Acta Palaeobot. 35 (2): 253-274, 1995
THE VEGETATIONAL HISTORY OF LOCAL FLORA AND EVIDENCES OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES RECORDED IN THE POLLEN DIAGRAM FROM SIDE REGETOVKA, NE SLOVAKIA
AGNIESZKA WACNIK
W. Szafer Institute of Botany, Polish Academy of Sciences, Lubicz 46, 31-512 Krakow, Poland
ABSTRACT. Material for this palynological study comes from a fen at the village Regetovka (Slovakian part of the Low Beskids). Five samples of deposit were radiocarbon dated. The results of pollen analysis were used to reconstruct the successional changes in the plant cover during the Middle and Younger Atlantic, the Sub-Boreal and Sub-Atlantic. Five pollen assemblage zones (PAZ) have been distinguished in the diagram. The record of man's economic activity on the vegetation have been observed from the samples before 6700 BP through the whole profile, but with variable intensity (four settlement phases).
KEY WORDS: palynology, Holocene, NE Slovakia, Low Beskids, pollen assemblage zones (PAZ), human impact
INTRODUCTION
The Low Beskids with the adjoining area of deposits, to reconstruct vegetational history, to the Jaslo-Sanok Depression have repeatedly find the moment of first appearence of agricul attracted attention of both palaeobotanists ture in this area, to analyse the disturbances and archaeologists. A number of palynological in the primary plant cover under the influence studies on changes occurring in the plant com of settlement and to refer the phases of the in munities with time has been published since tensification of agricultural activity to the cul the thirties: Roztoki (Szafer & Jaron 1935), tural changes in the study area. Cergowa Gora (Wi~ckowski & Szczepanek 1963), Besko (Koperowa 1970), K~pa (Gerlach et al. 1972), Szymbark (Gil et al. 1974), Jasiel GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF (Szczepanek 1987), Roztoki (Harmata 1987, NATURAL ENVIRONMENT IN THE 1995 a, b) and Tarnowiec (Harmata 1987, 1995 LOW BESKIDS LOCATION, RELIEF a, b). AND GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE This study was designed to widen our knowledge on vegetation history of the Slova The Low Beskids are the easternmost part kian part of the Low Beskids poorly explored of the West Carpathians. They bridge the east so far. An investigation has been carried out as ern and western ranges of the Beskids. The a part of the interdisciplinary programme: Low Beskids occupy an area of 1 789 km and "First agricultural and stock-breeding farmers extend as a 20-30 km-wide belt for about 100 on both sides of the Low Beskids", carred out km. Their relief is characteristic of low moun chiefly by archaeologists at cooperation be tains rising to an altitude of 500-850 m, ex tween the Institute of History of Material Cul ceptionally even above 1000 m, eg. Busov ture, Polish Academy of Sciences (at present (1010 m), the highest segment elevation in the the Institute of Archaeology and Ethnology, Slovakian territory, and Lackowa (1001 m) on Polish Academy of Sciences) in Warsaw and the Polish side (Adamczyk & Gerlach 1983). the Institute of Archaeology, SAScs in Nitra in They form the lowest and narrowest segment 1991 (Machnik & Macala 1992). of the Carpathian arch, begining at the Tylicz The purposes of the present work have been Pass (683 m) in the west, being it boundary to recognized the stratigraphy of organogenic with the Nowy Sqcz Beskids (Radziejowa 254
1265 m), and extends tu the Lupk6w Pass (640 cation of roads or railway lines is worth men m), which in the east separates the Low Be tioning here (Adamczyk & Gerlach 1983). skids from the Bieszczady Mts. (Tarnica 1348 m). The Beskid hills decreasedistinctly in alti Soils tude towards the north and the south. The lo weslying bottoms of the river valleys in the Acid and leached brown soils, brown soils areas of the Jaslo-Sanok Depression and of and lessive soils, pararendzinas, podzolic soils Ci~zkowice Foot-hills on the northern side, proper, hydrogenic, initial and other soils have and in the Ondava and Labeorc Uplands on mainly developed in the study area in connec the southern side lie at an altitude of 200-300 tion with the differentiated land relief (Swi~s m. This region is characterized by the NW-SE 1982). The floors of valleys are usualy lined course of the main ridges and hills (Adamczyk with clay-dust soils on sands and gravels. The & Gerlach 1983). In the eastern part the rid flat-topped ridges moderately high and low ges form more district and longer ranges than foothills, sloping down towards the valleys are in the western part, where typical are small covered by clay-loam soils with a low propor groups of mountains scattered like islands or tion of skeletal elements. On steep portions of very short ranges of variable course. the slopes of montains and high foot-hills clay The Low Beskids are a watershed range. stone, more rarely clay soils occur (Adamczyk The main drainage areas from the rivers Biala & Gerlach 1983). Dunajcowa, Ropa with S~k6wka, Wisloka, The soils show a broad range of depths, pro Jasiolka, Wislok, Oslawa and on the southern portions of skeletal parts and moisture. They side the rivers Topla with its tributaries are generaly poor in phosphorus, somewhat Kamenec, Svierzovka and Rusucka Voda, On richer in potassium, contain either consider dava with Kapisovka and Lubomirka, and La able or only trace amounts of calcium, the rock borec with Vydranka. The hydrological regime outcrops and slope weathering waste are of the rivers and streams is characterized by usually rich in calcium, hence, the xerothermic the greatest flow during the spring thaw and and calciphilous vegetation is much more fre the smallest in autumn. The geological sub quently grouped in lower positions than in stratum of the Low Beskids shows a high de higher parts of valleys or on summits (Swi~s gree of folding and fissuring (Starkel 1972). 1982). On the basis of differences in the appearance, arrangement and nature of these forms, and Differentiation of climatic elements their geological structure five main geomor phological units have been distinguished: the The situation and the diverse nature of re Gryb6w Mts., Magura Range, Dukla Beskids, lief of the Low Beskids exert an influence upon Ryman6w Beskids and the Jasliska-Wislok the individual features of climatic conditions. Komancza Depression (Adamczyk & Gerlach This region constitutes a climatic boundary be 1983). The various morphogenetic processes tween the West and the East Carpathians, occur in the area of the Low Beskids, such as which has also been confirmed by geobotanical mechanical denudation (landslide, soil creep, studies of this area (Swi~s 1982). solifluction), deflation and chemical denuda Two climatic zones have been distinguished tion (dissolution, leaching). It is a classical re in the Low Beskids: a moderately warm and gion of gravitational movements, the most humid zone and a moderately cool and humid characteristic of which are the landslides. one. In river valleys and depressions the Their origin conditioned by a suitable inclina moderately warm zone reaches up to 460 m tion of rock layers in the substratum and by a.s.l. and on convex form to 620 m a.s.l. It is the occurrence of impermeable shales under characterized by the mean annual tempera lying the porous rocks. Typical of this part of ture exceeding 6° C. The moderately cool zone the flysch Carpathians is also the process of extends above the foregoing altitudes and the reactivation of landslides resulting in the oc mean annual temperature is below 6° Chere. currence of landlises varying in age in close The annual precipitation ranges from 600 to neighbourhood to each other. The anthro 900 mm. The number of days with snow cover pogenic influence on the formation of same is from 81 at Dukla to 99 at Wislok Wielki and landslides, brought about by the improper lo- its maximum thickness fluctuates from 73 cm 255 at Ryman6w to 113 cm at Koma:Jicza tum incane) with grey alder, sycamore maple (Adamczyk & Gerlach 1983). The climate of or ash and a small addition of hornbeam, the Low Beskids is more continental than that aspen and willow. The largest areas is occu of the West Carpathians and as consequence pied by the Carpathian beech forests (Dentario the vegetation season begins about 7-9 days glandulosae-Fagetum) with beech, fir and sy later but the first phases of spring develop camore maple. On the rocky bends the stands ment are shorter (ObrEi)bska-Starklowa 1983). of Phyllitido-Aceretum occur with the domi The whole vegetation season lasts from 215 nant sycamore maple accompanied by beech, days in low-lying places to 182 days on sum elm and ash. Large areas in the western part mits (Hess 1965). of the Low Beskids are occupied by fertile fir The Low Beskids are characterized by the forest of the order Fagetalia and poorer fir considerable prevalence of southerly winds forests from the alliance Vaccinio-Piceion. Acid (50%) over northerlies (20%) and easterly and beech wood (Luzulo-Fagetum), dominated by westerly winds (15% either).The occurence of beech with contribution of fir, occurs very rare the foehn winds from south called the Dukla ly on flats and on ridges (Fabianowski & Rut or Ryman6w winds, is of particular signific kowski 1983). The most common forest associ ance (Hess et al. 1978). These strong winds ations are Dryopterido dilatatae-Abietetum, (more than lOm/sec) or very strong winds occurring in different sub-association on the (more than 15m/sec) persist from one to sev fertile moist slopes of brook ravines or up to eral days. In the foot-hill zone (Szymbark) the the summits of hills, and Vaccinio myrtilli number of days with foehn makes 16% of the Abietetum, occupying most frequently the year days, falling chiefly in the period of No flats, more rarely the slopes. Carici ramotae vember to May and only sporadically in the Fraxinetum, occuring on silty-sandy muds summer. Their appearence in the spring along the streams, is a characteristic though brings a remarkable warming and in the sporadically occurring forest community winter they cause the formation of snow-drifts. (SwiEi)s 1982) .. They inducing the erosion of windward slopes As a result of man's economic activity the and the soil deposition on the leeward slopes areas occupied primarily by forest com and deposition of this material on the leeward munities have been mostly turned, into fields. slopes. The forests of foot-hill zone has been replaced by wheat-rye-clover agrocenoses, the forests of Forest communities the lower mountain zone, to a more limited ex tent, by oat-grassland agrocenoses, and in its In connection with their transitional nature higher parts by hay-growing meadows and of Low Beskids were a frequent object of inter pastures (Adamczyk & Gerlach 1983). est for geographers and geobotanists. Geobo tanical investigations were started here in the Site discription 19th century, but first detailed studies were published only by SwiEi)s in 1980 and 1982. The Material for palynological analyses was col Low Beskids are not high enough to develop lected from a fen, about 2.55 ha in area (Dostal the spruce mountain forest zone (above lOOOm 1981), situated in the village of Regetovka (49° a.s.l.) and so only hornbeam forests on foot 25'30''N, 21° 16'45"E) in the Slovakian part of hills and beech woods of the mixed mountain the Low Beskids, in about 5 km distance from forest zone have developed, in which nearly all the southern boundary of Poland (Fig. 1). The forest communities described so far from other geological structure of the Regetovka area fa Carpathian regions were found (SwiEi)s 1982). vours gravitational movements generating Tilio-Carpinetum stands occur in small landslides. According to the geobotanical maps areas on mostly steep and stony slopes, uncul of Slovakia (Michalko 1986), Regetovka lies in tivated by man, in the region of the foot-hills. the border zone between the moderately warm Carpinus, Quercus robur, Acer pseudoplatanus and humid climate (the mean January tem and Acer campestre occur in the association. perature -6 to -3.5° C, the mean July tem Small areas on the valley bottoms, more rarely perature 17 to 17.5° C, the annual precipita on the slopes and in places of local water seep tion 650-850 mm), and the moderately cool age are covered by swamp alderwoods (Alne- and humid climate (the mean January tern- 256
POLAND
Fig. 1. Location of the Regetovka village perature from -6 to -4° C and annual precipi season begins in the first half of April and tation 800-900mm). The differences in tem lasts for about 203 days (Obr~bska -Starklowa peratures between convex and the concave 1983). landforms are small (Fig. 2). The vegetational Carpathian flysch with claystones, formed
15
10 5 ~ ~ -5
- 10~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ I IIillNVVIVIIVilllXXXIXII
Fig. 2. Differences in the temperature between the convex and the concave landforms in the Low Beskids according to Ob r~b ska-Starklowa (1983), data from 1951-1971 for altitude of 500 a.s.l.; 1 - convex landforms, 2 - concave landforms 257
SW NE
~ Paledovka "'O 0 778 800 > 800 ~ .:.d ~ 700 ~ 700 0 ~Q) t> 0.. 600 ~ 00 ~ I I I 500 I 0 250 500m :)00 I
400 400
Fig. 3. Schematic transverse section of the Regetovska Voda valley (acc. to Harcar 1995 - modified) in the Palaeocene till middle Eocene periods, posit was collected by means of an lnstorf borer, how constitutes the geological substratum, on ever, the clay substratum was not reached. From the 19 segments obtained, 50 cm long each, samples, lcm3 which various types of brown soils and para in volume, were taken for palynological analyses. rendzinas have developed. Samples at intervals of about 20 cm from the whole The surroundings of Regetovka are over profile were analysed to make a preliminary strati grown by calciphilous beechwoods from the al graphic survey of deposits. Later, other 19 samples liance Cephalantero-Fagion and, in a limited from the part of profile, covering the Neolithic period were studied. A total of 67 samples have been ana area, by Carpathian oak-hornbeam forests lysed. from the alliance Carici pilosae-Carpinion be The samples for pollen analysis were prepared by tuli (Michalko 1986). the modified Erdtman's acetolysis method with addi The fen under study had developed in the ton of standard indicator tablets containing Lycopo depression of a landslide at an altitude of 515- dium. As the peat deposit over the whole length of the profile contained mineral material, the samples were 520 m (Fig. 3) in consequence of the intensive pre-treated with hydrofluoric acid (Moore et al. 1991). and quick overgrowing of the water body. The In each sample an average of 600 pollen grains of formation of such a thick layer of organogenic trees and shrubs and all the accompaning herb pollen sediments was favoured by the supply of abun and spores were counted (except for several low fre dant mineral material from the surrounding quences samples were the basic sum was reduced to about 450 AP. The percentage values were calculated rocky slopes. The fen is protected as a nature on the basis of the total sum including trees and reserve. At present the whole fen, situated shrubs (AP) and herbs (NAP), and exclusive of pollen about 500m from the channel of the Regetov of aquatics and spores. On the basis of the obtained ska Voda river, is overgrown with sedges, and pollen diagram four samples were chosen for 14C dat - in its central part clumps of shrubs ( ing, and dated at the Radiocarbon Laboratory, Silesian Alnus Technical University at Gliwice. Because of a beak glutinosa, Viburnum opulus, Salix cinerea, down of the vacuum equipment during the purification Frangula alnus, SalU: pentandra, Sorbus au of carbon dioxide the result of dating for the sample at cuparia, Rosa sp and Juniperus communis), 715-725 cm is unreliable. To check this result the next classified as Carici elongatae-Alnetum sphag sample at 725-735 cm was dated (Tab. 1). netosum are gruped (Dostal 1974, 1981).
Table 1. Regetovka. Results of 14 C dating MATERIAL AND METHODS No Depth (cm) Lab. No. Age BP Remark Organogenic deposits about 10 m deep and with 1 110-120 Gd 7654 480±40 clay at bottom fill the depression behind the front 2 370-385 Gd 7655 3200±40 bank of the landslide. A series of six exploratory bor- 485-495 Gd 7656 4570±50 ings were performed along the shorter axis of the fen 3 in 1994. The core was taken from the deepest place, 4 715-725 Gd 11203 4790±90 the result is 46. 7 m away from the northern edge of the fen and unreliable 40.3 m from its southern edge. A 9.5-metre core of de- 5 725-735 Gd 11229 6720±80 258
PROFILE STRATIGRAPHY 905-950 cm black-brown peat, well decom posed, compact; small numbers A small tuft of peat moss was taken as the of macroscopic remains of reeds 0 cm sample. and sedges. 5-167 cm fibrous peat poorly decomposed, with pieces of reeds and sedges, wood fragments at 120 cm HUMAN SETTLEMENT IN THE AREA 167-195 cm whole core filled with wood frag- OF THE LOW BESKIDS ments, samples not representative AND ADJACENT REGIONS 195-215 cm peat compact, reddish from rot ten wood No traces of Palaeolithic man have been 215-235 cm brown-rusty peat, fairly compact, found so far in the area of the Low Beskids, al wood pieces at 225 cm though he is known to have penetrated the 235-275 cm greasy peat with plant remains, neighbouring regions, like the Nowy Sl'.lcz Be wood pieces and twigs skids and the J aslo-Sanok Depression. Both 275-300 cm very strongly water saturated Palaeo- and Mesolithic people little disturbed peat, plant remains present, a the balance of natural environment, on ac twig of Betula sp. at 285 cm count of the form of their activities and, in con 300-330 cm peat compact well hydrated, sequence, it is very difficult to discover any pa gyttja-like lynological traces of their presence. Any signi 330-340 cm lighter peat well hydrated, with ficant colonization of the Beskids by the ear plant detritus liest Neolithic tribes ( about 4600-3900 BC), 340-350 cm darker peat, rather greasy, a associated with the Linnear Pottery Culture, small number of plant remains is not substantiated. On the other hand, there 350-365 cm lighter peat, greasy, wood pieces are fairly numerous traces of that settlement at 350 cm on the patches of loess at the so-called Carpa 365-370 cm darker peat strongly decomposed thian threshold: on the river Raba in the Boch 370-390 cm red-beige peat, wood pieces at nia region and between Rzesz6w and Przemysl 375 cm (Valde-Nowak 1988). Due to the new archaeo 390-400 cm black peat, brittle, with frag logical discaveries, the time and territorial ments of twigs limits for the appearance of Neolithic man in 400-405 cm gyttja-like peat with plant re the area concerned have been extended. Still, mains utilization of natural routes by the Lupk6w 405-425 cm peat with light clay bands, hard and Dukla Passes by people from the circle of and sticky without plant remains Linnear Pottery Culture in the initial phase of 425-465 cm light beige peat, more compact settlement (Valde-Nowak 1988) and, in conse 465-470 cm darker peat quence any penetration of the Low Beskids by 470-490 cm lighter, more greasy peat with those people is still a controversial problem. some gyttja However, in the final phase of its development 490-500 cm peat with a high proportion of these routes might already have rather essen wood pieces tial importance. This is suggested by the fact 500-550 cm harder, more compact peat, still that the people of the Linnear Pottery Culture fibrous were them influenced by populations of the so 550-595 cm sticky peat with a small amount called Bukowe Gory Culture (Bukk Culture). of plant debris The settlements and produccing place of obsi 595-735 cm very fibrous, sticky peat, a large dian products have recently been discovered in number of non-decomposed re the Ondava Upland, about 30 km south of mains of fen vegetation Regetovka (Machnik pers comm.). A remark 735-900 cm peat changing in colour from able increase in the range of permanent settle beige to brown, with an admix ment occured in the younger phase of the Len ture of gyttja, a large amount of gyel-Folgar Cycle, when certain foot-hill re plant detritus from 775 cm gions may have been colonized (Valde-Nowak 900-905 cm grey sticky peat with consider 1988). Dispersed sites are known from the able proportion of gyttja area between the Low Beskids and foot-hills 259 evidencing not so much the penetration of the there they next expanded, chiefly in the area area by people for economic reason as their in of the Ondava and Laborec Uplands and on filtration over the lowering of the Carpathian the southern slopes of the Beskids. On both arch in the eastern part of the Low Beskids. the Polish and the East Slovakian side of the The fertile soils chiefly in river valleys were Beskids the permanent land occupation by the cultivated most often, although there was al pastoral tribes of the Corded Ware Culture is ready a tendency to occupy higer-situated ter indicated by the occurrence of grave-mounds. rains, too. Very many of them survived on the southern Settlement representing the Funnel-Beaker side of Beskids, which is still forested to a Culture (about 3100-2400 BC) is very distinct great extent till today. They are located on the in the Carpathian Foot-hills (Wieliczka, Strzy flat hill tops distributed sometimes over their Z6w and Dyn6w Foot-hills). It reaches to the nearly whole lengths. In the same places are border of the Low Beskids, eg. in the region of found detached stone and flint axes, remaining Lesko (Machnik pers comm.), and its sites are there after the destruction of the mounds in nearly exclusively situated in the higher parts later times, notably on the Polish side of the of hummocks and hills elevations at 350-500 Be skids. m a.s.l. (Machnik 1989). The expansion of the At the beginning of the Bronze Age (1800- fire-clearance agrarian system combined with 1300 BC) the foot-hill area was inhabited by the breeding of cattle, goats and sheep (Kruk communities of various cultures, eg. the Mier 1980) was connected with that culture. The ex zanowice and Ottoman Cultures, whose traces tremely repressive impact of this type of hus may occur in the Low Beskids as well. They bandry upon the environment, leading to the were connected with the higher landscape deforestation of large areas in the loess up zone, too. The further development of settle lands, might even have resulted in a specific ment in this region took place from the Middle economic crisis about the middle of the 3rd Bronze Age (1300 BC) till the beginning of the millennium BC (Kruk 1993). This may have Iron Age (700-400 BC). The Lusatian Culture caused an invasion the population of Funnel expanded then in the valleys of the Vistula Beaker Culture into the Carpathian Foot-hills and Odra rivers and on the southern side of up to the Beskid piedmont, where favourable the Carpathians, where its presence has been condition for cereal cultivation using the fire pointed out in the south-eastern and middle clearance method existed in the higher land part of Slovakia. In Carpathians people of scape zone (Machnik 1994). Presumably, the this culture founded their settlements and bu people of the Funnel-Beaker Culture not only rial grounds in the valleys, on the terraces of expanded in northern Beskid Foreland but rather large rivers. The finds of ceramic frag also encroached upon the foot-hills on the ments at Biecz, of ornaments (armlets, brace southern side. The finds of single artefacts lets) at Zal~ze on the Wislok and many bronze showing features characteristic of that culture objects, including a sword of the Liptow type have been reported from there since long ago at Wysowa, provides evidence of animated con (Machnik 1994). A striped-flint axe, typical of tacts with the southern side of the Carpa the Funnel-Beaker Culture was found at the thians as early as the Middle Bronze Age (Par village of Ondavka (Budinsky-Kricka 1991), czewski 1986). Starting from the Late Bronze relatively near the studied site. Similarly, Age, the region in question influenced by the traces of settlement of the Badenian Culture Gava Culture, witch expanded in the eastern (a settlement at Olsavka near Bardejov) con Slovakia, and using the routes along the river current in time with the Funnel-Beaker Cul channels of the Ondava, Topla and Torysa ture, come from the nearby Ondava Upland crossed the Carpathians by the Dukla Pass (Machnik pers. comm.) From about 2300 to into Poland. This is evidenced by the site at 1800 BC the area of foot-hills was occupied by Wietrzno on the J asiolka on the northern side pastoral groups of the Corded Ware Culture. of the pass (Gedl 1989). The time when the They also spread in the Beskids as evidenced Tarnobrzeg group of the Lusatian Culture dis by single artefacts of this culture (stone axes appeared has not been exactly determined. and flint tools) found there (Valde-Nowak Part of that population may have persisted in 1988). These groups crossed over to the south the catchment area of the river San and in the mainly by the Dukla and Lupk6w Passes and Sub-Carpathians till the appearance of Celts 260 in the younger Pre-Roman Period (Parczewski forests. The raids stopped in the 14th century, 1986). and an economic development period started The first cultural breakdown occurred in then, in connection with the definitive incor the middle of the 6th century BC under the poration of this area into Poland and the com pressure of the Scythian nomads coming to the mencement of colonization during the reign of Carpathian Basin from the steppes in the Casimir the Great. The foundation charters Black Sea region. The next ones about 400 BC were then conferred on many settlement situ and again about the 3rd century BC were con ated mostly in the river valleys. 14th-17th nected with the invasions of Celts from the centuries are the time of Wallachian coloniza west (Gedl 1989). From the beginning of the tion. Some nomadic people wandered from the 2nd century BC to about 450 AD the typically Romanian territory westwards, along the agricultural Przeworsk Culture dominated in mountain ridges of the Carpathians. Some southern and central Poland and about the pastoral groups settled on the slopes and flat 2nd century it extended its range southwards, tops of mountains in the proximity of streams beyond the Carpathians. The late Roman Peri and small rivers. Flocks of sheep and goats, od is characterized by a rise in the density of grazing outright in forests and on meadows settlements and the widering of its trrritorial close to the timber line, caused the consider range in southern Poland. The distribution of able lowering of this line (Korpel 1989). The archaeological sites in the region of the Dukla Wallachians engaged mainly in mountain pas Pass and in the Slovakian uplands points to turage, were probably also familiar with some the exsistance of organized economic life from forms of agriculture. Apart from the Walla the 1st to the 5th century AD. The early Mi chian migrations, Polish settlement also de gration Period (4th-6th centuries) was distin veloped, about the 15th century. In conse guished in southern Poland and in the Carpa quence of the contacts of the pastoral popula thians by the incursions of the nomadic Huns tions with the less numerous agricultural col from the Asiatic steppes. Their aggression and onizers the agro-pastoral population of Lemks the resulting ethnic movements were the like was formed. Because of the great overpopula ly cause of the Przeworsk Culture (Parczewski tion of villages even the high-lying small plots 1986). The economic downfall was also con were put under cultivation (Kwilecki 1974). A nected with the displacements of some Ger successive period of the intensive colonization man tribes. followed in the 19th century in connection The archaeological material collected so far with the discovery and beginning extraction of contains incomplete information about settle oil beds in the region of Krosno. In 1941-1947 ment in the Low Beskids in the early Middle a multistage operation of the Lemks displace Ages (6th-7th centuries). However, it is known ment was held on a large scale in the territory that from the middle Bronze Age up to the belonging to Poland (Kwilecki 1974). The aban early Middle Ages the colonization of the Car doned areas were next partly colonized by Poles. pathian regions under discussion involved An outline of settlement development pre mainly of the San and Wislok river valleys and sented above clearly proves an early interest the Jaslo-Sanok Depression, where it found shown by man in this region. Its penetration the most favourable conditions. Our informa has continued starting from the Neolithic in tion concerning the later period of settlement, connection with the development of contacts from the 10th to the 14th century, is also between the populations inhabiting the south scanty. In connection with the position of this ern and northern forelands of the Beskids; area in the frontier zone, the conflicts between later, the economic activities extended in Hungary, Ruthenia and Poland were frequent whole area. This process has been going on, here at the time of the formation of the state varying in extent and intensity, since the late structures. Such an unsteady political situ Neolithic till the present time. ation must have exerted a disadvantageous in fluence on the life of the local population. From the 13th century onwards raids of the DESCRIPTION OF DIAGRAM Tartarian hordes swept the territory and con tributed exceedingly to the extermination of Five pollen assemblage zones have been dis the population and the devastation of local tinguished in the pollen diagram (Fig. 4); each f r 1 1 ~wwmmm~m~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~·~•+wwwwwN~~~N Depth (cm) i:;~c; ~ll~9ig ~gi~ c;:g~ is~ c;8 ti gi~ c; IS ti gt'! c;~-~ ~-~~-~ti~ 1-;!c; ~ ~§!iSlittfi"' D Li tologlj LJ ~~m~m~~m~~~m~~~~~t~~I~~~~~~II~I~~I~~II~~I~I~I~~I~tfm I ..... -1 Trees ~ · - Shrubs Vt..... {@] -Vt ~l o war f shrubs I N Vt · ~ /Herbs ~ .., 3 .. .. N " "' ?' "'0 0" ~.. 14-C LJears BP ~ ~ ~ 0 -- .., M f.12£(§5~vsr~ 'J]flH LB f:'":·: ~::~:nus""•'cus :•o T.o,. Pi cea abi es ...._\._ 10%..: :J-P~ 1 I ...i,. I · ·~ 1 0,.Acer 10 %-= ·'\7"\ x "~ --- 1;to%Carp1nus betulus 10;.:...: al ba 10'/. .: sylvatica en~ l.o%Betula [.0,. Populus 10%..: undi ff. undi ff. "!j ~- .. ~ ['_ ~ ;• .....,.,..,..,.~~~~.....,..~~~~~~~-i ~ to % Vib u r num -t. 00 'V ' - [ %Sambucus mgr a cf. f 10 It 'V'~u Sambucus racemosa cf. ~ V-[",. Jumperus !Vl ~ [ ,. Heder a helix ?Jo ~ 10 c. [ 10,. lJ i scum Jj" [.0,. lJ itis vinifera ~ ·~ ~ - ':.o,. Calluna vulgaris a, l,0%lJacc1nium -t. ~ ~ J .,•• ~ o :l0%Gr amineae undiff. ~ ••'t IA t I ,.,%Cyper aceae !!D" §' [ '.10,. Ci chor ioideae undi ff. 8 ~ """"i[,0 %Umbell i fer a e l10%Rubi aceae [.0,. Fi 1 i pendul a lP> ·~ = It I :•0% Anthemis -t. ~ - ,,0%C al t ha -t. t"" [ , 0,Ranuncul aceae ~~--.. '11 \'. ::f-=<:::, ' . ~ ~ . 0% Ranuncul us a[ V '..,,. Cannabi S/ Humul us n ~-.__..~ L _ :::; c::=::h I ;,0 %Th al ictrum 1 ,.__ '•0% Art e m1 s 1 a ~C'" 2.. -----! ~ ; , 0% Cheno po dia cea e ~ 1 ...... ( ~ 1 0% Cer e ali a I · ~u P lantago major ~ I . I -. [-10,. Plantago media ~ c w l, ,. Secale c e r eal e IS) 0 ~ fJJ I [,0%F a gopyr um :::O P> °a ~ - , ~ ft ~ ·:· a, '.10%R u rn ex a c et osa - t. - ---:, %Pl ant ago 1 anceol at a ~ -vvv 0 8. [,0,. Potentilla - t. [.0,. lJaleri ana [.0, Sil ene - t. 0r "'.. [,0%Rhina n t hus a. :2 [ %Cerastium - t. ....n - · 10 ~ :J 10%..: .. .. ~ : , % C i r s i um -t. ~-- n 0 lC%.: L,. 1Je r bas c um - t. ~.. 0 l 0%.: [, %Sa ng uisorba mi nor ~ 0 ' [ %Me ntha -t. l0% ~L .. 10 10%.: I' [,0%Geum 1 0%~ .."' .. '.,0,. Al c he mi 11 a - t . ~ ·- !0%~ - [,0%Anchusa - t. .":J la :.-: .: •[.0,. Cha maener ion a ngus t if ol i ' n" ID%.: .. L%An e mon e - t • · ~ 0 l 0 % _: .. L% As t r a n tia - t • ~ ' [ %lJeroni c a - t . 10%: ' ~ 10 1 0% ~ Lo%T u s s i 1 ago - t . - ~ 10:-:.:, _ .. [10,. LLJ s i mac hi a t hLJ r s i f 1 or a t 0%.: ' [,0,,_T yph a 1at i fol i a LO%.: ·'.10,. NLJm p ha e a a l ba l 0%~ : L% Po t amoget on 10%.: I . I rn - :,0,. 0ros era rotundif o l ia i•www_ _. __, , _ _ ....._~,-+>, ~ Lo%Spha gnum LO%- [.,%Equi s e t um r I a •• L.%F1l i cal e s monol e t a e r~ 1o:r. ..: · ~ .,% Dr y opt e r l s 10 %..'.' LO%Po l ypodium vulga re 1o:r. -= Ln Pt e ridi um aquil i num 10%..: [, ,%0ph i ogl ossum L0%Bot r y c h 1um ~ T. 0%Conceal e d - :,0%Cor rode d '=:7 '7..::;_~~~ 1 ~"_ .., '~ 1 0 ,. D e gr a de d '•o%lJ ar l a i!i1 ;o ;o ;o ., N ... I P A Z .. I REGETOVKA (515-520 m a.s.l.) I/I ..0 ,... :J E ' u r_ I/I I/I r_ I/I ..0 '+- I/I N ..., OJ :J '- ..0 0. OJ ' (1) '- 5· 25· R5 45· 65· 85 105 b 125· 165· 210: 230· 250· 270· > R4 290 310 a 330 350 370· 390 410· 430 _;?-- R3 450· 470· 490: 510: 530 550: 570: 590· 610· 630: 650 670 690· 710 730· 750: 770 b 790· 8!0: 830· 850 RI 870 890· 910· a 930· 950· Fig. 5. Summary pollen concentration diagram for trees, shrubs, dwarf shrubs and herbs samples. The NAP curve decreases. The abun minance of trees (96% of the total sum). Abies dance of herb taxa-Cyperaceae, Gramineae, alba andFagus, the species of the lower moun Artemisia and Umbelliferae - undergoes a re tain forest zone had particular forest-forming duction.The frequency of aquatic plants and of significance, whereas Alnus (absolute max cryptogamic (Sphagnum, Dryopteris (single 72%) must have abounded on the peatbog spores), Equisetum, Filicales monolete) main and/or in its direct surroundings. Betula, Car tain relatively high level. A distinct clay layer pinus, Pinus, Tilia and Corylus, forming low occurs in the peat at a depth of 420 cm. continuous curves, constituted an admixture Zone R4 in the beech-fir forests. The proportion of The lower boundary, at a depth of 390 cm, shrubs pollen is low, up to 4 %. Besides Cory was marked at the definite fall of the compo lus, single grains of Sambucus, Viburnum, nents of mixed deciduous forest and of Picea, Juniperus and Hedera helix are present. Arte correlated with decreasing curves of some misia, Cerealia, Cyperaceae, Gramineae, Ci herbs, like Cyperaceae, Gramineae, Umbellife chorioideae and Rumex acetosa t. pollen make rae and Caltha. The date of the zone bottom is together the low- percentage NAP curve (below 3200±40 BP. This is a phase of the distinct do- 10%), but only grasses occur continuously. 263 Pl™ltago lanceolata appears relatively fre VEGETATIONAL HISTORY OF THE quently in the whole phase. Cryptogamics are REGETOVKA REGION represented by considerable proportions of Sphagnum (max 10%) and Filicales monolete Zone Rl (max 56%). The zone is characterized by the The high proportion of elm, lime, oak and highest concentration of sporomorphs in the hazel, indicates the dominance of humid mixed profile. The proportion of wood in the peat forest communities on moderately moist soils grows towards the top of zone where it fills the around the peatbog. It may be supposed that core utterly. the forest with dominant elm and lime occu Subzone R4a pied more fertile habtats than did the oak-lime This subzone is marked by the codominance stands (Ralska-J asiewiczowa 1966, Latalowa of Abies (max 28%) and Fagus (max 38%), 1982). The undergrowth in those forests con their curves showing high fluctuations. The sisted mainly of hanzel (up to 32% AP), and of proportion of Alnus is particularly high (abso smaller proportions of Viburnum or Sambucus lute max 72%). The high frequency of Sphag racemosa (single grains). It should, however, num and Filicales monolete spores is charac be kept in mind that Corylus is an anemophi teristic of this subzone. lous species and its pollen production is very Subzone R4b high. The peatbog margins and areas along The lower boundary is marked at 140 cm, the streams supported the development of carr where the pollen frequency of pioneer trees communities with elm, ash and alder or wet (Betula, Alnus and Corylus) rise. The pioneer alder woods with black alder, ash, birch, species and Fagus are distinctly dominant, spruce and willows on periodically inundated Abies pollen shows a definitive fall, Fraxinus soils (Medwecka-Kornas 1977). Single Acer, pollen makes a single small peak (max 6%). Fagus and Carpinus pollen found in this zone Though the herb pollen curve is low, the cur may have come from short-distance transport ves of Gramineae, Cerealia, Artemisia, Caltha or were redeposited. The fairly high percent and Ranunculus show some increase. Secale ages of spruce pollen (max 8%) point to the cereale reappears in the middle of the subzone presence of this tree in the surroundings of the and forms a continuous curve. After an initial site. Picea requres a suitable level of humidity rise, the pollen concentration begins to de both in the air and in the soil and probably for crease. this reason it occupied land depressions, Zone R5 places lying close to streams, margins of the Zone R5 comprises the uppermost fragment peatbog and north-facing slopes. It finds opti of the profile, showing particularly dominant mal conditions on moderately rich soils, and diverse herb taxa, which make about 55% whereas on fertile soils it suffers from compe of the sum in the sample at 25 cm. The NAP titive pressure of other species (Jaworski curve is built of Gramineae, Cyperaceae, Ci 1994). The early appearance of Abies alba pol chorioideae, Artemisia, Caltha, Cerealia, Se len might probably by due to the contamina cale, Plantago lanceolata and Chenopodiaceae, tion with younger deposits. Its curve is almost most of which increase towards the profile top. continuous. Rybnickova (1985) evidences the The occurrence of Fagopyrum pollen was re presence of Abies alba pollen in Slovakia from corded from two spectra. The presence of char about 7000 BP, although this species spread coal was observed from a depth of 65 cm up over the whole area, proceeding from the wards. Connected with this fact might be a south-west, only about 4000 BP. The occurence rapid fall in the frequency of trees: Abies, of its pollen is traced at Vihorlat, east of Rege Fagus, Alnus and a ri::>e of Pinus, Populus, tovka from the Pre-Boreal period onward Salix, Corylus, and a decrease in the general (Krippel 1971) and in the Poprad region from pollen concentration. There occur single older part of the Atlantic (Jankovska 1988). Juglans pollen grains. However, taking into consideration the primi tive boring equipment used by those investiga tors (Hiller borer), we may suppose that con tamination was also responsible for the presence of Abies pollen in the deposits from the sites. Nevertheless, we cannot exclude the 264 occurrence of single trees in the region of themis t., Cichorioideae, Gramineae, Ranuncu Regetovka as early as the Atlantic. The first lus, Rumex acetosa t., Artemisia and Filipen Abies isopollen map for the territory of Poland dula) may certainly be connected with the fur was performed for 5000 BP (Ralska-Jasiewi ther opening of forest stands and the extension czowa 1983) and single pollen grains from At of heliophilous vegetation, perhaps owing to lantic deposits are recorded from Besko (Ko man's pastoral activities. perowa 1970), Szymbark (Gil et al. 1974) and Zone R2 Tarnowiec (Harmata 1987, 1995 a). The composition of the forests did not Forests around Regetovka were charac change significantly, but typical for this phase terized by some degree of openness. The open is the maximum expansion of Corylus (up to ings and forest edges were overgrown by helio 40% of AP) resulting from the progressive philous herbs, as indicated by the high curves thinning of the woods. This is evidenced by a of Anthemis t., Cichorioideae, Gramineae, Ar decreasing abudance of elm. At that time the temisia, Umbelliferae and Rumex acetosa t .. individual hazel thickets on the edges of Among the taxa representing the forest herb forests were formed. In the forest undergrowth layer Filicales monolete draw special attention hazel was accompanied by Sambucus nigra , by its very high frequency, chiefly in the older Sambucus racemosa., Viburnum and the indi part of the zone. The humidity of the environ cators of climatic optimum Hedera helix, Vis ment is evidenced by the percentages of Cal cum and perhaps Vitis. Vitis pollen from the tha, Cyperaceae, Thalictrum, Valeriana, Ru older phase of the Atlantic were identified in biaceae, Sphagnum, Equisetum and, above all, the diagrams from the Bieszczady region, the high frequency of Filipendula. This was where probably its natural sites occured in the probably Filipendula ulmaria, witch occurs on communities of Fraxino pannonicae-Ulmetum the peatbog also at the present time (Dostal up to the Sub-Boreal (Ralska-Jasiewiczowa 197 4). It points at the habitat of wet decidous 1980). Towards the close of the phase the num forests, with humic soils and oscillating ber of the so far sporadical pollen of Acer, Car groundwater level. The presence of Typha lati pinus and Fagus increases. It seems that folia and Nymphaea alba suggests places with single specimens of these trees may have been an open water body. This zone presumably growing at a short distance, though they were corresponds with the older part of the Atlantic. still absent from the neighbourhood of the It has been divided into two subzones. peatbog. In the top part of zone Populus forms Subzone Rla evidences rather stable plant a continuous curve. Interpretation of its role is composition. The peak of Alnus pollen in a difficult, for we may be concerned with the single spectrum may be associated with a Populus species connected with carr com short-lived expansion of this genus, perhaps munities, overgrowing the temporarily water resulting from a decrease of ground water logged peatbog edges and other places with os level. It can also be explained by the disturb cillating groundwater level, or aspen (Populus ance of the real proportion of Alnus pollen tremula), which may be a component of forests caused by a fragment of an inflorescence get from the alliance Quercion robori-petraea or ting directly into the deposit. The culmination Dicrano-Pinion. Interesting and hard to inter of Pinus pollen (max 22%) proves that this in pret is the early occurrence of single Juglans tensely pollen producting genus constituted an pollen at about 4650 BP. It was probably admixture in the tree stand in places of poorer derived from long distance transport. The pol edaphic conditions. Part of that pollen may len records show that Juglans regia was pres also come from some distance in connection ent in Syria from 10080±55 BP, in northern with a considerable exposure of the area. Turkey from about 6000-5000 BP but not be Subzone Rlb is a phase of further domin fore 4000-3000 BP on the Balkans (Filipovich ance of the components of mixed deciduous 1977). The archaeobotanic evidence of its culti forests, among them chiefly of Ulmus. The role vation in Poland comes from the Roman age of Quercus as shown by the record from a (Wasylikowa 1984). Pollen grains of cereals, depth of 810 cm, decreases, perhaps because of including Secale cereale, are present from the the rise of groundwater level following an in very beginning of the zone. The contribution of crease in rainfall. Single Plantago lanceolata such synanthropic plants as Artemisia, Cheno pollen and the coincident increase of NAP (An- podiaceae, Rumex acetosa t. and Urtica in- 265 creases. At open sites and in forest herb layer Equisetum, Caltha, Filipendula and Cyper species from the families: Gramineae, Compo aceae). From the beginning of the zone the siteae (Cichorioideae), Umbelliferae, and the contribution of Abies, Fagus and Alnus in the genera Ranunculus and Humulus I Cannabis forest communities grew consistently. At the were dominant. The peatbog surface was ower same time the role of the previously dominant grown by Cyperaceae, Rubiaceae, Caltha, species, like Ulmus, Corylus, Tilia and Picea Filipendula, Thalictrum, Valeriana, Sphag was decreasing. From that time onward they num and Equisetum. The rice of ground water constituted only an admixture, just as did Car level led to the formation of small shallow pinus, Fraxinus and Quercus. The synchro ponds, soon over grown by aquatic plants, first neity of these phenomena can be traced in by algae (Botriococcus brauni and diatoms) various diagrams from the Carpathians, eg. and Potamogeton; next by Nymphaea alba and from Szymbark (Gil et al. 1974), Tarnowiec Typha latifolia. The accumulation of deposit (Harmata 1987, 1995 a) and the Bieszczady was very intense; hence, the concentration of Mts. (Ralska-Jasiewiczowa 1980). This was sporomorphs in the peat was low. the beginning of the formation of beech-fir Zone R3 mounthain forest zone at an altitude of 500- Through the greater part of the phase 900 min the Carpathians (Rybnickova 1985). (corresponding with the Sub-Boreal chrono The composition of herb vegetation with high zone) the Atlantic components of mixed de proportions of Gramineae, Cyperaceae, Um ciduous forests were still dominant on soils belliferae, Artemisia, Chenopodiaceae, Poten covering the hills around the peatbog and con tilla t., Ranunculus, Rumex acetosa t., Urtica tained only small admixture of new tree gen and Cerealia indicates a progressive intensifi era. The forest undergrowth consisted of Sam cation of human activity including land culti bucus nigra, Sambucus racemosa, Viburnum, vation and pasturage. The increasing human Lonicera, Hedera hebx and Corylus which had ipmact together with the climatic changes, bio also good conditions to spread and form thic topic changes and competition pressure from kets on places deforested by man. Filicales comer species, were conducive to drastic vege monolete dominated in the herb layer. The tational changes. characteristic feature of the phase in the ex Zone R4 pansion of spruce, Picea pollen reaches 10% of The next phase is characterized by a par total sum. A similar phenomenon is observed ticularly high frequency of alder. Its curve rep in the diagrams from the neighbouring re resents the local situation on the fen surface gions, eg. from the Low Beskids (Szymbark - and so it makes it difficult to reconstruct the Gil et al. 1974) and the J aslo-Sanok Depress composition of forest communities in the re ion (Tarnowiec - Harmata 1987, 1995 a). The gion of the reservoir. In order to better illus spread of spruce may have been connected trate the changes occurring in this zone a diag with an increase in the areas of wet soils pro ram was performed in with Alnus pollen was viding a favourable habitat for this tree, and excluded from the total sum (Fig. 6). The trees also with the migration processes of this tree tolerating light and periodical inundation, not (Ralska-Jasiewiczowa 1983). The low-lying ably Alnus, Betula and also Fraxinus, Populus places and the surface of the mire itself were and Salix formed thickets on the surface of the gradually overgrown by trees (alder, spruce, site, what is corroborated by wood pieces poplar, aspen, birch and willow), as evidenced found in the peat throughout the zone, includ by wood pieces present in the peat. The cli ing a twig identified as Betula sp. At a depth of mate became cooler and somewhat more 195-167 cm the whole core was filled with humid. It may be evidenced by the occur wood, coming probably from an overthrown rence of a clay interbedding formed in the tree trunk. The encroachment of trees upon peat layer (at the depth of 420-415 cm) dur the mire became possible probably owing to ing a temporary inundation of the site, by the lowering of ground water table, initially in the accumulation of clay material from the consequence of some decrease of precipitation slopes. It is also suggested by pollen of and next as a result of the increasing transpir plants indicating high ground water level, ation of trees, whose root system were capable including those typical of small open pools of penetrating through heavy, moist and poorly (Potamogeton, Nymphaea alba, Sphagnum, aerated soils (Jaworski 1994). The other AP 266 REGETOVKA (515-520 m a.s.l.) fl) IJI c :J fl) fl) .--< u :J .... .--< (lJ IJI -(lJ fl) '+- (lJ - > ..0 fl) > .... ""'E fl) ...... 0 .--< D u IJI ..0 IJI :J' c IJI :J IJI fl) :J ru lfl lfl :J :J c :J c fl) :J L u fl) IJI .... .--< fl) .... IJI lfl .--< IJI .--< x N '- :J x :J' (lJ Q. (lJ :J :J :J :J (lJ ...... Q. .--< E fl) '- u '- .... O' c Q. .--< 165· 210· 230: 250· 270· 290· 310· a 330· 350· 370· 390· 410 430: 450: 470: 490: 510= 530: 550: 570: 590: 610: 630· 650: 670· t>- 690: 710: 730· 750: ~ 770 b 790 010= 830· ~ 850· 870· 890· 910· a 930· ~ 950· !'... .. · ·' ~ ·' ' ~ Fig. 6. Percentage pollen diagram of selected tree taxa, with Al,nus excluded from the total sum curves indicate the spread of communities lying places overgrown by more open woods with fir and beech, forming dense, shady tree with undergrowth dominated by hanzel, as in stands on the hills round the fen. From the be the preceding zone. The poor herb layer of ginning of this zone a distinct connection ap shady forests was to mostly composed of ferns pears between the maxima of Abies and mini (indeterminable species). The subsisting ma of Fagus curves. A similar correlation was stands of heliophilous herbs were probably too observed in other diagrams and it is particu small to become conspicuous in pollen spectra. larly well seen in the pollen diagram from Among NAP occurring in limited proportions, Smerek mire in the Bieszczady Mts. (Ralska dominant were agriculture, pasture and settle Jasiewiczowa 1980). Some contribution to the ment indicators, like Cerealia, Artemisia, forest communities was formed by Carpinus, Plantago lanceolata, Rumex acetosa t., Ranun its low-percentage curve reflecting distinctly culus, Urtica, Cichorioideae and Gramineae. the fluctuations of the beech curve. The other The continuous curve of Secale cereale begins trees of minor importance were Pinus, Quer in this phase. cus, Tilia and Ulmus, connected with lower- The dominance of alder on the fen, and of 267 fir and beech in its close vicinity are charac (Denisiuk & Pilipowicz 1984). Hedera is an in teristic features of subzone R4a. dicator of a fairly mild climate in the phase A retreat of Abies, which was replaced by discussed. The reduction of forests may have expanding beech (max 54%), took place in led to rise of ground water level, which is sug younger subzone, R4b. The pioneer Betula de gested by the development of arboreal compo veloped quickly in open areas that appeared nents of carrs and wet alder woods, such as after forest clearance; their presence is also Salix, Populus, Betula, Fraxinus and Picea. confirmed by the gradual increase in the signi After the previous reduction of Alnus con ficance of herbs. nected lessibly with clearance, its number re Zone R5 mains at a relatively constant level. Its fre The phase of rapid changes in the composi quency may have been controlled by man,who tion of the pollen spectra recording a consist prevented its re-expansion by mowing drier ent reduction in the proportion of tree pollen patches of fen, just as it happens nowadays in the total sum, is the effect of the far-gone (Dostal 1981). The rise of the ground humidity devastation of forests by man; its first signs is indicated by the rising proportions of Sphag were already observed in the previous zone. num, Typha latifolia, Cyperaceae, Equisetum, The presence of charcoal in the peat (samples Caltha, Rubiaceae , Valeriana and Mentha t .. from 65-5 cm, about 300 last years BP) indi Large woodless areas utilized for grazing sup cates frequent fires in the site region. Became ported heliophytes: Compositeae, of which pollen analyses were performed every 20 cm, it mainly Cichorioideae, Gramineae, Umbellife was impossible to determine the frequency of rae, Potentilla t. and also Plantago lanceolata, fires. The starting of fires by natural agents Plantago major and Plantago media. The per seems hardly probable, mainly on account of centages of Artemisia, Cerealia, Chenopodia the type of tree stand. Moist mixed forests, ceae, Rumex acetosa t., Secale cereale and Fa just as wet alder woods and alder carrs, very gopyrum evidence the intensification of land rarely catch fire, it happens only during the cultivation. fires of large forest complexes, mostly with prevalent conifers (Hanak 1994). The regu larity of the occurrance of charcoal over a sev EVIDENCES OF HUMAN ACTIVITY eral-ten-centimetre-long portion of the profile IN THE POLLEN DIAGRAM speaks also against the spontaneous outbreak of the fires. Most probably the felling of beech The first perceptible traces of human activ and next possibly of alder in the fen surround ity in the Regetovka region come from the ings to obtain new terrains for tillage was spectrum at 810 cm (Fig. 7), where the first practised first. The economicaly useless tree single pollen grains of Plantago lanceolata wastes left after felling were then burned to have been recorded. This alone is not a reliable clear the area and, in addition, to fertilize it indication of cattle breeding activity; however, with ash. The devastated terrains were later several successive samples with the reduced overgrown by birch, aspen and, next by pine, abundance of Ulmus and synchronously rising similarly to that happens after natural forest curves of herbs from open places, chiefly An fires (Medwecka-Kornas 1994). The AP curves themis t., Gramineae, Umbelliferae, Rumex suggest the formation of an open wood of the acetosa t., Artemisia and Ranunculus, strongly parkland type, dominated by the above-men suggest changes caused by the destruction of tioned species and beech and with small con forest, perhaps by burning, fixed next by live tributions of oak, lime and fir. Besides domi stock grazing. The grazing may have pro nant hazel, both species of Sambucus, and ceeded in natural open areas round the fen, Juniperus, Hedera helb: still occurred in the partly in the drier parts of the fen itself, in wood undergrowth. Nowadays, flowering spe neighbouring open forests and, abov_e all, on cimens of ivy can by scarcely found in the fol surfaces newly exposed by a fire. Grazing ad lowing areas of low mountains and foot-hills of ditionally increased the area occupied by helio southern Poland: Mt Bahia Gora, Bielsko philous vegetation and, induced changes in the Biala region, Krynica, TEi)goborze area and, forest communities, perhaps leading to the de also in the western part of the Low Beskids, on velopment of open scrub woods providing more the Maslana Gora at an altitude of 650 m fodder. The occurrence of fires is evidenced by 268 ,/-Popuius :~\Bet ul a \'·Sal 1 x undi ff. \Al nus und1 ff. v - " ~'°'Pt er 1 d1 um aqu111 num +~+ + ++ + + + + + + + + + ++ Char coal ~r. ami neae. und1 ff. i.-{;yper aceae 1 chor i 01 deae und1 ff nt hE;>ml s -t. Umbell1ferae Ranunculus - Potent 111 a -t. ----cereal 1 a -Secale cereale ~chenopod1aceae -::::--Artem1sia ~"-Plantago lanceolata - ~Rumex acetosa -t. ::: Ant hr opogenous phases ... w ... "' ... rn N CJ) N Chronozones Fig. 7. Percentage diagram of the anthropogenic pollen indicators, selected tree taxa and showing local settlement phases not numerous charcoal found in the peat at increase in the proportion of Populus pollen 790-730 cm and also by the changes in the and the appearance of Pteridium aquilinum vegetation detected at that time, such as an spores. 269 Although fires were natural and relatively forests. Indicative for clearings is the presence frequent occurrences in natural environments of Sambucus nigra pollen. By thinning of (Kruk 1980), started usually by lightnings dense primary forests, farmers contributed to during the summer when herb layer was over the fast expansion of hazel, which reproducing dried, yet the systematic appearance of their efficiently from sprouts. It formed clusters in evidences suggests man's purposeful activity. places unshaded by the forest canopy. In such After a short-lived decline of human inter situations hazel fruited intensely, becoming a ference a successive episode of his economic source of nuts, readily utilized by man as the activity reccured. In addition to the indicators Neolithic (Twardowska 1983). It was not en of grazing, there were also evidences of cereal dangered by animals, because, while grazing, cultivation (Cerealia pollen). Corn was grown they avoided these relatively dense thickets on small plots disforested by slash and burn (Ralska-Jasiewiczowa 1966, 1968). technique; hence came charcoal observed in a After the next regression of settlement, number of samples starting from a depth of which was reflected in the pollen diagram at a 680 cm. Fire clearance was probably applied in depth of 630-570 cm by the reduction of cereal summer, before rain, what caused the sinking and anthropogenic indicator pollen and coinci of ash into the soil, and fertilizing it. Stumps dent rise of tree pollen frequency, the agro-pas and thick tree trunks were not removed, for toral tribes resumed their economic activities. they did not present impediment during primi The extensive cultivation of cereals, probably tive soil tillage (Clark 1957). Extensive burn on a fairly large scale, is indicated by the ing out - fallow system in plant productiom higher percentage of Cerealia (including a allowed for only short-lasting utilization of the single grain of Secale cereale), by nitrophilous field. The progressing process of soil impover weeds; Artemisia, Chenopodiaceae, Urtica ishment made the farmers abandon the plot (was found at the same time when Cerealia), and gain new terrains for cultivation; thus the and the corresponding decrease in the Ulmus area of forests destroyed by human activity en frequency. Rye, which was found in the de larged quickly. The growing significance of posits so early, may have been a weed in other livestock breeding by the pasture-cowshed sys cereal crops. Prevailing is the opinion that the tem is evidenced not only by the increasing propagation of the rye cultivation took place in proportion of meadow vegetation and might the Roman Period, although some earlier sites also be connected with the first rapid fall of of rye are known from the territory of Poland, elm (drop by about 8%) and lime, pollen values including, several ones from the Neolithic (Wa recorded about 5000 BP. This phenomenon can sylikowa 1984, Behre 1992). be traced in quite a few European pollen diag The surroundings of Regetovka were ex rams in this time (Troels-Smith 1960). Leaves, ploited constantly but with variable intensity, young stalks and bark of these trees were what is well illustrated by the coincident rises probably used as fodder for animals not only in and falls of the Artemisia, Cerealia and Rumex spring and famine times, as the routine hay acetosa t. curves. This is the effect of different making did not start till the early Iron Age. factors, chiefly the changes in the husbandry That method of feeding cattle has persisted from (short lasting exploitation of the same untill today in certain regions of Europe, eg. in plots), displacements of cultures, and perhaps Norway (Austed 1986). It is however unclear also climatic conditions. Animal breeding how widely it was applied in the Neolithic. based on nomadic and semi-nomadic grazing The reduction at elm abundance is not an uni played an important role at that time, as evi vocally explainable phenomenon, there are at denced by the proportions of Gramineae, Um least five theories trying to explain it (Peglar belliferae, Cyperaceae, Ranunculus, Rumex & Birks 1993). The best-grounded seems the acetosa t. and Potentilla t.. In the Sub-Boreal assumption of the joint effect of man's inter the pollen curves of Tilia, Ulmus, Fraxinus ference by branch cutting and a pathogenic and Corylus decrease gradually. These taxa factor as such the fungus Cerathocystis ulmi were being replaced by new coming shade inducing Dutch elm disease about 5000 BP tolerant trees- fir, beech and, to a smaller ex (Peglar & Birks 1993). Forest with elm and lime tent, hornbeam; their spreading was facili occurred on fertile grounds good for agriculture, tated by the clearance of forests by man. We what in turn led to selective felling of such may, therefore, treat them to a certain extent 270 as forest communities formed under man's in acetosa t.. The areas with poorer soils wern oc fluence. Farmers gradually adopted more sta cupied by forests with dominant pine. tionary ways of life and what is evidenced by remarkable pollen percentages of plants asso Discussion ciated with settlement like Chenopodiaceae and Urtica. At the same time the evidences of It is a difficult task to refer particular fires decrease in number, what may indicate of phases of increased economic activity recorded giving up the fire-clearance for cultivation. in pollen diagram to the appropriate cultural In the sample at 270 cm a fall of the human periods in the study area because the time res indicators may suggest a short-lived limitation olution of analysed samples was to big and the of agriculture. A similar record was also found number of 14 C dating was small. Correlati1ons at 220 cm. The abandoned fields and meadows were based on the radiocarbon dates obtained were successively overgrown, first by pioneer and on comparison of the pollen curves with species and next by beech-fir and beech woods. those in other dated diagrams, from neigh Such development is clearly reflected by the bouring areas mainly from Szymbark ( Gil et summary tree curve, which attains a maxi al. 197 4). This is the nearest mire formed [n a mum value of 96%. However, this change in landslide niche at a comparable altitude the composition of prevailing forest com studed by pollen analysis but, owing to itE; lo munities was rather unfortunable for primi cation, it provides a very poor record of prehis tive husbandry. Dense, shady forests with toric settlement dominant beech and a very poor herb layer are The first undistinct traces of economic ac not suitable for direct grazing, contrary to the tivity were observed in the pollen diagram be more open oak-hornbeam forests; they are also fore 6700 BP. The earliest evidences of grmdng much more difficult to be cut out ( Godlowski in the diagram (settlement phase I) indicate a 1983). limited and short-lasting penetration of the The last settlement phase, lasting to the neighbouring terrains by groups of people with present day, began with the pollen spectrum at livestock: cattle, goasts and sheep. Because of 210 cm. At the beginning the proportion of pol the unreliable chronology of this section of di len indicative of human activities was low but agram it is imposible to correlate the recorded stable. The human indicators started increas changes with the concrete cultural circle. The ing rapidly from the sample at 125 cm. At the primitive cereal cultivation started somewhat same moment the rapid elimination of Abies later, about 5000 BP (settlement phase II) and and somewhat later of Alnus and Fagus was was kept, on small plots, deforested by the recorded in the diagram. The cleared areas fire-clearance, and situated at a certain dis were used for the cultivation of cereals: rye, tance from the fen.The agro-pastoral popula wheat and probably also Fagopyrum, although tion of Funnel-Beaker Culture had to change represented only by single pollen grains. The frequently the occupied areas to gain the mew pollen of this genus has been found in different grounds for crops because of extensive method pollen diagrams from Poland by the end of of cultivation based on fire-clearance. 1rhis Sub-Atlantic period. It should also be kept in type of economy was probably responsible for mind that the intensity of cultivation cannot the decreases in the culture indicators and the be simple inferred from the frequency of cereal episodes of proportion rising of trees in pollen pollen. Pollen of cereals is generally present in diagram, evidencing the overgrowing of aban sediments in small amounts. This is due to doned plots occurring in the discussed and fol both their small pollen production (only Secale lowing phases such oscillations should p:rob cereale is anemogamous) and pollen trans ably be treated as local phenomena. The de ported at rather short distance (Hall 1988). So cline of II settlement phase comprises the peri it may not be found during pollen analysis, od of development the Corded Ware Culture. even if the counted pollen sum is 500-1000 In the mountain region the population of this (Edwards & Mcintosh 1988). The grazing of culture was typically pastoral, what is Emg animals in pastures is confirmed by the pro gested by an increase of Rumex acetosa: t., portions of heliophytes: Cichorioideae, Grami Ranunculaceae and Potentilla t. pollen. The neae, Potentilla t., Ranunculus, and indicators coicident occurrance of grazing indicators and at pasturages: Plantago lanceolata and Rumex pollen of cereals and weeds, pointing to the 271 presence of crop cultivation or even short-lived ves of cultivated plants-mainly rye and of sy settlement at a certain distance from the fen nanthropic species. The final fall of Artemisia (regular occurrence of Chenopodiaceae, Arte pollen curve may be caused by the improve misia and Urtica), seems interesting. ment in the cultivation techniques. The pro About 3700 BP the Corded Ware Culture gressing devastation of the forests is recorded vanished and the area got under the influence by the rapid fall of tree pollen sum in the diag of the cultures of early, and next of middle and ram by nearly 50%. Animal grazing was conti late Bronze Age and Hallstatt (Ill settlement nued on a large scale in open areas. The reduc phase). The agricultural activity of these com tion of the crops and grazing indicators at 45 munities consisted of cereal cultivation, per and 5 cm is difficult to explain as occuring in haps also with the use of the fire-clearance single samples. method for gaining new terrains, and stock breeding by direct grazing the pastures. The existence of pastures in the pollen record from COMMENTS the Regetovka mire is indicated by the propor tions of eg. Gramineae, Umbelliferae, Ranun 1. In the considerable part of the profile the culus, Rumex acetosa t. and the regular occur samples were analysed at too large intervals, rance of Plantago lanceolata. The next de every 20 cm. In order to obtain more detailed crease of economic activities, which may have data, it is necessary to complete analyses of been caused by the decline of these cultures in samples between to get at least the same time the middle of the Sub-Atlantic, can also be resolution as in the part of diagram covering connected with the change of climatic condi the Neolithic. tions. According to Godlowski (1983), the 7th- 2. It was not possible to determine the age 6th centuries BC were a period of a rapid in of the landslide and to reconstruct the vegeta crease in rainfall and a cooling of the climate, tional succession in the arising mire because which may have brought about a disaster of the bottom part of the profile has not been col poor crops and livestock pests and, as a result, lected. a rise of tree pollen frequency occurring from a 3. The small number of 14 C datings and a depth of 270 cm. Archaeological studies show big differences in results between two samples that the symptoms of recession did not appear (no. 4 and 5) what may caused by differences before 5th century BC what was possibly con in the peat accumulation rates, does not allow nected with the invasions of Scythians and us to define the exact beginning of agricultural next of Celts. A following short-lived disap activities and to carry out detailed correlations pearance of the indicators of cereal cultivation with the corresponding cultural circles. was noted at 220 cm, which might have been associated with the final decline of the Tarno ACKNOWLEDGMENTS brzeg group of the Lusatian Culture in this re I wish to express my heartfelt thanks to all whose gion. The next expansion and rise of popula help made the completion of work possible. My special tion density might have taken place in the thanks are due to Prof. M. Ralska-Jasiewiczowa for period of Roman influences (settlement phase her numerous remarks and discussions, help with for IV). It seems to be confirmed by the finding of mulating of conclusions and concern in the progress of a large number of pottery fragments from the my work. I thank her also for correcting the text of the paper. All that, as well as her lavishly sharing her late Roman Period and traces of iron slag on knowledge with me was an additional encouragement one of the elevations near Smilno (Machnik to carry on my work. 1994). The increase of the population density I extend my grateful thanks to Dr K. Harmata for resulted in the occupation of the unfertile ter friendliness and substantial assistance during my rains unpopulated or sparsely populated up to study of materials, to Prof J. Machnik for initiating me into the problems concerning Neolithic settlement, that time (Godlowski 1983). Farmers have discussions and corrections made in my text and to been present in the Regetovka region ever Prof Z. Wozniak for his valuable remarks on the settle since, though the population density probable ment problems. was changing. The importans of human econ I wish to extend my gratitude to Dr J. Harcar, who omy increased rapidly from about 500 BP gave me access to his so far unpublished material, to Prof K. Szczepanek for collecting the profile from (sample at 125 cm). The intensification of their Regetovka mire and to Ms M. Zurzycka for the labora activities is illustreted by the rising pollen cur- tory preparation of the samples for pollen analysis. 272 REFERENCES the dispersal of pollen grains of Cerealia. Pollen et Spores, 30 (2): 265-270. ADAMCZYK B. & GERLACH T. 1983. Charakterysty HANAK B. 1994. Koncepcja zagospodarowania wiel ka warunkow przyrodniczych Beskidu Niskiego kich po:larzysk lesnych na terenie Regionalnej (summary: Characteristic of natural conditions of Dyrekcji LP Katowice ( summary: A Proposal For the Beskid Niski). Problemy Zagospodarowania Silvicultural Menagement of Large Burnt Forest Ziem Gorskich, 23: 49-68. Areas in the Katowice Regional Directorate of State Forests). Sylwan, (6): 85-95. AUSTED I. 1986. Tree pollarding in Western Norway. In: Birks H. H., Birks H. J. B., Kaland P. E. & HARMATA K. 1987. Late-Glacial and Holocene history Moe D. 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Bot. Polon., 32(1): 101-111. PARCZEWSKI M. 1986. Pog6rze Dynowskie w za raniu dziej6w (summary: Dyn6w Plateau in Dis tant Past. Archaeology of the Former District of Brzoz6w). Muzeum Regionalne PTTK, Brzoz6w STRESZCZENIE PEGLAR S. M. & BIRKS H. J. B. 1993. The mid-Ho locene Ulmus fall at Diss Mere, South-East Eng Historia lokalnej szaty roslinnej i slady dzialalnosci land-disease and human impact? Veget. Hist. Ar czlowieka odzwierciedlone w diagramie pylkowym chaeobot., 2: 61-68. z Regetovki (NE Slowacja) RALSKA-JASIEWICZOWA M. 1966. Osady denne 1. U zyskane wyniki badan palinologicznych uj~te w Jeziora Mikolajskiego na Pojezierzu Mazurskim diagramie pylkowym poslu:l:yly do wydzielenia pi~ter w 8wietle badan paleobotanicznych (summary: stratygraficznych i rekonstrukcji zmian w zbiorowis Bottom sediments of the Mikolajki Lake (Masu kach roslinnych, w srodkowym i mlodszym holocenie. rian Lake District) in the light of paleobotanical 2. Profil obejmuje osady z trzech okres6w: atlan investigations). Acta Palaeobot., 7(2): 1-118. tyckiego, subborealnego i subatlantyckiego. 1968. Blady osadnictwa prehistorycznego w diag a) Okres atlantycki odznaczal si~ dominacjq stosun ramach z obszaru Polski (summary: Traces of pre kowo luznych, wielogatunkowych las6w lisciastych na historic settlement in pollen diagrams from the zyznych glebach wok6l torfowiska. Platy o glebie Polish territory. Folia Quatern., 29: 163-182. okresowo podtapianej obejmowaly formacje typu l~g6w 1980. Late-Glacial and Holocene vegetation of the lub oles6w. Okolo 5000 BP z przyczyn antropoge Bieszczady Mts.(Polish Eastern Carpathians). nicznych i/lub patogenicznych ograniczony zostal PWN, Warszawa-Krak6w. znacznie udzial wiqzu w lasach, a w jego miejsce roz win~ly si~ 8wiatlolubne zarosla leszczynowe. 1983. Isopollen maps from Poland: 0-11000 years b) W okresie subborealnym doszlo do jakosciowych BP. New Phytol. 94: 133--175. przegrupowan w skladzie gatunkowym zbiorowisk. RYBNICKOVA E. 1985. Dreviny a vegetace Ceskos- R6wnoczesnie z ograniczeniem liczebnosci wiqzu, lipy i 274 leszczyny rozszerzyly si~ nowe gatunki lasotw6rcze wyst~powanie Plantago lanceolata, r6wnoczesne kul takie jak: Abies, Alnus oraz wyst~pujqce dotqd spo minacje Rumex acetosa t. i heliofilnej roslinnosci miejsc radycznie Fagus i Carpinus. Charakterystyczna byla otwartych, oraz nieznaczny spadek ilosci ziarn pylku wysoka liczebnosc Swierka w drzewostanie. wiqzu. c) W okresie subatlantyckim poczqtkowo wytwo b) Swiadectwa uprawy zb6z pojawily si~ ok 5000 BP, rzone zwarte, cieniste lasy jodlowo-bukowe i bukowe z r6wnoczesnie z szeregiem zjawisk zwiqzanych z powodu rosnqcej degradacji drzewostanu zast@ione dzialalnosciq czlowieka m. in. wyraznym spadkiem zostaly przez rozwijajqce si~ na zr~bach gatunki pio krzywych wiqzu i lipy oraz 8wiadectwami wyst~powa nierskie. nia pozar6w. 3. Badania dostarczyly wielu informacji na temat c) w profilu wyr6zniono kilka faz ozywienia gospo oddzialywan osadnictwa ludzkiego na szat~ roslinnq w darczego rozdzielonych okresami regresu osadnictwa, okolicy Regetovki. oraz podj~to pr6b~ powiqzania zmian intensywnosci a) Pierwsze wskazniki wypasu, a co za tym idzie i dzialalnosci rolniczej z nast~pujqcymi na tym obszarze hodowli zwierzqt pojawily si~ w srodkowej fazie okresu zmianami kulturowymi. atlantyckiego ponizej 6700 BP, kiedy to zanotowano