb or cont a ins all the ab ove , y lf K y g , plays. Read p a ssag es of these pl ays aloud an d t race their developm ent from

r r e i ion to secu ar dram a pu e l g l .

n a ro an da th oth er ure entert ainm ent Whi h is etter O e w s p p ag , e p . c b

in the th eatre ?

Illu strate b y qu oting p a ssag es from the pl ays according to your m i m a ri l knowl edg e of a ction an d th e variou s qu alities Of dra at c te a . Rememb er th at th ese are very simple plays and should b e treated as

such . CHAPTER I'

FAIR LAND OF C HIVALRY

’ “ ( The Renaissance and Spain s Golden Age

“ Fair n h r h m in la d ' Of c ival y t e Old do a ,

Land of the ine and o ive ve ain ' V l , lo ly Sp Though n ot f or thee with cla ssic shores t o Vie ’ ’ In ch a rm s that fix th enthusia st s p en sive eye ; Yet ha st thou scenes of beauty richly fraught h With all that wakes th e flow of l ofty thoug t .

i i D H man Ab encerra e. Fel c a . e s, g

ss - Renai ance means re b irth , and that describ es the peri od of e n r o the fift enth a d S ixteenth century f or all Eu ope . The R man C o Man ath lic Church at that time was guilty of many ab uses. was not inspired and freed b y the church ; he was suppressed in o s oo o and held b ndage . Then three great event t k place , am ng o the m st imp ortant that have happened to mankind . Printing was e s to s 1453 inv nted (c . Con tantinople fell the Turk ( ) and America was discovered ’ Man s inab ility to read played an important part in the

v o e of early de el pment of the th atre . B ut with the advent print in oo s and o o g b k were manufactured , and more m re pe ple learn “ ” ed to r e e he b r of ead them . Th n cam t i th literary drama which r has played such an important role in the modern theat e . The s class of scholars grew and the number of writers increa ed ,

b . and their writing grew in scope , style and su j ect material Its growth is closely connected with the second O f the great

s of ss o s o . s event the Renai ance , the fall of C n tantin ple Thi meant the destruction Of the final stronghold of the R oman Empire . The eastern c ourt had b een a refuge f or scholars and poets s and artists . When these men fled from the Turk they went

s e so e F . we t, nding up in Italy , Spain , and , to m extent , rance They brought with them the extant records of ancient civiliza o b o the tions, including everything which was then kn wn a ut

se Ancient Greek and R oman theatres and drama . The wander ing scholars settled down at the courts Of the various dukes and O s s o b e papal fficial in western Europe , and soon the e n blemen to vie gan with each other for the p ossession of the finest poets, s o s as o f ch lar , and painters. It w a p int o honor with them to have 34 PLAYS AND THE THEATRE

or M o r o a Cellini , a ichelangel , o a Le nardo da Vinci at their s t s c ourt . With thi in ere t in culture came the desire to par tici ate to b e o as s p , kn wn a neat rhyme ter, a fine writer Of son s or co e o net medi s. So n the accomplishments Of a nob leman in o o e s cluded the writing f s nn t , and comedies and tragedies in s of n s o the tyle the a cient , al ng with the other nob le pursuits of s s s o s s tate man hip , h r eman hip , and swordplay .

o ars h s The Sch l w o ettled down at these many little courts, the ob who ed o o s and n lemen learn fr m them, wr te the fir t literary es e drama in w t rn Europe . Their plays were direct imitations of s the ancient drama which they cherished in their lib raries, “ ” r o s o B and acco ding t tyle and f rm . ut they were the b eginning of so o mething which devel ped into a fine and b eautiful art . dramatic writing . The discovery of America meant the b eginning of the age of

o o of o b M ir W Ra expl rati n , C lum us, agellan , Drake and S alter ’ M o wa his e s hi o leigh . an s curi sity s extended , nterpri e , s kn wl

hi s edge , and s riche .

e s f or was The latter was c rtainly not the lea t imp ortant , it to af that wealth which enab led the nobility, civil and papal , ford the luxury Of art and culture , and to make a magnificent

f r the b oo s of o o s s toy o the theat e . In allr m their g rge u palace they presented magnificent spectacles written b y their court

o s e b co s of o s p et , act d and danced y private mpanie act r and s e b o s o s s dancers, and tag d y c urt painter and ingeni u tage ma

ini or was of - s s ch sts. F this the era the awe in piring tage machine o that made chariots fly thr ugh the air . l s s w oo The scho ars and architect and painter , al ays l king n o f or new thrills f or their patrons, a d vying in riginality with s s of Old o s each other , dug up picture and account R man theatre ,

and b efore long were b uilding theatres themselves , in imita

ti on of these anci ent edifices . Three Renaissance countries are of special importance to the

theatre : Italy , where the literary drama and the proscenium

rs o arch were fi t devel ped , Spain and England where literary f f drama really came to ull ruition . In our study we will consider

Spain first . FAIR LAND OF CHIVALRY 35

THE E 1 . R NAISSANCE

h Thea tre he don Chene Cha ters and ' I T e , b y S l y, p VIII , X,

Histor o the Thea tre b Freedl e and Reeves Cha ters y f , y y , p V, VI, VII

he eanin nd ua ities Of the Ren aissan Discuss t m g a q l ce. What completely cha nged the whole mental asp ect of E urop e? HOW was this change reflected in art an d in the theatre?

n f thea ri innovati n Describe the developme t o t cal o s.

T 2 . THE RENAISSANCE HEATRE

Ma sters o th Drama b ohn Ga ssner Ch a ter nd ' I f e , y J , p s X a Was there a difference b etween the court th eatre and the popular theatre during the Ren aissance? What wa s it ? Describ e the peculiari ’ i f h o- c ed omedia de Ar e and dis u ss th ha r r t es o t e s all C ll t , c e c act e istics ? o in ds h t d dram a ic h r h diff erent f the two k of t ea res an t art . W y we e t ey Discuss th e imp ortance of the proscenium arch t o the E urop ean

m a dra .

3 . THE RENAISSANCE PLAYS

The hee Well b Lo e de e a in P oe i c Dra a A r re m or S p , y p V g , t m , b y lf ed K y b g

The tar o evi lle b Lo e de e an d Li e I s a Dream b C al derén S f S ; y p V ga f , y , in hi e E u r o ean Dram a i sts B r n C f p t , b y a der Matthews Describe th e lives an d diff erent ch ara cteristics of the two play

ri ht s the anish the r f he im e Re d a ssa es rom th a s w g ; Sp at e o t t . a p g f e pl y f h men o t ese .

The Sheep Well is gen erally considered t o b e the first social drama

in West ern E uro e h ? h r b m doe i dram ati e an d hat p . W y W at p o le s t z w does it con clude in rel ation t o that p roblem ?

C alderén is su ose h e th an Lo e DO ou pp d t o ave b een a finer p o t p . y ? a ree Wh ? om ar h ei h i th e diff eren et een g y C p e t r styl es. W at s ce b w

them a s oets and men r fl ed n h ir or s ? , p , e ect i t e w k CHAPTER X

THE SOUL OF THE AGE

S oul Of th e Age ' The appl ause ' delight ' th e won der Of our stage ' My Shakesp ea re rise ' I will n ot lodg e thee b y

h au er or en ser or b id B eaum ont li C c , Sp , e

A i t e urth er off to m a e thee room l t l f , k

m m wi out t Thou art a onu ent th a omb ,

A a i i h h b do nd art l ve st ll , w il e t y ook th live

An d we h ave it s t o rea d an d rai se t o i e w , p g v .

B en on s n Lin es t ha kes eare J o , o S p .

What can we say in a short chapter to introduce the greatest name in the history of dramatic literature ? Three hundred

O a o s s s o e for i years f ct r , cholar , p ets have acclaim d him h s

o his o o s hi p etry, en rm u skill in dramaturgy, s untiring imagi o his s hi o o es o s nati n , ver atility , s em ti nal qualiti . In three th u and years of dramatic art there has b een only One Shake speare,the

o s n of an Ob scure glovemaker in a little rural town in England . Hi o s e s greatness cannot b e explained b y ordinary m rtal . W can only regard his art with the awe and respect that we accord t o e o e of o s o th r phen m na nature . J hn Dryden , a eventeenth “ ’ s century English p oet and adapter Of Shakespeare s play , once said in a prologue

“ ’ B ut Sh akesp ea re s m agic could n ot copied b e ; ” Within th at circl e n on e durst walk b ut h e . s b o s o o s not e And that j u t a ut ums it up , th ugh it d e m an that Shakespeare is b eyond us ; simply that we cannot pigeonhole — him and his art and this is the reason f or the thousands of b oo is s ks that have b een written ab out him . H play are a part of our e o h ritage . If you are n t already familiar with them , I hope after reading the plays assigned to thi s chapter that you

w to o of e NO x is will ant read m re th m . theatrical e perience greater than sharing the wonders of the Renai ssance with this

e o of - n- - magnific nt creat r life o the stage . o o o s The m dern Italian playwright , Luigi Pirandell , nce aid that it is an extremely tickli sh prob lem to decide j ust what is

is not e s real and what . He claim d it is just po sible that the dra matic characters created b y the great p oets of the theatre are o o ss m re real than actual pe ple . He a erted that reality is a thing THE SOUL OF THE AGE 37

rdinar o s for Of the mind , and that an o y m rtal tands many things f o to is o s because he changes r m day day . He c nfu ing and blurred a as s s an individual , and a reality, wherea a dramatic character is fixed f or all times as the symb ol of the human peculiarity

s s to sa s he repre ent . Thus it might be hard y j u t what the man

o s f or o a o a next do r stand in the scheme f life , b ut s l ng s people M s f or b o f or s read , acb eth will tand am iti n , Othell o j eal ou y,

f o Iago f or cunning villainy , Lear r the disillu sioned father,

En o e an e f or o o d R m o d Juli t r mantic l ve .

his Shakespeare earned place in the theatre the hard way, a o o ess w s an act r and pr f ional play right . Contrary to other arts , “ ” n h e s i o gre at playwright as ver been di covered after h s death .

i o his is oo so or s He s p pular during lifetime . There g d rea n f thi . The most imp ortant function Of dramatic art is communica tio s f n . The playwright expresse the dreams and aspirations o “ ’ his own o f or s the people of time . He cann t practice art art ” is e on s e on s fo i n . C ake , r a play s ot a play until it act d the tag

r o s not to o o s O f sequently , if the playw ight d e appeal the em ti n

o of hi own e his wo is s o o the pe ple s tim , rk dead , ince em ti ns and the means of evoking them do not change from century to h s s s century . Hence t e Greek playwright and Shake peare are till

o e universally underst od and appreciat d .

’ T T 1 . SHAKESPEARE S IMES AND HEATRE

a n i illiam ha kes ear e b Ha e ton encer The Art d L fe of W S p , y z l Sp

The Thea tr e b he don Ch ene Ch a t er , y S l y, p XII

Histor o the Thea tr e b Freedl e a n d Reeves Ch a ter y f , y y , p VIII Discu ss the tim es th at culmin ated in the sup reme genius of Shake

sp eare. b h him sel Discuss what littl e is known a out t e p oet f . i Describ e th e Shakesp ea rean theatre an d it s various p ecul arities.

r b a rd m d r dra in It is helpful t o m ake a ca d o o el o a w g .

T 2 . SHAKESPEARE THE PLAYWRIGH

M a sters o th Drama b ohn G a ssn er h a ter f e , y J , C p XIII

h i i h es e re Discu ss the p oet ry and t e dram at c t echn qu e of S ak p a .

Hi v ari s ri d and d e o m en a ri ht He did n ot s ou p e o s ev l p t a s a pl yw g .

a a ri h hin h lw ys w te t e same t g t e same way. 38 PLAYS AND THE THEATRE

E ’ 3 . SHAKESPEAR S PLAYS

R omeo an d Ju liet

Twelfth Night

Read p a ssages of these pl ays al oud and discuss as dram atic

mat eri Do the ee our intere t DO h n r al . y k p y s ? t ey e te tain you ? Why ?

Dis uss R omeo and Juliet oth a s a ri o - o n c b ly c l ve p em a d a play. DO you care wh at h app ens t o the lovers ? Why? DO you recognize M a lvolio a s som eon e who might have l an ded on Plymouth Rock ? I S Sh akesp eare satirizing him ? This pl ay cont ain s a delightful contrast b etween the house Of Olivi a

n h h eho d of h Du h how thi ma e f or a fin e on a d t e ou s l t e ke. S ow s k s c

r s in h mi ri t a t t e co c mat e al .

h t arts of Twel th Ni ht do ou i e b est the rica or the W a p f g y l k , ly l

rowdy ? There is a n ot abl e lack of real lyricism in our m odern comedies. Why? ’ DO you think Olivia s mourning should b e taken seriously? ’ Discuss this play as an ex ampl e of Sh akesp eare s u sing b oys f or his ’ m n a r His com edi es ar e u of ir s dis uisin th emse ves as wo e s p t s. f ll g l g g l

o s F m m n isc hem b y . ind so e ex a ples a d d u ss t .

40 PLAYS AND THE THEATRE

o his F b ecame inv lved , in rench way, with the voice Of authority — s ’ in this ca e Cardinal Richelieu . The result was that Corneille s

h id r - play, T e C b ecame a st ange cross b reed b etween the ab an

on d re o of s b ro e - d e f ed m the Spani h , a qu drama , and the rule b ound

o s o Of s as r s b c n tructi n play p e cri ed by Richelieu . The eminent Cardinal entered into the picture b y Virtue of the of F o o F z strength rench auth rities ver rench citi ens. Richelieu was b oth prime minister and Cardinal at the time— a man to

o hos s as b e reck ned with in t e day . He had decided that he w o to n o g ing rule, ot only econ mically and p olitically, b ut cultural “ l o s e hi s r n y as well . C n equ ntly he had set up s famou ( o i ” , ” f amous ) B oard Of Five, a committee of literary experts who ghost- wrote f or the Cardinal and also served as a b oard of c s e s a ritic and j udg s, pa sing sentence on everything that w s w F e oo o ritten in ranc , including plays . Their b k f playwriting ’ laws was the Renaissance garb led version Of Aristotle s tragic “ ” o F ss s s o his ss s the ry . The rench cla ici t read many things int e ay n t b of h which were o there at all , and under the thum Ric e “ If o t s c In lieu , said, we are g ing o write clas i al drama , the man

f e the es o ner O the ancient Gre k, we must stick to rul laid d wn ” by them . h This produced a terrib ly limited kind of playwriting, wit

n s o on e o o all the action taking place in a si gle p t, within rev luti n was no un o s s o . e of the s , and centering r und a ingle t ry Th re was not comic relief of the typ e we find in Shakespeare . That i c ons dered good taste in French tragedies. There is n o telling to what heights French classic tragedy n ot b might have soared , if the playwrights had een hemmed in by s es e i e F uch strict rul . Inde d , it s a miracl that the rench theatre

f a s was e to o that time b ecame s great as it did . Thi due chi fly the individual greatness of the poets ; much gl ory al so is reflected

r who se s On the times through the work of Molie e , u d the unitie with such dexterity that you hardly notice them at all . One pl ay in which they are conspicu ou s is The Cid b y Pierre s o e h e of s . C rneill , mentioned at t e b ginning thi chapter In thi play Corneille chose a Spani sh romantic theme and tried to s s o s queeze it into a French classical frame . The re ult c nvey

e b s its s o rthe the f eling that it may ur t seam at any m ment . Neve i i less t s one Of the finest dramas the world has ever known . s o The unitie , limiting th ugh they were , tended to make the play r A SUCCESSION OF SPLENDID MEN 4 1

s no s o wrights construct their play tightly, with wa te f words n M o e and actions. Two, i particular, Racine and li re, belong in the Hall of Fame with the really great literary masters . Ra ’ cine s Phaedra is one of the most b eautiful and moving of all o o tragedies and m re than that, a beautiful p em . And there can M e s of be no question that oli re , the reali t in this age artificial sto s n art, ranks as a comic genius with Ari phane a d Shake speare . f F Why was the classical theatre o rance great ? Again , \ na on she was Vic tional greatness . France had j ust w her unity ;

s o torious in her wars ; the upper class was pro perous and pr ud . “ ” ' I un- K C r In the cunning hands of Louis V, The S ing, and a di

h s o o nal Richelieu, S e became the greate t p wer in the Eur pe

Of o s . her time . And the p et were Singing with pride

HE F C C T 1 . T RENCH LASSI HEATRE

Th e Thea tr e b he don Chen e Cha ter , y S l y, p XIV

t th Thea tre b Freedle an d Reeves ha ter His ory of e , y y , C p IX Describ e the development of the French theatre from t h e very b e

i nin g n g . — ’ This wa s not a th eatre f or common p eople n ot even Mol I ere s — theat re wa s b ut st rictly f or the nobility an d the wealthy upp er middle

How does th e Fren ch theatre reflect this u a it ? cla ss . q l y

THE F C 2 . RENCH LASSIC PLAYWRIGHTS

M a sters o the Drama b ohn G a ssn er Ch a t ers an d f , y J , p XV XVI “ ” i her i th e ome rom an d hat was Wh at were th e un it es, w e d d y c f w ? their imp ortan ce t o the developm ent of French cl assical drama What ? were som e other ch a ract eristics of that rem arkabl e typ e of pl ays rnei e Racine and Mo Describ e the lives a n d dissimilarities of Co ll ,

lere Dis h ir re iv im ortan ce a s a ri ht s. l . cuss t e l at e p pl yw g

Moliér co isc se e ara te ith an ade uate des ri tion e uld b e d u s d s p ly, w q c p

of his i e an adventures l f d .

HE F 3 . T RENCH CLASSIC PLAYS

P oetic Dra ma b A red re m or : Cinn a b ierre Corneill e Atha lia, , y lf K y b g , y P ;

b ean Racine The Misa n thr o e b Moliére y J ; p , y

C hie E uro ean Drama tists b B rander th e s The Cid b ierre ' f p , y M at w : , y P ’ C orn ei e P ha edr a b ean Ra in Tartu e M o ier ll ; , y J c e ; fi , b y l e ’ C om r i The id an i p a e Corneill e s u se of th e un it es in C d C nna . In which pl ay did he succeed b est in staying within the cl assical limitations? 42 PLAYS AND THE THEATRE

Do you think the swashb uckling in The Cid is good theatrical enter t ainment ? I s it convincing ?

From the Vi e oint of the drama a s an ex ression of li e di uss wp p f , sc

he tra edies ee in in mind the arti ia imita i n f h Fr nc t g , k p g fic l l t o s o t e e h

dr ma DO ou eel th at th e a s re too arti cia t o b e of an reat a . y f pl y a fi l y g imp ort ance so f ar a s really great art is concerned ?

B e sure t o r a s a e r m ha edr a o r e in e d p a s g s f o P a l ud t o you me t g . sin The Misan thro e n Tartu e ex m es uo in as a U g p a d fi a s a pl , q t g p s ges, “ discu ss the mi e i m of ch aracter darin co c a rt of M oli re. H s co edy , g n hi im I s he sti as a d st a rt in n d dan erou a it wa s in s t e. l g a g s, s ll ? deva st ating a s ever ? Does he dea l with universa l types CHAPTER ' II

THE DISCONTENT OF MAN

( Before the French Revolution)

And from the discontent Of m an ’ Th r d b e r r s rin e wo l s st p og e s sp gs.

— E h i x Di sco te t lla W eeler W lco , n n .

The lives of playwrights during the period immediately pre

F o o ‘ ceding the rench Rev luti n were extremely precarious . As s o s b s thinking men, re p n i le citizen , they keenly felt the crying f co o s need O the untry, the ppre sion of the French people by T t f F their rulers. hey knew that wo thirds o rance was starving t t o x o death o keep the ther third in lu ury . The playwrights were writing f or a theatre that still b e s n longed to the upper clas es , a d yet they could not entirely keep o ou f s o their th ughts t o their work . Con equently they spent l ng

s o or to v period f time in j ail , in exile , waiting ha e their o heads ch pped Off .

s o was so One of these men wa Voltaire . On the wh le he me thing Of a sensati onalist with a mediocre talent f or writing , was but he had a great talent for getting into the limelight . He

F o a o of o to the rench invent r of the cl que, a gr up pe ple hired applaud a play in order to start Off the rest of the audience and thus make a huge p opular success out of a rather p oor piece . “ ” as not I said the French inventor, becau se it w a new thing

' h r and o is in the t eat e . The R omans had first u sed it , t day it an o accepted convention in the opera hou ses of the w rld . i As s Voltaire did the French stage a great serv ce . puni h s s ment for one Of the times when he had , o ten ibly, libelled the

K was b s t o W o ing, he ani hed England . hen he returned he br ught s on with him accounts of the v ital , almost reali tic , acting the s o s English stage . He al so brought S everal tran lati n and adapta ’ o s f s s s was th e s on ti n o Shake peare play . That fir t appearance

o t e f s e o rol in the c n in nt O Shake peare , who play d an imp rtant e ‘ the new kind of drama that was beginning to find its way onto s s f o es o f f ee om the tage O Eur pe . Shak peare became the symb l o r d s as in in the drama , a freedom yearned f or in the theatre a well f the real life o the peri od . 44 PLAYS AND THE THEATRE

’ of o s w s e f All V ltaire riting reflect a tim o great restlessness.

His s ss s s out o letter and e ay keep la hing at the auth rities, point s of o ing up the crying need the c mmon man , political and eco o . His s s s wh e n mic cathing atire hit all o wer corrupt . ob s the B king, n lemen , j udge , clergy . ut the times were not quite m m.

s wa In England the ame ferment s going on , though on a o b s s he . t Of m re peaceful a i After return Charle s II , in 1 660 , the s oo on e e Engli h theatre t k a d cid dly French air , f or Charles and

his o r e Fren s es c u t had acquir d ch ta t while they were ab road , ’ o o of C o s o awaiting the utc me r mwell c mmonwealth . The plays

o e e e s O which they enc urag d w r uperficial , witty, ften Obscene , “ ” s Co e of M piece called medi s anners . AS the exploited c ommon

o e b e a to s r r pe pl g n ti , howeve , such pieces b egan to seem less f 1 731 . o e The Lon unny In a play appeared by George Lill , call d “ ” don M erchant; the first Of the domestic dramas which were

to r r r Th - e r s eventually tu n into mode n d ama . e th at e will alway

b e ro e of o e s s o peculiarly the p p rty the pe pl . When it tay away fr m

e to b e o e s er as th m c me highly sp cialized , Sophi ticated ent tainment ,

r du ing the peri od Of French classicism , it commits suicide in a

o s o e ha to b e b sso c mparatively h rt time . Th n it s revived y a

el o n s ati n with everyday pe ople a d everyday life . Thu the drama is s o o o alway symptomatic of the times. When the c mm n pe ple o are important the drama is alive and Vital , and when the pe ple ss s s are. merely pawns t o b e played with b y the upper cla e , thi

’ echoe is d in the drama .

“ ” HE TO H 1 . T GATEWAY ELL

The Thea tre b he don Chene Ch a ters an d , y S l y, p XIII XVII h Rea d p a ssages from th e in dictm ents Of the th eatre and discuss t e

irn h c s an h sort of an atici sm b e ri ht hen fa ess of t ese att a k . C t at f g w ? attacking an art - form Try t o unt angle f act from fan cy and Ob serve

h int ere in resu t s t e st g l . r Describ e the eff ect of these attacks on the English theat e.

2 THE PRE- G . REVOLUTIONARY PLAYWRI HTS

th Drama ohn s n er ha t ers and M a sters of e , by J Ga s , C p XV XVI Wh at wa s beginning t o happ en in the minds of thinking men at that time ? Did it find ex p ression in pl ays? Who wa s Denis Diderot ? What is his imp ortance in this study? THE DISCONTENT OF MAN 45

Discuss the careers of Volt aire and B eaumarchais and their contact

i h h times h t ind f a he r ere h ri in f ? w t t e . W a k o t at e w t ey w t g or

OF E 3 . PLAYS THE IGHTEENTH CENTURY

hi e E ur o ean Dra ma tists b B ran der Ma tthe s C f p , y w h B a b e vi le au i T e r r of S e l , b y Be marcha s

he cho l or canda l i h r h ri T o b R a d B . e dan S f S , y c S

Thes a s r ide different et the ere ri ten ithin w e pl y a e w ly , y y w w t w t o

ear of ea h other an ar x r sion O the am im DO he y s c d e e p es s f s e t e. t y indicate diff eren ces in attitude between the English and the French p eople?

h r l i me i Ho ? T ey a e a so, n so ways, al ke. w h h ? Wha does he Figa ro was beloved b y the Frenc populace. W y t stand f or ? B IBLIOGRAPHY

An derson Max B r dwa e l 0 oa . 1 947 . 6 oane , w l 1? y ( ) Wm . Sl B ulfinch Thomas M th olo 1 942 , y gy. . ( 5) Herit age Chen e h d The Th S e on ea tre. 1 2 9 9 . 1 4 7 8 9 1 Tu d r y, l ( , , , , , 0 , o

1 1 , 12)

E s H The oeti cs o Ar s . . i totle. 1 942 ress 50 pp , P P f . ( 6) UNC P . ( p aper ) F dl A Histor th ree e Ree es o e Thea tr . 1 9 y v y f e 41 . Crown

3 4 - ( , , 7 1 1 )

G a ssn er ohn M a sters o th e Dra , J f ma . 1 945. Dover 3 4 ( , , 7 )

Hami on l Theor o th T e t a e h a tre. 1 l , C yt on y f 939 . 1 2 4 ( , , )

H Art and ra o e itt B a rnard t la rodu ction . Li in ott w , C f f P y P pp c 1 94 2 0 . ( )

' a en H r B ook o Job a s a reek Tra ed M fi a ard K ll , o ace f G g y. o t , Y 9 1 1 9 . ( 3)

r mb r oeti Dra e o A c ma . 1 941 1 K y g, lfred P . ( 8, 9, 1 ) hie E uro ea Drama is — M h C n t ts. 1 att ews, B rander f p 916. 9 1 1 1 2 ( , , ) ’ der i le dern R ea s B b . 1 90 M o 7 . ou t on R . G . l , M T American on b a 1 92 2 n he . 7 . S a db urg , Carl S g g ( )

e den am l The ta e in A cti on . 1 941 . 1 2 S l , S ue S g ( , )

h Romeo and Ju li et. 1 0 S akesp eare, Wm . ( ) ht Twel th N i . 1 Shakesp eare, Wm . f g ( ) d h i n chool or can a l . 1 91 5. 12 S er da , R. B . S f S ( )

n r H Art and Li e o Wi lliam hake Sp e ce , azelton f f S

e r 1 sp a e. 1 940 . ( 0 )

SC HEDULE OF MEETINGS

First M eeting : A PLAY EXTEMPORE

1 . Why DO We Go to the Theatre?

r 2 . Love Of D amatic Art I s an Instinct

Th nne n h The r 3 . e Co ction between Life a d t e at e

’ S econ d M eeting : THE DRAMA S LAWS

— 1 . Theat rical Production

2 Dr m ti n . a a c Actio

hat I la 3 . W s a P y? ’ ri l 4 . Let s W te a P ay '

Third M eeting : SOME MORAL LET IT TEACH i i D 1 . P r mit ve rama

2 E r i i . a ly Rel g ous Pl ays h 3 . T e B ook of Job

Fourth M eeting : THE TRAGIC MUSE

1 . The Greek Theatre

The Gree ri ht s 2 . k Playw g

Emotion a ua it Of th Gree 3 . l ' l y e k

’ Fifth M eeting : GOD S PROPHETS or THE BEAUTIFUL

ori s ehin the G ree la s 1 . St e b d k P y

2 . Agamemn on ( Aeschylus)

3 edi us R ex o ho es . O p ( S p cl )

4 E r . M edea ( u ipides)

5 Th Fr o s ri h ne . e g ( A stop a s)

Six th M eeting : WEDDED To CALAMITY

1 . What I s a Tragedy ?

2 I Tr ? . s agedy E ternal

S even th M eeting : THE MANY- HEADED MONSTER ( The Roman ) m 1 . The Ro an Theatre 2 Th R . e oman Playwright s Th 3 . e Roman Plays

Eighth M eeting : LOOK HERE AND YONDER

1 Th M ie . e ed val Theatre 2 Th M . e edieval Playwrights Th 3 . e M edieval Plays

Nin th M eeting : FAIR LAND OF CHIVALRY

1 . The Renaissance 2 . The Renaissance Theatre 3 Th . e Renaissance Pl ays SCHEDULE OF MEETINGS ( Continued) 49

Ten th M eeting : SOUL OF THE AGE (William Shakesp eare)

’ 1 ha es eare s Times and Th eat re . S k p

2 . ha es ea re the a ri ht S k p , Pl yw g ’ 3 ha es eare a . S k p s Pl ys

E leven th M eeting : A SUCCESSION OF SPLENDID MEN ( French Classicism)

1 . French Classic Theatre

Th Fr n h a i ri h 2 . e e c Cl ss c Playw g ts T 3 . he French Cl a ssic Pl ays

Twelfth M eeting : THE DISCONTENT OF MAN ( B efore the Fren ch Revo

lution ) 1 Th . e G at eway to Hell

2 Th P - . e re Revolution ary Pl aywrights

3 a s of he Ei h h n r . Pl y t g teent Ce tu y THE UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA LIBRARY E' TENSION DEPARTMENT

The Lib rary E x ten sion Dep artment of the University Library is main tained f or the purp ose of b ringing t o the citizens of N orth C arolina and their neighb ors som e of the a dvantages availab le t o residents of the Uni

rsit hi nd i o fe 1 ud u lin e a on s o s ial ve y. To t s e , t f rs ( ) S t y O t s b sed book f p ec interest and 2 th oan of the recommended oo t o non- residents Of , ( ) e l b ks

Ch a e Hi To m eet the r in man f h ri i s h tud p l ll . g ow g de d or t ese p v lege , t e S y Ou tlin es listed on the following p ages h ave b een p rep ared b y members of the University faculty and others connected with the University and its

Li rar . These a ci ities are ff er t o c s ib raries dis ussion rou s b y f l O ed lub , l , c g p ,

corres on dence an d ex tension stud nt eachers an indi idu a readers. p e s, t d v l

C L D O O LUBS, IBRARIES, ISCUSSI N AND STUDY GR UPS

B m ea ns of the tu d u tlin es assis an i i en in th re aration of y S y O , t ce s g v e p p ’ a ear s stud on a ide vari rt i y y w ety of sub j ects, such a s p oetry, a , mus c, dram a histor current ction b io r h ati n n int ernation ro , y, fi , g ap y, n o al a d al p b ems a n d current event s T m a . h r er n e l , e ef e c at erial Consists o f b ooks, mag

i nes a nd am h ets the su h - z p p l , pply of w ich is con st antly freshened b y up to dat e mat eri al .

I n a ddition the Lib rar i , y m a ntains a sep arate collection Of b ooks Of spe cial interest t o student s and tea ch ers ar icu ar h ose in orres on den e , p t l ly t c p c an d ex t en si l on c a sses . This co ection s inc u s eb ates an a l l al o l des play , d , d m t erial s f or essa s an d term a ers y p p .

I t is not n ecessa r h o ever f or an i i u a m mb er Of a rou y, w , ind v d l t o b e a e g p or a student in schoo t o b ta in hes i i r i i i l O t e p r v l eges. The se vices and fac l t es

Of the Universit Lib ra r throu h i n i a m n r y y, g t s Lib rary Ex te s on Dep rt e t, a e i ab e t an iti en int ere i i An oo in the ava l l o y c z sted n cultura l read ng . y b k

Lib a r n ot reserved f or re erence or a s room use ma b e ent b mail r y, f cl s , y l y ’ i ime A so throu h the B u Hea B oo sho hi h is a f or a lim t ed t . l , g ll s d k p , w c E x t ension De artme t r cen i n an new ooks p art of th e Lib ra ry p n , e t fict o d b

res m a b e b orro ed ren a a e of general inte t y w on t l r t s .

l TERMS FOR REGISTERED CLUBS AND OTHER GROUPS

A regist ration f ee of is charged to club s in North C arolina ; se h ere For this f ee ten co i tud utlin e are su el w . , p es of the selected S y O p

ied n all ecessar b oo f r re in a er a r ent durin the u pl , a d n y ks o p p ar g p p s e l g cl b

ea There are usua ha u utline. E h ha y r. lly twelve c pt ers in each S t dy O ac c p t er ha s a n ex an ator introduction is oo to b e discussed and su pl y , l t s of b ks , g

estion s f or deve o in each t o ic To hes ar a end ed a om et e ist g l p g p . t e e pp c pl l m i h r There is a so a of all b ooks reco men ded and the a ddresses Of p ub l s e s. l skeleton outline of the entire course f or convenience in assigning dates and ea ders l . STUDY OUTLINES 51

n and ma b e ke t until the Books are sent two or three weeks in adva ce, y p

r r uested t o su mit their sched ule hen meeting has b een held . Clubs a e eq b w

h r i ter o ha th material f o ea h date ma b e reser ed. Clu s t ey eg s , s t t e r c y v b ar o ivin dates of ro rams are also requested not to p rint their ye b oks, g g p g , i ar ment in e o casion l before the dates have been c onfirmed b y th s dep t , s c c a ly it is necessary t o change the order of chapters as given in the S tudy Out ’ lin es Thi i o d n ho i h r i a se uence of interest onne tin . s s n t o e, wever, f t e e s q c c g

the ha ters or if th rearran ement auses incon enien e to the u s. Co c p , e g c v c cl b o er tio r h r ia e h r ist ration f ee o no p a n f om t e clubs is app ec t d . T e eg d es t

inc ude trans ort ation o hi h a ab e the orro er. l p c sts, w c a re p y l b y b w

TERMS FOR NON - REGISTERED CLUBS AND OTHER B ORROWERS

Non- regist ered clubs or members of non - registered clubs may borrow the books listed f or a single topic in the S tudy Ou tlin es f or a f ee Of twenty-five cent s or all the oo i n , b ks l sted f or one meeti g f or a f ee of fifty cents . Corres onden e and ex tension studen s te hers u il s and ener l read p c t , ac , p p g a ers ma b orro oo n h y w b ks o t e following t erms : For a f ee of ten cents, one b oo ma b e orro ed f or thre - fi h k y b w e weeks ; f or twenty ve cents, t ree books at one time f or three ee s rovid h r re i u w k , p ed t ey a e not b ooks p v o sly reserved for u or oca c a ss- ro u cl b l l l om se. New books not in the Library E xtension ’ collection m ay b e b orrowed through the B ull s Head B ookshop f or twenty five ents f or two ee s I n c w k . all ca ses th e b orrower p ays t ran sp ortation costs b oth a s. Rene a f i ee s t en cent s er e . rdues ve n w y w l p w ek Ove , fi ce ts per da . A a s state if materi a i y lw y l s f or club , school or general reading use.

Address all ueries re ues q , q t s, orders and suggestions t o

Mis e i He s N ll e Roberson , ad Library E x tension Dep artment University Library Cha e Hi l orth arolin p l l , N C a

VOLUME I The ou thern Garden Hu * W . L nt c e 1 4 S . . . O tob r 9 3 . NO . 1 Adven tures in R eadin ev i * en th er es . L g , S S C . S . ove. J anuary 1 935. NO . 2 B elow the otoma c * . M . N B on A i P . d . p r l 1935. N o. 3 E ur o i Tr t * e n ansi i on . hi i s Russe Ru el M 1 4 p P ll p ll C . M . ss l . ay 935. NO . ’ ther eo le s Li ves Fou t e i e * r h r s . Lo n 1 935 O P p , S C . S . ve. Ju e . NO . 5 Th t r e o o B ooks. R B D . . o ns. u 1 935 e on in in 194 S y f w J ly . NO . 6 ( S c d Pr t g 7)

VOLUME II Adventur s i Music a e w th Music and i ns . A M l O 1 D c a l . cto er 1 935. . . . C O b N ‘ amous Women o Yest erda and Toda R i F f y y. evised Ed tion . C . S. Love. Januar 1 3 2* y 9 6. NO . 52 STUDY OUTLINE S ( Continued)

Adven ture i i i ” s n R ead n E hth eri es . M B . N . on A ri g , g S d . p l 1 936. No. 3 ’ ther eo le s Lives Fi th eries Lo M 1 . C . ve. a 93 N 4 O P p , f S S . y 6. O . Adven ture in R ea din Ni th eries B m s n . A . . A a u g , S d s . J ne 1 936. NO . 5 Moder l an a w i t n a s d l r h s. R uss 1 P y P y g C . M . ell . July 936. N o. 6

VOLUME I II * Adventures Around he orld Lu i in tob t W . c le ell g . Oc er 1 936. N O . 1 K * The M oder oman E B i n r n W . . C . a ty. J a ua y 1 937 . N O . 2 I/i er B a ck r ound r t ar s o esen t Da erma n . A E ' uc er an y g f P y G y . . k d W. P Friederi h A r 1 93 ' c i 7 o . . p l . N 3 I n di i evol i on 4 a n R u E E E E E ri son . M a 1 937 N O . t . . . an d . . . c y * Adv n u i e din en e t r R a T h e s B am une 1 9 . O . es n t ri e A . Ad s. 37 5 g , S . . J N Th hea oda T t T . M 1 O . 6 e re . G H m u 93 N y . ol es. J ly 7.

VOLUME IV ’ h P o le e s t r e Lives i th ri L ct ob er 1937 . N o. 1 O e p s , S x S e . C . S . ove. O

Ameri a Humor E n B anuar 1 938 No. 2 c n . Do s R Do ns. . . C . w . . w J y * C on t em orar o r L i i 1 3 O 3 et . u i e n A r 9 8 . N . p y P y c l Kell g . p l

B ui i Fu rnis i Hom e i 93 N O . 4 d n an h n a E a M 1 8. l d . C . B t . a g g . y y * Adven ur i R ea din E le e ri es B Ad ms une 1 938. NO . 5 t es n v n th e . A . . a . g, S J

F mou e ste E i n . . Love. u a om n Ye a da Thir dit o . C s W of rd y and To y . d S J ly

1 938. NO . 6

VOLUME V

Po li ti c robl i re e t- Da E ur e Firs eri es rner ried al P ems n P s n y op . t S . We P . F i * er h . ctob e 1 O 1 c O r 938. N . t se - s B i c o r e D u e. e ond eri e . C . Ro son P oli a l P r b lems in P n t a y E rop S c S . b ,

r anuar 1 939 . No. 2 C . H. egg , A . B . Dugan and . L . G od ey. y P , J f J * Adv n t i R eadin ie Adam s. A ri 1 939 . N o. 3 Twel th er s . B . e ur es n A . g , f S p l ’ T e d B ook h l B ait M a 1 939 . NO . 4 h M o ern Woman s s e f. E . C . y. y

Adven tures Aroun d th World econd eri es . Lu i e e in . une 1939 . e , S S c l K ll g J o 5 N . * A t Ho t t F A Ho mes u 1 939 . N O . 6 wi h i r ts M G . me h e n e . . . l J ly

VOLUME VI Fr o i e D ct ob 1 939 O . 1 Th N n t r ra er . N e W . e. e w . W . k O

l io l Luci e in . anu Un ited S ta tes M ur a ; a S tudy of R eg n a l N ove s . le K ll g J ar 1 4 2 y 9 0 . N O . ’ * i i A r 40 o 3 t L ves e s i 1 9 N . her P eo l e s ev n h er e . C . . Love. . O p , S t S S p l

dv tur i e i h r Ma 1 940 . NO . 4 A en n i e n h i A B Ad ams. e n R ad T r t e t e es . . . s g , S y d e i r 4 A v n ure t e ll 1 N o. 5 t s a . A M a une 9 0 . w h Op . D. cC . J

A ra t i or ia E n lan B ond u 1 940 . No. 6 r ts and C f s n G e g n g d . M . N . . J ly

VOLUME VII

1940 . L G od re . cto er it a ris . . The Un ed t te in the or ld is . E . S s W C . S J f y O b N O 1 .

h N ort ta m anu ar 1 941 . NO . 2 T te A . B Ada s e Old h S . . . J y STUDY OUTLINES ( Continued) 53

r Wa ter earman . A ril 1941 . e rda Toda a nd Tom or ow. The Film Y ste y, y l Sp p

NO . 3

Ma 1 941 . N O . 4 i o m o r Li e Da e earman . Rel gion an d C n t e p r a y f . l Sp y “ ” G od re . une 1 941 . N O . 5 h and . L. ou . E . G od re E yes S t . S f y J f y J

41 . N O . 6 ms . u 1 9 dventu e R eadin Four teen th eri es . A . B . Ada A r s in g, S J ly

VOLUME VIII ’ 41 i E Bait . to er 19 . The M odern Woma n s Unfinished B us n ess. . C . y Oc b N o 1 .

h man anuar 1 942 . N O . 2 de t i t N e s Wa ter ear . Un rs and ng e w . l Sp J y

A ri 1 942. N O . 3 ms. d e t i eadin Fi teen th eri es . A . B . Ada A v n ures n R g , f S p l ’ Ma 1 942 . N o. 4 Love . O ther Peop le s I/ives E ighth S eri es . C . S . y , * No. 5 1 942 . m n . une h aci c. D W . ear a l P eo o t e . P aces and p les f P fi Sp J * i m or o B Ad ms u 1 942 . N o. 6 o a . B lu epr n ts for T r w. A . . J ly

VOLUME I'

942 . o . L. God re . t o er 1 S ome Leaders of the W rld a t War . E . S . J f y Oc b

NO . 1

man . anuar i ri W . ear Adven u i ea d n ix teen th e es . D. t res n R g , S S Sp J y 4 o 1 9 3 . N . 2

o s ms i 1943 N O . 3 h H mema E n list B Ada . A r . T e ker . A . . p l 4 4 N o. i i de s K soff . Ma 1 9 3 . T on ic t ca I a L . att he C fl t of Pol l . . O y

m une 1 943 . NO . 5 ad e e i s Ad a s. A B . Adven u e i e in ven te n th r e . . t r s n R g , S e S J 4 eo th ed r n a earman . u 1 9 3 . P M r e n . D W . Pla ces an d ple of e ite a . Sp J ly NO 6 . VOLUME X

‘ n t ms anuar 1944 . Adve ur i h er B Ada . es in R eadin E teen th i es. A . . g, g S J y

NO . 1

N a u riter i it t t s am A ri 1 944 . N O . 2 t re W s n n e a e A B Ad s. U d S . . . p l Music i America A eli Mc l 1 944 N O 3 n . d ne Cal . M ay . . ’ h l s 4 t r eo i 1 44 N O . e e I/ive n h e es e. un 9 . N t ri . Lov e O P p s , S . C S . J

B lu e rin o Tomorr o ec eri e Ro n u 1 944 . NO . 5 ts r w on s . H H so p f , S d S . . b , J ly

Adv r tu i e d t er 1944 . e v e a i i e B Adam s . c o r s n R n N n ri . . g, et enth S e es A . O b llr o. 6 VOLUME ' I on tem ora P oet c r 4 1 r r e on e i e i a u r 1 9 5. N O . C p y y, S d S s. Lucile K ell ng . J n a y Ga rdens h h i 1 4 o t e ou . E a L en A ri O . 2 f S t l z beth awr ce . p l 9 5. N The a ci Wor ld W t earman M 4 3 c a er a 1 9 5 N . P fi l Sp . y . O A Journe t M exi A a h B a 4 4 o co t a Ad m n 1 9 5. No . y . g . s. Ju e Th a ttern Amer e o i ca . Luci e in A ri 1946 N O 5 P f le K ll g . p l . . Wom en an d the Wide or ld 1 4 6 W . E . Ch esley B aity. M ay 9 6. NO .

VOLUME ' II Ameri ca Loo s Ahead k . Walt er earman n 1 4 O Sp . Ju e 9 6 . N . 1 Readin or leasure : Adven tur es in eadin w n i e eri g f P R g , T e t th S es. A . B . Adams and H D Harris n u 1 . 4 . o . J ly 9 6 . N O . 2 Arts in the ovi e Un i on 3 t . art Emi B rid er ctob 1 94 N O S P I . ly g s . O er 6. . A r ts in th o i et i e v Un on . r Emi B i e r 1 4 a t r d rs . anu 9 4 . N o S P II . ly g J a y 7 . C i n ese a r van H C a . arriet H Rob son A ri 1 4 . . 9 N O . 5 h p l 7 . Vi sitin Amon Recen t B ooks : Adven tu e wen t - r eries res in R adin T st . g g g, y fi S Walter earma M a 1 4 n . 9 7 . N O Sp y . 6

VOLUME XIII ther eo les Lives Ten h eri s t e . C e O P p , S . S . Lov . Octob er 1 947 . No. 1 la s a n d the Thea tre b K ai ur n n P y , y J ge se . J anuary 1 948. NO . 2

ub s ri tion er vo ume t o resident h S c p p l , s of N ort Carolina, in l e Co ies 50 ents in o h r a S g p , c ; N rt C a olin , 25 cent s.

O ut of rint . va il ab le f or n p A le ding only . 54 STUDY OUTLINE S ( Continued)

di i h His t nn o 3 tu N 2 r l N . es n t e o o 1 9 3 R D. . o o . . o S ry f . C . . . W C V III Presen D Li te a u 1 L l 1 3 t a r t r e 924 ove Vo o. y . . C . S . . . III . N

- G ea ose l o. 13 r t o s 2 h er . o N m r 1 60 1 9 0 . 1 a n W av V . . 0 0 9 5. u o e C p , P l J IV A tud h ke are 2 r 9 o s e . 1 Ru sse otte . Vol . . No. S y f S a p 9 6. ll P V tudi e u r r t Hi s i o the n Lite a ure. Revi ed E dition 1 926 Addison rd S n S s . . bba .

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tudi es i Am erica t t Addison Hi ard. n n Li e a ure R ise Editi n . 1927 . S r . ev d o bb Vol o 1 2 . VI . N . Modern Fren h A 1 l N o 1 3 c rt 92 Russ otter . Vo . . . 7. ell P VI Adv en tur es in Rea di n r N o 2 1 927 Russe o te . Vol . . . g . . ll P t VII Our Herita ge : A S tu dy Throu gh Litera tur e of the Am erican Tradition 1 2 m e 9 7 . a s H H or o an d No. 4 J lly f . Vol . VII Th N e i m t l e r on e o e e E L . Green . o . o n t r ar me Li a tu . 1 28 g C p y A rican r r 9 . . V o 1 4 VII . N .

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