Engaging the Expanded Nigrescence Theory with a Diasporic Consciousness Patrick S De Walt

De Walt SpringerPlus 2013, 2:233 http://www.springerplus.com/content/2/1/233 a SpringerOpen Journal

RESEARCH Open Access Discourse on African American/Black Identity: engaging the expanded nigrescence theory with a diasporic consciousness Patrick S De Walt

Abstract This manuscript theoretically explores the application of a stretched expanded nigrescence theory (NT-E) by making notions of consciousness explicit, thereby building on the research involving first generation U.S.-born Africans (FGAs). In taking this approach, a theoretical framework of a diasporic consciousness emerged an alternative for exploring the identity development of Africana people. To facilitate this process, a shift from conceiving identity along the lines of race and ethnicity was begun towards a conception that is solely culturally based on eight identified factors.

The process Africana people have used to self-identify in- mind, De Walt (2009), proposes that the NT-E as dividually and collectively has gone through much iteration. currently formulated does not account for the identity Cross (1971, 1991, 1995; Vandiver et al. 2002) is, perhaps, development of several groups of Africana people such as one of the most widely known and researched of these first generation U.S. born Africans (FGAs). This position iterations. Cross’s (1971) original formulation (NT-O), regarding FGAs’ self-perceptions of their identities relates revised version (NT-R) (Cross 1991) and the subsequently to notions of Blackness that are fundamental to the theory expanded nigrescence theory (NT-E) (Cross and Vandiver itself. 2001) suggest that Black identity development results from It should be argued that what “Blackness” traditionally a progression through levels of racial consciousness and means, within the conception of NT-E, is situated in the identification demonstrated in response to political aware- discourse around black identity as experienced and ness and/or forms of oppression. Cross, Grant, and enacted in the U.S. context which translates from the Ventuneac (2012) suggest that “Nigrescence Theory pre- Black Power period’s clear delineation from prior impo- supposes there is not a single form or type of black identity sitions that promoted senses of inferiority, instead for and that a large sample of black adults reveals a broad purposes of empowerment Ogbar (2004). In taking this rangeofidentityorientations,resulting in a classification fluid conceptualization of “Blackness” into consideration, challenge” (127). from a U.S. perspective, the cultural representation of Furthermore, Cross and Vandiver (2001) identify several “Blackness” as considered within the discourse still has premises regarding Nigrescence theory, within this discus- foundational tenets within it that are situated in the sion, the focus is on two particular areas in which the “Black struggle” as experienced within the U.S. first and authors address:1) “that there is more than one type of foremost as opposed to something that is truly Pan- Black identity, which results in the delineation of a range African. This historically significant factor can be seen in of identity exemplars… [and 2)] that great variability exists the many ways that the Africana globalized struggle has in the way Black people make meaning of and interpret made use of the struggle as it has evolved within the their social sense of self” (380–181). With this “classi- United States. This implicitly creates a cultural discon- fication challenge” and the emphasis on these premises in nection between members of the diaspora when applying U.S. centered frameworks that are based on U.S. Black Correspondence: [email protected] Nationalistic norms as opposed to those that offer a Psychological and Social Foundations, College of Education, University of South Florida, 4202 East Fowler Avenue –EDU105, Tampa, FL 33620-5650, more globalized perspective. For this reason, as it relates USA

© 2013 De Walt; licensee Springer. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. De Walt SpringerPlus 2013, 2:233 Page 2 of 10 http://www.springerplus.com/content/2/1/233

to those who are culturally connected yet separated as evidenced through the narratives of FGAs (see De Walt what Du Bois (2003) references in double consciousness 2009) indicating that this framework seems primarily as a “two-ness” that manifests itself culturally. With this based on fundamental facts and periods of U.S. history. in mind, Blackness can be describes in terms of “Black Findings from Worrell et al. (2006) support the position identities” as Rahier (1999) states, “are defined and taken within this paper that the NT-E is not yet fully redefined, imagined and re-imagined, performed and inclusive. performed again within the flux of history and within There is little research exploring identity development specific, changing, spatially determined societal struc- of Africana people who are descendants of those enslaved tures” (xxiv). The intent of this paper is to explore how beyond the current constructs of race and ethnicity within NT-E could be further expanded by illuminating NT-E’s the U.S. The following studies position themselves in ways implicit connections with early and more recent concep- that are linked to race and ethnicity but align more so tions of Africana consciousness, which includes a more with a cultural identity framing. Bailey (2001) and Saucedo inclusive depiction of Blackness or Africanity, as a (2002) sought to reject outright that notion that a Black means of ultimately increasing the inclusiveness of NT-E identity existed universally. Bethea (2006) and Hall and to all Africana peoples. Carter (2006) also found little support for U.S. concep- This article extends the discussion regarding the aug- tions of being “Black” among non-U.S. born African popu- mentation of the NT-E, which began in De Walt (2009) lations. Bailey (2001) identifies the challenges associated as a result of the application of NT-E, to a population of with Black racial identification as well as the rejection of FGAs as opposed to Generational African Americans notions of being “Black” by over 30 Dominican-American (GAA), children of African Americans born in the U.S., high school students between the ages of 16–18. Bailey attending a predominantly white institution (PWI) of (2001) found that Dominican-Americans strategically em- higher education. This paper continues to investigate the braced the identity labels “Spanish/Hispanic/Latino” and features that contribute to the racial identities and atti- rejected “Black” identity as well as absorption into a U.S. tudes of Africana people particularly as related to the racial hierarchy where a large number of Dominicans were concept of Blackness as applied within the theory as excluded from the category of White. In terms of their enacted and perceived in a U.S. context. The discussion identities, this population chose to self-identify in a man- will then turn to Diasporic Consciousness, a theoretical ner that does not fit into the racial dichotomy of Black framework that works with NT-E, and the concepts that and White historically and legally constructed in the U.S. underpin this conception with a focus on culture. regarding race as visible phenotypes (Davis 1993; Harris 1995; Gordon 2000; Mills 1998). This is important to note Racial identity development and consciousness as they personify what many other Africana people within Racial identity development the U.S. contend (De Walt 2009, 2011; Romo 2011) based Racial identity development of Africana people has been on an array of cultural enactments (e.g., language). discussed by a number of researchers (Akbar 1989; Hocoy (1999), who studied racial identity development Cokley 2002; Cross 1971, 1991, 2012; Cross 1978, 2001; in South Africa, offers three important features when Cross and Vandiver 2001; Helms 1990; Nobles 1989; discussing racial identity outside of the U.S. These are: Sutherland 2011; Vandiver et al. 2002; Worrell, Cross the unique importance and salience of race in the coun- and Vandiver 2001). Worrell, Vandiver, Schaefer, Cross try, the greater degree of societal discrimination based and Fhagen-Smith (2006) examined how well the on race, and South Africa’s indigenous African context nigrescence profiles generated by using the Cross Racial and the omnipresent influences of African heritage” Identity Scale (CRIS) would match other identity charac- (131). These three areas are important to acknowledge teristics of an Africana population at a PWI and at a his- when addressing the continental African elements that torically Black college (HBCU). are a part of FGA identity. Although Worrell et al. (2006) support the premise that Discourses on immigrant populations underscore the CRIS takes when engaging NT-E in regard to the significant points that coincide with those of FGAs who referent group orientations (RGOs) of some Africana are themselves children of immigrants. The works of students, this recognition of Blackness is not inclusive of Waters (1994, 1999), Ogbu (1991, 1992), Rumbaut all forms of Africanity within the U.S., particularly those (2002) and others highlight the experiences of Black who are categorized as African American or Black by the immigrant populations who migrate to the U.S. and U.S. Census and higher education. While Blackness, in the are subjected to the experiences associated with Black U.S. context, historically is both a political and cultural identity. The significance of encounters with the ste- identity marker, within its use within nigrescence, it does reotypes of GAAs and Black Americans were also not appear to be inclusive enough in its efforts to capture identified via the experiences of West Indian popula- alternative expressions of “Black” identity. This reality is tions (Waters 1999). De Walt SpringerPlus 2013, 2:233 Page 3 of 10 http://www.springerplus.com/content/2/1/233

Stretching the nigrescence theory (NT-E) African diasporan perspective while clearly identifying the Cross (1991) states that everyone who has a Black identity theoretical elements that are embedded within its design may not be Afrocentric,…and Afrocentricity does not in- (see Figure 1a). corporate all legitimate interpretations of Blackness (222).” Cross (1991) embodies elements of the theories of both Cross’s observation was one of the factors that motivated Du Bois and Fanon within his conceptualization of De Walt’s (2009) study of FGAs. In making this assertion, nigrescence and was also significantly influenced by Cross’s discussion of Blackness within all of his iterations of Fanon’s (1963, 1967a, 1967b) “thinking about racial or Nigrescence (NT-O, NT-R, NT-E) (1971, 1978, 1991, 1995, cultural identity development and liberation struggles” 2013) was not only focusing on Black Nationalism but a (Sneed et al. 2006:70). Cross (2012) furthers this argument particular variant of Black Nationalism, one fashioned by as he clarifies his intentions with nigrescence and the occurrences within the U.S. The results of this study con- CRIS in regards to race, noting that his “work has always firmed Cross’s earlier assertion. Accordingly, there seems to been about racial identity as oppression as well as racial be a need to expand NT-E so that it incorporates an identity as culture” (xvi). With this thinking in mind, he

a Making Consciousness Explicit within NT-E

Internalization- Heightening of Commitment Internalization Consciousness Immersion -Emersion Pre- Encounter Encounter

Progression of Consciousness Along the Nigrescence Stages

b Fusing NT-E with Diasporic Consciousness

Diasporic consciousness Africana Critical Theory 2 Third Pre-Encounter

University -person consciousness curriculum, Encounter University policy, University environment, and Immersion-Emersion Organizations and 1 support Internalization

mechanisms Double consciousness Internalization- Commitment

Differential consciousness

Figure 1 Engaging NT-E with Notions of Consciousness. a. Making consciousness explicit; b. Fusing NT-E with Diasporic Consciousness. De Walt SpringerPlus 2013, 2:233 Page 4 of 10 http://www.springerplus.com/content/2/1/233

continues on by stating, “blackness is far more ethnic- stated that “advancing…Black identity development is best cultural and existential than ‘racial,’ it may come as a sur- served by a healthy interaction between theory and prise to the reader that I experience a certain degree of research” (199). This statement supports the presentation discomfort when one refers to my work as solely as of an augmented theoretical framing of the NT-E that navi- ‘racial’” (Cross:xvii). These points require mentioning as I gates the fairly new area of identity development for FGA situate my argument for the facilitation of a theoretical students. shift that is not shared by the theorist whose work is critical to my theoretical exploration. Cross clearly argues Perspectives on consciousness that, if racial and cultural identity were totally distinct con- Perspectives on group consciousness that are maintained structs (which, of course, they are not), adequate psycho- through a Pan-African lens and experience allow for the logical functioning requires development of both domains regionalized effects of culture and language to be acknow- and that in combination (connectivity), one is afforded the ledged thus providing space for heterogeneity. The concern best defense against internalized oppression and good cop- with NT-E is that the traditional markers used to attain ing in the face of race and related stress (xix). reference group orientation (RGO) do not fully engage the When engaging aspects of Africana people’s identities cultural expressions of FGAs and other Africana identities that have been racialized and ethnicized, there needs to (Hocoy 1999). The proposed augmented framework is be a distinction between how we see each other as op- comprised of elements drawn from Africana critical theory posed to the means in which those identities are both ra- (ACT; Rabaka 2010), double consciousness (Du Bois 1986), cially and ethnically altered in ways that perpetuate third-person consciousness (Fanon 1967a) and differential those oppressive structures that historically exist. This is consciousness (Sandoval 2000). Synthesis of these forms of the challenge that Cross argues in terms of his perspec- consciousness intend for an application of Pan Africanism tive of a “racial-cultural socialization”. that is not relegated to the conception solely derived from Worrell (2012) provides a review of nigrescence theory elements framed within the U.S. context. over a forty year period. Within this work, he states “a new direction for NT-E” (15). Within this discussion, he Africana critical theory describes the development and implementation of the The work of Rabaka (2002, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2010) CRIS for this purpose. What is most important in provides an important means for grouping aspects of Worrell’s discussion of nigrescence, as it relates to this Africana experiences while simultaneously acknowledging current presentation, focuses on his acknowledgment of the various strands that comprise Africana people and cul- “a need in the literature for an instrument that allows us ture. Africana critical theory is “theory critical of domi- to conduct comparative and cross-cultural studies of nation and discrimination in classical and contemporary, cultural identity in a more nuanced fashion” (16). In continental and diasporan African life worlds and life thereby recognizing the nuances found within cultural struggle” (italics by Rabaka 2010:14). identity, Worrell furthers the theoretical objectives of Within the context of this exploration and overall cul- this article as it seeks to illuminate the multiple enact- tural identity of Africana people, inherently by its design, ments of Africana people’s cultural identity. ACT engages all aspects of this theoretical effort in a global/transnational manner. By synthesizing aspects of Figure 1a making consciousness explicit ACT’s multidimensionality and embedding them within This diagram further represents the element of conscious- each of the components of not only diasporic consciousness that is inherent within the NT-E as presented by ness but NT-E as well, aspects of its classical and con- Vandiver et al. (2001). Within this conception, conscious- temporary mission can be achieved. The significance of ness is heightened as one moves forward in this process of ACT’s versatility becomes clear as seen in the circular traversing the nigrescence stages. The augmented NT-E, as nature of the theory and its theoretical extension beyond described within this presentation, moves to the center of Cross’s (1991) use of Afrocentricity. Africana Critical this discussion by taking key elements of what was Theory includes the notions of region and place that developed over time by Cross (1971, 1991) and then in col- Asante (1988, 1998), Cabral (1973), Kambon (2012), and laboration with Vandiver (Cross and Vandiver 2001) to cre- Nobles (2006) articulate. ate an identity model that would operate in a more robust De Walt (2009) suggests notions of Afrocentricity manner in connection with the CRIS. This conceptual identified by Cross contain a historical and U.S. Black framing also aims to address areas of contention by others national articulation. This articulation of Afrocentricity towards Cross and Vandiver’s framing of NT-E around is incomplete, in part, due to the language, as exempli- issues and concerns of Westernization and Afrocentrism fied in the CRIS (Cross and Vandiver 2001; De Walt (Akbar 1989; Kambon 1992; Nobles 1989). In response, 2009). As a result of Afrocentricity as defined by Cross Vandiver, Fhagen-Smith, Cokley, Cross and Worrell (2001), being born out of the Black Power Period, this ideology De Walt SpringerPlus 2013, 2:233 Page 5 of 10 http://www.springerplus.com/content/2/1/233

was centered in a U.S. context as opposed to a universal- due” (140). This “no-place” is the position that Africana ized Pan-African or Africana perspective. Accordingly, people inhabit within White racist society and institu- the identities represented by such groups as FGAs are tions in which their beings, fused or not, are in a state of not fully recognized in Cross (1991; Cross and Fhagen- flux or in a void as the other. Smith 2001) articulation of Afrocentricity. Differential consciousness allows for the consciousness of these perceived doubled and tripled identities of indi- Double consciousness viduals and groups to engage various social situations There is a need for a level of consciousness that captures differently and at multiple intervals. This perspective the historical duality of FGAs and GAAs within U.S. so- also requires the integration of ACT. This results from ciety. This is, perhaps, best described by W. E. B Du Sandoval’s (2000) use of Fanon’s (1967a) work within the Bois’s notion of double consciousness, "the sense of al- development and use of her theory. This application is ways looking at one’s self through the eyes of others, of not meant to diminish or deny Sandoval’s position and measuring one’s soul by the tape of a world that looks importance within the tradition of Chicana feminism on in amused contempt and pity. One ever feels… two- and intellectual thought. Embracing this approach can ness…two thoughts, two unreconciled strivings; two offer agency as well as a strong sense of social position warring ideals in one dark body" (1986:364–5). within racist environments. Each aspect of a FGA’s iden- Double consciousness represents a dilemma that most tity has the opportunity and the power to create psycho- GAAs face in today’s society where the manner in which logical spaces in which she or he can recharge or re- they can represent their cultural identities may be placed strategize their self-concept in order to manage hostile at odds based on currently accepted norms of what con- situations. stitutes Black identity within the U.S. Furthermore, all Another form of empowerment is hereditary history. Africana people in the U.S. live with these false pheno- Double consciousness makes use of this collection of de- typic and genotypic conceptions of Blackness that may nied historical and ancestral memories resulting from not incorporate their traditional ways of being. the lived experiences that are transmitted generationally among oppressed groups in efforts to reclaim a wholeness Third-person (triple) consciousness of self through resistance to colonialism. In this way, the Frantz Fanon (1967a) suggests that consciousness of the use of hereditary history is a prime example of the em- body for people of African descent is “solely a negating powerment that ancestors provide through memories, activity [because] it is a third-person consciousness” hymns and historical images that take one into a differ- (110–111). Fanon explains this by noting, “I was given ent social and psychological space (De Walt 2009; also not one but two, three places…I existed triply….I was re- see Du Bois 1986; Kombon 2012; Nobles 2006). sponsible at the same time for my body, for my race, for As a conceptual bridge between both double con- my ancestors” (112). sciousness and triple consciousnesses, it serves a similar Within Fanon’s own analysis, there are notions of purpose as bridging does for Black identity when en- nigrescence (the Pre-Encounter stage) potentially at gaging other cultural identities, in particular White iden- work. Fanon’s conception provides a valuable insight tity. This significance is stated by Cross (1991), “Keep in that addresses not only the ideological sense of self that mind that because ‘Black-[W]hite’ conflict is at the core Africana people face within the U.S. and its universities, of nigrescence experience, the initial focus of bridging but also the physical natures by which their identities may be [W]hite society, [W]hite organizations, and the are fractured. reestablishment of [W]hite friendships” (218).

Differential consciousness Diasporic consciousness Sandoval (2000) provides a “four-phase hegemonic typ- Diasporic consciousness inherently seeks to include all of ology” of feminism as she extends both Du Bois (1986, those who are members of the diaspora and to accept 2003) and Fanon’s (1967a) notions of consciousness. She their identities as they exist. Although Afrocentricity be- uses “differential consciousness” as a conceptual frame- gins this process, it also excludes some identities whereas work for understanding, and explaining varying modes ACT is more open to these possibilities. Diasporic con- of consciousness that seemingly appear to be antagonis- sciousness is a heightened awareness drawn from synthe- tic or in opposition to one another. Sandoval explains sizing elements of Africana critical theory (Rabaka 2010), that differential consciousness is “linked to whatever is double consciousness (Du Bois 1986, 2003), third-person not expressible through word. It is accessed through (or triple) consciousness (Fanon 1967a)anddifferential poetic modes of expression: gestures, music, images, consciousness (Sandoval 2000) within varying colonial sounds, words that plummet or rise through significa- contexts that is sociological, culturally/linguistically, poli- tion to find some void—some no-place—to claim their tically, historically, and spiritually/religiously grounded for De Walt SpringerPlus 2013, 2:233 Page 6 of 10 http://www.springerplus.com/content/2/1/233

the purposes of the psychological, political, sociological, (c) university policy and organizations, and (d) support and economic liberation and agency of diasporan commu- mechanisms that act to highlight the various socializing nities through reclamatory humanism (De Walt 2009). elements of the institution. These are activated when a Reclamatory humanism is a systematic process by which student’s consciousness is raised through experiences that marginalized or oppressed groups recapture and reclaim are perceived to be racist, discriminatory or prejudicial. their humanity through liberating acts that are economic- There is an extensive body of literature (Brown et al. 2007; ally, educationally, politically, religiously/spiritually, and/or Davis 2004; Feagin et al. 1996) not limited to Africana socially/communally-based (De Walt 2009, 2011). Cabral people, that addresses how these items impact the learning (1973) articulates this sentiment when stating, “look up and social development of students at the university level. these [African cultural] values as a conquest of a small The black arrow represents how these four particular piece of humanity for the common heritage of humanity, items enter the perforated layers to sometimes reach the achieved in one or several phases of its evolution” (51). identity represented by layer I. The white arrow represents Elements of each of these four concepts (Africana critical how the identity shifts (layer 1) are potentially impacted by theory, double consciousness, third-person consciousness layer 2 (diasporic consciousness) and vice-versa. Diasporic and differential consciousness) that constitute a diasporic consciousness occupies Level 2 and operates as a cellular consciousness are applied to this particular group and wall/membrane serving as a protective barrier for the core context, FGAs attending PWIs (De Walt 2009). identity or nucleus (layer 1). This manifestation acts along the lines of a cellular-like structure providing permeability, Figure 1b fusing nt-e with diasporic consciousness negotiating the interactions with external forces or stimuli The identification and application of a diasporic conscious- as represented by the black arrow. When looking at dia- ness is highlighted through the illumination of a heighten- sporic consciousness (layer 2), it is important to notice the ing of consciousness within the NT-E (see Figure 1a). This perforations are meant to show that it is not impenetrable articulation was used successfully to make diasporic con- and that impacts are bi-directional. This also opens the pos- sciousness explicit while engaging nigrescence and identity sibility to how (diasporic) consciousness works, depending development at a PWI. This cellular-like illustration in on the level of heightening/awareness, to impede or allow Figure 1b provided ways of grasping the complexity found (i.e., “selective permeability”) these various stimuli to reach withintheAfricanaidentitydevelopmentofthosewho,in thecoreidentityornucleus(CampbellandReece2005). particular, are FGA and attend a PWI. It illustrates how The black arrow is also meant to show a varied ability various stimuli impact FGAs at various levels of their of these items to influence a person throughout the consciousness. stages of the core of this identity structure. This also A conceptual framing of the stretching of the NT-E shows the ability of the various stages of the core iden- involves identifying the elements of a diasporic conscious- tity to influence these stimuli as well. This understand- ness that simultaneously work with the traversing of four of ing also creates opportunities for the actualization of thefiveidentitystagesaswellasrecognizingtheexistence individual and/or communal agency among, in this dis- of a different type of Black identity, the FGA identity. Cross cussion, FGA and GAA communities/individual mem- and Fhagen-Smith (2001) discusses the idea of “stretching” bers. One example of this type of agency often discussed NT-E theory to include children such as those described by regarding nigrescence, in the 1970s, was the develo- Tatum (1997). This attempt of stretching his theory is pment of black/(Generational) African American Studies meant to be independent of Tatum’s use of Cross’stheory. programs and departments across the U.S. In other words, diasporic consciousness plays a vital role in the identity shifts that take place within the revised identity Implications for policy and practice model presented by Cross. This is meant to further high- The university climate light the potential ways in which the socializing elements The theme of diversity remains a core component of what I impact these identity shifts by FGA students. This approach offer as implications for research and practice. Without this also has the potential of operating within the notions of notion of diversity, a heterogeneous perspective on Africana “recycling” as identified by Parham (1989a, 1989b) and people cannot occur. In saying this, much of the expe- Cross (1991). De Walt (2009) elucidates the ways in which riences of FGA students (De Walt 2009, 2011) centered on this theoretical exploration (seeFigure1a-b)engagesthe the university climate as it is promoted or at least not chal- concept of recycling in which not only Parham (1989a, lenged. The ideas of having students who are nothing more 1989b) but also Cross and Fhagen-Smith (2001) engage in than window dressing for the benefit of others defies terms of nigrescence. any humanistic logic. The University issues much in its This diagram also introduces four particular types of rhetoric but little in its concrete day-to-day actions that stimuli that can impact the identity layer (1). These in- students can grasp and incorporate from their frames of clude: (a) university curriculum, (b) university environment, reference. This frame of reference for FGAs is situated De Walt SpringerPlus 2013, 2:233 Page 7 of 10 http://www.springerplus.com/content/2/1/233

within identities of “Black” and “African American” and denying those who do fit within those frameworks access to the perspectives held by others. valuable university programming (i.e., Multicultural Affairs/ Recognizing the varied ways in which African American Programs). Sheer acknowledgment of their complex iden- and/or Black identities are represented creates much tities is also of need when it comes to serving diverse needed discussions on the ways in which universities student bodies. should include, teach and provide viable opportunities for A shift is needed towards collectivism beyond the embra- the acknowledgement of difference among Africana people. cing of knowledge construction that is less culturally exclu- These steps are not meant to be superficial, but authentic sive. It needs to include representation that is not seen as in design and delivery. Students recognized detached sup- only a “cosmetic effect”, but that actively addresses the con- portive means that were seen more for “cosmetic effect” cerns of the study body in more meaningful ways. Is it an than as effective, with an example being that of the educational experience that is solely based on curriculum University’s efforts regarding diversity. As a result, PWIs within the classroom? Or is it one that is meant to be all are not fully equipped to engage diverse populations in encompassing of the total human experience of each manners that do not appear to repeat some of the limits of student? If it is the latter, then that mission of collectivism Multicultural education practices that simply tokenize requires a monetary and moral investment that is tangible those of whom are different. Or instances where the gentri- and concrete both in rhetoric and action. This occurs fication of ethnicity prevails in which white students through forms of accountability that seek results but that embrace their ethnic heritages thereby avoiding notions of also understand the reality of such contexts where the whiteness while simultaneously maintaining the resulting majority of students have relatively little interaction with privilege. thosewhoarenotlikethempriortoattendingtheUniver- In saying this, the aims of the PWI should be to actively sity. This applies to both “students of color” and “White” see diversity and culture as “embedded in context” as Sonia university populations. Nieto (1999) discussed in The Light in Their Eyes: Creating Also, a continued but honest effort to recruit faculty and Multicultural Learning Communities.PWIsbytheir students who are of diverse backgrounds needs to occur in current structure have Eurocentric cultural components a manner beyond just their phenotypes and genotypes that embedded within as a result of the make-up of the student it often portrays. The University has situated itself as a population and much of the staff. This allows the norms of staple of knowledge and social interaction, but it isolates themajoritytobetheconsensus regarding what occurs many members of its community based not on how they within the campus both as policy and at the community look but also how they think. In a consumptive manner the level. To offset this will require more than a cultural holiday University appreciates aspects that it deems worthy for the or event sprinkled in to remind diverse students who are of mission that it has designed. Culture is one such commo- those communities to feel a part of and appreciated by the dity that must not be used for the superficial purposes that institution. These thoughts have been promoted by many are currently operating within the University. multiculturalists as they pursue an educational experience Students such as FGAs recognize the emptiness of the that is more communal and from which all cultures benefit. policy and rhetoric that are often espoused by the Univer- The PWI must simultaneously rethink add-on programs sity. Such cases highlight the lack of connection between that are detached from the core mission of the University the University and its policies and the students themselves. becausetheymaintainthe“detached status” that many This remains a red flag that no amount of lip service can student populations may experience, such as FGAs, GAAs, correct; the University must relieve itself of its false pre- Native Americans, Asian Americans, Mexican-Americans, tenses of accommodating the learner and promoting an Chicana/os, GLBTQ and many other cultural groups. The inclusive, diversea community. For FGAs and students like idea of having safe spaces for them and others to occupy them, it often reinforces the stereotypes and historical is important, but it simultaneously isolates them in the injustices that society still struggles to confront. Until then process because most of the “safe places” if/when provided the University will remain a hollow entity for the purging by the University and its support mechanisms are isolated of possibilities of students who are culturally, religiously, themselves. Policy should require that support mechanisms and/or linguistically marginalizedb. Although the focus of be more in touch with the student populations through stu- this paper centers on Africana identity: FGAs and GAAs, dent liaisons, faculty, staff and the administration working all of these components of identity need to be incorporated together while collectively representing the populations within a university’s mission. they serve. Implementation of such frameworks as an expanded NT-E with a diasporic consciousness can help Identity labels university staff better program for a diverse Africana As the role of the University and/or its effectiveness has community that does not solely prepare for students to fit been questioned, there needs to be continued explora- within traditional U.S. centric forms of Blackness while not tions of the ways in which the University and federal De Walt SpringerPlus 2013, 2:233 Page 8 of 10 http://www.springerplus.com/content/2/1/233

agencies label diverse populations. For many Africana them. Through this alternative understanding of these students, they do not identify with some of the currently identities, FGA and GAA identities continued to exist in used identity labels, whether when having to apply for polarizing spaces. Also, this acceptance of being labeled school or other social responsibilities where race is eva- by others creates an additional barrier between the luated. This idea of the “Other” identity label that some process of self-determination and self-definition that is universities use as a quick way of catching the loose paramount to the social and political formulations of identity strands is out of touch and sends a different both the African American and Black identities within message. “If you were written in, then were you ever the U.S. truly considered?” This question is one that has histori- Nigrescence was complicated by the fact that much of cally been seen to manifest itself within every social what is its core was challenged by the existence of FGA movement within the U.S. that includes issues of suf- identity. The idea of FGAs being poorly educated about frage and citizenship. From a perspective of conscious- the contributions of Africans to the world ideally should be ness, this question also shows that fundamental social viewed somewhat differently taking into account their differences remain as they are profoundly the foundation African cultural backgrounds. For both Woodson (2006) of U.S. society. and Cross (1991), what would be viewed as Black identity was positive but that was not what many of the participa- Conclusion ting FGAs have come to believe. This was also complicated This paper was undertaken as a result of the findings of because the participants who have this perspective were De Walt (2009, 2011), which indicated the need for an also the participants who have encountered Africana augmented NT-E. The concept of Blackness was one people who self-identified as Black, but also rejected any that many diasporan Africans in the U.S. see as a prob- affiliation with the continent (De Walt 2011). Therefore, lematic term. For many of them, there is a negative these individuals took on an Anti-African positioning that stereotype or connotation to the term based on their in- impacted FGAs in a way that made them grow to think of teractions with others such as GAAs. In some of these being Black as being someone who does not want to asso- cases, “Black” had an Anti-African component to it and ciate with Africa. consequently, it did not fully represent who they were. This reasoning is also recognized by noting the FGAs’ While there may be African Americans who have an continental African self, the African American self, anti-African perspective similar to what has been which is the result of being born in the U.S. plus an his- described above, for the sake of this study the views of torical view of that concept, and the American self or some of the FGAs within this study viewed African way of being that does not explicitly encompass African Americans as those persons who embraced and sought or African culture. This depiction of a triple-self appears to learn more about their African heritage. Resulting to be an embedded Tri-Nationalism or Tri-Nationalistic from these tensions, FGAs conception of Blackness often identity (De Walt 2009). As an extension of Fanonian contradicted a foundational tenet of nigrescence. The thought, an embedded tri-nationalism or tri-nationalistic process of self-definition for FGAs borrows from the identity attempts to grapple with at least three forms of GAA historical narrative while simultaneously challen- nationalism that possibly comprise FGA identity. A con- ging it on fundamental levels as notions of Blackness tinental African self, an African American self and the linked it with the continent and the Africana struggle for American self or concept of being may all be three dis- humanity. In acknowledging this occurrence within tinct nationalistic identities that are embedded through a participants, their perspectives run counter to Vandiver socializing process within the United States. This articu- et al.’s (2002) claim that RGO is different from personal lation of self-identity for various Africana people is not identity in that RGO is based on their social affiliations articulated within the framing of Cross’s articulations of preference, whereas personal identity refers to an indi- nigrescence. Cross’s theory and the U.S. Black National- vidual’s sense of personal uniqueness (72). For some of ist framing do not readily provide a means for this ar- the FGAs, their RGO and PI were similar in terms of the ticulation of identity to be captured within the theory or affiliations with their parents’ African heritages (De Walt the implementation of the CRIS. While not providing a 2009, 2011). This assumption that Black and/or African substantial platform for this form of nationalism, American identity is one that they willingly align within is nigrescence does engage the dualism that is found in a also a point of contention as federal identity categories pro- convergent nationalism—the dual nationalistic perspec- vide very few alternatives that fully affirm their identities. tives of hyphenated Americans, emphasizing their na- Although this act on the part of “Blacks” may serve as tionalistic identity from their respective diasporan an indication of the Pre-Encounter stage of nigrescence, identity, linking it with the nationalistic identity that is these interactions over the course of the lived experi- being “American.” (De Walt 2009, 2011). These factors ences of FGAs create an aversion to “Black” identity for further support the need of an identity model that shifts De Walt SpringerPlus 2013, 2:233 Page 9 of 10 http://www.springerplus.com/content/2/1/233

from usages of race and ethnicity towards that of culture Cross WE Jr (1991) Shades of Black: Diversity of African-American Identity. Temple as a way to capture and/or acknowledge the cultural University Press, Philadelphia Cross WE Jr (1995) “The psychology of Nigrescence: Revising the Cross model”. components found within diverse Africana identities. Pp. 93–122 in Handbook of Multicultural Counseling, edited by J. G. In recognizing these differences, it also becomes impera- Ponterotto, J. M. Casas, L. A. Suzuki, and C. M. Alexander. Sage Publications, tive that Universities recognize the evolving demographic Thousand Oaks Cross WE Jr (2001) “Encountering nigrescence”. In: Ponterotto JG, Casas JM, of students who stretch traditional conceptions of Black- Suzuki LA, Alexander CM (eds) Handbook of Multicultural Counseling, 2nd ness or African American identity. As these numbers edn. Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, pp 30–44 increase within these contexts, the demand for university Cross WE Jr (2012) “Foreword”. Pp. xv-xxii in African American Identity: Racial and Cultural Dimensions of the Black Experience, edited by J. M. Sullivan and services will also increase beyond just superficial activities A. M. Esmail. Lexington Books, Lanham that are held during particular times of the year. We will Cross WE Jr, Fhagen-Smith P (2001) Patterns of African American identity need to take a true multicultural approach to the diversity development: A life span perspective. In: Wijeyesinghe CL, Jackson W III (eds) New perspectives on racial identity development: A theoretical and practical found among various community groups as well those var- anthology. New York University Press, New York, pp 243–270 iants found within particular identified groups. This work Cross WE Jr, Vandiver BJ (2001) “Nigrescence theory and measurement: is daunting but critical to meeting the needs of an ever Introducing the Cross Racial Identity Scale (CRIS).”. In: Ponterotto JG, Casas JM, Suzuki LM, Alexander CM (eds) Handbook of multicultural counseling, changing society and set of learners. 2nd edn. Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA, pp 371–393 Cross WE Jr, Grant BO, Ana V (2012) Black identity and well-being: Untangling End note race and ethnicity.”. In: Sullivan JM, Esmail AM (eds) African American a identity: Racial and cultural dimensions of the black experience. Lexington When referring to a diverse community that is not solely Books, Lanham, pp 125–146 based on cultural identity and race but also speaks to being Davis FJ (1993) Who is Black?: One Nation’s Definition. The Pennsylvania State inclusive of diverse perspectives and ways of knowing. University Press, University Park, Pennsylvania ’ b While gender and sexual orientation discussions did Davis RD (2004) Black Students Perceptions: The Complexity of Persistence to Graduation at an American University. Peter Lang Publishing, Inc., New York not permeate through the interactions with the social De Walt PS (2009) “First Generation U.S.-born Africans and the Expanded actors, these aspects of identity are still important and need Nigrescence Theory: The Stretching of a Theory for a ‘Different’ African to be equally considered within university policy. American Experience at a Predominantly White Institution of Higher Education.”. PhD dissertation, University of Colorado at Boulder, United States -- Colorado, Retrieved September 13, 2011, from Dissertations & Competing interests Theses: Full Text. (Publication No. AAT 3366587) The author declares that he has no competing interests. De Walt PS (2011) In Search of an Authentic African American and/or Black Identity: Perspectives of First Generation U.S.-born Africans Attending a Authors’ contributions Predominantly White Institution. Journal of Black Studies 42(3):479–503 PSD conceived and is responsible for all of the content within this Du Bois WEB, William EB (1986) W. E. B. Du Bois: Writings—The Suppression of the manuscript. The author read and approved the final manuscript. African Slave Trade, the Souls of Black Folk, Dusk of Dawn, and Classic Essays and Articles. In: Huggins NI (ed) The Library of America Press, New York Acknowledgments Du Bois WEB, William EB (2003) The Souls of Black Folk (Introduction and Notes The author would like to thank Dr. Janette Klingner, Dr. Reiland Rabaka, Dr. by Griffin, F. J.). Barnes and Nobles Classics, New York Herbert Exum, Dr. Darrell Jackson, Joshua Childs, and Resurgence: the Fanon F (1963) The Wretched of the Earth. Grove, New York Multidisciplinary Research Project for their critical feedback of this manuscript. Fanon F (1967a) Black Skin, White Masks. Grove, New York Fanon F (1967b) A Dying Colonialism. Grove, New York Received: 1 November 2012 Accepted: 12 April 2013 Feagin JR, Vera H, Imani N (1996) The Agony of Education: Black Students at Published: 24 May 2013 White Colleges and Universities. Routledge, New York Gordon LR (2000) Existence Africana: Understanding Africana Existential Thought. References Routledge, New York Akbar N’i (1989) Nigrescence and Identity: Some Limitations. Couns Psychol Hall SP, Carter RT (2006) The Relationship Between Racial Identity, Ethnic Identity, 17(2):258–263 and Perceptions of Racial Discrimination in an Afro-Caribbean Descent Asante MK (1988) Afrocentricity. Africa World Press, Trenton, NJ Sample. Journal of Black Psychology 32(2):155–175 Asante MK (1998) The afrocentric idea (Revised and, expandedth edn. Temple Harris CI (1995) “Whiteness as Property.”. In: Crenshaw K, Gotanda N, Peller G, University Press, Philadelphia Thomas K (eds) Critical Race Theory: The Key Writings that Formed the Bailey B (2001) Dominican-American Ethnic/Racial Identities and United States Movement. The New Press, New York, p 276 Social Categories. Int Migr Rev 35(3):677–708 Helms JE (ed) (1990) Black and White Racial Identity: Theory, Research, and Bethea AR (2006) An Investigation of African Identity, Racial Identity, and Practice. Greenwood Press, New York Ethnicity Among Black American College Students.” PhD dissertation, Hocoy D (1999) The Validity of Cross’s Model of Black Racial Identity Lehigh University. Diss Abstr Int 67(02):147B, UMI No. 3203810 Development in the South African Context. Journal of Black Psychology Brown OG, Hinton KG, Howard-Hamilton M (eds) (2007) Unleashing Suppressed 25(2):131–151 Voices on College Campuses: Diversity Issues in Higher Education. Peter Lang Kambon KKK (1992) The African Personality in America: An African-centered Publishing, Inc., New York Framework. Nubian Nations Publications, Tallahassee, FL Cabral A (1973) Return to the Source: Selected Speeches of Amilcar Cabral. In: Kambon KKK (2012) African/Black Psychology in the American Context: An Africa Information Service (ed) Monthly Review Press, New York African-centered Approach, 2nd edn. Nubian Nations Publications, Campbell NA, Reece JB (2005) Biology, 7th edn. Benjamin Cummings, San Francisco Tallahassee, FL Cokley KO (2002) Testing Cross’s Revised Racial Identity Model: An Examination Mills CW (1998) Blackness Visible: Essays on Philosophy and Race. Cornell of the Relationship Between Racial Identity and Internalized Racialism. University Press, Ithaca, New York J Couns Psychol 49(4):476–483 Nieto S (1999) The Light in Their Eyes: Creating Multicultural Learning Cross WE Jr (1971) The Negro-to-Black Conversion Experience. Black World 20(9):13–27 Communities. Teachers College Press, New York Cross WE Jr (1978) The Thomas and Cross Models of Psychological Nigrescence: Nobles WW (1989) Psychological Nigrescence: An Afrocentric Review. Couns A Review. The Journal of Black Psychology 5(1):13–31 Psychol 17(2):253–257 De Walt SpringerPlus 2013, 2:233 Page 10 of 10 http://www.springerplus.com/content/2/1/233

Nobles WW (2006) Seeking the Sakhu: Foundational Writings for an African Worrell FC, Cross WE Jr, Vandiver BJ (2001) “Nigrescence Theory: Current Status Psychology. Third World Press, Chicago and Challenges for the Future”. [Special issue]. Journal of Multicultural Ogbar JOG (2004) Black Power: Radical Politics and African American Identity. The Counseling and Development 29(3):201–213 Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD Worrell FC, Vandiver BJ, Schaefer BA, Cross WE Jr, Fhagen-Smith PE (2006) Ogbu JU (1991) “Immigrant and Involuntary Minorities in Comparative Generalizing Nigrescence Profiles: Cluster Analyses of Cross Racial Identity Scale Perspective.”. In: Beauchamp ER, Gibson MA, Ogbu JU (eds) Reference Books (CRIS) Scores in Three Independent Samples. Couns Psychol 34(4):519–547 in International Education: Vol. 7. Minority Status and Schooling: A Comparative Study of Immigrant and Involuntary Minorities. Garland doi:10.1186/2193-1801-2-233 Publishing, Inc, New York, pp 3–33 Cite this article as: De Walt: Discourse on African American/Black Ogbu JU (1992) Understanding Cultural Diversity and Learning. Educ Res 21(8):5–14 Identity: engaging the expanded nigrescence theory Parham TA (1989a) Cycles of Psychological Nigrescence. Couns Psychol 17(2):187–226 with a diasporic consciousness. SpringerPlus 2013 2:233. Parham TA (1989b) “Nigrescence: The Transformation of Black Consciousness Across the Life Cycle.”. In: Jones RL (ed) Black Adult Development and Aging. Cobb and Henry Publishers, Berkeley, pp 151–166 Rabaka R (2002) Malcolm X and/as Critical Theory: Philosophy, Radical Politics, and the African American Search for Social Justice. Journal of Black Studies 33(2):145–165 Rabaka R (2006) “Africana Critical Theory of Contemporary Society: Ruminations on Radical Politics, Social Theory, and African Philosophy.”.In:AsanteMK,KarengaM (eds) The Handbook of Black Studies. Sage, Thousand Oaks, pp 130–152 Rabaka R (2007) W. E. B. Du Bois and the Problems of the Twenty-first Century: An Essay on Africana Critical Theory. Lexington Books, Lanham, MD Rabaka R (2009) Africana Critical Theory: Reconstructing the Black Radical Tradition, from W. E. B. Du Bois and C. L. R. James to Frantz Fanon and Amilcar Cabral. Lexington Books, Lanham, MD Rabaka R (2010) Forms of Fanonism: Frantz Fanon’s Critical Theory and the Dialects of Decolonization. Lexington Books, Lanham, MD Rahier JM (1999) “Introduction.”. In: Rahier JM (ed) Representations of Blackness and the Performance of Identities. Bergin and Garvey, Westport, CT, pp xiii–xxvi Romo R (2011) Between Black and Brown: Blaxican (Black-Mexican) Multiracial Identity in California. Journal of Black Studies 42(3):402–426. doi:10.1177/0021934710376172 Rumbaut RG (2002) Severed or Sustained Attachments? Language, Identity, and Imagined Communities in the Post-immigrant Generation. In: Levitt P, Waters MC (eds) The Changing Faces of Home: The Transnational Lives of the Second Generation P. Russell Sage, New York, pp 43–95 Sandoval C (2000) Methodology of the Oppressed. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis Saucedo EN (2002) “Profiles of Black Latinos in Academe: The Identity Dilemma and the Perception of Self.”. In: PhD dissertation, Arizona State University. Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Database, 3069848 Sneed JR, Schwartz SJ, Cross WE Jr (2006) “A Multicultural Critique of Identity Status Theory and Research: A Call for Integration.”. Identity: An International Journal of Theory and Research 6(1):61–84 Sutherland ME (2011) Toward a Caribbean psychology: An African-centered approach. Journal of Black Studies 42(8):1175–1194. doi:10.1177/0021934711410547 Tatum BD (1997) “Why Are All the Black Kids Sitting Together in the Cafeteria?”: And Other Conversations About Race. Basic Books, New York Vandiver BJ, Fhagen-Smith PE, Cokley KO, Cross WE Jr, Worrell FC (2001) “Cross’s Nigrescence Model: From Theory to Scale to Theory”. [Special issue]. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development 29(3):174–200 Vandiver BJ, Cross WE Jr, Worrell FC, Fhagen-Smith PE (2002) “Validating the Cross Racial Identity Scale.”. J Couns Psychol 49(1):71–85 Waters MC (1994) Ethnic and Racial Identities of Second-generation Black Immigrant in New York City. Int Migr Rev 28(4):795–820 Waters MC (1999) Black Identities: West Indian Immigrant Dreams and American Realities. Russell Sage, New York Woodson CG (2006) The Mis-education of the Negro. The Book Tree, San Diego, CA Worrell FC (2012) “Forty Years of Cross’s Nigrescence Theory: From Stages to Submit your manuscript to a Profiles, from African Americans to All Americans.”. In: Sullivan JM, Esmail AM (eds) African American Identity: Racial and Cultural Dimensions of the Black journal and beneﬁ t from: Experience. Lexington Books, Lanham, pp 3–28 7 Convenient online submission 7 Rigorous peer review 7 Immediate publication on acceptance 7 Open access: articles freely available online 7 High visibility within the ﬁ eld 7 Retaining the copyright to your article

Submit your next manuscript at 7 springeropen.com