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Intensification on the Western Divide: Lithic Assemblages in an Evolutionary Perspective

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Intensification on the Western Divide: Lithic Assemblages in an Evolutionary Perspective University of Nevada, Reno Ever Upward? Intensification on the Western Divide: Lithic Assemblages in an Evolutionary Perspective A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Anthropology By Geneva L. Kraus Dr. Christopher T. Morgan/Thesis Advisor December 2016 ii © Geneva L. Kraus 2016 All Rights Reserved THE GRADUATE SCHOOL We recommend that the thesis prepared under our supervision by GENEVA L. KRAUS Entitled Ever Upward? Intensification On The Western Divide: Lithic Assemblages In An Evolutionary Perspective be accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Christopher T. Morgan, Ph.D., Advisor Geoffrey M. Smith, Ph.D., Committee Member Scott A. Mensing, Ph.D., Graduate School Representative David W. Zeh, Ph.D., Dean, Graduate School December, 2016 i ABSTRACT Analysis of flaked stone assemblages from four study sites on the Western Divide illustrates changing patterns of hunter-gatherer land use in the southern Sierra Nevada during the Late Holocene. At the macroregional scale this investigation points to similar behaviors in raw material use and reduction trajectory across the study sites and greater southern Owens Valley-southern Sierra Nevada region; specifically, a focus on a highly curated obsidian bifacial technology in tandem with limited use of more locally available, non-obsidian toolstones. At the local scale, results elucidate the relationship between the lithic assemblages and site use by suggesting the time depth of intensive versus non- intensive occupations. Residential sites in the foothills of the western slope of the Sierra appear to represent less labor-intensive occupations. Sites just below snowline and at higher elevations represent a more intensive pattern of seasonal occupation that appears to have relied on more labor-intensive, less efficient behaviors that became increasingly so over time. The pattern of increasingly intensive use of elevation-linked ecozones through time is a common hunter-gatherer pattern seen across the Sierra Nevada and central California, albeit at a scale that is difficult to extract from larger macroregional patterns in lithic technological organization. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research was funded in part by the Splatt Scholarship, awarded by the Anthropology Department for the 2014-2015 academic year. Without it, my large obsidian hydration sample and numerous visits to the study area in Sequoia National Forest would not have been possible. There are number of people who have made my journey through the MA program possible. I would like to thank my many family members, friends, and coworkers who have provided support and constructive feedback throughout the creation of this document. Foremost among these people are Lynne Graziadei, Stephen Bushy, Jeanne Goetz, Jason Coats, Dave Harvey, and all my coworkers at the Sacramento District Corps of Engineers. A number of other people have made this study possible. Linn Gassaway, formerly Hume Lake and Western Divide archaeologist for the Sequoia National Forest, provided guided tours to my study sites and volunteered an immense body of information about archaeology on the Western Divide. Several seasons of Forest Service volunteers and members of the Backcountry Horsemen helped to generate the collections I used, and I would like to thank them for their efforts. Others have been extremely supportive throughout my study, whether pointing me to documents or simply listening to me prattle on about my project. They include the following: Karen Miller, Alexander “Sandy” Rogers, Nathan Stevens, SWCA’s Pasadena office, Kelly McGuire, and all those who attended the southern Sierra data-share meetings. iii At UNR, I would like to thank my committee, Dr. Christopher Morgan, Dr. Geoffrey Smith, and Dr. Scott Mensing, for their patience and guidance throughout this process. Most importantly, I would like to express my gratitude to my classmates at UNR. This journey would not have been possible without you! iv Table of Contents ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................ i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................ ii LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................ vii LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................... x CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 1 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................... 4 EVOLUTIONARY ECOLOGY AND INTENSIFICATION ......................................... 5 INTENSIFICATION ........................................................................................................... 7 INTENSIFICATION AND LAND USE IN HUNTER-GATHERER SETTLEMENT-SUBSISTENCE SYSTEMS ...................................................................................................................... 12 SUBSISTENCE AND TECHNOLOGICAL INTENSIFICATION IN PREHISTORIC CALIFORNIA ..... 13 PREHISTORIC LAND USE IN THE SIERRA NEVADA .......................................... 18 PATTERNS OF LAND USE IN THE SOUTH CENTRAL SIERRA NEVADA ................................ 19 SOUTHERN SIERRA NEVADA ARCHAEOLOGY AND CULTURAL CHRONOLOGY ................... 26 SOUTHERN SIERRA NEVADA ETHNOGRAPHY .................................................................. 29 THE IMPORTANCE OF THE LANDSCAPE SCALE IN SIERRA NEVADA ARCHAEOLOGY .......... 33 CHAPTER 3: LITHIC TECHNOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION, HYPOTHESES, AND EXPECTATIONS ................................................................................................. 35 LITHICS AND LAND USE IN THE SOUTHERN SIERRA NEVADA ..................... 36 RAW MATERIAL PROCUREMENT ON THE WESTERN DIVIDE ............................................ 36 TOOL PRODUCTION AND MAINTENANCE ....................................................................... 43 OCCUPATIONAL INTENSITY ........................................................................................... 52 INTENSIFICATION AND SETTLEMENT SYSTEMS ............................................................... 54 RESEARCH QUESTIONS, HYPOTHESES AND EXPECTATIONS ....................... 55 RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES ..................................................................... 55 v EXPECTATIONS FOR LITHIC ASSEMBLAGES .................................................................... 57 SUMMARY .................................................................................................................... 61 CHAPTER 4: MATERIALS AND METHODS .......................................................... 63 STUDY SITES .............................................................................................................. 63 ENVIRONMENTAL CONTEXT .......................................................................................... 63 PREVIOUS EXCAVATIONS .............................................................................................. 68 METHODS ................................................................................................................... 76 COLLECTIONS AND RECORDS ....................................................................................... 77 UNIT SELECTION AND SAMPLING .................................................................................. 78 LITHIC TECHNOLOGICAL ANALYSIS ............................................................................... 83 OBSIDIAN SAMPLING METHODOLOGY ........................................................................... 87 OBSIDIAN HYDRATION DATING ..................................................................................... 88 X-RAY FLUORESCENCE SPECTROMETRY ........................................................................ 92 CHAPTER 5: RESULTS ............................................................................................... 96 UPPER COFFEE CAMP TU 2 ..................................................................................... 96 HOT SPRINGS TU 2 .................................................................................................. 102 HOT SPRINGS TU 7 .................................................................................................. 108 HOT SPRINGS SITE SUMMARY ..................................................................................... 112 JOHNSONDALE TU 4 ............................................................................................... 115 TROUT MEADOW TU 4 ........................................................................................... 120 TROUT MEADOW TU 6 ........................................................................................... 124 TROUT MEADOW SITE SUMMARY ................................................................................ 129 LITHIC ANALYSIS SUMMARY AND SYNTHESIS .............................................. 132 CHAPTER 6: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS ............................................... 142 SITE TYPE AND LAND USE PATTERNS ............................................................... 143 A HOLISTIC VIEW OF SITE TYPE AND LAND USE: LITHICS AND OTHER DATA ............... 143 TECHNOLOGICAL ORGANIZATION AND LAND USE ON THE WESTERN DIVIDE ......................................................................................................................
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