REPTILIA 43 descendant of an extinct European Manouria species of southern Thailand through Malaysia to Sumatra, and the Tertiary. A fossil specimen found in the Üetliberg Borneo. However, attempts by herpetologists to find region (near Zurich, Switzerland), and now at the the species in the wild have been mostly unsuccessful. Zoological Museum in Zurich, is Although it has sometimes been larger but otherwise morphologi- possible to gain limited access to cally almost identical to M. emys. the region, an actual expedition is The Tertiary is a period of mod- almost impossible for political ern geological time characterized and military reasons. Also, the by the formation of the large fold dense vegetation in the distribu- mountains and the sunken area of tion area does not exactly permit the Mediterranean basin. pleasure-hiking. Manouria emys inhabits ever- Description green tropical rainforest and Manouria emys phayrei grows mixed deciduous transitional for- larger than Manouria emys emys, est. Temperatures during the and there are clear morphological coldest months average about differences between the two sub- 18°C (64°F). Climate studies of species. The shells differ in gen- Bhamo (northeastern Upper eral form, apparent from the rear Burma) can serve as an indica- view, and in M. e. phayrei, the tion of appropriate environmen- pectoral scutes meet along the tal conditions for the species. plastral midline, whereas in M. e. This information is important for emys they do not (see Figure 1). Distribution of Manouria emys according to Iverson setting up a terrarium. Manouria emys phayrei is the largest Asian tortoise. It grows to 60 centimeters in cara- Captive housing pace length and weighs up to 37 kilograms. The plain Our three sexually mature specimens are provided brown carapace is highly domed. The extremities are with a summer outdoor enclosure of about 10 x 11 broad and plump. The anterior and posterior marginal meters. Through the middle runs a large hill about 8 scutes are upturned. Large pointed tubercles on the meters long, 4 meters wide, and 2 meters high. At one thighs are responsible for the Thai name tao hook dum, side there is a round built-in bath of 3 square meters and which means something like “brown six-footed turtle.” 50 centimeters in depth. The indoor enclosure is a small free-standing house that Adult specimen eating the grass that grows in the garden Distribution and habitat the tortoises can enter or exit at will during the day. It has Manouria emys phayrei is supposedly found from the a floor area of 3 x 4 meters and a sloped roof from 2.5 to In the wild, the Asian or Burmese brown tor- Manouria (Indochinese tortoises), species M. emys Assam region of India through Burma to northern and 3.4 meters high. The floor, sides, and roof are all insulat- toise, Manouria emys phayrei (Blyth, 1853), (Burmese brown tortoise), subspecies M. e. phayrei. west-central Thailand; Manouria emys emys, from ed. There are windows in the south- and east-facing walls. lives in highly inaccessible areas, and reports The species was originally described as Testudo emys of field observations are therefore practically by Schlegel and Müller in 1844. The subspecies phayrei Figure 1. Shell differences between Manouria emys emys and Manouria emys phayrei. unavailable. Hence, an understanding of this was first described by Blyth in 1853. Reiman later species must be formed mainly on the basis of its anato- described the same taxon as Manouria emys nutapundi Shaded areas show how the pectoral scutes of M. e. emys do not meet my and physiology in conjunction with climate studies. in his 1978 book, which was greatly influenced by Thai at the plastral midline, whereas those of M. e. phayrei do. That is the aim of this article. zoologist Wirot Nutaphand. However, the older name In German, this tortoise was once referred to by the for the subspecies should still be valid. impressive common name Thailändische Riesenschild- The definitive names of the two subspecies now gen- kröte (Thai giant tortoise). However, borrowing from erally recognized are Manouria emys emys (Schlegel the English common name, the German name has been and Müller, 1844) and Manouria emys phayrei (Blyth, Rear view of the shell of Manouria emys emys simplified to the rather nondescript Braune Land- 1853). Because the tortoises were originally assigned schildkröte (brown tortoise). In Thailand it is called to the genus Testudo, the names of the authors are tao hook dum — say these syllables out loud, and it written in parentheses. In any case, the subspecies sounds something like the tortoise working its way name phayrei should not appear with the authors through the brush. Reimann or Wirot. A second species of Manouria has also been Taxonomy described: the impressed tortoise, Manouria impressa The full scientific classification of this reptile taxon is (Günther, 1882). as follows: order Testudines (turtles and tortoises), Plastron of Manouria emys Plastron of Manouria emys Origin emys phayrei suborder Cryptodira (turtles capable of retracting their Rear view of the shell of Manouria emys phayrei heads into their shells by means of a vertical S-shaped Manouria are considered probably the oldest of bend), family Testudinidae (true tortoises), genus known living tortoises. Manouria emys is a direct REPTILIA 44 REPTILIA 45 Figure 2. Comparison of average maximum temperatures in they must rely on the continuous ºC Bhamo (Burma) and Zurich (Switzerland) availability of water. Zoo specimens 40 in Thailand lie in shallow water for 35 Bhamo days, and we have observed that in 30 our captive setup the tortoises use 25 20 their baths fully, especially when 15 temperatures are above 24°C (75°F). 10 Zurich Our tortoises often defecate in 5 their indoor bath, but feces are usu- 0 ally not found in the outdoor bath. The water container must be July May April June cleaned daily, and the animals them- March August January selves are also regularly scrubbed October February December November under running water. They like to September Month bury themselves in the straw, which appears to also have a cleaning effect — the tortoises always look The floor of the house is covered with They like to sit for long periods of clean and polished. bark mulch, on which a 30-centimeter time in piles of branches or under layer of straw is strewn. In one cor- shrubs. Indoors they bury them- Temperature and light ner there is a bath 60 centimeters selves in the straw with only their Tortoises of this species do not square and 7 centimeters deep. In nostrils or eyes just barely showing. really bask, and in the beginning another corner, a shelf is mounted 60 our freshly imported specimens centimeters above the floor, under Water even avoided bright light for sever- which the tortoises sleep. An electric The rainy climate of their natural al years, retreating to the cooler oil-filled radiator is set on top of the range corresponds with a very inter- shade. In recent years they tend to Female M. e. phayrei preparing to bask shelf to control the ambient tempera- esting physiological characteristic of spend more time lying in the sun- ture within the house, and a heat mat these tortoises. Manouria species do light that comes in through the win- intestinal structure (including a well-developed cecum) In winter, when they stay indoors, the tortoises are is set on the floor under the shelf on not excrete uric acid — the white dow of their house, but they have of this species indicate that it is herbivorous. The beak is given salad greens such as endive, lettuce, and chicory. the coldest days. insoluble form of nitrogenous waste never been seen basking outdoors. worn down sufficiently only when tough, stemmy fodder This is given whole, and always covered with a good The adult tortoises are active in excreted by other tortoises (e.g., Juveniles like to lie under a halogen is provided. The intestinal flora — including flagellate handful of hay. If the food is a little late, the tortoises the morning, take a siesta during the Testudo hermanni). Instead, these lamp, or by the window in the sun. and ciliate protozoa, which help in the breakdown of cel- start eating the straw that is strewn as a floor covering. heat of day, and become active again species excrete nitrogen as urea, In winter, the ambient tempera- lulose — also indicates a vegetarian diet. Our specimens in the evening. On balmy summer requiring more water, and reflecting ture in the tortoise house should be graze like cows, and no vegetation is too tough for them. Social and mating behavior evenings they may graze long into the fact that these tortoises do not kept at 20–28°C (68–82°F). On very With this diet, the tortoises defecate large quantities. A special characteristic of these tortoises is the way the twilight. experience a dry season. In captivity cold days the floor temperature Their feces is compact, sausage-shaped, and dark olive- they greet each other with head bobbing. This behav- could drop too low, and an addition- green in color. We strongly recommend against adding ior can also mean the beginning of combat. Such head al infrared lamp may be needed. fruit or animal products to the diet. We notice that large bobbing, by both animals, can go on for several min- The tortoises can go outside when numbers of slugs crawl utes. The male also bobs the temperature is above 18°C freely through the enclosure its head at the female in (65°F), but even in summer they without the tortoises show- courtship. always spend the night inside their ing any interest in them.