Population Size, Distribution Þÿandlocalresidents

DSpace Institution DSpace Repository http://dspace.org

Biology Thesis and Dissertations

2021-03-03 POPULATION SIZE, DISTRIBUTION AND LOCAL RESIDENTS’ ATTITUDE TOWARDS ROCK HYRAX, IN ZEGIE PENINSULA, ETHIOPIA

BIRKIE, ALEHEGN http://ir.bdu.edu.et/handle/123456789/11996 Downloaded from DSpace Repository, DSpace Institution's institutional repository

BAHIR DAR UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF SCIENCE

DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY

POPULATION SIZE, DISTRIBUTION AND LOCAL RESIDENTS’ ATTITUDE TOWARDS ROCK HYRAX, IN ZEGIE PENINSULA, ETHIOPIA

MSC THESIS BY BIRKIE ALEHEGN

Advisor: Zewdu Kifle (PhD)

DECEMBER, 2020 BAHIR DAR

POPULATION SIZE, DISTRIBUTION AND LOCAL RESIDENTS’ ATTITUDE TOWARDS ROCK HYRAX, IN ZEGIE PENINSULA, ETHIOPIA

MSC THESIS

BIRKIE ALEHEGN

A Thesis submitted to the Department of Biology, School of Graduate Studies, Bahir Dar University in Partial Fulfillment for the Requirement of the Degree of Master of Science in Biology

Advisor: Zewdu Kifle (PhD)

DECEMBER, 2020 BAHIR DAR

DECLARATION

This is to certify that the thesis entitled “Population size, Distribution and Local Residents’ Attitude towards Rock Hyrax, in Zegie peninsula, Ethiopia” the school of graduates‟ studies of Bahir Dar University. Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in “Biology” of department of Biology, Bahir Dar University is a record of original work carried out by me and has never been submitted to this or any other institution to get any other degree or certificates. The assistance and help I received during the course of this investigation have been duly acknowledged.

Birkie Alehegn ------Bahir Dar Name of the candidate Date places

ADVISORS' APPROVAL

Bahir Dar University

College Of Science

Department Of Biology Approval of thesis for defense

I hereby certify that I have supervised, read, and evaluated this thesis in title, Population Size, Distribution and Local Residents’ Attitude towards Rock Hyrax, In Zegie Peninsula, Ethiopia prepared under my guidance. I recommend the thesis be submitted for oral defense.

______Advisor‟s name Signature Date

______Co-Advisor‟s name Signature Date

______Department Head Signature Date

______Postgraduate Head Signature Date

EXAMINERS' APPROVAL FORM

Bahir Dar University

College Of Science

Department Of Biology

Approval of thesis for defense result As members of the board of examiners, we examined this thesis titled Population Size, Distribution and Local Residents’ Attitude towards Rock Hyrax, In Zegie Peninsula, Ethiopia by Birkie Alehegn,We hereby certify that the thesis is accepted for fulfilling the requirements for the award of the degree of Master of Science in Biology.

Board of Examiners External examiner name Signature Date –––––––––––––––––––––– –––––––––––––– ––––––––––––––

Internal examiner name Signature Date –––––––––––––––––––––– –––––––––––––– ––––––––––––––

Chair person‟s name Signature Date –––––––––––––––––––––– –––––––––––––– ––––––––––––––

III

DEDICATION

This research is dedicated to my beloved family for their endless advice, support and encouragements for my success.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This thesis would not have been possible without the support of many people. First and foremost, I forward my great thankful to my advisor Zewdu Kifle (PhD) for his professional advice, and giving me his invaluable comments starting from the proposal to this final research work.

I would like to express my special thanks to my lovely husband Ato Meseret Abebe who encourage, read and comment this research work. I also give my thanks to my little daughters Tsion and Trufat who gave me moral support to do my research timely and share the work burden at home when I went to the field to collect data.

I would like to address my thanks to my staff member Ato Kindie Getu for his help to read the research draft and gave me constructive comments and suggestions. I want to forward my gratitude in advance to Zegie people and kebele leaders for their cooperation and devoting their time to give response for enumerators to the questionnaire and told me all necessary information about the research site. I want to give great appreciation to Zegie youth who participated in data collection using structured questionnaire and in counting rock hyrax at a particular time during the counting months. Above all, I would like to give the greatest thanks to God who gave me strength to complete this research.

ABSTRACT The conservation and management of wild animals starts from a reliable knowledge of the wild animals in an area. Rock hyrax which categorized as “least concern” by the IUCN is found in Zegie peninsula. However, there is no scientific study conducted related to it. Thus, this study was done with the objective of estimating population size, distribution and residents‟ attitude towards the rock hyrax in Zegie peninsula. To estimate the population size, distribution of rock hyrax direct transect line counting method was applied. The counting was undertaken by stratifying the study area Lake shore, human residence, forest and bush land with total of 18 transects lines. The number of transect lines were 5 in lake side, 9 in human premises‟, 3 in forest and 1 in bush land. The number and length of each transect line was taken proportional to the habitat stratum area. Counting of rock hyrax in each transect line was done in late morning and early afternoon for three consecutive days in selected dry and wet season months. To examine the attitude of dwellers towards rock hyrax primary data was collected by structured questioner from selected sample respondents. A total of 203 respondents in the study area were selected by systematic random sampling. To triangulate and substantiate the study nine key informant interviews were taken. The quantitative data collected was analyzed using descriptive statistics. The total estimated population size of rock hyraxes in the study area was 426 during the dry and 512 during the wet seasons. Rock hyraxes were distributed unevenly in the study area. Mostly rock hyrax is found Lake Shore followed by human residence and a few in dense forest habitat. But no rock hyrax is found at the bush land habitat of the study area. The distribution of rock hyraxes result indicates that distribution is determined by suitability of forage, get water and rock shelter. By rock hyraxes pollution effect of churches and houses by feces and urine, by dwellers traditional believes of magical power of rock hyrax and with its destructive effect of fruits and vegetables most of the residents‟ do not have good feeling on the presence of rock hyrax in their locality. Dwellers do not also support the protection and conservation of rock hyraxes and protection is not practiced in the study area. To avoid the pollution and control the damage the mechanism implemented in the area were killing and chasing. Population size and distribution of rock hyrax in the study area connected with food availability and shelter in an area. To improve the dwellers attitude towards rock hyrax local administration and other governmental and non-governmental organizations should work cooperatively to improve awareness about economic and ecological importance and conservation of rock hyrax. It also needs full implementation of the laws that inhibit the local community from practicing illegal hunting of rock hyrax and needs to examine the existing laws that need improve.

Keywords: Conservation, Habitat, Residents’ Attitude, Rock Hyrax, Zegie Peninsula

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS...... V ABSTRACT ...... VI LIST OF TABLES ...... IX Page ...... IX LIST OF FIGURES ...... X LIST OF APPENDICES ...... XI ACRONYMS ...... XII 1. INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1. Background of the Study ...... 1 1.2. Statement of the Problem ...... 3 1.3. Significance of the Study ...... 3 1.4. Objectives and Research Questions of the study ...... 3 1.4.1. General Objective of the study ...... 3 1.4.2. Specific Objectives of the study ...... 3 1.4.3. Research questions ...... 4 2. LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 5 2.1. Wildlife in Africa ...... 5 2.2. Threats Wildlife in Africa ...... 5 2.3. Biodiversity in Ethiopia ...... 6 2.4. The Rock Hyrax ...... 7 2.5. Physical Characteristics of Rock Hyrax ...... 7 2.6. Reproductive Biology and Behavior in Rock Hyraxes ...... 8 2.7. Distribution, Geographic variation and behavior of Rock Hyraxes ...... 8 2.8. Feeding and Foraging in Rock Hyraxes ...... 9 2.9. Importance of Rock Hyrax ...... 9 2.10. Threat and Conservation Mechanisms for Rock Hyraxes ...... 10 2.10.1. Threats of Rock Hyraxes ...... 10 2.10.2. Conservations Status to Rock Hyraxes ...... 11 3. 3. RESEARCH MATERIALS AND METHODS ...... 12 3.1 Description of the Study Area ...... 12 3.2 Research Design and Methodology ...... 14 3.2.1 Method of Data Collection ...... 14 3.2.2 Materials ...... 18 3.2.3 Statistical Analysis ...... 18

VII

TABLE OF CONTENTS CONTINUED PAGE

4. RESULTS ...... 19 4.1 Population Size and Distribution of Rock Hyrax ...... 19 4.1.1 Population Size of Rock Hyraxes ...... 19 4.1.2 Distribution of Rock Hyraxes ...... 20 4.2 Demographic Characteristics of Questioner Respondents ...... 20 4.2.1 Attitude of Local People towards Rock Hyraxes ...... 21 4.2.2 Attitude of Local People towards Rock Hyraxes for conservation ...... 22 4.2.3 Damage Caused by Rock Hyraxes and Controlling Mechanisms ...... 23 4.2.4 Benefits and the population trend of Rock Hyraxes in the study area ...... 24 4.2.5 Threats and Conservation Status to Rock Hyraxes...... 25 5 DISCUSSION ...... 26 5.1 Population Size and Distribution of Rock Hyraxes ...... 26 5.2 Attitude of Local People towards Rock Hyraxes ...... 28 6 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ...... 31 6.1 Conclusion ...... 31 6.2 Recommendation ...... 32 7 REFERENCES ...... 33 APPENDICES ...... 40

VIII

LIST OF TABLES Page Table 4-1: Estimated population structure of rock hyraxes during dry and wet seasons ...... 19 Table 4-2: Density of rock hyraxes in the four habitat strata sample areas during the dry and wet seasons ...... 20 Table 4-3: Feeling of respondents‟ on the presence of rock hyraxes in their locality with educational level ...... 22 Table 4-4: Plant species Damaged by Rock Hyraxes...... 23 Table 4-5: Mechanisms of Killing and Chasing Rock Hyraxes to control/ avoid damage vegetable and fruit leaves and its pollution effect by feces and urine ...... 24 Table 4-6: Respondents‟ Response on the population of Rock Hyrax in the Two Kebeles ...... 25

LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Figure 3-1: Rain and Average Temperature of the study area in 2020 11 months ...... 12 Figure 3-2: Map and habitat stratum of the Study Area ...... 13 Figure 4-1: Educational status of the respondents ...... 21 Figure 4-2: Response on the conservation of rock hyrax related to educational status...... 23

LIST OF APPENDICES

Page Appendix Table 0-1፡ Questionnaire filled by respondents ...... 40 Appendix Table 0-2: Questionnaire for key informant interview...... 46 Appendix Table 0-3፡ Rock Hyrax population counting sheet ...... 47 Appendix Table 0-4 : Hyrax population count transects length and area in each habitat ...... 48 Appendix Table 0-5: Sampling for questioner responders households in the Study Area ...... 49 Appendix Table 0-6: Interviewed sample respondents ...... 49 Appendix Table 0-7፡ Analysis results ...... 50

ACRONYMS

AMWCDO Agricultural Ministry of Wildlife Conservation and Development Organization EBI Ethiopian Biodiversity Institute EWCA Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Authority

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization

IBA Important Bird Area

IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources SUNARMA Sustainable Natural Resource Management

UNESCO United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization

XII

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background of the Study

Ethiopia possesses different altitude ranges and topography (Husen et al., 2012). The altitudinal variation of the country ranges from 126 meters below sea level in the Danakil Depression of Afar region to the highest peak of 4,620 meters above sea level on Mount Ras-Dejen of Simien Mountains National Park of Ethiopia. The landscape composed of high and rugged mountains, flat-topped plateaus, deep gorges, incised river valleys and rolling plains (Ethiopian Biodiversity Institute, 2015). The Great Rift Valley runs from Northeast to Southwest of the country and separates the Western and South eastern highlands. Extensive semi-arid lowlands in the East, South and West are extensions of these highlands (Food and Agriculture Orgization, 2013). These altitude and topography variation creates diverse climatic conditions varying from hot and dry desert in the lowland areas to cold and humid alpine habitats in the highlands. These factors also strongly influence Ethiopia‟s extraordinary range of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems which have contributed to have high diversity and rate of endemism (Tesfaye Awas, 2007).

Ethiopia comprises 70% of Conservation International‟s Eastern Afromontane hotspot (Mittermeier et al., 2004). Past geological history and wide ranging climatic features have made Ethiopia the home of diverse endemic fauna and flora (Yalden and Largen, 2008). The flora of Ethiopia is very heterogeneous and diverse with an estimated number of more than 6,500 species of vascular plants (with 625 endemic species and 669 near-endemic species, and one endemic plant genus) and ranked the fifth largest floral country in tropical Africa (Young, 2012). The fauna of Ethiopia is not well investigated and documented. Nevertheless, 284 species of mammals, more than 860 species of birds, 201 species of reptiles (over 87 snakes, 101 lizards and 13 species of tortoises and turtles, 188 species of fish, 324 butterflies and 63 species of amphibians are found in the country (Ethiopian Biodiversity Institute, 2019).

Wildlife resources constitute a vital link in the survival of the human and have been subject of much fascination, interest, and research all over the world. Because every one of us depends on plants and animals for all vital components of our welfare, it is more than a

1 matter of convenience that they continue to exist; it is a matter of life and death (Hundal, 2004).

Rock hyraxes are among mammalian groups thought to have originated from ungulates and are found only in Africa and the Middle East (Olds and Shoshani, 1982). In Ethiopia, Procavia capensis lives in rock outcrops, piles of boulders and fractured cliff faces (Gebremeskel Teklehaimanot, 2015). Procavia is sometimes treated as a single species (Olds and Shoshani, 1982), usually they are divided into five species namely P. habessinica, P. capensis, P. johnstoni, P. welwitschii and P.ruficeps (Estes, 1991, Kingdon, 1997). Rock hyrax has the widest geographical and altitudinal distribution among the hyraxes (Stuart and Stuart, 2000). But their occurrence, distribution and abundance depend upon the combination of several abiotic factors such as rainfall, presence of suitable rocky outcrops and other hiding places, and biotic factors such as interspecific and intraspecific competition for food, predation and parasites (Skinner and Chimimba, 2005). Even if there are no major threats to rock hyrax; Predation, intraspecific competition, immigration, territorial fighting and dispersal regulate rock hyrax population. Rock hyraxes are hunted by local people. For example, the Hadza or Watindiga, a bushman tribe in Tanzania, hunt rock hyraxes for food (Smith et al., 2010). In some areas of Egypt, it is hunted for food (Nowak, 1999). In countries like Kenya and Israel, the rock hyrax is not supported to live in their locality for being reservoir of cutaneuous leishmaniasis (Jacobson et al., 2003, Wossenseged Lemma, 2008).

Rock hyrax is classified as a species of Least Concern Red List of Threatened Species Nature;, (2008) and current population trend is unknown. However, their populations have declined due to disease, predation and territorial fighting (Hoeck et al., 1982).

Assessing the population size of wild animals and their distributions is essential to manage on a sustained basis, to determine the status of a purposeful introduction or reintroduction of a wildlife species to an area (Abebayehu Dessalegn and Tilaye Wube, 2012). In addition to these human attitudes towards wild animals and values about wild animals vary within the society and from one area to another. Understanding the effects of local people on management for wild animals and examine the attitudes of the local people towards the wild animal is important for designing sustainable conservation and management strategies (Newmark et al., 1994).

1.2. Statement of the Problem

Wild animals are important ecological components of ecosystems. Zegie peninsula is home for a diversity of mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles, mollusks, insects and a variety of plants species (Andarge et al., 2017). However, its wildlife resources and their habitats are under threat/ due to deforestation and illegal hunting practices (Beyene Belay et al., 2018). In the area leopard, grivet monkey, rock-hyrax, bush-pig, duiker and common bushbuck are the most illegally hunted wild animals. Bushbuck and warthog have been eradicated from the study area as a result of illegal hunting (Getachew Gebeyehu and Afework Bekele, 2011).

Rock hyraxes also live in hollow Ficus and Acacia trees (Aero Asrat, 2016). In Ethiopia, hyraxes‟ population ecology, threats, local farmers‟ attitude and activity patterns was studied in Tigray, Bale Mountain and Kafa (Teklay Girmay et al., 2015, Aero Asrat, 2016, Teklehaimanot and Balakrishnan, 2018). However, only little is known about rock hyrax found in the Zegie Peninsula. To develop effective management and conservation activity of rock hyraxes in the study area, it needs baseline information about population size and distribution status of the species (Norton-Griffiths, 1978). As well as the attitude of local people on rock hyrax is not known. Thus, this study is needed to fill this gap.

1.3. Significance of the Study

The study would generate valuable information about rock hyrax in the study area. It would also offer insights for concerned bodies and stakeholders to see their conservation mechanisms related to rock hyrax. Besides to these, the study would also add information to the existing knowledge and act as a stepping-stone for similar researches in later.

1.4. Objectives and Research Questions of the study

1.4.1. General Objective of the study

The general objective of the study was to study the population size, distribution of rock hyrax and the attitude of local people to conserve the species in the study area.

1.4.2. Specific Objectives of the study

The study focused on the following specific objectives

 To estimate the population size of rock hyrax in the study area  To study the distribution of rock hyrax in Zegie Peninsula

 To assess the attitude of local people on the conservation of rock hyrax

1.4.3. Research questions

 What is the status of the population size of rock hyrax in Zegie Peninsula?  What seems the distribution of rock hyrax in the study area?  Do local people have positive attitude towards rock hyrax conservation in the study area?

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Wildlife in Africa

Africa is a diverse region from ancient deserts to pristine swamps and from rolling savannas to mist shrouded mountains that give a vast array of wildlife. It has eight major physical regions that makes the home of wildlife: the Sahara, the Sahel, the Ethiopian Highlands, the savanna, the Swahili Coast, the rain forest, the African Great Lakes, and Southern Africa (Kingdon, 2015).

Africa is the home of a greater variety of large ungulates, or hoofed mammals (some 90 species), and freshwater fish (2,000 species) than any other continent. The primates that include some 45 species of Old World monkeys, as well as two of the world‟s great apes- the chimpanzee and the world‟s largest ape, the gorilla are found. It is also the home of aquatic life, rodents, Birds, Reptiles and amphibians Arthropods (Robert et al., 2020). In various reasons the same species of animals are found in all the various habitats, for example water, desert or mountains, but a number of large mammals such as lions, elephants and leopards can survive in a number of extremely varying habitats ranging from very arid to marshes and swamps. The most African fauna is found in the Afro tropical ecological region (Crosskey and White, 1977).

2.2. Threats Wildlife in Africa

Human population in Africa is growing at a rapid rate which needs space to live. The greatest threat to African wildlife has come from human interference in the form of clearing animal habitats for agriculture, mass hunting and poaching for animal products such as skin, ivory and horn (Harris and Brown, 2009). This causes the Parks and reserves to be targeted by people living on the peripheries and feel that they are not benefited from the parks and reserves. As a result, they create conflict and start to damage the wildlife found in the Parks and reserves. On the other hand Diamond, (1989) mentioned the four most general reasons that lead the destruction of wildlife: over killing, habitat destruction and fragmentation and impact of introduced species.

Generally, threats that contributed for the loss of African wildlife are fragmentation of their natural habitat, the wire snares of the bush-meat hunters, poaching and poisoning of animals for body parts, contact with diseased/infected wildlife outside of protected areas,

5 conflict with live-stock and game farmers, and road kills. All these threats can be associated with human encroachment to the natural wildlife habitat. Unfortunately, people are threatening Africa‟s natural habitats and biodiversity many without fully realizing the consequences.

2.3. Biodiversity in Ethiopia

Ethiopia is known for its diversify topography. The diverse topography gave rise to a wide range of altitude and other environmental factors. According to a classification based on agro-ecosystem known as agro-ecological zones, Ethiopia has 18 major and 49 minor AEZs. This has resulted in wide variations in rainfall, humidity and temperature as a result of which the country comprises ten ecosystems that range from Afroalpine at the highest elevations to desert and semi-desert ecosystems at the lowest elevations (Hillman, 1993, Yalden and Largen, 2008).

Because of the combined effects of topographic and climatic factors, the country is endowed with diverse ecosystems that are inhabited by diverse animal, plant and microbial species (Yalden, 1983). This makes Ethiopia is one of the top 25 biodiversity-rich countries in the world, and hosts two of the world‟s 34 biodiversity hotspots, namely: the Eastern Afromontane and the Horn of Africa hotspots (Hillman, 1993, Yalden and Largen, 2008).

Even though Ethiopia exhibit an interesting pattern of floral and faunal distribution, due to the extensive utilization or overexploitation and human settlements that are accompanied by excessive deforestation, overgrazing, pollution and agricultural practice large variety of the mammals are confined to a few uninhabited mountains and few protected areas (Evangelista et al., 2007, Bidntf, 2010).

According to Fifth National Report to the CBD and Young, (2012), Ethiopia has so far established several protected areas (PAs) which include 21 national parks, two sanctuaries, three wildlife reserves, 20 controlled hunting areas, six open hunting areas, six community conservation areas and 58 national forest priority area of which 37 are protected forests. The protected area in Ethiopia accounts about 14% of the total area of the country. To use natural resources sustainably; resource assessment, developing management plans for PAs, forest management and land use; and organizing local communities are essential.

2.4. The Rock Hyrax

The taxonomy of rock hyrax is under Animalia Kingdom; Phylum Chordata; in class Mammalia and order Hyracoidea. The order hyracoidean consists of one extinct family, Pliohyracidae and one extant family, Procaviidae which comprises of three living genera: viz. Procavia, Heterohyrax and Dendrohyrax (Vaughan et al., 2000).

Due to the presence of similarities in superficial features and dentition hyraxes were grouped with rodents and rhinoceroses respectively. But it was Thomas Huxley, placed them in an order of their own, Hyracoidea Huxley in 1869 for the first time (Kingdon, 2004). Some authors split taxon is into separate species, including Cape Hyrax P.Capensis, Abyssinian Hyrax P. habessinica, Johnston‟s Hyrax P. johnstoni, and Western Hyrax P. Ruficeps (Kingdon, 1971). Recent classifications recognize 17 subspecies, the validity of some of those is, however, ambiguous (Butynski et al., 2015).

2.5. Physical Characteristics of Rock Hyrax

Rock hyraxes (Procavia capensis) have given different names in different languages The scientific name Procavia capensis was derived from the name of the guinea pig in the language of the Galibi tribe from French Guiana. Hyraxes are among mammalian groups believed to be originated from ungulates and found only in East Africa and Middle East (Olds and Shoshani, 1982).

Hyraxes are medium-sized herbivorous terrestrial mammals. They weigh between 4 kgs and 5 kgs and found at elevations up to 4200 meters, (Feldhamer et al., 2007). They have pointed head, short neck, short legs, rudimentary tail, and rounded eyes and ears (Wossenseged Lemma, 2008). They are the smallest ungulate type mammals and also alike in size and appearance to woodchuck or marmot (Estes, 1991). They are rabbit sized animals with very long bodies, blunt fingered hands and feet, large mouthed, deep jawed and long fur. They have long and tactile hairs on their muzzle, cheeks, throat, brows, rump and limb joints (Kingdon, 1997).

The forefeet of rock hyrax are plantigrade, and the hind feet are semi-digitigrade. The sole of the feet has large, soft pads that are kept moist with sweat-like secretions. Male hyraxes are approximately 10% heavier than females. Male‟s fur is thick grey-brown, although this varies with different environments: from dark brown in wetter habitats to light grey in desert living individuals (Bothma, 1966).

2.6. Reproductive Biology and Behavior in Rock Hyraxes

Rock hyraxes give birth between two to four years after a gestation period of seven to eight months. The young are well developed at birth with fully opened eyes and complete pelage which consists of guard hairs, under fur, and dawn hair; spines, bristles, wool. Hair length is negligible in thermoregulation as some tropical mammals (Feldhamer et al., 2007). Females give birth in a protected rocky crevice to form one up to six young. Sexual maturity occurs at about 16 to 17 months of age and reaches adult size at three years. Breeding period varies with geographic location. In males, the tests are permanently abdominal (Olds and Shoshani, 1982). During seasonal changes, the weight of the male reproductive organs (testis and seminal vesicles) changes due to sexual activity. The males are sexually inactive from May to January and the organ dramatically increases in weight from February onward and the males are able to copulate (Glover and Millar, 1970). Rock hyraxes are polygynous, and a single territorial male can control a harem of three to seven females in a territory of less than 4000 square meters.

2.7. Distribution, Geographic variation and behavior of Rock Hyraxes

Rock hyraxes are found throughout sub-Saharan Africa and northeast Africa, being discontinuously distributed from Senegal through southern Algeria (isolated population), Libya and Egypt (east of the Nile River) to central and southern Africa (excluding the Congo Basin forests) (Hoeck and Bloomer, 2013). Procavia capensis extends to the Arabian Peninsula, mainly in the west, and to Lebanon, Jordan, and Israel (Shoshani, 2005). Rock hyraxes are the most arid adapted of hyrax species, and its range includes dry mountainous regions in the Namibia, Sahara, and Arabian Desert (Bartholomew and Rainy, 1971, Hoeck, 1975). The Rock hyraxes are distributed across sub-Saharan Africa, with the exception of the Congo Basin and Madagascar. They also distributed in the Middle East and the Arabian Peninsula (Butynski et al., 2015).

Hyrax species have geographic variation. Kingdon, (2015), described the five sub-species of hyrax as: Procavia capensis capensis which is Cape rock hyrax, native to South Africa and Namibia; Procavia capensis habessinicus which is Ethiopian rock hyrax, native to northeastern Africa and Arabia; Procavia capensis johnstoni which Black-necked rock hyrax, native to central and East Africa which; Procavia capensis ruficeps which Red- headed rock hyrax, native to the southern Sahara and Procavia capensis welwitschii which is Kaokoveld rock hyrax, native to the Kaokoveld of Namibia. The shade of their pelt

8 varies individually and regionally; particularly the dorsal patches (present in both sexes) are very variable, ranging from yellow to black or flecked (Kingdon, 2015). In outlying populations these are more constant in color, black in P. c. capensis, cream in P. c. welwitschii, and orange in P. c. ruficeps (Kingdon, 2015).

An unrelated, convergently-evolved mammal of similar habitats and appearance is the rock cavy of Brazil. Rock hyraxes build dwelling holes in any type of rock with suitable cavities such as sedimentary rocks and soil (Sale, 1966). Rock hyraxes are living in colonies comprising an adult male, different number of adult females and immature which are active during the day and sometimes during moonlit nights (Young and Matthew, 1993). The dominant male defends and watches the group and marks its territory. Rock hyraxes are prayed on by different predators Turner and Watson, (2008) like hyenas, large birds, etc. Their habitat ranges from dry savanna to dense rain forest and rocky out-crops.

2.8. Feeding and Foraging in Rock Hyraxes

Rock hyraxes are herbivorous that feed on a wide variety of different plants of broad- leafed plants (Young and Matthew, 1993). They utilize a wide variety of vegetation, including grasses, shrubs and leaves of trees. They also eat plants that have aromatic leaves and even some that are toxic to other animals (Rifai et al., 2000, Khoza and Hamer, 2013). They forage for food away up to 50 meters from their refuge, usually feeding as a group. When they are approached to danger, the sentries give an alarm call and then they quickly retreat to their refuge(Kotler et al., 1999).

Rock hyraxes able to go for many days without water due to the moisture they obtain through their food but quickly dehydrate under sun light. Rock hyrax can climb trees and enter residential gardens to feed on the leaves of citrus and other trees. They also feed on some plants that are poisonous to other animals and tree bark. Young can ingest solid food after two weeks and are weaned at ten weeks. Rock hyraxes are not ruminants (Olds and Shoshani, 1982).

2.9. Importance of Rock Hyrax

The Rock hyrax urine and defecate accumulated in one place for a long period of time has been used in a number of applications including a medicine called hyraceum – a sticky mass of dung that has been employed as a South African folk remedy used to treat several disorders, including epilepsy, convulsions, and a number of female-specific diseases.

Procavia capensis also hunted locally for its meat throughout its geographic range (Olds and Shoshani, 1982).

Rock hyraxes are sometimes considered as pests, as they inhabit road culverts and crevices in stone walls. Agricultural plots that have been recently cleared are often bordered by rocks that were removed during clearing, thus providing prime habitat for rock hyraxes. Fields such as these are often used for cultivating fruit trees, up on which hyraxes browse and causes considerable damage. Besides to this, rock hyraxes are known reservoir for Leishimania tropica, a flagellated parasite that infects rodents and humans (Jacobson et al., 2003, Svobodová et al., 2006).

Rock hyraxes are the dominant herbivores in rocky areas throughout their geographic range. They are preyed upon by a number of different vertebrate species and are known host for up to 25 species of lice or pthiraptira (Olds and Shoshani, 1982, Estes, 1991).

2.10. Threat and Conservation Mechanisms for Rock Hyraxes

2.10.1. Threats of Rock Hyraxes

There are different threats that contributed for the declining of rock hyraxes in their localities Hoeck et al., (1982). Rock hyraxes are subjected to threats of various avian and mammalian predators. Rock hyrax can act as a source of food of many predators such as Verreaux‟s eagle (Aquila verreauxii), owls, leopards, lions, jackals, caracals, African wild dogs, spotted hyaena, African civets and several snake species such as the Egyptian cobras and puff adders (Skinner and Chimimba, 2005, Chiweshe, 2007). Rock hyraxes escape predators by staying alert, immediately respond to the alarm calls of territorial males and to the calls of other species and hiding in burrows (Estes, 1991).

The other factor that cause for threats to rock hyrax is hunting. Hunting is done to use their thick and soft fur and skin (Smith et al., 2010), to use its meat for food in Tanzania and in Egypt, to avoid the forage computation with sheep and other animals (Nowak, 1999) and to avoid it because of being reservoir of cutaneuous leishmaniasis (Jacobson et al., 2003)

Hhabitat loss human encroachment on hyrax habitat is also another challenge for the declining of hyraxes. As human populations are growing, there will be the expanding of roads, settlements, and agriculture that leads an encroachment to wildlife living spaces. This habitat loss and habitat fragmentation makes it more difficult for rock hyraxes to find food, mate, and shelter. Hoeck et al., (1982).

Habitat degradation and fragmentation caused by human activities influence rock hyrax population size and distribution. Rock hyrax population size is determined by the number of rocky outcrops with crevices where the species hide from predators (Hoeck, 1989). Predation and shelter are the most common factors that affect the hyrax population size (Fairall et al., 1985). Population size and food availability also influence distribution in an area by avoiding inbreeding and competition to resources (Fourie and Perrin, 1987).

2.10.2. Conservations Status to Rock Hyraxes

The rock hyrax is classified as a species of Least Concern in the IUCN‟s Red List of Threatened Species, current population trend is unknown(Gebremeskel Teklehaimanot, 2015). Habitat degradation and fragmentation caused by human activities influence rock hyrax population size and distribution. Their populations have declined due to disease, predation and territorial fighting (Hoeck et al., 1982).

They are especially vulnerable to predation when they disperse, leading to a high, especially male juvenile, mortality (Hoeck et al., 1982). Rock hyrax population size is determined by the number of rocky outcrops with crevices where the species hide from predators (Hoeck, 1989). Predation and shelter are the most common factors that affect the hyrax population size (Fairall et al., 1985). They occur in many protected areas across its range. Hence, the rock hyrax is listed as Least Concern in view of its wide distribution, presumed large population, its occurrence in a number of protected areas, and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category (Barry et al., 2008).

3. 3. RESEARCH MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Description of the Study Area

Zegie Peninsula is located on the southern south-western shore of Lake Tana; the largest lake in Ethiopia. It is part of Bahir Dar city administration, which is the capital of Amhara National Regional State. It is 584 km far from Addis Ababa, the capital city of Ethiopia. The peninsula is attached to dry land on its eastern part; it can be accessed both by land and water. The land entrance is the market please of the peninsula and surroundings kebele called as Afaf. It is 32 km far from Bahir Dar city with land transport road and 14.5km distance by boat transport line (Birhanu Alene et al., 2012).

Zegie Peninsula is situated at 11° 40‟ to 11° 43‟ N latitude and 37 °19‟ to 37 °21‟ E. It has an elevation of 1775 m along the lakeshore (Mehal Zege) to 1985 m at its summit called Ararat Mountain(Hailu et al., 2019). The climate around Zege is a warm-temperate tropical highland monsoon with a mean temperature of 21.9°C, but small seasonal changes of 5°C. The temperature peaks in February, March and April. The wet season in Zege Peninsula June, July and August; but there is also rain in May and September which vary in amount and duration. December, January, February and March and April months are dry seasons (Ethiopia National Metrology Agency 2020).

Figure 3-1: Rain and Average Temperature of the study area in 2020 11 months

The overall area of Zegie covers pensula 13.47 Km2 encompassing Afaf, Ura and Yiganda -Mehale Zegie. Even though the small town kebele (Afaf) is described as part of Zegie; its ecosystem is not similar with the Peninsula kebeles. The rest two kebele covers area of 12.62 km2. The total area of these kebele about 90% was classified as dense forest (Getachew Deriba 1993). It is the largest peninsula along Lake Tana and majority area covered with dense forest. About three-fourths of the forest edge is bounded by Lake Tana (Getachew Gebeyehu and Afework Bekele, 2011). Under the shade of the forest trees, Coffea arabica L. has been planted by the local communities. Coffee has been, by far, the main pillar of the economy of the inhabitants at Zegie, and the relationship between the people and the natural environment used to be, more or less, harmonious. These two kebeles (Ura and Yiganda - Mehale Zegie) are also serve as the home of different wild animals including rock hyrax. This study focused on these two Kebeles.

Lake shore habitat

Human residence ha Dense forest habitat has BushsLake shoreland habitat habitat hore habitat ho res habitat hore habitat

Figure 3-2: Map and habitat stratum of the Study Area

3.2 Research Design and Methodology

3.2.1 Method of Data Collection

3.2.1.1 Population Size and Distribution of Rock Hyraxes To estimate the ppopulation size and distribution of rock hyrax in the study area direct sample count method was applied. Direct wildlife population size counting method counting the animal itself rather than indirect sampling that involves the animal signs, such as animal dung or tracks etc (Eberhardt, 1978). To use the sample count, the census zone was divided in a number of discrete units known as sample units. The selection of the sampling units was done by using two stage sampling techniques.

First the study area was divided in to four habitat strata. In ecology, habitat identifies as the array of resources, physical and biotic factors, present in an area that allow the survival and reproduction of a particular species. A species habitat can be seen as the physical manifestation of its ecological niche. The physical factors may include soil, moisture, range of temperature, and light intensity. Biotic factors will include the availability of food and the presence or absence of predators. Every organism has certain habitat needs for the conditions in which it will thrive, but some are tolerant of wide variations while others are very specific in their requirements (Dudus et al., 2014).

To stratify the study area habitat the source of food which is terrestrial vegetation type, nears to water source and availability of shelter were taken in to account. The study area is hilly at the center and the forest has two sections: the first section is coffee dominated semi-natural forest comprising the largest portion where farmers live in and grow coffee while the second section is small area of non-coffee which is covered by bush. The only source of water especially for wild animals is Lake Tana. Because of these habitat difference to estimate the population and distribution of rock hyrax the study area was stratified in four habitat strata.

The lake shore stratum was a habitat around the Lake Tana which is found within 100- meter distance from the lake. This habitat the lake is covered with rocks and there is water with in short distance. The dominate vegetation in these habitat are Mimusops kumme, Syzygium guineense, Ficus vasta, Shenbeko, Jasminum grandiflorum, Momordica foetida, Clematis simensis, Tragia brevipes, Urera hypselodendron and Phytolacca dodecandra is

14 widely grown. In these habitat five transect lines were randomly selected with a total length of 3,416 meter.

The second is human premises habitat which is the area found within 100-1000 meter far from the lake shore. This habitat covers the largest portion of the study area, because of this nine transect line a total length of 37,049 meter were selected for the population count. This habitat stratum is inhabited by people; there is a wide range of fruits and, other marketable vegetables in their farm lands, as well as other trees and coffee underneath. Among the fruits grown around human premises are Lemon (Citrus limon), Citron (Citrus medica), Orange (Citrus sinensis), Sour orange (Citrus xparadisi), Caraca papaya, Guava (Psidium guajava), Mangifera indica, Persea americana, and Banana (Musa). There are also other plantations that generate income like Rhamnus prinoides, Otostegia integrifolia, Ruta Graveolens, Zingiber officinale Rosc, Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) and others. Most of the residents' house is enclosed by raw stone fences and Justicia schimperian. There are also stone wall ruins of old houses and churches in this habitat stratum.

The third habitat stratum is the area densely covered with tall trees with coffee plantations underneath. This area is found within 1000-1500 meter far from Lake Tana and few human settlements. Proportional to the area three transects a total length of 13,255 meter m were used to estimate the population size and distribution of rock hyrax in these habitae.. In this habitat stratum big trees like Albizia schimperiana, Millettia ferruginea, Croton macrostachyus, Ficus vasta, podocarpus falcates, Juniperus procer,, Rothmannia urcelliformis, Cordia Africana, Ficus thoningil and others are widely present.

The bush land habitat stratum is the summit of the study area which is covered with bush, non-coffee and non-human settlement area. In this habitat one transect a length of 1,834 meter were used to estimate the population size and distribution of rock hyrax. The area is the highest elevation of the study area. Capparis tomentosa, Grewia ferruginea, and other types of bushes and tall grasses like Hyparrhenia rufa are found in this area.

Second line transects designed applied to count the population size and distribution of rock hyrax in each habitat. To estimate population size and distribution of wild animals; line transect sampling is the most practical method (Plumptre, 2000). Line transect are commonly established using a stratified random sampling procedure (Plumptre and Reynolds, 1994).

A total of eighteen line transects in the four habitat were taken with a total of 2.709 km2 of the study area. The distance gap between each transect line was 200 to 300 m different sites of the study area. This gap is done to avoid double counting of rock hyrax from one transect to other. The length of transects increases for large areas so as to make them proportional for the study area on average around 22% of the study area was taken as sample. During the transect survey, number of rock hyrax seen, the age category of the rock hyrax, the name of the area seen, the habitat situation and plants in the area were recorded using a field data sheet.

Counting was made during both the dry (February, March and April,) and wet (June, July and September) seasons for three consecutive days in each month late morning and late afternoon. Transects were surveyed with trained observers by direct counting method walking on an average speed of 1km/hr.(Whittaker et al., 2003). Within line transect the observer moves along a line through a study area, looking with a fixed width transects up to 25 meters to the left and right of the line (Bowland and Perrin, 2009).

Rock hyraxes are considered poor thermos-regulators and their general activity is largely associated with the prevailing environmental conditions to improve their energy acquisition through foraging, sun basking and retreating into shade or cover (Brown & Downs 2005, 2007). Consequently, rock hyraxes are predominantly diurnal and emerge from dens around sunrise, with all members of the colony emerging between 1-3 hours after sunrise, and retire before sunset. Their diurnal activity follows a bimodal distribution generally with the greatest activity, usually foraging, occurring at two peaks during the day: late morning and late afternoon(Skinner and Chimimba, 2005). Due to this transects were observed from 3:30 -5:30 hour in the morning and from 8:30 -11:30 hour in the afternoon for three consecutive days in each month. To minimize the disturbance of rock hyrax and other wildlife counting were done carefully.

To estimate rock hyrax population all counting transect mean were summed up for each habitat to get the total population of rock hyraxes (Barry and Mundy, 2002). The density of the rock hyrax population was also determined by dividing the counted population (individuals) in the sample sites to the area of the study site (km2) with a formula:

3.2.1.2 Examining the Attitude of Local People Data on the attitude of local people were collected using structured questionnaire in two stage sampling techniques by using enumerators. Moreover, key informant interview was undertaken with nine dwellers that could briefly express the culture and practice of the study area related to rock hyrax to triangulate the data collected by questionnaire. To collect data, seven "Gotes" (three from Ura and four from Yiganda - Mehale Zegie) were selected by purposive sampling and from the total number of households living in the two kebeles that is about 1,116 (620 male households and 496 female households) 210 households were selected. The household heads in the sample village were selected by systematic random sampling method using the recorded book of the village found in the kebele office. Finally, the responses to the questioners of sample household heads were collected by enumerators support. The structured questionnaire was designed to examine the attitude, practice and believes of the local people on rock hyrax. The questionnaire also includes respondents‟ level of education, age, sex, educational status and livelihood. Representative sample population was taken using sample size determination proposed by (Kothari, 2004).

Where: - “n” = sample size z” = standard variance at a given confidence level usually equals 1.96 for 95% confidence level “p” = sample proportion “q” = 1-p “N” = population size “e” = acceptable/desired error level usually equals 5% = 0.05.

Hence, for this study 210 sample household heads (112 males and 98 females) respondents were taken by assuming 30% sample proportion. Of the total sample households 99 (54 males and 45 females) of them were taken from Ura while 111 (58 males and 53 females) were taken from Yiganda-Mehale Zegie kebeles. Moreover, nine semi-structured key informant interviews were made with selected respondents. The interviewees were selected on the basis of their age and expected social role in the area.

3.2.2 Materials

The line transect was planned to be done using Google earth. Because Google earth helps to measure the length and width of transect. In addition to this, it helps to measure the area of each sample and indicate the bounder point. Mobile phone live GPS was used to support the direction for enumerators. Enumerators got training how to count and register the habitat type and Hyrax population.

During population size counting in each sample area, the environmental condition of the study area (plant species, physical structure of the land, type of rock and its structure, distance from human premises and Lake Tana, etc.) were registered by registration formats .

To examine the knowledge on its significance, to identify factors that influence community perceptions on Rock Hyrax; data on the attitude of local people to wards Rock Hyrax were collected using structured questionnaire. To triangulate the data collected using the questioner key-in format interview were done from selected community leaders, elders, religious leaders, association leaders and peoples that could briefly express the culture and practice of the study area were requested .

3.2.3 Statistical Analysis

Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, one-way ANOVA and chi-square test by applying SPSS 16.0 software ANOVA was used to examine the population size difference of rock hyraxes in dry and wet seasons. Chi-square test was used to examine the attitude of local people towards rock hyrax based on respondents‟ educational background and sex. The level of rejection for all tests set at α < 0.05.

4. RESULTS

4.1 Population Size and Distribution of Rock Hyrax

4.1.1 Population Size of Rock Hyraxes

The population size of rock hyrax differ in habitat difference; the highest counted population size of rock hyraxes was estimated in lake shore habitat which is 210 in the dry season and 237 in wet season counting periods Table 4-1. The least estimated population size of rock hyraxes was estimated in forest habitat which is 28 in dry season and 43 in wet season counting periods. There was no rock hyrax in bush-land habitat. The total population size of rock hyraxes in the study area was estimated 426 during dry season; Out of these, adults constituted 75.1% while 24.9 % was babies (juveniles). 512 rock hyraxes were estimated during the wet season of which adults constituted 70.1 %.

Table 4-1: Estimated population structure of rock hyraxes during dry and wet seasons

Season Dry Wet % Adult % Habitat Adult Juvenile Total Juvenile Total Human 137 51 188 44% 162 70 232 45% Residence Forest 26 2 28 7% 31 12 43 8%

Bush-land 0 0 0 0% 0 0 0 0% Lake shore 157 53 210 49% 166 71 237 46%

Total 320 106 426 100% 359 153 512 100%

To statistically test population size of rock hyrax in wet and dry seasons ANOVA test was done. The test result indicates the population size of rock hyrax in wet and dry season in study area did not show significant difference (F= 5.988, F1, 6 = 0.068,).

The estimated density of rock hyraxes per kilometer square during the dry season was 447, 20, and 11 lake shore, human residence and forest habitat respectively. Likewise during the wet season the estimated density of rock hyrax per kilometer square was 504, 25, and 16 lake shore, human residence and forest habitat respectively Table 4-2.

Table 4-2: Density of rock hyraxes in the four habitat strata sample areas during the dry and wet seasons

Dry season Wet season Habitat Total Sample Sample Mean Mean Mean Mean stratum area (km2) Counted Rock density counted density (km2) Hyrax (Individua Rock (Individuals ls /km2) Hyrax / km2) Human 9.243 1.852 38 20 47 25 Residence Densely Forest 2.628 0.663 7 11 11 16 Bush-land 0.279 0.092 - - - - Lake shore 0.471 0.102 46 447 52 504

Total 12.621 2.709 91 33 109 40

4.1.2 Distribution of Rock Hyraxes

Rock hyraxes were distributed in most part of the study area but not uniformly; with varying in number in each habitat stratum. Among the four habitats sampling areas more rock hyraxes were found in lake shore habitat next human residences, and few in forests.

The distribution of rock hyrax decreased and became very little in the habitat stratum ranging from 1000-1500 meter far from Lake Tana which is forest habitat stratum. The rock hyrax found in human residence habitat stratum is less than lake shore habitat and greater than forest habitat. But there is no rock hyrax in found in bush land habitat.

4.2 Demographic Characteristics of Questioner Respondents

Even though, 210 questionnaires (112 for males and 98 for females) were distributed to enumerators to collect the data only 203 (105 males and 98 females) were used for the study. The remaining seven (3.3%) questionnaires (four males from Ura and three males from Yiganda-Mehale Zegie) were discarded due to the fact that questionnaires were not fully responded. Among the respondents around 93.6% of had more than three family members. The age of respondents around 85.7% of respondents had above 35 years old. The minimum age of the respondents was 21 while the maximum age was 65. Respondents to the questioner hold from illiterate, religious education, elementary

20 education, high school and certificate and above (Figure 4-1: Educational status of the respondents).

Figure 4-1: Educational status of the respondents Most (97.5%) respondents reported that their livelihood depends on coffee and other fruits and vegetables farming. Only 2.5% of respondents were governmental and non- governmental employees. Most (84.7%) respondents depend on fishing, small scale trading, handcraft making and selling, wood (log) selling, and part time employee in governmental and non-governmental organizations as additional source of income.

Among the respondents, 97% had their own farm land. Most (71.4%) respondents did not have sheep while 28.6% had sheep

4.2.1 Attitude of Local People towards Rock Hyraxes

Concerning the presence of rock hyraxes, all respondents replied that they knew that rock hyraxes are found in their locality. They also replied that most rock hyraxes were found around Lake Tana, churches, stone fence and lake shore rocks crevices and big tree holes. Over 56 % of respondents saw on average up to three rock hyraxes in group and 44 % of respondents saw 4-5 rock hyraxes at one sighting.

Many (58%) respondents had bad feeling on the presence of rock hyrax in their localities due to different reasons. Respondents reported that rock hyrax damage fruits and vegetables leaf. Local people had traditional belief that rock hyraxes had some kind of magic power (locally known as “Wosaji”) to take food they eat as it saw people when eating. Rock hyraxes also cause pollution around churches and houses as it defecate or

21 urinate. On the contrary 42 % of respondents had good feeling on the presence of rock hyraxes due to source of food for dog, as source of income by selling its hide and meat and sometimes when foreigners come they serve as tourist attraction.

Higher educational background respondents had good feeling on the presence of rock hyraxes than uneducated and religious education background respondent Table 4-3 and the difference was significant (χ2 = 90.91, df = 4, P = 0.001). The test result indicates the male respondents had good feeling on the presence of rock hyraxes than female respondents, and the difference was significant (χ2 = 27.70, df = 1, P = 0.001).

Table 4-3: Feeling of respondents‟ on the presence of rock hyraxes in their locality with educational level

Educational level Respondent‟s feeling on the presence of rock hyrax in the Peninsula? Good Bad Total Grade 1-8 21 (10%) 22 (11%) 43 (21%) Grade 9-12 27 (14%) 3 (1%) 30 (15%) Certificate and above 19 (9%) - 19 (9%) religious education 16 (8%) 36 (18%) 52 (26%) Illiterate 3 (1%) 56 (28) 59 (29%) Total 86 (42%) 117 (58%) (100%)

4.2.2 Attitude of Local People towards Rock Hyraxes for conservation

Most (64.5%) respondents disagreed on the idea of rock hyrax protection while 35.5% of respondents agreed on the idea of rock hyrax conservation (Figure 3). Most of the illiterate, religious and primary educated respondents disagreed on rock hyraxes protection but many of secondary educated and diploma and above respondents agreed on the protection of rock hyraxes in their localities Figure 4-2

Figure 4-2: Response on the conservation of rock hyrax related to educational status. 4.2.3 Damage Caused by Rock Hyraxes and Controlling Mechanisms

Many (80%) respondents said that rock hyraxes damage fruits, vegetables and other plants leaf like Rhamnus prinoides, Carica papaya and Citrus lemon that grow in the area. In addition, rock hyraxes also eat Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus camaldulesis), Mimusops kummel, Acacia pilispina and other plants seedling as their diet Table 4-4. While 20% of respondents believed that that hyraxes did not cause significant damage in their locality.

Table 4-4: Plant species Damaged by Rock Hyraxes

Local Name Scientific Name Family Growth Form Gesho Rhamnus perinoides Rhamnaceae BS Lomi Citrus limon Rutaceae T Papaya Carica papaya Caricaceae T Bahir Zaf Eucalyptus camaldulesis Myrtaceae T Eshe Mimusops kummel Sapotaceae T Cheba Acacia pilispina Fabaceae T

(T = tree, B/S = bush/shrub)

Similarly, the key informant interview participants deeply expressed the destructiveness behavior of rock hyrax on plants than its benefit. The only benefit they expressed was its

23 use on medicinal ingredients. Its meat used for treatment of cattle anthrax and its fecal pellts used for human disorder like leprosy. Among the respondents 93 % replied that rock hyraxes had some benefit. Among these respondents 88 % described that it has an importance for preparation of traditional medicines from its meat to cure some human and cattle ailments followed by 3 % hide use and 2 % food for their dogs.

Among the respondents 57 % of them used killing and 43 % of respondents used chasing as means of controlling crop damage caused by rock hyraxes and avoid pollution by its feces and urine showed in Table 4-5.

Table 4-5: Mechanisms of Killing and Chasing Rock Hyraxes to control/ avoid damage vegetable and fruit leaves and its pollution effect by feces and urine

Mechanism of Killing and Chasing away in Percent Controlling Percent Killing Chasing away Mechanism Spea Poiso Trap / Dog Stick Throwin Dog Making ring ning Snare beating g Stone Noise

Killing 57 18. _ 18 21 _

Chasing 43 24 19 _ away

4.2.4 Benefits and the population trend of Rock Hyraxes in the study area

The response of key informant interview indicated the presence of rock hyrax in the area did not have a meaningful benefit for dwellers rather some people outside the locality utilize their meat as medicine for cattle. As it is seen in Table 4-5 above the dwellers control or avoid rock hyrax damage or pollution mostly use killing this is affect the structure and size of the animal. They also express the population size of rock hyrax in the locality is decreasing as compared to the past few years because of illegal hunting, habitat disturbance and damage of shelters like big trees and stone fences.

Similarly respondents were asked to judge the number of rock hyraxes based on their observation, 55 % confirmed that they are decreasing. The cause to decrease described by the respondents were humans are hunting to prepare traditional medicine and hunted to protect fruit and vegetable damage; by environmental changes (displaced and disturbed) by humans and rock hyraxes were prayed by dogs and other wild animals. But 37% of the respondents believed that number of rock hyraxes was increased. On the other hand 8% of

24 respondents did not know about rock hyrax number whether they increased or decreased or stable in their locality Table 4-6

Table 4-6: Respondents‟ Response on the population of Rock Hyrax in the Two Kebeles

Number of Respondents in the Two Kebeles Ura Kebele Yiganda Mehale Zege Kebele Item Number Percent Number Percent Total Increase 32 16 43 21 75 Decrease 58 29 54 27 112 No change _ _ _ _ _ I don‟t 5 2 11 5 16 know Total 95 47 108 53 203

Most of the key informant interviewees‟ response also indicated that; the rock hyrax was not seen as widely in lake shore and in churches as it was seen years before. This could be an indication of the number of rock hyrax become decreasing.

4.2.5 Threats and Conservation Status to Rock Hyraxes

The respondents were asked about the presence or absence of treats to the rock hyrax in the area; 56 % respondents believe that there were threats in their locality. Among the treats most (97%) respondents listed down illegal hunting or killing, habitat disturbance, dog bite or eating and predation by predators as a threatening factor on rock hyrax in the study area. Among these factors illegal hunting or killing (45.2%) was the main threat followed by dog bite/eating (28.9%), predation (22.8%) by predators and 3.1% habitat disturbance.

Most (94.6%) respondents replied that conserving rock hyrax was not practiced in their localities. Instead people killed rock hyraxes to protect fruits and vegetables damages and illegally hunted for traditional medicine preparation. On the other hand, 5.4% of respondents did not know whether conservation measures had taken or not in their locality.

5 DISCUSSION

5.1 Population Size and Distribution of Rock Hyraxes

The total population of rock hyraxes estimated during the study period in the four habitat strata was 426 during dry and 512 during wet season. From this total population of rock hyrax counted adults constitute more proportion than babies (juveniles). A similar result was documented by Gebremeskel Teklehaimanot, (2015) in that adults constituted the highest ratio than babies at Bale Mountains National Park. There was no significant difference of rock hyrax population in both dry and wet seasons. This might be due to the availability of adequate food (vegetation) supply in both seasons.

More number of rock hyraxes were counted around lake shore habitat stratum. This might be due to suitability of this site for rock hyraxes to forage get water and rock shelter. But there is no rock hyrax seen at the summit (tip) of the study area called Ararat. This could be the absence of rock with crevices and water in the stratum as Lake Tana is found far from it. Rock hyrax population varied in each habitat stratum as well as in each counting site within a habitat stratum. Hoeck and Bloomer, (2013) also found extreme population fluctuations at Montopos in Zimbabwe and the Serengeti of Tanzania. Druce et al., (2006) in in National park, south Africa on hyrax also found that hyrax populations fluctuate mainly due to predation, food availability, drought and infectious disease.

The estimated population density of rock hyraxes per kilometer square during the dry season was ranged from 11 to 447 and during the wet season ranged from 16 to 504 at dense forest and Lake Tana habitat stratum. In human residence the density of rock hyraxes per kilometer square was higher than dense forest and less than around Lake Tana habitat stratum. The population density of rock hyraxes was 25 to 1696 individuals per kilometer square in Bale Mountain National Park (Gebremeskel Teklehaimanot, 2015), 20 to 100 individuals per kilometer square in Mount Kenya (Young and Evans, 1993), 73 to 94 individuals per kilometer square in the Montobo National Park, Zimbabwe (Barry and Mundy, 2002) and 500 to 4000 individuals per kilometer square in Serengeti National Park, Tanzania (Hoeck et al., 1982).

Rock hyraxes were distributed in most of the study area but not uniform; with varying number in each habitat stratum. Similar result was also documented by (Gebremeskel Teklehaimanot, 2015) in Bale Mountains National Park as rock hyrax widely distributed in

26 the study area. Distribution of rock hyrax was mainly depends on the availability of water and shelter that make it to hide and watch its predators easily. Young and Evans, (1993)) also documented that distribution of rock hyraxes is delineated by the presence of appropriate shelter. But, Haltenorth and Diller, (1988) recorded that rock hyraxes occupy a wide range of habitat ranging from arid deserts to rainforest and typically associated with rocky outcrops, cliffs and boulders in Mount Kenya. Similarly, Skinner and Chimimba, (2005) reported that rock hyraxes are typically associated with rocky outcrops, cliffs, or piles of boulders with bushes.

The distribution of rock hyraxes was very little in the habitat stratum ranging from 1000- 1500 meter far from Lake Tana which is densely covered with long trees and coffee with few residents. Likewise, Olds and Shoshani, (1982) noted the absence of rock hyrax in densely covered jungle of the Congo basin and Madagascar as they do not prefer dense forest areas. As the habitat stratum became far from Lake Tana distribution of rock hyraxes decreased. This might be due to the nature of rock hyraxes living and foraging their food mostly around water (Lake Tana), human premises and rock boulders having crevices and holes where they sheltered. Similarly, Gebremeskel Teklehaimanot, (2015) also documented the distribution of rock hyraxes at habitats of valleys with water supply around at Bale Mountain National Park. On the contrary Franco, (2015) at Serengeti National Park, Tanzania distribution of rock hyrax was decreased around human premises due to human disturbance or interference in their natural habitat.

Rock hyraxes were found around Lake Tana, churches, stone fence and lake shore rocks crevices and big tree holes. In the peninsula rock hyraxes are fond in groups mostly on average up to three and sometimes four to five individuals at on sighting around the lake shore rocks crevices and stone fence. Fourie and Perrin, (1987) also found those rock hyraxes are gregarious and living in colonies that vary in size according to food availability. So, in Zegie Peninsula the habitat preference of rock hyrax was mostly areas around Lake Tana and human premises with vegetables and crops grown in it and open rocky areas where they protected as well as having good visibility of their surroundings to escape from predators. Similarly Mbise, (2015) also described that rock hyraxes were found in all of the location that had human premises and the increase in the hyrax population size was positively correlated with human premises. On the other hand, their number decreased when the topography of the habitat gradually increased far from the

27 lake shore to the mountain hill (summit) on areas where human settlements (premises) and water were absent

5.2 Attitude of Local People towards Rock Hyraxes In the study area most people did not like the presence of rock hyraxes in their locality due to its destruction of fruits and vegetables, cause pollution around churches and houses as it defecate or urinate and traditional belief of the people that it had some kind of magic power (locally known as “Wosaji”) to take food they eat as it saw people when eating. But in other researches rock hyraxes are reservoir of cutaneous leishmaniasis and increase in their population around human settlements can lead to disease outbreaks (Jacobson et al., 2003, Kershenbaum et al., 2011).

A strong attitudinal difference was seen towards rock hyrax presence related to educational background. Respondents of higher educational background had good feeling on the presence of rock hyraxes in their locality than uneducated and religious educational background. More over males had good feeling on the presence of rock hyraxes in their locality than females.

Most of the respondents disagreed on the idea of rock hyrax protection. Illiterate, religious and primary educated respondents disagreed on rock hyraxes protection. This indicated that most of the dwellers did not have enough awareness and had less concern for rock hyraxes protection.Power, (2014) noted that concerns about the species have been raised by the land owners in the magaliesberg province, North West Region of South Africa. On the contrary most of secondary educated and diploma and above respondents agreed on the protection of rock hyraxes. This showed that as people become educated, protection (conservation) of rock hyrax in particular and wildlife in general increased.

In the study area rock hyraxes damage cereal crops, vegetables and other plants like Gesho (Rhamnus prinoides), Papaya (Carica papaya) and Lomi (Citrus lemon) Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus camaldulesis), Eshe (Mimusops kummel), Cheba (Acacia pilispina) seedlings. Key informant interviewee also expressed the destructiveness behavior of rock hyrax on plants than its benefit, however their destructiveness compared to other wild animals, rock hyraxes did not cause significant damage in their locality. Similarly, Getachew Gebeyehu and Afework Bekele, (2011) identified the problematic or destructive animal in Zege peninsula as: grivet monkey, squirrel, porcupine and bush pig are problematic animals respectively but did not include rock hyrax..

People in the study area used killing and chasing to control damage caused by rock hyrax. Regarding to the mechanism of killing most respondents used dog chasing, spearing and traps or snares in the order of increasing effect. But none of the respondents used poisoning and stick beating. On the other hand, those who used chasing away as a mechanism throwing stone and dogs. But, Wiid and Butler, (2015) described that control methods of rock hyrax included using fences (wire fences, precast walls, brick walls and devil‟s fork fences) and dogs. The result also showed that rock hyrax controlling method varies from one area to another area.

In the study area rock hyraxes had an importance for preparation of traditional medicines from its meat to cure some human and cattle ailments, hide use and food for their dogs. Similarly, Butynski et al., (2015) found that rock hyraxes were snared for skins and meat and poached for sport and meat in Saudi Arabia. In addition Visser and Wimberger, (2016) also indicated that rock hyraxes were snared for skins and meat. Gebremeskel Teklehaimanot, (2015) also reported that local people trap rock hyraxes for medicinal purpose and food. But, the response from the questioner and key informant interview indicated that rock hyraxes did not have a meaningful benefit for the local people in the area.

Most respondents replied that in the peninsula population of rock hyraxes was decreased due to hunting to prepare traditional medicine and to protect fruit and vegetable damage, environmental changes (displaced and disturbed), and prayed by dogs and other predators. Visser and Wimberger, (2016) documented in their finding as rock hyraxes were snared for skins and meat. On the other hand some respondents believed that the number of rock hyraxes was increased due to the fact that the environment is conducive for rock hyraxes to live, sheltered and breed even if there is not protection. But, Butynski et al., (2015) indicated that the number of rock hyraxes had grown in cultivated areas and settlements due to the fact that the species were protected by laws and presence of few natural enemies.

The threats of rock hyraxes in the study area were illegal hunting or killing, habitat disturbance, dog bite or eating and predation. Among these factors illegal hunting or killing was the main threat followed by dog bite/eating, predation by predators and habitat disturbance. Likewise Gebremeskel Teklehaimanot, (2015) also found that habitat loss, fragmentation, predation, illegal hunting and natural factors like flood and wild fire were the main threats in Bale Mountain National Park. In contrast, other researchers showed

29 that there were no major threats to hyrax species (Hoeck and Bloomer, 2013, Butynski et al., 2015). In addition, Erasmus et al., (2002) suggested that since rock hyraxes occupy rocky outcrops that are largely inaccessible and not under threat for predators and also occupy modified habitats, climate change for example drought may become an increasing threat.

Knowing the types of threats found in an area for a particular wildlife help to develop a suitable and sustainable ways of conservation system. But in the study area most of the respondents replied that rock hyrax conservation was not practiced. The same result was seen in Visser and Wimberger, (2016) even if rock hyraxes were found in much of its range with in the assessment region, no specific conservation intervention measures were taken. The local community‟s conservation practice and awareness mainly depends on their educational background and attitude developed towards wildlife ecological importance. Similar finding was also documented by (Jalilova and Vacik, (2012)). To mitigate the impact of local people on rock hyraxes respondents mentioned creating awareness about ecological and economic benefits of wildlife in general and rock hyrax in particular and setting traditional and governmental laws as conservation mechanism is very important.

6 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

6.1 Conclusion

Zegie peninsula is covered with indigenous woody plants and coffee with different wild animals in it. People living in the peninsula have close interaction with wildlife that found in their locality. Even though different wild animals are found in the peninsula, most people do not like the existence of these wild animals. This might be due to low level of awareness on the role of wildlife for ecosystem. People only consider the negative effect wild animals on fruits and vegetables as well as attack their domestic animals. That is why most people do not believe the importance of wildlife. To protect these problematic animal people mostly used killing and chasing away. Few respondents know the presence of traditional or governmental law that prevented illegal hunting of wildlife in the study area but most of the respondents do not know whether any traditional or governmental law that prevents illegal hunting is practiced or not.

Rock hyraxes are distributed in most of the study area with varying number in each habitat stratum. More number of rock hyrax is found around lake shore habitat followed by human residence and densely forest covered sample habitat area respectively. But no rock hyrax is found at the summit (tip) of the study area which is the bush land habitat. So, population of rock hyrax decreased as the habitat stratum become far from Lake Tana to the mountain hill. Therefore, rock hyrax are living and foraging their food mostly around lake shore habitat and human premises and rocky boulders having crevices and holes where they sheltered. During the study period more adult rock hyrax are counted than babies (juveniles). But the number of adults is almost constant while juveniles number is slightly vary in different months of the counting seasons.

In the peninsula mostly rock hyraxes are found around Lake Tana, churches, stone fence with crevices and big tree holes in groups on average ranging from three to seven individuals at a time. Most people of the peninsula feel discomfort with the presence of rock hyrax in their locality due to different reasons. Only very few respondents have good feeling on the presence of rock hyrax for the benefits of medicinal value and source of income.

Rock hyraxes found at the peninsula have some distractive effect on fruit and vegetables and even other plant species that people cultivated around their residence. But as compared to other wild animals their damage is very low. Very few respondents replied

31 that rock hyraxes do not cause damage. Even though rock hyraxes have distractive effect, the local community is benefited from rock hyrax for different purposes like preparation of traditional medicines to treat some human and cattle ailments and hides use. To control the damage caused by rock hyrax most people used killing followed by chasing away. In order to kill rock hyrax people mostly used dog chasing followed by spearing and trap (snare). On the other hand to chase away people used throwing stone and dog respectively. But people do not used poisoning to control damage caused by rock hyrax.

The threatening factors to rock hyrax in the study area are illegal hunting (killing), dog biting (eating), predation by predators and habitat disturbance. Even though people of the peninsula know the presence of rock hyrax; give less protection and less concern.

6.2 Recommendation

Based on the findings of the research the following recommendations are suggested to insure a sustainable existence of rock hyrax population in the peninsula.  The local administration and other governmental and non - governmental organizations should work cooperatively to create awareness and educating the local community about economic and ecological importance and conservation of rock hyrax.

 The local government should fully practice and aware the laws that inhibit the local community from practicing illegal hunting of rock hyrax and habitat disturbance. Examine laws that protect illegal hunting of rock hyrax and habitat disturbance in the peninsula if there is a gap improve/ Set the laws.

 Non–governmental organizations like Biodiversity Conservation should work cooperatively with the local community and develop periodic monitoring programs to assess rock hyrax population in the peninsula

7 REFERENCES

Abebayehu Dessalegn and Tilaye Wube (2012). Population density, structure and grouping pattern of Menilik„s bush buck in the Menagesha - Suba state forest, Ethiopia. SINET: Ethiopia Journal of Science. 2 (35): 129-134. Aero Asrat (2016). The Tree Hyrax (Dendrohyrax arboreus): Feeding Behaviour, Activity Patterns and Traditional Medicinal Use in Kafa Zone, Southwest Ethiopia. Andarge, N., Wube, T. and Balakrishnan, M. (2017). Diet analysis of the African clawless otter (Aonyx capensis) in and around Lake Tana. Journal of Ecology and the Natural Environment. 9 (4): 53-61. Barry, R. and Mundy, P. (2002). Population dynamics of two species of hyraxes in the Matobo National Park, Zimbabwe. African Journal of Ecology. 36 (2): 221-233. Bartholomew, G. A. and Rainy, M. (1971). Regulation of body temperature in the rock hyrax, Heterohyrax brucei. Journal of Mammal. 52 (1): 81-95. Beyene Belay, Solomon Zewdie, Mekuria, W., Abrham Abiyu, Amare, D. and Woldemariam, T. (2018). Woody species diversity and coffee production in remnant semi-natural dry Afromontane Forest in Zegie Peninsula, Ethiopia. Agroforestry Systems. 93 (5): 1-14. BIDNTF, B. I. D. N. T. F. (2010). Ethiopia: Overview of Selected Biodiversity Indicators. The Scientific World Journal. 53: 48. Birhanu Alene, Wubante Fetene, Taye Minale, Zelalem Yirga and Getachew Tesfaye (2012). Bahir Dar City Profile. B. D. Universty, Bahir Dar: Bahir Dar City Administration. Bothma, J. d. P. (1966). Color Variation in Hyracoidea from Southern Africa. J Mammal. 47 (4): 687-693. Bowland, A. and Perrin, M. (2009). Temporal and spatial patterns in blue duikers Philatomba monticola and red duikers Cephalophus natalensis. Journal of Zoology. 237 (3): 487-498. Butynski, T., Hoeck, H., Koren, L. and De Jong, Y. A. (2015). Heterohyrax brucei. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species Chiweshe, N. (2007). Black eagles and hyraxes - the two flagship species in the conservation of wildlife in the Matobo Hills, Zimbabwe. . Afrotherian Conservation. 2 (78): 381–386.

Crosskey, R. W. and White, G. B. (1977). The Afrotropical Region. Journal of Natural History. 11 (5): 541-544. Diamond, J. M. (1989). Overview of recent extinctions. Conservation for the Twenty- first Century, Oxford Univesity Press. Western and M. Pearl, New York. Druce, D., Brown, J., Castley, G., Kerley, G., Kotler, B., Slotow, R. and Knight, M. (2006). Scale-dependent foraging costs: Habitat use by rock hyraxes (Procavia capensis) determined using giving-up densities. Oikos. 115 (3): 513-525. Dudus, L., Zalewski, A., Koziol, O., Jakubiec, Z. and Krol, N. (2014). Habitat selection by two predators in an urban area- The stone marten and red fox in Wrocław (SW Poland). Mammalian Biology. 79: 71-76. Eberhardt, L. L. (1978). Assessing variability in population studies. Journal of Wildlife Management, (42): 207-238. Erasmus, B., Van Jaarsveld, A. S., Chown, S. L., Kshatriya, M. and Wessels, K. J. (2002). Vulnerability of South African animal taxa to climate change. Global Change Biology. 8 (7): 679-693. Estes, R. P. (1991). The behavior guide to African mammals, including hoofed mammals, carnivores, primates. University of California Press, Berkeley. Ethiopia National Metrology Agency (2020). Zege pensula averge temperture and rain fall. Bahir Dar Branch. Ethiopian Biodiversity Institute, E. (2015). Ethiopia‟s National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 2015-2020. Addis Abeba, Ethiopia, Ethiopian Biodiversity Institute. Ethiopian Biodiversity Institute, E. (2019). Retrieved Octber 13, 2019, , from http://www.ebi.gov.et/biodiversity/ecosystems-of-ethiopia/. Evangelista, P., Swartzinski, P. and Waltermire, R. (2007). A profile of the mountain nyala (Tragelaphus buxtoni). Afr. Indaba. 5. Fairall, N., Vermeulen, P. J. and M., V. M. D. (1985). A general model of population growth in the hyrax (Procanvia capensis). Ecological Modelling (34): 115-132. Feldhamer, G. A., Drickamer, L. C., Vessey, S. H., Merritt, F. J. and Krajewski, C. (2007). Mammalogy: Adaptation, Diversity, Ecology. The Johns Hopkins University Press., Baltimore, MD. Food and Agriculture Orgization (2013). The State of the World‟s Biodiversity for Food and Agriculture. Rome Italy Fourie, L. J. and Perrin, M. R. (1987). Social behavior and spatial relationships of the rock hyrax. South African Journal of Wildlife Research. 3 (17): 91-98.

Franco, P. M. (2015). Factors Affecting Hyrax Presence/Absence and Population Size: A case study in Serengeti National Park, Tanzania. Department of Biology. Norwey, Norwegian University of Science and Technology. Gebremeskel Teklehaimanot (2015). Population Ecology and Threats of the Rock Hyrax (Procavia Capensis) in Bale Mountains National Park, , Ethiopia. . Zoological Sciences. Addis Ababa, Addis Ababa University. Ms. Getachew Gebeyehu and Afework Bekele (2011). Human-wildlife conflict in Zegie Peninsula (Ethiopia) with emphasis on grivet monkey (Cercopithecus aethiops aethiops). SINET: Ethiopian Journal of Science. 32 (2): 99-108. Glover, T. E. and Millar, R. P. (1970). Seasonal Changes in the Reproductive Tract of the Male Rock Hyrax. Journal of Reproduction and Fertility. 23 (3): 497-499. Hailu, T., Aynalem, S. and Yazezew, D. (2019). Activity Pattern, Flocking Behavior And Habitat Preference Of Yellow Fronted Parrot (Poicephalus Flavifrons) In Zegie Forest, Southern Shore Of Lake Tana, Ethiopia. International Journal of Advanced Research and Publications 3:29-46. Haltenorth, T. and Diller, H. (1988). A Field Guide to the Mammals of Africa: Including Madagascar Collins, London. Harris, J. D. and Brown, P. L. (2009). Wildlife; Destruction, Conservation and Biodiversity. Nova Science Publishers. Hillman, J. C. (1993). Ethiopia : compendium of wildlife conservation information. In. Hoeck, H., Klein, H. and Hoeck, P. (1982). Flexible Social Organization in Hyrax1). Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie. 59 (4): 265-298. Hoeck, H. N. (1975). Differential feeding behaviour of the sympatric hyrax Procavia johnstoni and Heterohyrax brucei. Oecologia. 22 (1): 15-47. Hoeck, H. N. (1989). Demography and competition in hyrax, A 17 years study. Oecologia (89): 353 - 360. Hoeck, H. N. and Bloomer, P. (2013). Rock Hyrax Procavia capensis. Bloomsbury, London Hundal, S. (2004). Wild life conservation strategies and management in India: An Overview. In: Proceedings of the Species at Risk 2004: Pathways to Recovery Conference, Victoria B.C. Canada. Husen, A., Mishra, V., Semwal, K. and Kumar, D. (2012). Biodiversity Status in Ethiopia and Challenges. 31-79.

Jacobson, R., Eisenberger, C., Svobodova, M., Baneth, G., Sztern, J., Carvalho, J., Nasereddin, A., Fari, Mustafa E., Shalom, U., Volf, P., Votypka, J., Dedet, J.-P., Pratlong, F., Schonian, G., Schnur, L., Jaffe, C. and Warburg, A. (2003). Outbreak of Cutaneous Leishmaniasis in Northern Israel. J Infect Dis. 188 (7): 1065-1073. Jacobson, R. L., Eisenberger, C. L., Svobodova, M., Baneth, G., Sztern, J., Carvalho, J., Nasereddin, A., Fari, M., Shalom , U., Volf, P., Votypka, J., Dedet, J. P., Pratlong, F., Schonian, G., Schnur, L., Jaffe, C. L. and Warburg, A. (2003). Out break of Cutaenous Leishmaniasis in Northern Israel. Journal of Infectious Diseases (188): 1065-1073. Jalilova, G. and Vacik, H. (2012). Local people's perceptions of forest biodiversity in the walnut fruit forests of Kyrgyzstan. International Journal of Biodiversity Science, Ecosystem Services & Management. 8 (3): 204-216. Kershenbaum, A., Kershenbaum, A. and Blaustein, L. (2011). Rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) den site selection: Preference for artificial sites. Wildlife Research. 38: 244-248. Khoza, T. and Hamer, M. (2013). Animal of the week: The South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI),. (S. B. Division). South African. Kingdon, J. (1997). East African Mammals: an atlas of evolution in Africa. Academic Press, London. Kingdon, J. (2004). The Kingdon Pocket Guide to African Mammals. Princeton University Press, Princeton and Oxford. Kingdon, J. (2015). The Kingdon Field Guide to African Mammals. Bloomsbury Publishing. Kingdon, J. S. (1971). East African Mammals. An Atlas of Evolution in Africa. . Academic Press, London, UK. Kothari, C. R. (2004). Reaserch Methodology: Methods and Techniques. New Age International (P) Ltd, New Delhi. Kotler, B. P., Brown, J. S. and Knight, M. H. (1999). Habitat and patch use by hyraxes: there‟s no place like home? Ecology Letters. 2 (2): 82-88. Mbise, F. P. (2015). Factors affecting hyrax presence or absence and population size, a case study in Serengeti National Park, Tanzania. Natural Resource Management. Trondhein: Norwey.

Mittermeier, R., Gil, P., Hoffmann, M., Pilgrim, J., Brooks, T., Mittermeier, C., Lamoreux, J. and Fonseca, G. (2004). Hotspots Revisited. Earth's Biologically Richest and Most Endangered Terrestrial Ecoregions. Nature;, I. U. f. C. o. (2008). " IUCN Red List of Threatened Species." Retrieved 24 October, 2012, from www.iucinredlist Newmark, W., Manyanza, D., Gamassa, D.-G. and Sariko, H. (1994). The Conflict between Wildlife and Local People Living Adjacent to Protected Areas in Tanzania: Human Density as a Predictor. Conservation Biology. 8 (1): 249-255. Norton-Griffiths, M. (1978). Counting Animals,, Nairobi, Kenya Nowak, R. M. (1999). Walker’s Mammals of the World,. The John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland. Olds, N. and Shoshani, J. (1982). Mammalian Species: Procavia capensis. American Society of Mammalogist (171): 1-7. Plumptre, A. J. (2000). Monitoring mammal populations with line transect techniques in African forests. Journal of Applied Ecology. 37 (2): 356-368. Plumptre, A. J. and Reynolds, V. (1994). The Effect of Selective Logging on the Primate Populations in the Budongo Forest Reserve, Uganda. Journal of Applied Ecology. 31 (4): 631-641. Power, R. J. (2014). The Distribution and Status of Mammals in the North West Province. Department of Economic Development. Environment, Conservation and Tourism, North West Provincial Government, Mahikeng, South Africa. Rifai, L. B., Baker, M. A. and Amr, Z. S. (2000). Ecology, distribution and status of the Rock Hyrax, Procavia capensis Syriaca, in Jordan. Zoology in the Middle East. 21 (1): 19-26. Robert, K. A., Gardiner, D. and N., D. (2020). "Africa

". from https://www.britannica.com/place/Africa. Sale, J. B. (1966). The Habitat of the Rock Hyrax. Journal of The East Africa Natural History Society and National Museum. XXV (3). Shoshani, J. (2005). Order Hyracoidea. . Mammal Species of the world. 87-89. (D. E. W. a. D. M. Reeder), The Johns Hopkins University Press. Baltimore, MD, USA. Skinner, J. D. and Chimimba, C. T. (2005). The Mammals of the Southern African Sub- region. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Smith, E. A., Hill, K., Marlowe, F. W., Nolin, D., Wiessner, P., Gurven, M., Bowles, S., Mulder, M. B., Hertz, T. and Bell, A. (2010). Wealth transmission and inequality among hunter-gatherers. Journal of cuurent Anthropolgist. 51: 1-16. Stuart, C. and Stuart, T. (2000). Field Guide to the Larger Mammals of Africa. Struik Publishers, Cape Town. Svobodová, M., Volf, P. and Votýpka, J. (2006). Experimental transmission of Leishmania tropica to hyraxes (Procavia capensis) by the bite of Phlebotomus arabicus. Microbes and Infection. 8 (7): 1691-1694. Teklay Girmay, Zeyede Teshome and Milite Mahari (2015). Knowledge, attitude and practices of peasants towards hyraxes in two selected church forests in Tigray Region, Northern Ethiopia. International Journal of Biodiversity and Conservation. 7: 299-307. Teklehaimanot, G. and Balakrishnan, M. (2018). Distribution and Population Status of the Endemic Rock Hyrax Sub-species (Procavia capensis capillosa ) of the Bale Mountains, Ethiopia. . International Journal of Ecologicy and Environmental Science,. 44 (1): 1-9. Tesfaye Awas (2007). Plant Diversity in Western Ethiopia:Ecology, Ethnobotany and Conservation Department of Biology. Norway, University of Oslo. degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Turner, M. and Watson, R. (2008). An introductory study on the ecology of hyrax (Dendrohyrax brucei and Procavia johnstoni) in the Serengeti National Park. African Journal of Ecology. 3: 49-60. Vaughan, T. A., Ryan, J. M. and Czapleuski, N. J. (2000). Mammalogy. Saunders Cllege Publishing, Orlando. Visser, J. H. and Wimberger, K. (2016). A conservation assessment of Procavia capensis. South African National Biodiversity Institute and Endangered Wildlife Trust. South Africa: 1-6 Whittaker, D. G., Van Dyke, W. A. and Love, S. L. (2003). Evaluation of Aerial Line Transect for Estimating Pronghorn Antelope Abundance in Low-Density Populations. Wildlife Society Bulletin. 31: 443-453. Wiid, R. E. and Butler, H. J. B. (2015). Population management of rock hyraxes ( Procavia capensis ) in residential areas. Pest Manag Sci. 71 (2): 180-188. Wossenseged Lemma (2008). Hyraxes and Leishmaniasis in Ethiopia. Ethiopian. Journal of Health and Biological Society (1): 63-69.

Yalden, D. W. (1983). The extent of high ground in Ethiopia compared to the rest of Africa SINET. Ethiopia Journal of Science (6): 35-39. Yalden, D. W. and Largen, M. J. (2008). Endemic mammals of Ethiopia. Mammal Review. 22: 115-150. Young, J. (2012). Ethiopian Protected Areas: A “Snapshot” A Reference guide for future strategic planning and project funding. Addis Ababa, Word Press. Young, T. P. and Evans, M. R. (1993). Alpine vertebrates of mount Kenya, with particular notes on the Rock Hyrax. Journal of The East Africa Natural History Society and National Museum. 82 (202): 55-79. Young, T. P. and Matthew, R. E. (1993). Alpin vertebrates of Mount Kenya, with particular notes on the rock hyrax. Journal of East African Natural History Society. 82: 55-79.

APPENDICES

Appendix Table 0-1፡ Questionnaire filled by respondents

BAHIR DAR UNIVERSTY

COLLEGE OF SCIENCE

DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY

SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

This research is conducted on Rock Hyrax population size, distribution and the community attitude towards it in Zegie Peninsula. The study is submitted as partial fulfillment of Master Degree in Biology at Bahir Dar University. The researcher explicitly want to emphasize that this study is significant, to indicate the population status of Rock Hyrax as base line estimate, highlighting the dwellers attitude and suggesting recommendations to the concerned body for conservation and management of rock hyrax in the study area. The information you provided will help to get these valuable information for the study. In addition, information you provided will be used only for research purpose and treated confidentially.

Thank you!!

Data collection Date: - … /….. /2020. (DD/MM/YY) Enumerators / data collector Name: ______Kebele Name: ------Enumeration area name: ------Section I: Respondent’s General Information

1. Sex of respondent [1] Male [2.] Female 2. Family size ------3. Age ------4. Educational background I. From grade 1-8 II. From grade 9-12 III. Certificate and above IV. Religious education V. Uneducated 5. What is your main source of livelihood? ………………………………………………. 6. Additional source of income (if any) ………………………………………………… 7. Do you have private farm land? [1.] Yes [2.] NO

If your answer is yes for question seven, the Land size you hold in hectares is …………………… 8. Do you have sheep in your house? [1.] Yes [2.] NO 9. If your answer is yes for question eight, had enough grazing land and place for them? [1.] Yes [2.] NO

SECTION II: People’s Attitudes and Perception towards Rock Hyrax?

10. Are you aware of the rock hyrax found in Zegie Peninsula? [ 1] Yes [2 ] No 11. If you have seen rock hyrax in Zegie Peninsula, where have you seen them? ...... 12. When you saw the rock hyrax in Zegie Peninsula, on average how many rock hyraxes did you see at one sighting? …………………………………………………………… 13. How would you feel the presence of rock hyrax in the Peninsula? [1] Good [2] Bad Why do you feel like this? ………………………………………………………………………………………… 14. Does rock hyrax cause problem or/and damage on cultivated crops in your locality? [ 1] Yes [2 ] No If yes, describe the problems or damages it causes? ...... 15. The problems or damage caused by rock hyrax on cultivated crops in Zegie Peninsula is: [1] Low [2] High 16. How do you control the problems or damage caused by rock hyrax? [1] Killing [2] Chase away [3] any other (specify)……………………………. 17. How do you kill rock hyrax? [1] Spearing [2] Poisoning [3] Using traps or snares [4] Dog [5] Stick beating 18. If you chase these animals, how do you do it? [1] Throwing stone [2] Using dog [3] Making noise [4] Any other (specify)……………………………. 19. Do rock hyraxes have benefits in your locality? [ 1] Yes [2 ] No Describe the benefits you think /saw that rock hyraxes give in your locality?

...... 20. “Rock hyrax should be protected.” [1] Agree [2] Disagree State your reason ...... 21. Which crop species do rock hyrax damage? ...... 22. On your observation does the number of rock hyrax: [1] Increased [2] Decreased [3] Not Changed [4] I do not know What could be the reason(s)? ...... 23. Do conserving rock hyrax practiced in your locality? [1] Yes [2] No [3] I don‟t know If Yes why………………………………………………………………………………

If No why ………………………………………………………………………………

24. Are there threats of rock hyrax in your area? 1 Yes 2 No

25. List threats of rock hyrax in your area …………………………………………......

26. What is your opinion to mitigate the impact of local people on rock hyrax?

…………………………………………………………………………………………

Thank you!!

በተጠኝዎች የሚሞላ ወደ አማርኛ የተተረጎመ መጠይቅ በባህርዳር ዩንቨርሲቲ ሳይንስ ኮሌጅ የባዮሎጂ ትምህርት ክፍል ለሁለተኛ ዲግሪ የማሟያ ጽሁፍ መረጃ መሰብሰቢያ ቅፅ የዚህ መጠይቅ ዋና አላማ በአማራ ክልል በባህር ዳር ከተማ አስተዳደር በዘጌ ገዳማት ውስጥ የሚገኙትን የሽኮኮወች ቁጥር (ብዛት)፣ ስርጭት እንዲሁም የአካባቢው ማህበረሰብ ስለ ሽኮኮወች ያለውን ግንዛቤ ለማወቅና መረጃዎችን ለመሰብሰብ የተካሔደ የምርምር ጽሁፍ ነው። ጥናታዊ ጽሁፉ የተሳካ ይሆን ዘንድ እርስዎ የሚሰጡት ምላሽ ከፍተኛ አስተዋጽኦ አለው፡፡ በመሆኑም የእርስዎ ምላሽ ለዚህ ጥናት ብቻ እንደሚውል ተገንዝበው ይተባበሩን ዘንድ በትህትና እንጠይቀወታለን፡፡ ስለትብብርዎ ከልብ አመሰግናለሁ! የመጠይቁ መመሪያ፡- ቀጥሎ ለቀረቡት መጠይቆች ትክክል ነው ብለው የሚገምቱትን ምላሽ በተሰጡ ክፍት ቦታዎች ላይ ትክክለኛውን መልስ በመጻፍና በምርጫ መልክ ለቀረቡት ደግሞ ትክክለኛውን መልስ በማክበብ እንዲመልሱ በማክበር እጠይቃለሁ፡፡ ክፍል አንድ ፦ ግለሰባዊ መረጃ 1. ጾታ [1] ወንድ [2] ሴት 2. የቤተሰብ ብዛት ------3. እድሜ (በዓመት)…………………… 4. ያጠናቀከው(ሽው) የትምህርት ደረጃ [1]. ከ1ኛ-8ኛ ክፍል [2]. ከ9ኛ-12ኛ ክፍል [3]. ሰርተፊኬት እና ባላይ [4]. የቤተክህነት ትምህርት [6]. ያልተማረ 5. የአነተ(ች) ዋናው የገቢ ምንጭህ(ሽ) ምንድን ነው? ------6. ሌላ ተጨማሪ የገቢ ምንጭ ካለህ(ሽ) ይጥቀስ(ሽ) ------7. የግል የእርሻ ማሳ አለህ(ሽ)? 1. አዎ 2. የለኝም ለስምንተኛው ጥያቄ መልስህ(ሽ) አዎ ከሆነ በሄክታር ምን ያህል ይሆናል? ------8. በቤተዎ የሚያረቡት/ የሚያደልቡት በግ አለህ(ሽ)? 1. አዎ 2. የለኝም 9. ለስምንተኛ ጥያቄ መልስህ(ሽ) አዎ ከሆነ በቂ የግጦሽ ቦታ አለህ(ሽ)? 1. አዎ 2. የለኝም

ክፍል ሁለት፦ የአካባቢው ማኅበረሠብ ሥለሽኮኮወች ያለው ግንዛቤና አመለካከት 10. በዘጌ አካባቢ ሽኮኮወች ስለመኖራቸው ግንዛቤው አለህ(ሽ)? 1. አለ 2. የለም 11. በዘጌ አካባቢ ሽኮኮወችን አይተህ (ሽ) ከሆነ በአብዛኛው የት አካባቢ ይገኛሉ ወይም ይታያሉ? ------12. ሽኮኮወችን ባየሃቸው(ሻቸው) ጊዜ በአማካኝ ስንት ሽኮኮወችን በአንድ ጊዜ ይታያሉ? ------13. በአካባቢህ(ሽ) በሽኮኮወች መገኘት ወይም መኖር ምን ዓይነት ስሜት ይሰማሃል(ሻል)? [1] ጥሩ [2] መጥፎ

የዚህ ዓይነት ስሜት የተሰማህ(ሽ) ለምንድን ነው? ------14. በአካባቢህ(ሽ) ሽኮኮወች በሰብል ላይ ጉዳት ወይም አደጋ ያደርሳሉ? [1] አዎ [2] የለም መልስህ(ሽ) አዎ ከሆነ የሚያደርሱትን ጉዳት ዘርዝር(ሪ) ------15. በአካባቢዎ ሽኮኮዎች በሰብል ላይ የሚያደርሱት ጉዳት ወይም አደጋ ደረጃው [1] ከፍተኛ [2] ዝቅተኛ 16. በሽኮኮዎች የሚደርሰውን አደጋ ወይም ጉዳት በምን ዓይነት ዘዴ ነው የምትቆጣጠሩት? [1] በመግደል [2] በማባረር [3] ሌላ ዘዴ ካለ ጥቀስ(ሽ) ------17. ሽኮኮወችን የምትገድላቸው(ያቸው) ከሆነ እንዴት ነው የምትገድላቸው(ያቸው)? [1] በጦር [2] በመርዝ [3] በወጥመድ [4] በውሻ [5] በብትር በመደብደብ 18. ሽኮኮወችን የምታባርራቸው(ሪያቸው) ከሆነ በምን ዘዴ ነው የምታባርራቸው(ሪያቸው)? [1] ድንጋይ በመወርወር [2] በውሻ [3] ድምጽ በማሰማት [4] ሌላ ዘዴ ካለ ይገለጽ------19. በአካባቢህ(ሽ) ሽኮኮወች የሚሰጡት ጠቀሜታ አለ? [1] አዎ [2] የለም ካለ የሚሰጡትን ጠቀሜታ ጥቀስ(ሽ) ------20. ሽኮኮዎች መጠበቅ ወይም በእንክብካቤ መያዝ አለባቸው ። [1] እስማማለሁ [2] አልስማማም ምክንያትህን(ሽን) ዘርዝር(ሪ) ------21. በአካባቢህ(ሽ) ሽኮኮዎች የሚያጠፉት የዓዝርዕት/የተክል ዓይነት ምንድን ነው? ------22. በአንተ(ች) ምልከታ የሽኮኮወች ከባለፉት አመታት ከነበረው ብዛት/ቁጥር፤ [1] ጨምሯል [2] ቀንሷል [3] ለውጥ የላቸውም [4] አላውቅም ምክንያቱ ምን ሊሆን ይችላል? ------23. በአካባቢህ(ሽ) ለእሽኮኮዎች ጥበቃ እና እንክብካቤ ይደረጋል ? [1] አዎ [2] የለም [3] አላውቅም መልስህ(ሽ) አዎ ከሆነ ምን------መልስህ(ሽ) የለም ከሆነ ለምን------24. በአካባቢህ(ሽ) ለሽኮኮዎች መኖር እንቅፋት ወይም ስጋት የሚሆን ነገር አለ ? [1] አዎ [2] የለም

25. አዎ ከሆነ ምን ምን ናቸው ? ------26. የአካባቢው ማኅበረሰብ በሽኮኮወች ላይ የሚያደርሰውን ተጽዕኖ እንዴት መቀነስ ይቻላል ብለህ(ሽ) ታስባለህ(ሽ)?------በድጋሜ ስለተባበሩኝ ከልብ አመሰግናለሁ!

Appendix Table 0-2: Questionnaire for key informant interview

 Do you think that the local community likes the presence of rock hyraxes?  Do you think the presence of rock hyrax in your locality benefits/harms the community?  In what way and what benefits have been realized?  In what way the damage caused by rock hyrax has been minimized?  From your experience what seems the population size of rock hyrax?  What do you suggest about rock hyrax population present in Zegie peninsula for concerned body?

Appendix Table 0-3፡ Rock Hyrax population counting sheet

Observer Name: ...... Transect number/Name of the Transect area...... Transect Length...... The description of the dwellers settlement situation ……...... ……...... Descriptions of major vegetation found in the area are ……...... Habitat description of rock hyrax seen is ……...... ……......

Counting Counting Rock hyrax seen Habitat Remark Date Time Type Adult Baby Total From….….. (Juvenile) To…..…..

ቆጠራ ወይም ምልከታ በሚደረግበት አካባቢ የተገኙ/ የታዩ ሽኮኮዎች ብዛት እና የታዩበት አካባቢ ሁኔታ መረጃ መሰብሰቢያ ቅጽ ቆጠራውን ያከናዎነው ስም ……………………………………………

ቆጠራው የተከናዎነበት አካበቢ ስም/ መለያ ቁጥር ………………………………..

ቆጠራው የተከናዎነበት መስመር ርዝመት ……………………………………………..

ቆጠራው የተከናዎነበት አካባቢ ሁኔታ ……………………………………..

ቆጠራው በተካሄደበት አካባቢ በብዛት የሚገኙ ዛፎች ፣ የመልካምድር ሁኔታ …………………..

ቆጠራው ቆጠራው የተገኙ /የታዩ ሽኮኮዎች ሽኮኮዎች ተጨማሪ

የተካሄደበት የተከናዎነበት ብዛት የታዩበት ቦታ መግለጫ

ቀን ስዓት ትልቅ ትንሽ ድምር ስም እና ከ……….እስከ…….. የተገኙበት

ሁኔታ

Appendix Table 0-4 : Hyrax population count transects length and area in each habitat

Habitat stratum Transect Length of The total area covered by the No the transect observation

Human Residence 1 4,340 217,000 2 4,062 203,100 3 4,060 203,000 4 4,083 204,150 5 4,969 248,450 6 5,457 272,850 7 5,977 298,850 8 2,052 102,600 9 2,049 102,450 37,049 1,852,450 Dense forest 10 6,474 323,700 11 2,709 135,450 12 4,072 203,600 13,255 662,750 Bush land 13 1834 91,700 13 1834 91,700 Lake shore 14 775 23,250 15 677 20,310 16 580 17,400 17 734 22,020 18 650 19,500

Appendix Table 0-5: Sampling for questioner responders households in the Study Area

Mehale zege-Yeganda Kebele Number of Name of the Number of Male Female house Total Goete house hold hold Household 1 Tangedel 39 16 55 2 Kokel 53 48 101 3 Yeganda 01 59 33 92 4 Yeganda 02 37 17 54 Yeganda 5 mehale Zege 46 47 93 6 Ager Bite 29 34 63 7 Deber Desh 27 39 66 8 Sare wodeb 30 33 63 Total 320 267 587 Ura Kebele 1 Aura 59 54 113 2 Azewa 62 47 109 3 Washaia 62 56 118 4 Mekelame 41 24 65 5 Gami 76 48 124 Total 300 229 529 Total households in the Area 620 496 1116

Sampled area household numbers

Total purposively selected gotes number HH male female sample Yeganda- mehale Zege 93 17 16 33 Yeganda 01 92 20 13 33 Deber Desh 66 10 13 23 Sare wodeb 63 11 11 22 Total 314 58 53 111

Aura 113 17 16 33 Azewa 109 18 14 32 Washaia 118 19 15 34 Total 340 54 45 99 Total responders 112 98 210

Appendix Table 0-6: Interviewed sample respondents

Respondents Village (“Gotes”) respondents are selected and number of respondents Yeganda 01 Sare wodeb Aura Local Elders 2 1 2 Village(“Gotes”) 1 2 1 leaders

Appendix Table 0-7፡ Analysis results

Feeing of the responds on the presence of Rock hyrax in the Peninsula

Feel The educational level / back ground Good Bad Total Grade 1-8 Count 21 22 43 % within 48.8% 51.2% 100.0% Grade 9-12 Count 27 3 30 % within 90.0% 10.0% 100.0% Certificate and Count 19 0 19 above % within 100.0% .0% 100.0% Religious Count 16 36 52 Education % within 30.8% 69.2% 100.0% Illiterate Count 3 56 59 % within The educational level 5.1% 94.9% 100.0% completed Total Count 86 117 203 % within The educational level 42.4% 57.6% 100.0% completed

Chi-Square Tests result on Feeing of the responds on the presence of Rock hyrax in the Peninsula based on respondent‟s educational level

Asymp. Sig. (2- Value df sided) Pearson Chi-Square 90.912a 4 .000 Likelihood Ratio 109.661 4 .000 Linear-by-Linear Association 48.409 1 .000 N of Valid Cases 203 a. 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 8.05.

The Chi-Square Tests result on Feeing of the responds on the presence of Rock hyrax in the Peninsula based on respondent’s sex

Asymp. Sig. (2- Exact Sig. (2- Exact Sig. (1- Value df sided) sided) sided) Pearson Chi-Square 27.704 1 .000 a Continuity Correctionb 26.228 1 .000 Likelihood Ratio 28.535 1 .000 Fisher's Exact Test .000 .000 Linear-by-Linear 27.567 1 .000 Association N of Valid Casesb 203 a. 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 41.52. b. Computed only for a 2x2 table

Counted Mean Number of Rock Hyrax Counted in Each month

Month T1-T9 T10-T12 T13 T14-T18 Total

February Adult 27 6 0 34 67 Baby 10 0 0 11 21 Total 37 6 0 45 88 March Adult 27 7 0 35 69 Baby 9 0 0 12 21 Total 37 7 0 47 91 April Adult 28 7 0 33 68 Baby 12 2 0 12 26 Total 40 9 0 45 94 Dry Mean Adult 28 6 0 34 68 Baby 10 1 0 12 23 Total 38 7 0 46 91 June Adult 29 7 0 36 72 Baby 15 3 0 16 34 Total 44 10 0 52 106 July Adult 29 8 0 37 74 Baby 16 3 0 17 36 Total 45 10 0 54 109 Adult 39 9 0 36 84 September Baby 12 3 0 14 29 Total 51 12 0 49 112 Wet Mean Adult 32 8 0 36 76 Baby 14 3 0 16 33 Total 46 11 0 52 109

Counted Number of Rock hyrax during Dry Season

Stratum Transect mean Number hyrax seen Dry season Name Adult Mean Baby Mean Sum Mean (±SE) (Juvenile) (±SE) (±SE) Human Residence T1 6 0.13 2 0.14 8 0.21 T2 5 0.12 2 0.14 7 0.23 T3 3 0.12 1 0.22 4 0.28 T4 2 0.11 0 0.15 2 0.21 T5 4 0.11 2 0.12 6 0.20 T6 2 0.13 1 0.22 3 0.32 T7 4 0.14 1 0.18 5 0.28 T8 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 T9 2 0.18 1 0.22 3 0.35 Sum 28 10 0.15 38 0.23

Area coved with T10 2 0.12 1 0.18 3 0.26 big trees which T11 2 0.15 0 0.15 2 0.26 have few residence T12 2 0.21 0 0.00 2 0.21 and far from Lake Tana Sum 6 1 7 0.24 The study area T13 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 covered with bush and very far from lake Tana (Ararat) Sum 0 0 0 Around the Lake T14 8 0.21 3 0.17 11 0.34 Tana T15 7 0.17 2 0.18 9 0.30 T16 6 0.22 2 0.22 8 0.32 T17 6 0.16 3 0.28 9 0.41 T18 7 0.14 2 0.17 9 0.28 Sum 34 12 46 0.33 Total Sum 68 23 91 0.25

Counted Number of Rock hyrax during Wet Season

Stratum Transect Mean Number rock hyrax seen Dry season Name Adult Mean Baby Mean Sum Mean (±SE) (Juvenile) (±SE) (±SE) Human T1 6 0.29 4 0.17 10 0.34 Residence T2 5 0.14 1 0.14 6 0.20 T3 4 0.17 1 0.21 5 0.21 T4 2 0.13 1 0.21 3 0.23 T5 5 0.18 2 0.17 7 0.28 T6 3 0.12 2 0.19 5 0.23 T7 5 0.22 2 0.20 7 0.30 T8 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 T9 3 0.40 1 0.18 4 0.33 Sum 33 0.183 14 0.1635 47 0.24 Area coved T10 3 0.12 2 0.17 5 0.21 with big trees which T11 3 0.11 1 0.21 4 0.30 have few residence T12 2 0.15 0 0.12 2 0.21 and far from lake tana Sum 8 3 11 0.24 The study T13 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00 area covered with bush and very far from lake Tana (Ararat) Sum 0 0 0 Around the T14 8 0.20 4 0.14 12 0.28 Lake Tana T15 8 0.19 4 0.15 12 0.27 T16 6 0.17 2 0.15 8 0.23 T17 6 0.14 3 0.18 9 0.26 T18 7 0.15 3 0.18 10 0.26 Sum 35 16 51 0.26 Total Sum 76 33 109 0.23

Estimated population size of rock hyrax in each month

Season/ Around lake Human Densely covered with bush land Total month Tana residence big trees and coffee. (Ararat) Dry (Feb 208 184 22 0 414 ( Mar 216 183 27 0 426 (Apr 207 198 34 0 439 Wet (Jun) 237 217 41 0 495 (July 247 225 41 0 513 (sep.) 226 256 45 0 527

One way analysis of variance (ANOVA) result for rock hyrax population on season

Source of Variation SS df MS F P-value F crit Between Groups 924.5 1 924.5 0.068342 0.802508 5.987378 Within Groups 81165 6 13527.5 Total 82089.5 7