To the Shores of Tripoli Greek Soldiers and the American-Tripolitan War of 1801-1805 By Harry Psomiades, Ph.D. This is the story of the first Greek contingent to participate in an Amer- ment of perpetual peace between the ican war and of the success of Greek-American arms at Derne, Tripoli two governments. It recognized in1805. It is also the story of William Eaton, a long forgotten American William Eaton as "General and Com- hero; and of timid men and a miserly Congress acquiescing to the threats of mander in chief of the land forces, minor potentates. which are, or may be, called into serv- ice against the common enemy." In May 1801, Joseph Pasha of peace with Tripoli seemed to escape Article V of the convention was in- Tripoli (Libya), feeling that he was all of our efforts. However, the tide teresting in that it betrayed Eaton's not receiving enough tribute money was finally turned with the extraor- Yankee trader background and was ($83,000 a year), declared war on dinary exploits of a former army of- contrary to the theoretical American the United States. Until then, the new ficer named William Eaton, Ameri- attitude toward the world community. American state had paid almost $2 can consul at Tunis. It obliged Hamet to reimburse Amer- million, one-fifth of its annual rev- Eaton was convinced that the war ican expenditures in restoring him to enue, to the Barbary states of Tunis, would not end with blockade and the "throne" from tribute paid to Tripoli, Algiers, and Morocco—either Tripoli by Denmark, Sweden, and the bombardments and persuaded Presi- to ransom American prisoners or in dent Thomas Jefferson and the new Batavian Republic! return for permitting American mer- U.S. commander in the Mediter- On March 8, 1805, the self-appoint- chant ships to sail the Mediterranean. ranean, Commodore Samuel Barron, ed general led his force into the West- The failure of the young Republic to to espouse the cause of a pretender ern Desert and began the march of restrain the appetite of the Pasha of to the Tripolitan "throne," then in 500 miles along the Mediterranean Tripoli could only mean further ex- exile in Egypt. A ruler beholden to littoral to Derne, Tripoli's second tortions from the other Barbary states the United States, it was argued, largest town. Eaton's army consisted and the elimination of American com- would be amenable to rational influ- of 9 Americans—lieutenant O'Bannon, merce from the Mediterranean. ences and disposed to negotiate rea- a sergeant, and 6 other enlisted ma- For a variety of reasons, the naval sonable terms. The plan, it should be rines, and midshipman Peck; a com- war with Tripoli dragged along in pointed out, was opposed by most of pany of 40 Greeks, including their desultory fashion until 1804, when Jefferson's cabinet and actual respon- commanding officers, captain Luco Commodore Edward Preble appeared sibility for conducting the negotia- Ulovic and lieutenant Constantine; off the shores of Tripoli with a sizable tions with Tripoli was given to colonel and a company of 28 Europeans task force and began a series of Tobias Lear, consul general of the and Christian Levantines, including 25 bombardments on Tripolitan ports. Barbary regencies. Although Eaton cannoniers, commanded by Sclim Unfortunately, before Preble's arrival was aware of this and admitted in his Comb, and lieutenants Connant and off the port town of Tripoli, the frigate journal that he "carried no evidence Roco. Hamet Pasha's suit consisted of Philadelphia ran upon an unchartered whatever from our government of the about 90 men. These together with a reef while on blockade duty and its sincerity of its intentions toward the squadron of Arab cavalry and about commanding officer, captain William friendly Hamet Pasha," the exited 100 footmen and camel drivers placed Bainbridge, and crew of 307 men Pasha of Tripoli, he was not to be the total number of the force at about were taken prisoner. Moreover, an daunted. 400. The caravan consisted of 107 onshore wind enabled the Tripolitans On November 25, 1804, Eaton ar- camels. to refloat Philadelphia, stop its leaks, rived at Alexandria, Egypt, in search Before we examine the significant and bring the ship into port. However, of Hamet Pasha and started to recruit role played by the Greek mercenaries the prize of a seaworthy frigate was and organize a small army of the in- in the Derne campaign, it is approp- soon denied the Pasha when lieutenant vasion of Tripoli. After locating the riate to ask: Who were they? Where Stephen Decatur, with a crew of vol- pretender and gaining permission of did they come from? What were they unteers, entered the harbor at night the Ottoman-Turkish authorities to doing in Egypt? The documents tell and destroyed Philadelphia by setting take him out of the country, Eaton us very little. However, it is clear that it ablaze. Decatur returned to his post prepared a fourteen-point convention at the time they were hired they were without the loss of a single man. which was to govern relations between an organized, disciplined, and Although the American Mediter- the United States and his Highness well-trained force with combat ranean naval force was considerably Hamet Caramanly. Bashaw, the legit- experience. Since they had two Greek strengthened, thanks to the reaction imate Sovereign of the kingdom of officers, captain Luco Ulovic and of the U.S. Congress and public to Tripoli. The convention, signed on lieutenant Constantine, it is possible the news of Philadelphia, the release February 23, committed the United that they were at one time two separate of the ship's crew and an "honorable" States to aid in the dethronement of bands. Indeed, after the fail of Derne, the usurper, Joseph, and to reestab- Constantine is referred to by Eaton The author is Professor of Political Science lish Hamet as ruler of Tripoli. It as captain Constantine. Captain at Queens College of the City University provided for the release of all Amer- Ulovic may have been a of New York. ican prisoners and for the Greek-speaking Slav or simply a establish- Greek with a Slavic 22 GREEK WORLD name, which was not unusual among (after the exit of Eaton's army from to retake Derne and in the ensuing Greeks of the Balkan mainland. Egypt) when an Albanian soldier from skirmishes Eaton again was struck by Given the nature of the Greek col- Kavala named Mohammed Ali suc- the "firm and manly" character of the ony in Egypt, essentially commercial, ceeded in smashing the tyranny of the Greeks: it is highly unlikely that it could pro- Mamelukes, the alien ruling class of Attacked and defeated a detached party vide military bands imbued with the Egypt, and in subduing the unruly of the enemy of about sixty foot and troop klephtic tradition. To find the origins bands of armed deserters from Turk- of horses, with only thirty-five Americans of a disciplined Greek military force, ish service. During this period of law- and Greeks.. They opposed to us a short lessness, our Greek band was almost resistance but fled before a charge of bayo- we must look to the Greek net. mainland. It is highly probable that certainly employed by foreigners and the Greek force Eaton recruited came local elites to provide protection for It is clear from Eaton's account that from the Peloponnese in the Greek their person and property. From Derne could not have been taken and mainland after 1770 and/or were Eaton's journal we know that they held without the Greeks who bore the brought to Egypt by the French or were on good terms with the local brunt of most of the fighting. the British after 1797. The nine years Ottoman authorities. Immediately after the fall of Derne, of turmoil which followed the Under Eaton's command this motley Eaton's position was threatened by the Russian-inspired rising in the expeditionary force marched over 500 constant counter offenses of the enemy. Peloponnese in 1770 had increased the miles across the Libyan desert. And, Over 6,000 Tripolitan troops, includ- class of klepths ("brigands") who took on more than one occasion during the ing reinforcements from Tripoli, had to the mountains and lived in open march the day was saved by the loyalty taken up positions outside the town rebellion against Ottoman and steadfastness of Eaton's Greek which only a few days earlier had been authorities. The period also marks contingent and by the small detach- occupied by Eaton's army. The ex- the transition of the klepths from ment of American marines. Despite pected risings in favor of Hamet Pasha robber bands to national resistance the equivocation and non-cooperation were not forthcoming and Eaton was bodies. Many of the Greek inhabitants of Hamet Pasha, several threats of denied by Commodore Barron further fled the Peloponnese altogether and desertion and mutiny by the Arab aux- supplies and manpower to defeat or some undoubtedly went to Egypt either iliaries, and extreme shortages of food buy off his attackers and proceed to for security or to seek their fortunes. and water, Eaton managed to reach the Tripoli. In 1797, as a result of the treaty of outskirts of Derne on April 24. Three Nevertheless, the tide of war had Campio-Formio, the French tempo- days later, with the help of gunfire turned. To continuing blockade and rarily occupied the Ionian islands and from three American man-of-war further captures of enemy ships at sea the small Venetian outposts on the coast brigs— Nautilus, Argos, and Hornet, had been added the fact that the of Albania and Greece.