Southern NSW Research Results 2015

Southern NSW research results 2015

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT – INDEPENDENT RESEARCH FOR INDUSTRY

www.dpi.nsw.gov.au Southern NSW research results 2015

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT – INDEPENDENT RESEARCH FOR INDUSTRY an initiative of Southern Cropping Systems

Editors: Deb Slinger, Director Southern Cropping, NSW DPI, Wagga Wagga; Elizabeth Madden Disclaimer and Cynthia Podmore, NSW DPI, Wagga Wagga; The information contained in this publication is based on and Carey Martin, NSW DPI, Orange. knowledge and understanding at the time of writing (May 2016). However, because of advances in knowledge, users are reminded Reviewer: Don McCaffery, Technical Specialist of the need to ensure that the information upon which they rely Pulses & Oilseeds, NSW DPI, Orange. is up to date and to check the currency of the information with Cover images: Main image–lupin variety trial, the appropriate officer of NSW Department of Industry, Skills and Regional Development or the user’s independent adviser. Mark Richards, NSW DPI, Wagga Wagga; inset canola and wheat–NSW DPI Image Library; inset The product trade names in this publication are supplied on field pea–Di Holding, AnDi Communications. the understanding that no preference between equivalent products is intended and that the inclusion of a product ©State of NSW through NSW Department of Industry, name does not imply endorsement by the department Skills and Regional Development 2016 over any equivalent product from another manufacturer. ISBN 978-1-74256-930-7 Recognising that some of the information in this document jn 13880 is provided by third parties, the State of New South Wales, the author and the publisher take no responsibility for the Published by NSW Department of Primary Industries, a part of accuracy, currency, reliability or correctness of any information NSW Department of Industry, Skills and Regional Development included in the document provided by third parties. You may copy, distribute, display, download and otherwise freely deal with this publication for any purpose, provided Always read the label that you attribute NSW Department of Industry, Skills and Users of agricultural chemical products must always read Regional Development as the owner. However, you must the label and any permit before using the product and obtain permission if you wish to charge others for access to strictly comply with the directions on the label and the the publication (other than at cost); include the publication conditions of any permit. Users are not absolved from advertising or a product for sale; modify the publication; any compliance with the directions on the label or the or republish the publication on a website. You may freely conditions of the permit by reason of any statement link to the publication on a departmental website. made or omitted to be made in this publication. Foreword NSW Department of Primary Industries (NSW DPI) experiments to be replicated across high, medium welcomes you to the second edition of Southern and low rainfall zones with Yanco providing the NSW Research Results 2015. This book has been opportunity to conduct irrigated experiments. produced to increase awareness of research and NSW DPI’s research program includes the areas development (R&D) activities undertaken by NSW DPI of germplasm improvement; farming systems in the southern cropping region of NSW. It delivers management e.g. nutrient management, agronomy, the outcomes of these activities to our stakeholders water use efficiency and crop sequencing; plant including agribusiness, consultants and growers. protection e.g. entomology, pathology and integrated This document is a comprehensive, annual report weed management; water productivity; and supply of NSW DPI’s R&D activities in southern NSW. This chains and market access. The following papers year the book has been expanded to include provide an insight into selected R&D activities taking the soils, climate, weeds, farming systems, water place in the southern region. We hope you will and irrigation research in southern NSW. find them interesting and valuable to your farming NSW DPI, in collaboration with our major funding system or the farming clients you work with. partner GRDC, is at the forefront of agricultural We acknowledge the many collaborators (growers, research in the southern cropping region of NSW. agribusiness and consultants) that make this Our R&D teams conduct applied, scientifically sound, research possible. We also encourage feedback to independent research to advance the profitability help us produce improved editions in future years. and sustainability of our farming systems. The Research and Development Teams The Department’s major research centres in NSW Department of Primary Industries the southern region of NSW are Wagga Wagga, Yanco, Condobolin and Cowra where our team of highly reputable research and development officers and support staff are based. The regional geographic spread of the research centres allows for

2 | NSW Department of Primary Industries 50 25 22 19 15 13 9 agronomy –cereals 7 Contents agronomy –pulses 52 48 45 43 40 agronomy –canola 37 35 33 30 61 55

, Dr LivinusEmebiri Adelaide Daryl Reardon NSWDPI,Condobolin; Brill Rohan andDaryl Ian Menz grain yieldoftwo canolavarieties–Condobolin 2015 Reardon NSWDPI,Condobolin; Brill Rohan andDaryl Ian Menz DPI, Wagga Wagga;Colin NSWDPI,Cowra; Conyers McMaster Mark Colin NSWDPI,Cowra; McMaster Adam Coleman NSWDPI,Orange , Brill Rohan , Brill Rohan NSWDPI,CondobolinDavid andIanMenz Burch,Moody Nick Wagga David NSWDPI,Condobolin; BurchMoody DrFelicity andNick andGraeme Sandral NSWDPI, Harris , Brill Rohan , Ian Menz Colin NSWDPI,Cowra; McMaster Adam Coleman NSWDPI,Orange , Ian Menz protein ofsixwheat varieties –Condobolin 2015 Koetz, Eric Koetz, Eric DPI, Wagga Wagga;NSW Dr Felicity Harris Wagga Richards, Mark ArmstrongDr Eric , Effect ofsowing date on phenologyandgrain yieldofsixcanolavarieties–Condobolin 2015 Effect ofsowing date ongrain yield, water-use andgrain ofwheat –Canowindra quality efficiency 2015 Effect ofnitrogen rate andsowing timeongrain yieldandgrain Effect ofsowing date andnitrogen rate 2015 ongrain yieldofsixwheat varieties–Lockhart Effect ofsowing date ongrain yieldof36 wheat varieties– Wagga Wagga 2015 Wheat varietiesdiffer inresponse to natural heat events reproductive theearly during stage flo Understanding wheat phenology: conditionsSeasonal 2015 Effect ofsowing date, seedingrate on pre-sowing andirrigation Effect ofsowing date and appliedphosphorusoncanolagrain yield–2014and2015 Effect ofsowing date onphenologyandgrain yieldoftwelve canolavarieties–Canowindra 2015 The effectofsowing onthegrain 2015 date pre-sowing yieldofcanola–Ganmain andirrigation The effectofsowing date andfungicide application ongrain yieldofcanola–Alma Park 2015 Grain yieldofeighteen varietiessown barley at three different dates –Condobolin 2015 flo phenology: Optimising barley oftwelveResponse andfour barley wheat varietiesto three sowing dates –Matong 2015 Effect ofsowing timeon32wheat varieties–Condobolin 2015 Faba beantimeofsowing – Wagga Wagga 2015 Faba beantimeofsowing – Wagga Wagga 2014 Australian Centre for Plant Functional Genomics, Adelaide

Wagga Wagga Daryl Reardon NSWDPI,Condobolin andDaryl Moody Nick Reardon NSWDPI,Condobolin andDaryl Moody Nick NSW DPI, Wagga WaggaNSW andGreg McMahon Hugh Kanaley DPI, Wagga WaggaNSW andGreg McMahon Hugh Kanaley Paula, Charnock Paula, Charnock Paula, Charnock Dr Eric ArmstrongDr Eric , Gerard O’Connor and Luke Gaynor Kerry TaylorKerry , Warren Hands andSharni Bartlett Warren Hands andSharni Bartlett Warren Hands andSharni Bartlett Denise Pleming andDenise Shane Hildebrand wering response to sowing timeinCentral West NSW Luke Gaynor, wering response to sowing time Dr Peter Howqua Consulting; Dr Howard Eagles Martin of University Karl Moore, Karl NSW DPI, Wagga NSW Russell Pumpa andJon Evans NSW DPI, Wagga NSW DPI, Wagga NSW NSW DPI, Wagga NSW DPI, Wagga NSW DPI, Wagga NSW SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 |

Wagga NSW DPI, Wagga NSW Adam Coleman

Wagga Wagga Wagga Wagga Wagga NSW

Wagga; NSW DPI,

DPI, Orange Nicholas Collins

contents 65 Faba bean time of sowing – Junee Reefs 2015 Mark Richards, Dr Eric Armstrong, Luke Gaynor, Karl Moore, Russell Pumpa and Jon Evans NSW DPI, Wagga Wagga

68 Faba bean time of sowing – Lockhart 2015 Mark Richards, Dr Eric Armstrong, Luke Gaynor, Karl Moore, Russell Pumpa and Jon Evans NSW DPI, Wagga Wagga

71 Lentil time of sowing and sowing rate – Wagga Wagga 2015 Mark Richards, Dr Eric Armstrong, Karl Moore, Russell Pumpa and Jon Evans NSW DPI, Wagga Wagga

74 Lentil time of sowing and sowing rate – Yenda 2015 Mark Richards, Dr Eric Armstrong, Karl Moore, Russell Pumpa and Jon Evans NSW DPI, Wagga Wagga

77 Lentil sowing rate – Yenda 2014 Dr Eric Armstrong, Gerard O’Connor and Luke Gaynor NSW DPI, Wagga Wagga

81 Imidazolinone-tolerant lentils– Wagga Wagga 2014 Dr Eric Armstrong, Gerard O’Connor and Luke Gaynor NSW DPI, Wagga Wagga nutrition & soil

85 Nodulation studies with pulses on acidic red-brown soils – Wagga Wagga 2014 Dr Eric Armstrong, Gerard O’Connor and Luke Gaynor NSW DPI, Wagga Wagga

90 Nodulation studies with pulses on acidic red sandy soils – Yenda 2014 Dr Eric Armstrong, Gerard O’Connor and Luke Gaynor NSW DPI, Wagga Wagga

94 Use of quality legume inoculants to get the most from nitrogen fixation Elizabeth Hartley, Greg Gemell and Jade Hartley NSW DPI, Ourimbah

98 The eXtensionAUS Crop Nutrition online learning network Luke Beange NSW DPI, Dubbo; Sally Friis and Julie White NSW DPI, Paterson; Fleur Muller NSW DPI, Wagga Wagga; Stephanie Alt Give Soil a Chance

101 The effect of nitrogen application on grain yield and grain protein concentration of six wheat varieties – Parkes 2015 Ian Menz, Nick Moody and Daryl Reardon NSW DPI, Condobolin

104 Effect of nitrogen rate and sowing rate on the grain yield and quality of barley David Burch, Nick Moody and Ian Menz NSW DPI, Condobolin

108 Managing barley on acidic soil in southern NSW – Wagga Wagga 2015 Rohan Brill, Paula Charnock, Warren Bartlett and Sharni Hands NSW DPI, Wagga Wagga

110 Factors affecting critical phosphorus values and responsiveness in different soil types Tony Cox NSW DPI, Orange and Dr Mark Conyers NSW DPI, Wagga Wagga

113 Critical external phosphorus requirements of pasture legumes Graeme Sandral, Andrew Price, Dr Wayne Pitt, Shane Hildebrand and Chris Fuller NSW DPI, Wagga Wagga; Dr Richard Simpson, Adam Stefanski and Dr Rebecca Haling CSIRO, Canberra; Daniel Kidd and Dr Megan Ryan University of Western Australia

117 Understanding differences in critical external phosphorus requirements of pasture legumes Graeme Sandral, Andrew Price, Dr Wayne Pitt, Shane Hildebrand and Chris Fuller NSW DPI, Wagga Wagga; Dr Rebecca Haling, Dr Richard Simpson and Adam Stefanski CSIRO, Canberra; Dr Megan Ryan and Daniel Kidd University of Western Australia

121 Increasing on-farm adoption of broadleaf species in crop sequences to improve grain production and profitability Dr Guangdi Li, Richard Lowrie, Graeme Poile and Adam Lowrie NSW DPI, Wagga Wagga

124 Options for reducing nitrous oxide emissions from dryland cropping in the southern NSW grains region Dr Guangdi Li and Dr De Li Liu NSW DPI, Wagga Wagga; Dr Graeme Schwenke NSW DPI, Tamworth

130 Nutrient supply from soil organic matter under different farming practices in the Central West of NSW Dr Bhupinder Pal Singh, Jharna R Sarker, Yunying Fang, Satvinder Singh Bawa and Dr Warwick Dougherty NSW DPI, Menangle; Dr Warwick Badgery NSW DPI, Orange; Dr Annette Cowie NSW DPI, Armidale

4 | NSW Department of Primary Industries 190 137 134 187 183 180 178 174 171 167 165 162 158 154 151 148 crop protection 145 143 139

Dr Resources, Hamilton; Dr , Dr Sandra McDougall , Dr JianhuaMo DPI, Wagga Wagga;NSW RichardsandLuke Mark Gaynor Lindbeck, Dr Kurt Audrey Leo, DPI, Wagga WaggaDr DanteNSW Adorada andDrAndrew Milgate DPI, Wagga WaggaDr DanteNSW Adorada andDrAndrew Milgate , Dr LivinusEmebiri Dr Andrew andTony Milgate DPI, Wagga WaggaNSW Goldthorpe DPI, Wagga WaggaNSW Dr Andrew andBrad Milgate Baxter Dr Andrew and Milgate Dr Andrew andTony Milgate DPI, Wagga WaggaNSW Goldthorpe DPI, Wagga WaggaNSW McCaigDr Andrew andMichael Milgate Susan Orgill, systems from inNSW? Results theEverCrop® Carbon Plus project LiLiu, Dr De DPI, Wagga WaggaNSW Susan Orgill Dr Malcolm Wagga Wagga; Jobs,Development, Transport andResources, Horsham;Yuchun Ma Visiting GrahamCentre, Scientist, DPI, Wagga Wagga;NSW Conyers LiLiuandDrMark Dr De Dr BhupinderPal Singh, Yanco , Dr Sandra McDougall Thrips threshold validation –commercial-scale experiments soilorganic changesincroppingModelling carbon andgrazing systems Carbon allocation dynamicsincontrasting system NSW crop-soil insouthern trials Seed orplanting treatments –commercial-scaleSeed onthrips trials impact cotton speciescompositionSouthern seedlingthrips Powdery mildewcontrol insoybeans NSW2014–15 –southern SclerotiniaMonitoring stem rot development incommercial canolacrops NSW insouthern f A petalsurvey Tapping into ancient sources ofdiseaseresistance to cultivarsscald2015 barley – protect ourmodern ofAustralian varietiestoReaction barley scaldfrom NSW2015 southern ofnewwheatwithresistance bunt germplasm Grain yieldperformance to Karnal Yellow NSW2015 –southern leafspotepidemiologytrial Crown NSW2015 –southern rot trials variety NSWrootSouthern andcrown –2014and2015 diseasepaddocksurvey Yellow NSW2015 leafspotyieldlossexperiment –southern blotch tritici NSW2015 experimentsSeptoria –southern Can we achieve sequestration carbon to depth(1m)underphasefarming Managing wheat stubbleto effectively environment: sequester inasemi-arid soilcarbon spatial modelling intheMonaro carbon region: fromSoil areport ‘Action ontheground’ of Economic Jobs, Development, Transport andResources, Horsham Yan NSW DPI, YancoNSW

Warwick

Jia NSW

NSWDPI,Menangle Dougherty Department ofEconomic Jobs, Development, Department andDr Fiona Robertson McCaskill Transport and Fleur, Muller DPI, Wagga Dr Muhuddin RAnwarDr Muhuddin Conyers andDrMark Richard Hayes, Dr Annette Cowie DrFrank Yonghong NSWDPI,Armidale; University, Mongolia Inner China; Scott Munro , or Sclerotinia in canola across NSW and northern or Sclerotinia incanolaacross NSWandnorthern Victoria AudreyDPI, Wagga Leo Wagga andGerardNSW O’Connor Kerry TaylorDPI, Wagga andKerry WaggaShane Hildebrand NSW , Dr JianhuaMo , Dr JianhuaMo

Ram NSW DPI, Wagga WaggaNSW Brad Baxter Wagga; Yunying Fang NSWDPI,Menangle RSarker andJharna Gerard O’Connor Lindbeck andDrKurt

Dr Mark ConyersDr Mark , Department of Science, Information ofScience, Information Dalal Department Technology Brisbane; andInnovation, , Dr Sandra McDougall Stephen Scott Munro, Scott Munro,

NSWDPI, Morris Wollongbar Albert Oates, Albert andSarah Beaumont Liz Munn Sarah BeaumontandDr Mark Stevens , Liz Munn NSW DPI, Wagga NSW andAlan Boulton Dunn Mathew NSWDPI, Yanco Department ofEconomic Department Dr Garry O’Leary Binbin Xu, Sarah BeaumontandDr Mark Stevens NSWDPI, NSW DPI, Wagga NSW SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | Graeme Poile,

Wagga;

Dr Wagga

Garry Vince NSW

Department Department O’Leary van

der DPI, Yanco

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contents 196 Summer herbicide trials on prickly lettuce 2015–16 Dr Hanwen Wu, Adam Shephard, Michael Hopwood and Colin Fritsch NSW DPI, Wagga Wagga

199 Nationwide field survey for herbicide residues in soil Dr Mick Rose and Dr Lukas Van Zwieten NSW DPI, Wollongbar irrigation & climate

204 Crop sequencing for irrigated double cropping Tony Napier and Daniel Johnston NSW DPI, Yanco; Luke Gaynor, Cynthia Podmore and Rajinder Pal Singh NSW DPI, Wagga Wagga; Rob Fisher Irrigated Cropping Council, Kerang

207 The effect of variety, plant population and nitrogen rate on high-yielding irrigated wheat production – 2015 Tony Napier NSW DPI, Yanco; Luke Gaynor, Deb Slinger and Cynthia Podmore NSW DPI, Wagga Wagga; Dr Neroli Graham NSW DPI, Tamworth

211 The effect of irrigation management on wheat grain yield, grain quality and water use efficiency Brian Dunn, Tina Dunn, Craig Hodges and Chris Dawe NSW DPI, Yanco

214 The effect of variety, time of sowing and plant population on high-yielding irrigated canola – 2015 Tony Napier NSW DPI, Yanco; Luke Gaynor, Deb Slinger and Cynthia Podmore NSW DPI, Wagga Wagga; Dr Neroli Graham NSW DPI, Tamworth

218 Time of sowing soybeans – southern NSW 2014–15 Mark Richards and Luke Gaynor NSW DPI, Wagga Wagga; Mathew Dunn and Alan Boulton NSW DPI, Yanco

220 Advanced soybean breeding line evaluations across time of sowing – southern NSW 2014–15 Mark Richards and Luke Gaynor NSW DPI, Wagga Wagga; Mathew Dunn and Alan Boulton NSW DPI, Yanco

223 Plant population density soybeans – southern NSW 2014–15 Mark Richards and Luke Gaynor NSW DPI, Wagga Wagga; Mathew Dunn and Alan Boulton NSW DPI, Yanco

225 Overhead irrigation of soybeans – southern NSW 2014–15 Mark Richards and Luke Gaynor NSW DPI Wagga Wagga; Mathew Dunn and Alan Boulton NSW DPI, Yanco

228 Using remote sensing to predict PI nitrogen uptake in rice Brian Dunn and Tina Dunn NSW DPI, Yanco; Dr Iain Hume and Beverly Orchard NSW DPI, Wagga Wagga; Dr Remy Dehaan Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga; Dr Andrew Robson University of New England, Armidale

231 Systems to control the air–water interface to reduce evaporation from water storages Dr Harnam Gill NSW DPI, Yanco

234 Informing investment in irrigated grains R&D in southern NSW Sam North and Don Griffin NSW DPI, Deniliquin; Peta Neale Precision Agriculture, Toowoomba; Dr John Hornbuckle Deakin University, Griffith; Rob Fisher Irrigated Cropping Council, Kerang

237 Maximising on-farm irrigation profitability project John Smith NSW DPI, Yanco; Peter Regan NSW DPI, Orange

239 Application of life cycle assessment of grain cropping Dr Sally Muir, Dr Pip Brock and Dr Aaron Simmons NSW DPI, Orange; Prof. David Herridge PIIC University of New England, Armidale

6 | NSW Department of Primary Industries Figure 1.MonthlytemperaturesatWWAIin2015. throughout winterprovidedafullsoilprofileleading locations includingWWAI.Aboveaveragerainfall average toaboveyieldsinthemajorityof Across thedistrict,growersandagronomistsreported October rainfallbelowaverage(Figure3). early tomid-seasonwithSeptemberand for thesite,butthisfellpredominantlyin 2015 was333mm,whichisalmostaverage Growing seasonrainfall(April–October)in (−1.0 °Cand−0.5respectively)(Figure2). 3 Institute (WWAI)in2015withthemostsevereon There were16frostsattheWaggaAgricultural September, whichcausedcropstomaturequickly. followed byarapidshiftintemperatureextremes in theseasonreducedbiomassproductionandwere of theseason(Figure1).Thelowertemperaturesearly followed byabove-averagetemperaturesattheend minimum temperaturesinJuneandmid-September, The 2015seasonwascharacterisedbybelowaverage conditionsSeasonal 2015

Average monthly temperature (°C) July (−3.5°C)andthelateston2324September 10 15 20 25 30 35 0 5 Jan Feb a Apr Mar May u Jul Jun Average minimum(1957−2015) 2015 mininimum Average maximum(1957−2015) 2015 maximum struggled withthedryfinishtoseason. had alreadybeendoneinwinterandthesecrops However, inmanycropsthedamagefromdisease reduced diseaseprogressionacrosstheregion. average rainfallandwarmtemperaturessignificantly pressure headingintospring.Inspring,below causing multipleinfectionsandhighdisease periods ofleafwetnessandhighsoilmoisture, crops intheregion.Multiplewetdaysmeantlong for rootandfoliarpathogenstoestablishinmany conditions inJune,JulyandAugustwereideal conditions inautumn(May).However,verywet in cropsearlythegrowingseasonduetodrier Generally speaking,diseasewasslowtodevelop not adverselyaffectedaroundWaggaWagga. 14 daysforearlysowncrops),cropyieldswere for thelatersowingsof3–5dayscomparedwith in spring(floweringdateshadaverytightrange early October.Despitequickercropdevelopment than averagetemperaturesinlateSeptemberand into spring,helpingthecropscopewithhigher Aug SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | Sep Oct Nov Dec

the season Onefrostevent 03-Jul-15 10-Jul-15 17-Jul-15 24-Jul-15 31-Jul-15 05-Jun-15 12-Jun-15 19-Jun-15 26-Jun-15 02-Oct-15 09-Oct-15 16-Oct-15 23-Oct-15 30-Oct-15 04-Sep-15 11-Sep-15 18-Sep-15 25-Sep-15 07-Aug-15 14-Aug-15 21-Aug-15 28-Aug-15 01-May-15 08-May-15 15-May-15 22-May-15 29-May-15

Figure 2. Timing of frost events (<−2 °C) at WWAI in 2015.

120 Average 1957−2015 2015 Diﬀerence 100

0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Average monthly rainfallAveragemonthly(mm) -20

-40

-60

Figure 3. Monthly rainfall at WWAI in 2015.

8 | NSW Department of Primary Industries Figure 1.Estimatedresponseofsomewheatvarietiestovernalisation andphotoperiod. early haveincreasedriskoffrostdamage,whilst frosts (Richardsetal.2014).Cropsthatflowertoo as wellthedecliningfrequencyandseverityof formation andgrain-fillingphases(Fischer1979), development andwaterusedduringthegrain by abalanceinthewaterusedduringcanopy The optimumfloweringwindowisdetermined flowering windowtomaximisegrainyieldpotential. to ensurefloweringoccursduringtheoptimal It iscriticaltomatchvarietyandsowingtime Flowering timeiscritical! » » Key messages Dr Howard Eagles ofAdelaide University DPI, Wagga Wagga;NSW Dr Felicity Harris flowering response to sowing time Understanding wheat phenology: » » during theoptimalperiodforyourgrowingenvironment. Match varietyandsowingtimetoensurefloweringoccurs vernalisation, photoperiodandearlinessperse. Flowering timeisdeterminedbyresponsesto Increasing photoperiod response Corack rt Dart Axe Sprin g wh eats Rock Rock Emu ckom Beckom Ellison Trojan Janz Janz Increasi ng ver EGA_Ea s Dr Peter Howqua Consulting; Martin y EGA_Gregory Lon pring Sunlamb Flan nalisat g-se ac Bolac can restrictgrainformationandgrain-filling. high temperatureimpactandwaterdeficit,which crops thatflowertoolatehaveanincreasedriskof vernalisation andphotoperiod(Figure1). varieties islargelycontrolledbyresponsesto temperature increases.Therelativematurityof development occurringmorerapidlyasthe on thedevelopmentalrateinwheat,with Accumulated thermaltimehasamajorinfluence How isflowering timeregulated? gleh wheats ker ason awk ion r esponse SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | EGA_ Wedgetail Winter wheats Euro M an wi pean wh arombi eats nter 9

agronomy – cereals Vernalisation Photoperiod Varieties responsive to vernalisation require a Wheat is a long-day plant, in which the rate of period of cold temperatures to make the transition development is increased with longer day-lengths. from vegetative to reproductive development. However, individual genotypes of current commercial Following saturation of the vernalisation response, varieties have varying levels of responsiveness to floral initiation occurs, marking the completion of photoperiod, including insensitivity. A large number the initiation of further leaves and the start of the of Australian varieties are insensitive to photoperiod floral organ initiation at the shoot apex. In wheat, (Cane et al. 2013). In photoperiod sensitive vernalisation accumulates most rapidly between genotypes, short-day (SD) conditions (10 hours or 3–10 °C, but can accumulate at a slower rate less light) prolong the vegetative phase and delay up to 17 °C. Vernalisation can occur at different the transition to reproductive development, whilst stages of the individual plant’s lifecycle: during long-day (LD) conditions (14 hours or more light) germination, during vegetative plant growth, and decrease time to floral initiation (Beales et al. 2007). for subsequent generations, during seed formation In vernalisation responsive varieties, following in the mother plant (Flood & Halloran 1986). saturation of the vernalisation response, long days hasten progressive inflorescence development and stem elongation. Vernalisation is essentially the prerequisite for long days to reduce the time to flowering (Trevaskis 2010).

Table 1. The vernalisation and photoperiod genes present in some commercial varieties grown in New South Wales, their relative maturities and habit classification (Cane et al. 2013). Cultivar Gene* Maturity** Type Ppd-B1 Ppd-D1 Vrn-A1 Vrn-B1 Vrn-D1 AxeA a a a a v Fast Spring BolacA b a a v v Mid–slow Spring CorackA b a v a a Mid–fast Spring DartA b a a a v Fast Spring EGA_EaglehawkA b b b v a Mid–slow Spring EGA_GregoryA b a v v a Mid Spring EGA_WedgetailA b a v v v Slow Winter EllisonA a b v a a Mid–fast Spring Emu RockA b a a a v Mid–fast Spring GauntletA a a a v v Mid–fast Spring H45A d a a v a Fast Spring HarperA b d a a v Mid Spring JanzA c a a v v Mid Spring LancerA a a a v v Mid–slow Spring LivingstonA b a a a v Mid Spring MaceA a a v a v Mid–fast Spring MarombiA a b w v v Slow Winter MerlinA b a v a a Mid–fast Spring MitchA b a w a a Mid–slow Spring SpitfireA a a v a a_v Mid–fast Spring SunguardA a a a v v Mid Spring SuntopA d a v a_v a Mid Spring SunvaleA a a a v v Mid Spring TrojanA a c v a a Mid Spring *Ppd-B1b is responsive to photoperiod, while Ppd-B1a, Ppd-B1c and PpdB1d are less responsive; Ppd-D1b is a functional gene that is responsive to photoperiod, Ppd-D1a is generally non-responsive to photoperiod and promotes early flowering, while Ppd-D1c and Ppd-D1d are corrupted genes that are largely non-responsive to photoperiod and associated with later flowering; Vrn-A1a and Vrn-A1b are the spring alleles and generally unresponsive to vernalisation, Vrn-A1v is a winter allele and responsive to vernalisation, Vrn-A1w is a winter allele and has a strong vernalisation response; Vrn-B1a and Vrn-D1a are the spring alleles and generally unresponsive to vernalisation, Vrn-B1v and Vrn-D1v are the winter alleles and respond to vernalisation. **adapted from Cane et al. (2013) and Matthews, McCaffery and Jenkins (2015). Varieties suited for sowing in NSW range in maturity from slow winter (suited to early sowing) to fast spring types (suited to later sowing).

10 | NSW Department of Primary Industries much greaterinspecificcombinations ofalleles. the effectofcertaingeneson floweringtimeis the vernalisationandphotoperiod genesmeans to regionaladaptations.The interactive natureof of afine-tuningeffectonfloweringtimerelative wheat. Thesehavebeenidentifiedashavingmore only afewEpslocihavebeenproperlyidentifiedin as definedvernalisationandphotoperiod, per se( controlled byathirdlevelofgenes,theearliness in bothwinterandspringwheatgenotypesisalso the majorVRN1andPPD1genes,floweringtime general adaptationinfloweringtimeisaffectedby alleles affectingphasicdevelopment.Whilstthe and thatthereareotherunknownmajorgenes affect phasicdevelopmentinwheat(e.g.Vrn-D4) It islikelythatothermajorVRN1andPPD1genes for 53%ofthegeneticvarianceheadingdate. Ppd-B1 andPpd-D1.Theidentifiedallelesaccounted the alleliccombinationsofVrn-A1, significant differencesinheadingdateattributedto between theVRN1andPPD1genes,reported the influenceofallelicvariationandinteractions and photoperiodgenes.Caneetal.(2013)studied allelic combinationsoftheknownmajorvernalisation possible byidentifyingtheeffectofkeyallelesand the effectofthesegenesondevelopmentismade locus (Eaglesetal.2009).Amorecomplexanalysisof allele (a determined bythepresenceofeitherinsensitive D1v (Eaglesetal.2009).Photoperiodresponseis loci inwheat,forexampleVrn-A1v+Vrn-B1vVrn- required recessiveVRN1alleles(v one dominantVRN1allele(a genotype ischaracterisedbythepresenceofatleast being photoperiod-sensitiveorinsensitive.Aspring be groupedaseitheraspringorwintertype, form ofgene(allele)presentenabledgenotypesto spring wheathasbeenoversimplified.Identifyingthe (Table current commercialvarieties(Caneetal.2013) Ppd-D1) geneshaveenabledcharacterisationof Vrn-B1 andVrn-D1)photoperiod(Ppd-B1 Diagnostic markersforthevernalisation(Vrn-A1, Whitechurch 2001;Trevaskisetal.2007). flowering inaspecificenvironment(Slafer& The genesinteracttodeterminethetimeof photoperiod responseandearlinessperse. with eachsetcontrollingvernalisationresponse, complex. Therearethreeprimarygenesets The geneticcontroloffloweringtimeis controlsGenetic offlowering time

1). Thetraditionalclassificationofwinterversus Eps) genes.Theeffectsofgenesarenot ), orthesensitiveallele(b ). Awintergenotype ) atthePpd-D1 ) atthethreeVRN1 Vrn-B1, Vrn-D1,

with otheragronomicmanagementtactics. yield potential,andislow-costincomparison sowing timeandvarietyiscriticaltooptimising onwards. Gettingwheatphenologyrightbymatching and mid-shortseasonspringwheatsfromlateApril season springwheatsfrommid-ApriltoearlyMay be sownfromlateFebruarythroughtoApril,long- flexibility tothesowingschedule.Winterwheatscan vernalisation andphotoperiodcanprovidegreater time. Wheatvarietieswithvariedresponsesto achieved whenfloweringoccurredattheoptimum Canowindra in2015thehighestgrainyieldswere In sowingtimetrialsatWaggaand and EGA_Wedgetailflowered17October. more closelytogether:Dartflowered14 when sown6weekslater(25 flowering windowforWaggaWagga.However, flowered on11Octoberandwithintheoptimum while EGA_Wedgetailsownonthesameday 2015 atWaggafloweredon16September, yield potential.Forexample,cv.Dartsown16 will occurearlierthanoptimum,reducinggrain development willprogressquicklyandflowering (when temperaturesarewarmeranddayslonger), conditions. Shouldaspringvarietybesownearly so thatfloweringcoincideswithfavourableseasonal satisfied. Thisactstodelayreproductivedevelopment until theirvernalisationrequirementhasbeen types) canbesownearly,andwillremainvegetative Wheat varietiesresponsivetovernalisation(winter so floweringoccursintheoptimalwindow. their responsetovernalisationandphotoperiod) according totheirrelativematurities(dictatedby important toensurewheatvarietiesaresown To achievemaximumgrainyieldpotential,itis Flowering response to sowing time Crop andPastureScience,vol.60,pp.646–657. vernalisation genesthrough Australian wheat’, flow ofallelesimportantphotoperiod and Eagles, HA,Cane,K&Vallance, N2009,‘The Pasture Science,vol.64,no.2,pp.100–114. effects insouthernAustralianwheat’,Cropand & Martin,PJ2013,‘Ppd-B1andPpd-D1their Vallance, N,Eastwood,RF,Gororo,NN,Kuchel,H Cane, K,Eagles,HA,Laurie,DA,Trevaskis,B, Applied Genetics,vol.115,no.5,pp.721–733. of wheat(TriticumaestivumL.)’,Theoreticaland in thephotoperiodinsensitivePpd-D1amutant 2007, ‘Apseudo-responseregulatorismisexpressed Beales, J,Turner,A,Griffiths,S,Snape,JW&Laurie,DA References SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 |

May), theyflowered

October

April 11

agronomy – cereals Fischer, RA 1979, ‘Growth and water limitation to dryland wheat yield in Australia: a physiological framework’, The Journal of the Australian Institute of Agriculture, vol. 45, pp. 83–94. Flood, RG & Halloran, GM 1986, ‘Genetics and physiology of vernalisation response in wheat’, Advances in Agronomy, vol. 39, pp. 87–123. Matthews, P, McCaffery, D & Jenkins, L 2015, Winter crop variety sowing guide, NSW Department of Primary Industries. Richards, RA, Hunt, JR, Kirkegaard, JA & Passioura, JB 2014, ‘Yield improvement and adaptation of wheat to water-limited environments in Australia—a case study’, Crop and Pasture Science, vol. 65, no.7, pp. 676–689. Slafer, GA & Whitechurch, EM 2001, ‘Chapter 14. Manipulating wheat development to improve adaptation’, in M. P. Reynolds, J. I. Ortiz-Monasterio, & A. McNab (eds), Application of physiology in wheat breeding (pp. 160–171), Mexico, DF: CIMMYT. Trevaskis, B 2010, ‘The central role of the VERNALISATION1 gene in the vernalisation response of cereals’, Functional Plant Biology, vol. 37, pp. 479–487. Trevaskis, B, Hemming, MN, Dennis, ES & Peacock, WJ 2007, ‘The molecular basis of vernalization-induced flowering in cereals’, Trends in Plant Science, vol. 12, no. 8, pp. 352–357. Acknowledgements This experiment was part of the the project 'Management of barley and barley cultivars for the southern region', DAN00173, 2013–18, jointly funded by GRDC and NSW DPI. Thank you to Neroli Graham for biometrical support and advice. Thanks to the technical assistance of Linda Brangwin, Fraser Campbell, Nick Hill and Holly Menz.

12 | NSW Department of Primary Industries block of≥2days ofmaximumtemperature >30 limit droughtstress.Aheatevent wasdefinedasa independently wateredusing adrippersystemto at thetimeofaheatevent.Each plantingwas were availabletobetaggedfrom eachgenotype ensure tillersatthesensitive stage ofgametogenesis block design.Theconsecutiveplantingwasto to 29Septemberusingarandomisedcomplete Planting wasrepeatedeverytwoweeksfrom20 under abirdcage(Figure1)insingle-rowplots. Eight wheatvarietiesranginginmaturityweregrown the 2015wintercroppingseason. Wagga AgriculturalInstitutein The experimentwasconductedatthe Treatments early reproductivestageofdevelopment. wheat exposedtonaturalheateventsatthe in tolerancecanbeidentifiedfield-grown This studydeterminedwhethergeneticdifferences varieties, butnofieldstudyhasbeenreported. tolerance differenceswereobservedbetweenwheat studies undercontrolled-environmentconditions, abiotic stressoccurs(Dolferusetal.2011).In largely accountsforcropyieldreductionwhen number, ratherthanareductioningrainsize,that stage isdesirable,becauseitthelossingrain variation fortoleranceatthisearlyreproductive grain numberisdetermined(Fischer at anearlyreproductivestagewhenthepotential studies havecomparedvarietiesexposedtostress stages (Emebirietal.2015).However,relativelyfew for wheatresponsetoheatstressatpost-flowering Substantial geneticvariationhasbeendemonstrated Introduction » » » Key findings Wagga , Dr LivinusEmebiri events reproductive theearly during stage Wheat varieties differ inresponse to natural heat » » » to improvewheatcropresilienceunderheatstress. The resultsindicateageneticvariationthatcouldbeexploited as mostheattolerantandWestoniasensitive. induced bynaturalheatevents.ThevarietyHalberdwasidentified Significant geneticvariationwasobservedforfloretsterility and reducedgrainnumbersperspikeletby21%. The mostintenseofthreeheateventsaveraged35.5°C

Wagga; Nicholas Collins Australian Centre for Plant Functional Genomics, Adelaide Kerry TaylorKerry ,

2011). Genetic Denise Pleming andDenise NSWDPI,Shane Hildebrand

°C.

June an averagemaximumtemperatureof32.7°C, tagged. Thefirstoccurredon4–6Octoberwith experiment periodduringwhichtillerswere There werethreeheateventsduringthe represent thosethatwerepastthesensitivestage. auricle intervallengthof>9cmwerealsotaggedto per genotypefromthesameplotswithanaverage sensitive stage.Forcontrols,aminimumof15tillers to representtillersexposedheatstressatthe of theflagleafandnextdown)weretagged interval length(thedistancebetweenthebases of 30tillerspergenotypewitha0–3cmauricle Immediately aftereachheatevent,aminimum birdcage. Figure 1.Floretfertilityheattolerance experimentunderthe spikelet inthebasaltwofloretsofeachspikelet). were harvestedforfloretfertilityscoring(grainsper temperature of35.5°C.Atmaturity,thetaggedheads on 18–20 maximum temperatureof31.6°Candthethird the secondon15–16

November withanaveragemaximum SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 |

October withanaverage 13

agronomy – cereals Results 2 Data was obtained from scoring five spikes per genotype per heat event. Scoring the 1.8 remaining tagged tillers is not yet complete. Drysdale The first two heat events had little or no impact on 1.6 Halberd Kukri grain number per spikelet, but the damage from the 1.4 Reeves third event, with a maximum temperature averaging Sunstar 35.5 °C (Figure 2), was significant (P = 0.001) and 1.2 Tamaroi

reduced grain number per spikelet by 21%. Genotypes per spikelet Grains Waagan also differed significantly (P = 0.05) in their responses Westonia 1 to this heat event for grain number per spikelet. 0.8 2 Heat event Control Heat 1 2 4 Treatment 1.9 31.6 °C Figure 3. Floret fertility of wheat varieties exposed to a 1.8 natural heat event at the sensitive tiller stage (heat), or past 32.7 °C the sensitive stage (control), in field experiments at Wagga 1.7 Wagga Agricultural Institute, NSW during the 2015 season.

1.6 References Dolferus, R, Ji, X and Richards, RA, 2011 ‘Abiotic Grains per spikelet Grains 1.5 stress and control of grain number in cereals’, 35.5 °C 1.4 Plant Science, vol. 181, pp. 331–341. Emebiri, L, Collins, N, Sissons, M, Taylor, K, Taylor, 1.3 H, Pleming, D, Lohraseb, I and Shirdelmoghanloo, Control Heat H 2015, 'Identification of heat tolerant durum and Treatment common wheat germplasm under field conditions', Figure 2. Changes in grain number per spikelet in wheat in Slinger, D, Madden, E, Podmore, C and Ellis, S following exposure at the sensitive tiller stage (heat), or past (eds) Southern cropping trial results 2014 pp. the sensitive stage (control), to three natural heat events in a field experiment at Wagga Wagga, NSW during the 2015 82–85, NSW Department of Primary Industries. season. Fischer, RA 2011, ‘Wheat physiology: a The wheat variety Halberd was most tolerant review of recent developments’, Crop (Figure 3), showing virtually no reduction in grains Pasture Science, vol. 62, pp. 95–114. per spikelet. By contrast, Westonia showed a Acknowledgements 35.4% reduction in grains per spikelet, indicating This work was part of the project ‘Genetic analysis of it was sensitive to the natural heat event. heat tolerance in wheat’, UA00147, 2014–18, jointly Summary funded by GRDC, NSW DPI and University of Adelaide. Confirmation of differences in tolerance between the varieties will require analysis of the complete tagged tiller set from the 2015 experiment and repeat experiments. If confirmed, this will be the first description of differences in wheat varietal responses to natural heat events at the early reproductive stage. This would indicate genetic variation that could be exploited to improve wheat crop resilience under heat stress.

14 | NSW Department of Primary Industries Site details to sowingtimeandphenologicaldevelopment. experiments aimedatestablishingvarietyresponses Wagga experimentisoneinaseriesof of sowing.Theresultspresentedherefromthe time andrelativegrainyieldwithchangesin time. Therearedifferentresponsesinflowering Wheat varietiesresponddifferentlytosowing newer wheatvarietiesgrowninsouthernNSW. phenology, grainyieldandproteinofseveral effect ofearly,midandlatesowingtimesonthe This experimentwasdesignedtoassessthe Introduction Koetz, Eric wheat varieties– Wagga Wagga 2015 Effect ofsowing date ongrain yieldof36 » » » » » Key findings Fungicide Herbicides Phosphorus Nitrogen Soil tests Fertiliser Harvest date Planter management Stubble Previous crop Soil type Trial period Location » » » » » Beckom The highestyieldingvarietywasSunvale result ofhighermoistureandheatstressconditionsatflowering. Long seasonvarietiessownon28Mayhadreducedgrainyieldasa frost damageandreducedgrainyield. Early maturingspringtypessownon16Aprilsuffered the correctsowingtimetotargetoptimalfloweringperiod. Grain yieldwasmaximisedbymatchingvarietyphenologywith Condo A sownon28Mayyielded4.9t/ha. A sownon7Mayyielded6.2t/haand NSW DPI, Wagga WaggaNSW andGreg McMahon Hugh Kanaley fertiliser atsowing Flutriafol 400mL/haon Lontrel 150mL/ha.Axial mL/ha. Post-emergent: Precept500 mL/ha + Sakura 118g/ha Pre-emergent: Logran35g/ha+ Knockdown: RoundupCT1.5L/ha, 57 mg/kg 121 kgN/hatested0–30cm pH 4.8 (DAP) +100kgurea10July 100 kg/hadiammoniumphosphate 1 December2015 Plot airseeder,DBStynes Full cutcultivation Canola Red chromosol 2015 Wagga NSW Ca

A (6.3t/ha)sownon16April.

Table 1.Wheatvarietiesandphenologygroup. released (Table1)sownatthreedates. Thirty-six varietiesandcrossbredslikelytobe Treatments Mid–fast (Apr–Oct) rainfall In-crop Very fast Fast Mid Winter Phenology group Sowing dates Slow Very slow SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | 332 mm 28 May 7 May 16 April Beckom Dart Cosmick Janz HRZ08-0062 EGA_Gregory Sunlamb Harper Gauntlet Livingston Elmore CLPLUS Emu Rock Kiora Condo Corack ADV03-0056 Flanker EGA_Wedgetail Variety orbreedingline Bolac EGA_Eaglehawk A A A

A A A A

A A A

A A

A A A

, LPB10-0018 Mace LPB09-0358 Suntop Merlin Sunvale Suntime Lancer VO7176-69 LPB11-0140 Trojan Sunmate Sunguard Viking Spitfire Mitch A A A A A

A A A

A A

agronomy – cereals Results (7 May) sowing time (Table 2). Early sowing (16 April) consistently produced higher grain yields for varieties Flowering with a maturity classification of either ‘winter’, ‘very Thirty-six commercial and unreleased wheat lines slow’, ‘slow’ and ‘mid’ (Figure 2). For varieties classified with a range of maturities were sown at Wagga as ‘mid–fast’, ‘fast’ and ‘very fast’, the best sowing Wagga in 2015 (Table 1). The highest grain yields time to maximise grain yield was early May (7 May). were achieved from the earliest sowing date when Late sowing (28 May) consistently produced lower varieties flowered between late September and early grain yields. Variety choice was only partly able to October (Figure 1). The optimum flowering window compensate for the late sowing time (Figure 2). (2015) was bound by early frost events and later heat and soil moisture stress. This emphasises the Table 2. Average grain yield of 36 wheat varieties importance of matching phenology, variety type and sown on three dates at Wagga Wagga in 2015. sowing time to optimise yield where the trade-offs Sowing date Grain yield (t/ha) are frost (early stress) and high temperatures and 16 April 5.14 low soil water availability (late stress). When these 7 May 5.20 constraints are considered, an optimal flowering 28 May 4.13 period can be determined for maximising the l.s.d. (P <0.05) = 0.2 t/ha probability of achieving high grain yields (Figure 1). Variety, sowing time and the interaction between Grain protein variety and sowing time were significant for grain Variety (P <0.001) and sowing date (P <0.05) were yield (P <0.001) (Figure 1). Fast maturing spring significant for grain protein (Table 3). Screenings were varieties sown on 16 April flowered in mid-September significant for variety and sowing date, however, and were exposed to frost during the vulnerable there was no interaction between sowing date and boot and growth stages. There was a significant variety (Table 3). There was a strong decrease in decrease in grain yield from the 28 May sowing date. grain protein associated with grain yield increases for the first time of sowing (y = −0.5164x + 14.048, Grain yield R² = 0.56), which could be due to protein dilution. Variety and sowing date had significant effects on Conversely, the highest grain proteins were generally grain yield (P <0.001). The interaction between variety achieved by the late sowing time, probably because and sowing date was also significant (P <0.001). The the lower grain yields would have concentrated hotter temperatures in the first week of October more protein in the grain. This is probably a reflection reduced the grain yield of the late (28 May) sowing of the hot dry spring in Wagga Wagga in 2015. time by 1.07 t/ha compared with the mid-season

7.0

6.0

5.0

4.0

3.0 Grain Grain (t/ha) yield

2.0

1.0 April 16 May 06 May 28 0.0 13-Sep 18-Sep 23-Sep 28-Sep 03-Oct 08-Oct 13-Oct 18-Oct 23-Oct Flowering date

Figure 1. Anthesis date and grain yield of 36 wheat varieties sown at three dates near Wagga Wagga in 2015.

16 | NSW Department of Primary Industries Table 3.Grainyield,proteinandscreeningsof36wheatvarietiessownonthreedatesnearWaggain2015. in anyoneseason(Table3).Asingleyear’sresult a goodindicatoroftheperformancevarieties the rankingsforgrainyieldateachsowingdateis When assessingtheprosandconsofnewvarieties, Beckom, sownon28May,hadhighscreenings. had highscreeningsatallsowingdatesand varieties sownon28May.BolacandCosmick increased screeningsfromthelongermaturity sowing dates;therewasaslighttrendtowards 33 °C.Screeningsweregenerallylowacrossall The firstweekofOctoberhadsixdaysabove Lancer Sunguard Kiora Spitfire Janz Mitch Viking HRZ08-0062 Merlin V07176-69 Harper Mace EGA_Eaglehawk Trojan Gauntlet LRPB Flanker Dart Sunvale Emu_Rock LPB11-0140 Cosmick Suntop Elmore CLPLUS LPB10-0018 Corack Suntime EGA_Wedgetail LPB09-0358 Condo Sunmate EGA_Gregory Livingston Bolac Sunlamb l.s.d. (P<0.001) Beckom ADV03-0056 Genotype (t/ha) Yield 4.8 5.6 5.7 4.2 5.9 5.6 5.6 5.9 4.4 5.3 5.5 4.7 5.7 6.2 5.8 6.0 3.4 6.3 3.7 5.5 5.4 5.6 5.8 4.4 4.3 5.0 5.6 5.5 4.8 3.8 6.0 2.1 5.7 4.5 5.8 4.9 0.57

Sowing date16April Protein 11.9 11.0 11.2 12.1 10.8 10.8 11.2 11.4 12.3 11.7 11.1 11.2 11.1 10.6 11.2 10.7 12.9 11.9 12.7 10.9 10.8 10.9 11.3 11.6 11.4 11.2 11.6 10.7 11.1 11.4 11.1 13.1 11.8 11.8 10.8 10.9 (%) 0.94

Screenings 11.3 (%) 4.0 6.5 5.7 3.5 3.5 7.2 1.8 6.2 2.9 7.8 7.7 2.5 9.5 5.3 5.6 3.1 4.4 4.4 5.3 8.1 5.9 6.8 5.4 3.7 4.0 8.9 7.1 5.3 7.3 5.9 6.4 3.4 9.4 4.4 5.4 0.62

Yield rank 25 14 10 32 16 17 29 22 18 27 35 34 19 21 15 30 31 23 13 20 26 33 36 12 28 11 24 6 5 2 9 4 1 7 3 8 (t/ha) Yield 5.2 5.3 5.1 5.2 5.1 4.7 5.0 4.5 5.3 4.4 5.3 5.5 5.8 5.3 5.4 5.0 4.9 5.6 5.0 5.7 5.4 5.1 5.3 6.1 4.4 4.7 6.0 6.0 5.5 5.1 5.1 4.8 4.1 4.5 6.2 5.6

Sowing date7May Protein screenings, butalsothelikelyfloweringperiod. need tonotonlyconsidergrainyield,proteinand estimates suggestthatinthelonger-term,growers time combinationisshowninTable3.These flowering period.Theidealvarietyandsowing period. Thisprovidesanestimateoftheoptimal frost, heatandsoilmoisturestressovera40-year of theCropMatesoftware)isusedtosimulate the optimalfloweringperiod,SOWMAN(apart optimum floweringperiod.However,toestimate does notprovideanadequateinsightintothe 11.4 10.5 10.7 11.6 10.3 10.3 10.7 10.9 11.8 11.2 10.6 10.7 10.1 10.7 10.2 12.4 11.4 12.2 10.4 10.3 10.4 10.8 11.1 10.9 10.7 11.1 10.2 10.6 10.9 10.6 12.5 11.3 11.3 10.6 10.3 10.4 (%)

Screenings 10.6 1.6 1.6 6.0 3.2 4.4 6.5 6.7 6.4 2.5 5.5 (%) 3.7 5.3 1.6 2.5 3.2 2.1 4.1 2.6 4.8 7.5 5.6 4.1 3.2 0.7 7.2 5.1 1.2 2.0 2.0 4.2 5.4 5.3 9.4 6.5 0.9 SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 |

Yield rank 15 20 19 24 30 27 32 13 35 17 14 12 25 28 26 11 23 16 34 31 10 21 22 29 36 33 18 9 5 7 6 2 4 3 1 8

(t/ha) Yield 4.2 3.6 3.9 3.8 3.8 3.9 3.5 4.0 3.7 3.9 4.1 4.2 4.2 4.2 3.7 3.8 4.5 4.0 4.2 4.4 3.9 5.2 4.7 3.7 3.6 4.2 4.9 3.9 4.2 4.1 3.7 3.3 3.8 4.0 4.2 4.0

Sowing date28May Protein 11.7 12.0 12.9 11.6 11.6 11.9 12.2 13.1 12.5 11.8 11.9 11.3 11.9 11.5 13.6 12.7 13.4 11.7 11.6 11.6 12.0 12.4 12.1 11.9 12.3 11.4 11.9 12.2 11.8 13.8 12.5 12.6 11.8 12.7 11.6 11.6 (%)

Screenings 10.4 11.5 (%) 4.9 9.4 3.2 7.2 7.8 5.6 8.9 4.5 8.1 6.4 4.5 7.9 4.1 5.0 6.3 8.6 2.6 8.6 4.9 7.3 5.7 1.3 9.2 3.0 3.5 1.8 9.8 4.3 5.6 8.3 5.1 9.2 3.5 2.2

Yield rank 34 23 25 28 24 35 16 32 20 14 12 10 31 27 19 22 29 33 11 21 13 15 30 36 26 18 17 7 4 6 5 1 3 2 8 9 17

agronomy – cereals 7 16 April 07 May 28 May l.s.d. (P <0.05) = 565 kg/ha 6

Grainyield(t/ha) 2

0 Winter Very Slow Slow Mid Mid-fast Fast Very fast

Wheat maturity group Figure 2. Average grain yield of wheat varieties grouped into seven different maturity classifications and sowing on three different dates near Wagga Wagga in 2015. Summary The high average grain yields from the first two sowing dates (16 April and 7 May) coincided with flowering times falling within the optimal flowering period of late September to early October. The later sowing date of 28 May resulted in varieties flowering later in October, which reduced grain yields, particularly in the longer-season varieties. The variation in flowering dates ranged from 37 days for the first sowing date to only seven days for the late sowing on 28 May. Delaying sowing in 2015 past the middle of May resulted in a decrease in grain yield of 1.2 t/ha averaged across all varieties. Beckom, Corack, Trojan and Condo were the highest yielding varieties averaged across all the sowing dates. Varieties such as Beckom, Trojan, Flanker and Corack appear to be less sensitive to the sowing date and yielded higher than other varieties across a range of sowing dates. Sowing times that target the optimal flowering period resulted in the highest grain yield in this experiment. Acknowledgements This experiment is part of ‘Variety Specific Agronomy Packages for southern, central and northern New South Wales’, DAN00167, 2013–17, jointly funded by GRDC and NSW DPI.

18 | NSW Department of Primary Industries Table 1.Rainfallfor2015atLockhart. Growingseason Site details dates anddifferentNratestimings. aimed atestablishingvarietyresponsestosowing This experimentisoneinaseriesofNexperiments date andNrateonsixcommonwheatvarieties. was designedtomeasuretheinfluenceofsowing convert itintoyieldandprotein.Thisexperiment to differentratesofnitrogen(N)andhowthey sowing dates.Varietiesalsodifferintheirresponse Varieties candifferintheirabilitytoyieldatvarious Introduction Koetz, Eric 2015 yield ofsixwheat varieties–Lockhart Effect ofsowing date andnitrogen rate ongrain » » » » » » Key findings Soil tests: Fertiliser Planter management Stubble Previous crop Soil type Location » » » » » » The highestproteinsoccurredatthemaximum nitrogen applicationratesincreased. Grain proteinconcentrationincreasedas time ofsowingincreasedgrainyield. Splitting nitrogenapplicationinthesecond Corack wasthehighestyieldingvarietyinthistrial. across allvarietiesandnitrogenapplicationrates. Early sowinghadagrainyieldadvantageof0.74t/haaveraged Increased nitrogenapplicationratesequatedtoincreasedgrainyield. and Spitfire nitrogen rateof160 Jan 38 Feb 25 NSW DPI, Wagga WaggaNSW andGreg McMahon Hugh Kanaley A fromthe12Maysowing. nitrogen 70kgN/ha(0–30cm) phosphorus 41mg/kg pH 4.8 100 kg/haSuperfect Plot airseeder,DBStynes Direct drill Canola Grey vertosol Lockhart NSW Mar Ca

0 kg/ha inLancer

Apr 59

A May , EGA_Gregory 19 Lockhart rainfallfor2015(mm) (April–October) Jun 70 A

386 mmofwhich256.5wasin-croprainfall a cold,wetwinter.Totalrainfallatthesitewas The 2015seasonhadagoodautumnbreakand reviewSeasonal Treatments Harvest date Fungicide Herbicides fertiliser Nitrogen Sowing dates Varieties Jul 25 rainfall Aug 62 SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | 257 mm 21 November2015 Prosaro 150mL/ha+Hasten1%v/v fertiliser atsowing Flutriafol 400mL/haon Axial 150mL/ha mL/ha +Lontrel150mL/ha. Post-emergent: Precept500 + Sakura118g/ha Pre-emergent: Logran35g/ha Knockdown: RoundupCT1.5L/ha Lancer EGA_Gregory TOS 1:14July,2:28August 40 kgN/hatop-dress 0, 20,40,80,160kgN/haatsowing TOS 2:12May TOS 1:23April Corack Sept 19 A A

Oct 3.5 A

, Spitfire Trojan Suntop Nov

45 A A A

Dec 22 19

agronomy – cereals (Table 1). The long-term average in-crop rainfall is Grain yield 302.5 mm. The winter provided ideal conditions Variety and N rate had significant effects (P <0.05) for growth; however, the spring period was dry on grain yield (Figure 2). The interaction between and hot with only 18.5 mm falling in September variety and sowing date was also significant (P <0.05). during the critical grain filling period. Averaged across variety and N rate, delaying sowing from 23 April until 12 May decreased Results yield by an average of 0.74 t/ha (Table 2). Flowering Delayed flowering dates correlated with a Table 2. Average grain yield of six wheat varieties sown at two dates at Lockhart in 2015. decreased grain yield (Figure 1). The 12 May sowing date flowered later than the optimal Sowing date Grain yield (t/ha) window and flowered under heat stress conditions 23 April 3.98 (7 days >33 °C in early October). At both sowing 12 May 3.24 dates there was a trend toward lower grain l.s.d. (P <0.05) 0.32 yields as the flowering date was delayed. Figure 2 shows that there was a consistent increase 5.0 in grain yield as the N rate increased across all l.s.d. (P <0.05) = 0.32 t/ha 4.5 varieties sown on 23 April (TOS 1). Grain yield 4.0 plateaued as the N rate exceeded 80 kg/ha in the 12 May sowing (TOS 2). The split application 3.5 (28 August) on the second sowing date produced 3.0 more dry matter per hectare, which correlated with 2.5 increased grain yield. This could be linked to some 2.0 waterlogging events during winter when N applied

Grain Grain (t/ha) yield 1.5 at sowing might not have been available for plant growth for periods during the growing season. 1.0 TOS 1 TOS 2 0.5 0.0 07 Sep 17 Sep 27 Sep 07 Oct 17 Oct Date of flowering

Figure 1. Anthesis date and grain yield of six varieties averaged across nitrogen rates at Lockhart, 2015.

7.0 l.s.d. (P <0.05) = 0.32 t/ha 6.0

5.0

4.0 0 kg 20 kg 3.0 40 kg Grainyield (t/ha) 80 kg 40+40 kg 2.0 160 kg

1.0

0.0 121212121212 Corack EGA_Gregory Lancer Spitﬁre Suntop Trojan Variety x sowing time Figure 2. Grain yield of six wheat varieties at five nitrogen rates at Lockhart in 2015.

20 | NSW Department of Primary Industries as Nratesincreased. Grainproteinincreased by (P <0.05)increaseingrainprotein acrossallvarieties (23 Aprilto12May)in2015.There wasasignificant 0.74 t/hapenaltyfordelaying sowingby19days across varietiesandnitrogen ratestherewasa This sitewasveryresponsive toappliedN.Averaged increased, grainyieldandproteinincreased. decreasing thegrainyieldpotential.AsNrates filling wasoccurringunderheatstressconditions yield. Asthefloweringdatewasdelayed,grain flowering periodwascriticaltomaximisinggrain Matching thevarietyphenologywithoptimal Summary in EGA_Gregory,LancerandSpitfire(Figure3). 160 kg/haNratefromthe12Maysowingdate The highestgrainproteinwasmeasuredfromthe of 40kg/haNatsowingandGS31. 80 kg/haNrateatsowingandthesplitapplication there wasnosignificantdifferencebetweenthe as theNrateincreased.Forsecondsowing, rates. Forthefirstsowing,grainproteinincreased protein averagedacrosssowingtimeandapplication (P N applicationandsowingtimeby There wasasignificantinteractionforvarietyby Grain protein Figure 3.GrainproteinconcentrationofsixwheatvarietiesatfivenitrogenratesLockhartin2015.

<0.05). LancerandSpitfirehadthehighestgrain Grain protein concentration (%) 10.0 12.0 14.0 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 oakEAGeoyLne ptr utpTrojan Suntop Spitﬁre Lancer EGA_Gregory Corack Variety x sowing timexsowing Variety sowing, mostlikelyareflectionofthehot,dryfinish. grain proteinrecordedwas12.4%fromthesecond 2.9%from the0–160kg/haappliedN.Thehighest Orange Parkisgreatlyappreciated. group, especiallyJohnStevensonat The cooperationoftheWarakirriCropping jointly fundedbyGRDCandNSWDPI. northern NewSouthWales’,DAN00167,2013–17, Agronomy Packagesforsouthern,centraland This experimentispartof‘VarietySpecific Acknowledgements SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | l.s.d. (P < (P l.s.d. =0.05) 0.43% 160 kg 160 kg 40+40 kg 80 kg 40 kg 20 kg 0 21

agronomy – cereals Effect of nitrogen rate and sowing time on grain yield and grain protein of six wheat varieties – Condobolin 2015

Ian Menz, Nick Moody and Daryl Reardon NSW DPI, Condobolin

Key findings »» Yield was reduced by dry and hot conditions during flowering for both times of sowing. »» Spitfire yielded highest in time of sowing 1 (1.55 t/ha) and CondoA yielded highest in time of sowing 2 (1.15 t/ha). »» The nil nitrogen treatment yielded highest (1.01 t/ha); increasing nitrogen rate decreased grain yield for both times of sowing.

Introduction Nitrogen rates 0, 20, 40, 80, 40 + 40 split* and 160 kg N/ha This experiment evaluated the effect of time of * Split application 40 kg N/ha sowing (TOS) and nitrogen rate on grain yield at sowing + 40 kg N/ha at first and grain quality for six current wheat varieties in node stage (GS 31) the low rainfall zone of central western NSW. Sowing times TOS 1: 5 May Site details TOS 2: 26 May Location Condobolin Agricultural Research and Advisory Station Seasonal conditions (Condobolin ARAS) Growing season rainfall at the experiment site was Soil type Red-brown earth just below average with the Condobolin ARAS Previous crops Pasture 2012, wheat 2013 and 2014 recording 198.2 mm. The long-term average (LTA) Fertiliser 70 kg/ha MAP + Jubilee in-crop rainfall is 209 mm. The rain was spread at 400 mL/ha (fungicide on fertiliser) across the first five months of the growing season. Available 68 kg/ha (0–60 cm) Rainfall in May was 11.6 mm (LTA 34.4 mm) and in nitrogen (N) September 6.2 mm (LTA 29.1 mm), which fell in the In-crop rainfall 198.2 mm first week of September. The next substantial rainfall (1 April–30 of 16 mm was not until 22 October (Table 1). September) High daytime temperatures at Condobolin Harvest date TOS1: 9 November (33–38 °C) and hot winds during the first week TOS2: 10 November of October coincided with flowering and contributed to the lower yields in TOS 2. Treatments The experiments were sown into adequate moisture Wheat varieties CondoA SpitfireA and established quickly and evenly. The experiment EGA_GregoryA SuntopA was weed-free and very even throughout the season. LancerA VikingA

Table 1. Monthly rainfall at the Condobolin ARAS 2015. Condobolin ARAS rainfall for 2015 (mm) Dec 2014 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Total In-crop 88.8 59.2 35.9 0.2 64.7 11.6 31.8 41.6 42.3 6.2 65.2 67.3 28.5 454.5 198.2

22 | NSW Department of Primary Industries Table 4.GrainqualityofsixwheatvarietiesattwotimessowingCondobolin2015. highest acrossbothsowingtimes(Table3). increasing Nrate.Theniltreatmentyieldedthe both sowingtimes.Grainyielddecreasedwith N rates(Table3)averagedacrossallvarietiesat There wasasignificantdifference(P<0.05)between l.s.d. representsthedifferencewithineachTOSonly). on 5Mayand26atCondobolin2015.(Note:the Table 2.Grainyield(t/ha)ofsixwheatvarietiessown TOS 1and0.38t/haat2)yieldedtheleast. highest yieldingvarieties.Lancer(1.09t/haat Dart (1.06t/ha)andSpitfire(0.93werethe second timeofsowing(26May)Condo(1.15t/ha), (1.43 t/ha)werethehighestyieldingvarieties.At Spitfire (1.55 (Table the responseofgrainyieldtoappliednitrogen the grainyieldsofsixvarieties(Table2)and was asignificantdifference(P<0.05)between with 68kgN/ha(0–60cm)ofavailableN.There The experimentsweresownintoretainedstubble Grain yield Results l.s.d. (P<0.05) Variety l.s.d. (P<0.05) Variety Condo Dart EGA_Gregory Condo Lancer Spitfire Suntop Dart EGA_Gregory Lancer Spitfire Suntop

3). Atthefirsttimeofsowing(5May),

t/ha), Condo(1.46t/ha)andSuntop 0.001 14.1 15.0 14.3 15.7 15.3 13.7 protein Grain (%) TOS 1:5May

1.46 1.36 1.19 1.09 1.55 1.43 0.07 NA 36.0 35.6 29.8 29.9 41.4 34.1 Grain yield(t/ha) (kg N/ha) nitrogen Grain yield TOS 1:5May

TOS 2:26May 2.1 22.2 41.2 23.2 26.1 22.9 32.3 Screenings 1.15 1.06 0.55 0.37 0.93 0.89 0.07 (%)

0.8 66.7 66.1 67.8 68.5 70.0 69.6 (kg/hL) weight Test yield achievedfromthe26Maysowingtime(Table4). low (11.5kgN/ha)fortheTOS2duetograin weight (78.9 kg/hL)for TOS 2. Lancer grainNyield was had thelowestscreenings(6.9%)andhighesttest kg N/ha)andtestweight(70.0kg/hL)inTOS1.Lancer Spitfire achievedthehighestgrainnitrogenyield(41.4 between thetwosowingtimes(Table5). protein increasedacrossallnitrogentreatments TOS 1and2acrossallvarieties(Table4).Grain There wasanincreaseingrainproteinbetween protein andhighscreeningsinTOS2. contributed tothelowyields,highgrain The dryconditionsinspringwouldhave varieties (Table4)andthesixNtreatments5). grain protein,screeningandtestweightsforthesix treatments. Therewasasignificantdifferencein quality betweenvariety,sowingtimeandnitrogen There wasasignificantinteraction(P<0.05)ingrain Grain quality the differencewithineachTOSonly). at Condobolin2015(Notethel.s.d.represents varieties atsixNrates,sownon5Mayand26 Table 3.Grainyield(t/ha)averagedacrossall l.s.d. (P<0.05) 0 (kg N/ha) Nitrogen rate 20 40 80 40 +split 160

0.3 16.0 17.1 16.5 17.9 17.8 15.8 protein Grain (%) SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 |

NA 32.2 31.8 15.8 11.5 28.8 24.5 (kg N/ha) nitrogen TOS 1:5May Grain yield TOS 2:26May 1.43 1.40 1.37 1.34 1.31 1.23 0.07

Grain yield(t/ha) 2.8 34.6 45.3 18.5 6.9 33.2 36.9 Screenings (%) TOS 2:26May

2.1 66.7 64.8 76.8 78.9 70.9 74.6 1.01 0.89 0.84 0.77 0.70 0.71 0.08 (kg/hL) weight Test

agronomy – cereals Table 5. Grain quality of wheat at six N rates and two times of sowing at Condobolin 2015. Nitrogen rate TOS 1: 5 May TOS 2: 26 May (kg N/ha) Grain Grain Screenings Test Grain Grain Screenings Test protein nitrogen (%) weight protein nitrogen (%) weight (%) yield (kg/hL) (%) yield (kg/hL) (kg N/ha) (kg N/ha) 0 12.3 30.6 18.5 71.1 15.0 26.5 22.6 73.7 20 13.2 32.3 22.2 70.2 16.0 25.0 24.5 73.1 40 14.3 34.1 26.2 68.7 16.5 24.4 30.4 72.1 80 15.4 36.0 30.3 67.8 17.2 23.3 31.2 71.5 40 + 40 split 16.2 37.2 34.1 66.0 18.2 22.3 34.0 71.2 160 16.9 36.3 36.8 65.4 18.2 22.7 32.6 71.1 l.s.d. (P <0.05) 0.001 NA 2.1 0.8 0.3 NA 2.7 0.9

Summary Growing season rainfall was slightly lower than average with the majority falling in April, July and August. The dry weather during September (6.2 mm) coupled with high temperatures in September and October contributed to the low grain yields for the 26 May sowing time as the plants ‘hayed off’. The above-average October rainfall did not benefit the plants as they could not recover from the earlier dry conditions. The shorter season varieties such as Condo, Dart and Spitfire had the highest grain yields for both sowing times. These varieties were able to fill grain before the drier conditions during spring affected the plants. The longer season varieties (EGA_Gregory and Lancer) yielded lowest for both times of sowing as the dry spring affected grain filling. The low yield achieved for both times of sowing is attributed to the varieties flowering during late September (16–22 September) when moisture was limited and temperatures were increasing. The grain quality results showed that the dry spring conditions affected both sowing times. Acknowledgements This experiment is part of ‘Variety Specific Agronomy Packages for southern, central and northern New South Wales’, DAN00167, 2013–17, jointly funded by GRDC and NSW DPI. Thanks to the operational and technical officers at Condobolin ARAS and Dr Neroli Graham for statistical analyses.

24 | NSW Department of Primary Industries Site details wheats toveryfastspringwheats. evaluated rangedfromlongseasonwinter to varioustimesofsowing.Thewheatvarieties recently releasedwheatvarietiesinresponse This experimentevaluatedtheperformanceof mid-April whenseasonalconditionsallow. or strongphotoperiodrequirementinearly-to with eitherstrongvernalisation(winterwheats) from sowingslowermaturingwheatvarieties 2013) identifiedpotentialgrainyieldadvantages Recent researchandcropmodelling(Huntetal. Introduction Colin NSWDPI,Cowra; McMaster Adam Coleman NSWDPI,Orange of wheat –Canowindra 2015 water-use andgrain quality efficiency Effect ofsowing date ongrain yield, » » » » » » Key findings Mineral Nat Colwell P(mg/kg) depth) (1.2 sowing Soil pH Fertiliser Harvest date management Stubble Previous crop Soil type Location » » » » » » Screenings increasedassowingwasdelayed. outperformed themidtomid–fastvarietieswhensowninlateMay. If springconditionshadbeenfavourable,thewinterwheatsmayhave April) ormidtomid–fastvarietiesweresowninthefirstweekofMay. Grain yieldwasmaximisedwhenwinterwheatsweresownearly(mid- than 2014,presumablyduetolessearlyaphidpressure(BYDV)in2015. Winter wheatsandverylongspringperformedbetterin2015 were sownearlyratherthanlongerseasonvarietieslate. Greatest yieldlossesoccurredwhenquickmaturingvarieties throughout August–Septemberfrostevents). were notsownatthecorrecttime(duetoflowering Grain yieldreductionsupto4t/haoccurredwhenvarieties The varietyBeckomsownon5Mayyieldedhighest(5.67t/ha). Ca

m 29 6.4 176 kgN/ha at 2–3leafstage 80 kgN/haapplied 20 kgP/habandedatsowing 24 November2015 Kelly chainpriortosowing Stubble incorporatedwith Canola Red chromosol “The Pines”CanowindraNSW

dates: 17April,5Mayand252015(Table1). Thirty-six wheatvarietiesweresownatthreesowing Treatments 20 events August–October) Frost events(late (April–October) In-crop rainfall a moisture Starting soil Fungicide Gravimetricmoisturemeasuredviafivesoilcores a SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | 157 mm(plantavailablewater) 26/9, 27/9,28/9,29/9,2/10 18/9, 19/9,23/9,24/9,25/9, 6/9, 8/9,9/9,16/9,17/9, 21/8, 30/8,31/8,1/9,2/9, in September) 316 mm(only6 leaf emergence(GS39) Prosaro® mL/ha) Flutriafol-treated fertiliser(400

appliedatflag 25

agronomy – cereals Table 1. Wheat varieties, maturity type and recommended sowing window for central-eastern NSW. Maturity type Suggested sowing window Varieties Winter wheat Late Feb to late April NaparooA, EGA_WedgetailA, LPB11-0140 Very slow Early to mid-late April EaglehawkA, SunlambA Slow Mid-April to early May BolacA, LancerA, SuntimeA, KioraA Mid Late April to mid-May EGA_GregoryA, FlankerA, GauntletA, SunvaleA, VikingA, MitchA, TrojanA, HRZ08-0062 Mid–fast Early May to mid-May Elmore CL PLUSA, SunguardA, SuntopA, HRZ03-0056, BeckomA, Janz, HarperA, LPB09-0358, CosmickA Fast Mid-May onwards CorackA, Emu RockA, LivingstonA, MaceA, MerlinA, SpitfireA, Sunmate, DartA, CondoA, LPB10-0018

Table 2. Grain yield and rank of 36 wheat varieties sown at three sowing dates at Canowindra, 2015. Variety Grade (South) Maturity group Grain yield (t/ha) and rank 17 April 5 May 25 May EGA_Wedgetail APH Winter wheat 5.52 2 4.82 19 3.31 35 LPB11-0140 Winter wheat 5.54 1 4.66 26 3.85 24 Naparoo FEED Winter wheat 5.19 4 4.41 30 3.53 32 EGA_Eaglehawk APH Very slow 5.41 3 4.65 27 3.49 33 Sunlamb ASW Very slow 5.06 5 4.70 24 2.85 36 Bolac APH Slow 4.78 6 4.55 28 4.02 18 HRZ08-0062 Slow 3.72 11 5.24 5 3.34 34 Kiora AH Slow 4.51 7 5.00 11 3.74 28 Lancer APH Slow 4.14 10 5.12 7 3.61 29 Suntime Slow 4.36 8 4.72 22 3.61 30 Cosmick Mid 1.93 23 4.68 25 4.21 15 EGA_Gregory AH Mid 3.05 13 5.09 8 4.26 13 Gauntlet AH Mid 1.41 29 5.05 9 3.89 23 Flanker APH Mid 2.19 21 5.29 4 4.45 7 Mitch APW Mid 2.81 16 4.77 21 3.79 26 Sunvale APH Mid 4.22 9 4.91 16 3.54 31 Trojan APW Mid 3.06 12 5.61 2 4.39 8 Viking APH Mid 2.40 19 5.22 6 4.30 11 Elmore CL PLUS AH Mid–fast 2.14 22 4.95 13 4.45 6 Harper Mid–fast 2.87 14 4.95 14 4.24 14 HRZ03-0056 Mid–fast 1.33 30 5.31 3 4.32 10 Janz APH Mid–fast 2.22 20 4.77 20 3.94 20 LPB09-0358 Mid–fast 2.67 18 5.03 10 4.27 12 Sunguard AH Mid–fast 2.79 17 4.86 18 3.95 19 Suntop APH Mid–fast 2.83 15 4.98 12 4.36 9 Beckom AH Mid–fast 1.52 27 5.67 1 4.54 4 Condo AH Fast 1.55 26 4.94 15 3.56 3 Corack APW Fast 0.75 35 4.71 23 4.81 1 Dart AH Fast 1.68 24 3.76 35 3.80 25 Emu Rock AH Fast 1.64 25 3.88 34 3.94 21 Livingston AH Fast 0.58 36 4.05 32 4.20 16 LPB10-0018 Fast 0.90 31 4.35 31 4.51 5 Mace AH Fast 0.81 33 4.45 29 4.68 2 Merlin AH Fast 0.77 34 3.58 36 3.93 22 Spitfire APH Fast 0.87 32 3.89 33 3.77 27 Sunmate AH Fast 1.42 28 4.86 17 4.14 17 Min 0.58 3.58 2.85 Mean 2.74 4.76 4.02 Max 5.54 5.67 4.81 l.s.d.(P=0.05) Sowing date = 0.14; variety = 0.25; sowing date × variety = 0.44

26 | NSW Department of Primary Industries of 36wheatvarietiessownatthreesowingdatesCanowindra,2015. Table 3.Grainqualityresultsincludingprotein(%),testweight(kg/hL)andscreenings providing goodconditionsforcropgrowthbutspring had aboveaveragerainfallduringJulyandAugust varieties acrossallthreesowingdates.Thewinter in autumntogerminateandestablishallwheat The 2015seasonhadidealsoilmoisturelevels Results Mitch Mean Merlin Min Gauntlet Mace Viking Emu Rock LPB11-0140 V06008-14 Elmore CLPLUS LPB10-2555 Trojan EGA_Wedgetail LPB10-0018 Sunvale EGA_Gregory LPB09-0358 Suntop EGA_Eaglehawk Livingston Suntime Dart Lancer Sunmate Cosmick Kiora Sunguard Corack Janz Sun512C Condo HRZ08-0062 Spitfire Bolac HRZ03-0056 Naparoo Max Variety ×TOS Variety TOS l.s.d. (P=0.05) Harper Variety Protein 13.0 14.2 17.0 11.7 14.7 15.8 14.1 16.1 11.9 14.3 14.7 14.1 13.5 12.6 15.4 13.2 13.1 14.7 13.9 11.7 16.4 13.2 16.0 13.5 14.6 13.2 13.1 13.7 16.0 14.0 12.6 15.3 13.3 17.2 13.1 14.9 12.2 17.2 13.9 (%) 0.7 0.4 0.4 TOS 1–17April (kg/hL) weight 75.7 77.0 77.2 71.2 78.5 76.6 79.0 77.3 77.4 77.9 79.6 78.2 78.1 71.2 77.6 79.3 77.9 77.3 76.6 76.5 76.1 75.8 79.4 76.2 76.8 74.8 78.3 76.8 77.6 78.9 75.4 77.8 77.3 77.6 74.6 76.3 74.2 79.6 77.1 Test 2.0 1.1 0.7 Screenings 12.0 12.0 4.9 2.4 2.0 (%) 4.1 2.6 3.7 3.5 7.7 3.7 3.5 3.7 3.7 4.8 3.6 3.5 3.7 4.2 5.4 9.7 4.5 7.4 4.8 3.3 4.2 5.4 4.7 5.9 2.0 2.6 9.7 7.2 4.3 4.0 8.2 4.0 4.6 4.1 3.5 2.0 1.4 Protein 13.0 14.7 11.9 12.9 12.8 12.5 14.1 12.9 11.9 12.7 12.2 12.3 13.5 12.9 13.6 12.5 12.8 12.3 13.3 13.7 12.6 13.9 13.0 12.1 12.4 13.1 12.4 13.4 13.0 13.4 12.6 12.6 14.8 13.0 12.5 12.7 14.8 13.6 11.9 (%) the longerseasonvarietiessowninlateMay. in mid-Octoberwhichwouldhavebenefited across theentiretrialsite.Laterainfalleventsoccurred (September). Thisresultedingrainyieldreductions the criticalperiodleadinguptoanthesis/grainfill was dryandhotwithonly6mmofrainfallduring TOS 2–5May (kg/hL) weight 76.4 79.7 72.5 77.9 77.2 76.3 77.3 76.9 74.8 77.0 76.8 76.9 72.5 77.5 76.9 76.8 75.8 75.7 77.9 77.0 76.4 77.9 77.1 74.7 73.7 75.0 76.2 77.8 75.5 77.7 77.2 74.6 80.2 74.6 75.5 75.5 80.2 76.5 73.7 Test SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | Screenings 11.1 10.6 12.0 11.1 12.0 6.9 3.6 3.2 (%) 9.0 4.1 9.4 5.2 6.0 6.4 6.1 7.9 4.7 7.2 5.6 7.3 7.3 4.5 7.1 6.8 6.5 9.5 4.3 4.7 6.6 9.1 6.7 3.2 7.1 8.1 6.2 3.9 4.7 8.1 6.6

(%) Protein 13.9 11.9 12.7 11.9 12.8 13.1 13.1 12.7 13.6 12.7 13.0 13.8 12.6 14.0 12.9 12.8 12.2 13.9 13.6 13.2 13.3 14.3 13.1 13.2 13.4 13.1 12.2 13.3 15.1 12.9 13.5 13.6 13.7 12.6 13.3 15.1 13.2 12.7 13.2 (%) TOS 3–25May (kg/hL) weight 78.4 73.2 80.7 76.3 79.8 75.4 78.4 75.3 77.1 77.8 78.8 74.5 77.0 78.4 77.4 75.7 78.2 79.8 75.4 79.5 77.1 79.2 76.5 73.2 78.3 76.5 76.0 78.3 78.5 76.9 78.6 79.0 77.8 76.9 77.2 80.7 76.0 75.8 77.4 Test Screenings 11.5 12.8 12.5 10.8 10.4 10.4 10.7 14.0 11.2 10.7 14.0 7.2 4.1 (%) 7.2 5.8 7.2 7.3 4.1 8.5 9.0 7.5 5.6 7.2 8.6 5.3 6.2 8.1 5.9 8.1 7.1 7.4 6.9 5.3 6.1 8.7 8.5 9.4 8.3 4.1 27

agronomy – cereals 17 Apr 05 May 25 May

l.s.d. (P = 0.05) = 0.35 t/ha 5

Grain yield (t/ha) 2

0 Winter wheat Very slow Slow Mid Mid-fast Fast Maturity group

Figure 1. Average grain yield of various maturity groups sown at three sowing dates at Canowindra, 2015.

140

120

100

40 Grain nitrogen yield (kg Grainnitrogen(kg yieldN/ha) TOS 1 TOS 2 TOS 3 20

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Grain yield (t/ha) Figure 2. Relationship between grain yield and grain nitrogen yield across three sowing dates at Canowindra, 2015.

Grain yield (4.02 t/ha). The highest yielding variety was Beckom Wheat grain yield was significantly affected by (5.67 t/ha) sown on 5 May and the lowest was time of sowing (P<0.001), variety (P<0.001) and Livingston sown on 17 April (0.58 t/ha) (Table 2). the interaction between sowing time and variety Varieties that performed well across all (P<0.001). The interaction between sowing time sowing dates (achieved above average yields and phenology type was also significant (P<0.001). in each time of sowing) were EGA_Gregory, When averaged over all 36 varieties, grain yield was Suntop and Trojan. These varieties ranged significantly higher when sown on 5 May (4.76 t/ha) from mid- to mid–fast phenology types. compared to either 17 April (2.74 t/ha) or 25 May

28 | NSW Department of Primary Industries have outyieldedthemidtomid–fast varieties. been morefavourable,thewinter wheatsmay variety inthefirstweekofMay. Ifthespringhad wheat early(mid-April)oramidtomid–fast Grain yieldwasmaximisedbysowingawinter resulting inseverereproductivefrostdamage. period oflateAugustandearlySeptember, early astheyfloweredduringthefrostprone when quickermaturingvarietiesweresown matched. Highestgrainyieldlossesoccurred phenology andsowingtimewerenotcarefully 2015 experimentsrespectivelywhenvariety of upto4.0and4.9t/haoccurredin2014 by highyieldpotentialbutgrainreductions The central-easternregionofNSWischaracterised in thisexperimentandthe2014experiment. could resultinlargeyieldpenaltiesasobserved a specialistvarietysownoutsideitswindow maximised foragivensowingwindow.However, for specificsowingdatesenablinggrainyieldtobe These resultshighlightthatspecialistvarietiesexist Summary screenings increasedassowingwasdelayed. are foundinTable3.Duetothedryfinish, Grain protein,testweightandscreenings × 1.75)wascorrelatedwithgrainyield(Figure2). (P<0.001). Totalnitrogenremoval(yield×protein interaction betweensowingtimeandvariety of sowing(P<0.002),variety(P<0.001)andthe Grain proteinwassignificantlyaffectedbytime screenings) (protein,Grain quality test weight and maturing varietyinthefirstweekofMay(Figure1). wheat early(mid-April)oramid-tomid–fast Grain yieldwasmaximisedbysowingawinter trend occurredin2014(McMasteretal.2015). (5 reduction whensowingoccured18daysearlier September frosts.Corackhada4t/hagrainyield to reproductivefrostdamagecausedbyAugust/ sown inmid-Aprilsufferedmajoryieldpenaltiesdue LPB10-0140. Thesequickermaturingvarieties,when later sowinge.g.Corack,Mace,Condo,Beckomand performed poorlywithearlysowingbutwell Conversely, fasttoverymaturingvarieties well whensownearlybutpoorlylate. EGA_Eaglehawk, NaparooandSunlambperformed varieties suchasLPB11-0140,EGA_Wedgetail, Winter wheatsandthelongerseasonspring

May comparedto17April).Interestingly,thissame Rob DunkleyandJustinPaulfortechnicalassistance. Australia –Gindurra’forhostingthetrialin2015,and Thanks toRobAtkinsonandtheteamfrom‘Hassad jointly fundedbyGRDCandNSWDPI. Specific AgronomyPackage’DAN00167,2013–17, This experimentispartoftheproject‘Variety Acknowledgements NSW DepartmentofPrimaryIndustries. Southern croppingregiontrialresults2014, Madden, E,Podmore,C&Ellis,S(eds)2014, of wheat–Canowindra2014’inSlinger,D, of sowingdateongrainyieldandprotein McMaster, C,Dunkley,R&Koetz,E2015,‘Effect Advisor update–Wagga(proceedings). and optimisingwhole-farmwheatyield(NSW).GRDC Sowing dates–Gettingthebestfromourvarieties Breust, P,Brill,R,Rheinheimer,B&Kirkegaard,J2013, Hunt, J,Fettell,N,Midwood,Paridaen,A,Lilley, References SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | 29

agronomy – cereals Effect of sowing time on 32 wheat varieties – Condobolin 2015

Ian Menz, Nick Moody and Daryl Reardon NSW DPI, Condobolin

Key findings »» LPB10-0018 was the highest yielding variety sown on 30 April (2.09 t/ha). »» Emu RockA was the highest yielding variety sown on 22 May (1.72 t/ha) and 11 June (0.89 t/ha). »» Emu RockA was the highest yielding variety (1.49 t/ha) when averaged across all sowing times. »» Dry conditions during September and October contributed to the lower average yields in the 22 May and 11 June sowing times.

Introduction Seasonal conditions This experiment investigated the effect of time Growing season rainfall at the experiment site of sowing (TOS) on grain yield of 32 new and was slightly below average; the Condobolin current wheat varieties in the low rainfall region Agricultural Research and Advisory Station recording of central western NSW. The three sowing dates 198.2 mm. The long-term average (LTA) growing represented the full span of the sowing window. season rainfall is 209 mm. The rain was spread across the first five months of the growing season. Site details Rainfall in May was 11.6 mm (LTA 34.4 mm) and Location Condobolin Agricultural in September 6.2 mm (LTA 29.1 mm), which fell Research and Advisory Station in the first week. The next substantial rainfall of Soil type Red-brown earth 16 mm was not until 22 October (Table 1). Previous crops Lucerne pasture (2012–14). Condobolin experienced high day time temperatures Fallowed August 2014. (34–38 °C) and hot winds in the first week of Fertiliser 70 kg/ha MAP + Jubilee @ October. These high temperatures and dry 400 mL/ha (fungicide on fertiliser) conditions coincided with flowering and could have Available N 174 kg/ha (0–60 cm) contributed to the lower yields in TOS 2 and TOS 3. In-crop rainfall 198.2 mm (April–Oct) The experiments were sown into adequate moisture, had even establishment and were weed-free. Harvest date 24 November 2015 Results Treatments Time of sowing significantly affected wheat grain yield Varieties BolacA GauntletA MitchA (P <0.001). When averaged across all varieties, there CondoA ImpalaA PhantomA was a grain yield reduction of 0.51 t/ha from TOS 1 CorackA Janz SpitfireA (30 April) to TOS 2 (22 May) and a further reduction DartA LancerA StrzeleckiA of 0.65 t/ha from TOS 2 to TOS 3 (11 June) (Figure 1). A A A EGA_Eaglehawk Lincoln Sunguard The lower grain yields in TOS 2 (22 May) and TOS 3 A A A EGA_Gregory Livingston Sunmate (11 June) may have been attributed to the dry A A EGA_Wedgetail LPB09-0358 Suntop spring conditions coupled with high day time A A Elmore CL PLUS LPB10-0018 Sunzell temperatures experienced in Condobolin during A A A Emu Rock Mace Viking October. There was below average rainfall during A A A Espada Merinda Wallup September (6.2 mm recorded, LTA 29.1 mm). These A A Forrest Merlin dry conditions and high temperatures coincided Sowing TOS 1: 30 April with the optimal flowering window for Condobolin. dates TOS 2: 22 May TOS 3: 11 June

30 | NSW Department of Primary Industries Table 2.Grainyieldandrankof32wheatvarietiesatthreesowingtimesCondobolin,2015. three timesofsowingatCondobolin,2015. Figure 1.Averagegrainyield(t/ha)of32wheatvarietiesfor Table 1.Condobolinrainfall2015. 88.8 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 Rank TOS 1:30April 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Grain yield (t/ha) Dec 2014 1.6 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 0 EGA_Wedgetail EGA_Eaglehawk Forrest l.s.d. (P<0.05) Sunzell Bolac Strzelecki Lincoln Mitch Lancer Livingston Viking Phantom Mace LPB09-0358 Corack Spitfire EGA_Gregory Sunguard Variety Merlin Impala Espada Gauntlet Elmore CLPLUS Condo Merinda Sunmate Janz Suntop Emu Rock Wallup Dart LPB10-0018 59.2 Jan 0Ar2 a 11Jun 22May 30 Apr 35.9 Feb Condobolin AgriculturalResearchandAdvisoryStationrainfallfor2015(mm) Sowing date 0.2 Yield (t/ha) Mar 0.26 0.57 0.73 0.94 1.02 1.15 1.29 1.29 1.40 1.41 1.42 1.44 1.45 1.46 1.46 1.48 1.50 1.51 0.48 1.52 1.55 1.58 1.59 1.65 1.66 1.70 1.71 1.81 1.84 1.84 1.86 1.99 2.09 l.s.d. (p = 0.05) =0.37t/ha (p 0.05) l.s.d. = 64.7 Apr 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 TOS 2:22May 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Rank 11.6 May Forrest EGA_Eaglehawk EGA_Wedgetail Sunzell Bolac Strzelecki Lancer Janz Phantom Gauntlet Merlin Elmore CLPLUS Mitch EGA_Gregory Suntop Espada Viking Merinda Lincoln Sunmate Dart Spitfire Sunguard Impala Condo Livingston LPB09-0358 Wallup LPB10-0018 Mace Corack Emu Rock Variety 31.8 Jun 41.6 Jul varieties acrossallthreesowingtimes(Table2). These twovarietieswererankedwithinthetopsix 11 highest yieldingvarietysownon22Mayand variety sownon30April,andEmuRockwasthe LBP10-0018 (2.09t/ha)wasthehighestyielding also significantlyaffectedwheatgrainyield. The interactionbetweensowingtimeandvariety

June (1.72t/haand0.89respectively). 42.3 Aug Yield (t/ha) 0.14 0.18 0.27 0.29 1.01 0.31 0.40 0.49 0.52 0.71 0.72 0.73 0.82 0.84 0.90 0.93 0.96 0.97 0.98 1.04 1.08 1.15 1.23 1.26 1.33 1.37 1.37 1.43 1.46 1.63 1.72 1.72 6.2 Sep SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | 65.2 32 31 30 29 14 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 TOS 3:11June 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Rank Oct 67.3 Nov EGA_Eaglehawk EGA_Wedgetail Gauntlet Forrest Lincoln Viking Sunzell Strzelecki Bolac EGA_Gregory Lancer Mitch Wallup Suntop Janz Merinda Phantom Sunguard Sunmate Merlin Livingston Elmore CLPLUS Spitfire Impala Espada Condo LPB09-0358 Dart LPB10-0018 Corack Mace Emu Rock Variety 28.5 Dec 454.5 Total Yield (t/ha) 198.2 In-crop 0.01 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.31 0.08 0.08 0.09 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.12 0.15 0.18 0.19 0.20 0.24 0.25 0.28 0.31 0.31 0.33 0.35 0.39 0.40 0.47 0.50 0.54 0.56 0.69 0.78 0.89 31

agronomy – cereals Summary The highest yielding varieties across all sowing times were the very fast or fast maturing varieties (e.g. LPB10-0018 and Emu Rock). The dry conditions in September and higher than average temperatures in October favoured the quicker maturing varieties as they had the ability to flower before the dry spring conditions. The slower and longer season varieties (e.g. EGA_Eaglehawk and EGA_Wedgetail) yielded lowest across all sowing times. The shorter 2015 growing season, characterised by hot temperatures during grain filling, resulted in the longer season varieties being moisture stressed and heat stressed during flowering. The earlier sowing times had less exposure to the hot dry finish and grain yields were significantly higher than the latest time of sowing. Acknowledgements This experiment is part of ‘Variety Specific Agronomy Packages for southern, central and northern New South Wales’, DAN00167 2013–17, jointly funded by GRDC and NSW DPI. Thanks to Technical Officers Nick Moody and Daryl Reardon at Condobolin Agricultural Research and Advisory Station, and Dr Neroli Graham for statistical analyses.

32 | NSW Department of Primary Industries site atMatong,15April2015. Table 1.Soiltestresultsfortheexperimental Site details varieties atthreesowingdatesinsouthernNSW. barley cultivarsandfourfast-developingwheat examine theresponseof12commerciallyrelevant cereal types.Thisexperimentwasdesignedto comparisons havebeenmadebetweenthetwo findings incommercialpaddocks,fewexperimental tolerance atfloweringthanwheat.Despitethese yield thanwheatindryspringsandgreaterfrost NSW inrecentseasons,largelyduetohighergrain Barley cultivationhasincreasedmarkedlyinsouthern Introduction » » » » Key findings , Brill Rohan varieties to three sowing dates –Matong 2015 oftwelveResponse andfour barley wheat Fungicide Fertiliser (in-crop) Fertiliser (sowing) October Rainfall April– Previous crop Soil type pH (Ca) » » » » yield frommainseasonsowingthanearlysowing. The fourearlyseasonwheatvarietiesgenerallyhadbetter had theirhighestyieldfrommainseasonsowing(12May). performed wellfromearlysowing(24April),butmostbarleylines Long seasonbarleyvarietiessuchasOxfordandUrambie developing barleyvarietiesNavigator,OxfordandUrambie. generally reachedanthesisaroundthesamedateasslow The fastdevelopingwheatvarietiesEmuRockandCondo than thefourwheatvarietiesinthisexperiment. The 12barleyvarietieswere,onaverage,26%higheryielding Paula, Charnock 7 Julyand2September 300 mL/haProsaroapplied 100 L/haUAN(42%N)14June flutriafol (500g/Lformulation) 100 kg/haMAP+200mL/ha 2014–March 2015 300 mm+120December Wheat Brown chromosol(Table1) 0–10 cm 4.8 10–30 cm Warren Hands andSharni Bartlett 5.9 0–30 cm – slowest barleyvarieties,UrambieandNavigator. in CondoandEmuRockatsimilardatestothe 13 daysslowerthanLaTrobe.Anthesisoccurred anthesis fromthe24Aprilsowingtime,butwere and EmuRockwerethefastestwheatvarietiesto than La (Table anthesis fromthe24Apriland12Maysowingtimes La Trobewasthefirstbarleyvarietytoreach Results Treatments Barley varieties Sowing dates (N) (kg/ha) Available nitrogen Exc. Aluminium(%) (Colwell mg/kg) Phosphorus Wheat varieties

2). Fathomwasslightlyquickertoanthesis

Trobe fromthe28Maysowingtime.Condo SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | La Trobe GrangeR Flinders Commander 28 May 12 May 24 April Compass Fathom Corack Condo NSW DPI, Wagga NSW 92.0 1.2 – A A

A A

A A A

10.0 0.4 – Emu Rock Oxford Navigator Spitfire Scope CL WI4897 Urambie Rosalind

Wagga A A

A A 49.0 A

– – 33

agronomy – cereals Table 2. Anthesis date and grain yield of 12 barley varieties and four wheat varieties sown at three sowing times, Matong 2015. Variety Anthesis date Grain yield (t/ha) 24 Apr 12 May 28 May 24 Apr 12 May 28 May Commander 8 Sep 21 Sep 1 Oct 3.6 4.3 3.5 Compass 3 Sep 17 Sep 29 Sep 3.8 4.3 3.6 Condo* 14 Sep 29 Sep 4 Oct 2.9 3.6 2.9 Corack* 15 Sep 2 Oct 11 Oct 3.2 3.2 3.0 Emu Rock* 14 Sep 30 Sep 6 Oct 2.9 3.4 3.3 Fathom 5 Sep 19 Sep 24 Sep 4.1 4.4 3.0 Flinders 11 Sep 25 Sep 3 Oct 4.1 4.2 2.8 GrangeR 9 Sep 23 Sep 3 Oct 4.0 4.7 3.8 La Trobe 1 Sep 15 Sep 25 Sep 4.1 4.1 3.6 Navigator 14 Sep 1 Oct 4 Oct 3.9 3.7 2.9 Oxford 13 Sep 3 Oct 5 Oct 4.4 4.0 3.3 Rosalind 3 Sep 16 Sep 2 Oct 3.8 4.9 4.2 Scope 6 Sep 19 Sep 1 Oct 3.6 3.8 2.7 Spitfire* 16 Sep 1 Oct 12 Oct 2.6 3.3 2.3 Urambie 15 Sep 1 Oct 4 Oct 4.5 4.1 2.4 WI4897 5 Sep 17 Sep 30 Sep 4.1 4.6 3.8 l.s.d. (P = 0.05) = 0.4 t/ha *denotes wheat variety. Cells shaded grey indicate the highest yielding variety within a sowing time.

There was an interaction (P <0.001) between variety from selected wheat and barley treatments were and sowing date for grain yield. Longer-season scored for frost-induced sterility to determine the barley varieties Urambie, Navigator and Oxford reason for lower grain yield from early sowing. recorded their highest yield from the 24 April The optimum anthesis date of mid-September sowing time. The remainder of the barley varieties in this experiment was similar to the optimum and the four wheat varieties had higher (or equal) timing of anthesis in 2014 (results reported in grain yield from the 12 May sowing time than the Southern Cropping Region Trial Results 2014). In 24 April and 28 May sowing times. The average 2014, the yield penalty from early anthesis was due grain yield of the 12 barley varieties was 3.9 t/ha to frost events in August. Frost assessments are compared with 3.1 t/ha for the four wheat varieties. still being compiled from the 2015 experiment. Relationship between anthesis date and grain yield (barley only) The highest grain yield was achieved when anthesis date occurred around mid-September (Figure 1). There was a slight yield penalty when anthesis occurred in early September (from fast varieties such as La Trobe sown on 24 April). There was a stronger grain yield penalty when anthesis occurred in early October. Summary The experiment site was waterlogged at several points during July and August, which reduced the grain yield potential. Figure 1. The effect of anthesis date on grain yield of 12 Averaged across sowing dates, the 12 barley varieties barley varieties, Matong 2015. in this experiment were 26% higher yielding than Acknowledgements the four wheat varieties. Sowing barley early gave This experiment was part of the project 'Management good results, provided a relatively long season of barley and barley cultivars for the southern region,' variety was selected, such as Oxford or Urambie. DAN00173, 2013–18, jointly funded by GRDC and The four wheat varieties generally had their NSW DPI. Thanks to Stephen, Michelle and Rod highest yield from sowing on 11 May. Spikelets Hatty at Matong for experiment site cooperation.

34 | NSW Department of Primary Industries Table 1.Experimentalsitedetails. for eachvarietybysowingtimecombination. environment. Timeoffloweringwasrecorded 5 individual rows30 in abirdexclusioncageandvarietiessown five sowingtimes.Theexperimentwasconducted varieties, varyinginmaturity(Table2)weresownat under rain-fedconditions(Table1).Seventeenbarley Agricultural ResearchandAdvisoryStation,NSW The experimentwasconductedatCondobolin Site details minimises thelikelihoodofsignificantstressevents. optimises theprobabilityofmaximumgrainyieldand allows floweringandgrainfillduringaperiodthat varietal maturitywithappropriatesowingtimes maturity (daysfromsowingtoanthesis).Matching of commercialbarleycultivarsavailablerangingin In theCondobolinregion,growershaveaselection frost damageandlaterbyheatmoisturestress. critical, asgrainyieldisboundbytheriskofearly optimum floweringtimeforagivenlocationis time forarangeofbarleyvarieties.Identifyingan phenological response(floweringtime)tosowing This experimentwasdesignedtodeterminethe Introduction » » » Key findings Graeme Sandral David NSWDPI,Condobolin; BurchMoody DrFelicity andNick and Harris response to sowing timeinCentral West NSW flowering phenology: Optimising barley Soil pH Previous crop Soil type Growing seasonrainfall(Apr–Oct) Average annualrainfall Phosphorus (0–100cm) Nitrogen (0–100cm) » » »

cm apartinordertosimulateatypicalcropping shorter-season varietiesMaytoJune. Sow longer-seasonvarietiesmid-ApriltoMayand at anoptimaltimeinspringiscriticaltomaximisingyield. Matching varietyandtimeofsowingtoensurefloweringoccurs interacts withtimeofsowingandtheenvironment. Flowering timeisdeterminedbyplantgeneticsand Ca

cm apart.Plantswerespaced NSW DPI, Wagga NSW Barley Red-brown earth 267.4 mm 454.7 mm 15 mg/kg 27 mg/kg 5.7 (10–60cm) 4.7 (0–10cm),

Wagga

LaTrobe and Navigator Treatments an appropriate sowingtimetoachievethis. the optimalfloweringwindow, andcalculate a riskprofileforyieldpotential todetermine to setparameterssuchaslocation, varietyand When complete,thesoftware willallowgrowers in SOWMANiscurrentlyunder consideration. flowering. Anupdateofvarietalinformation photoperiod andvernalisationforpredicting The phenologymodelintegratestemperature, and risksoffrostheatataspecificlocation. to considerwheatphenology,climatevariability 19 of GRDC’sCropMatepackage),is20 Faster maturingvarietiessuchasHindmarsh Results Condobolin, simulatedusingSOWMAN(part The optimalestimatedfloweringwindowfor season andaremoresuitedtoearliersowings. slower maturingvarietieshavealongergrowing and aremoresuitedtolatersowings,whilst maturing varietieshaveashortergrowingseason maturing varietiessuchasWestminster earlier acrossallsowingtimes,whilstslower Varieties sowing Times of

September (Figure1).SOWMANallowsusers A , IGB1334TandFathom SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | A Compass Commander Buloke Fleet Fathom Bass TOS 3:1June TOS 2:8May TOS 1:17April floweredlater(Table2).Faster A A A A A A

Hindmarsh GrangeR Gairdner Flinders La Trobe Navigator A flowered TOS 5:14July TOS 4:23June A

A A A August to A

A , Oxford Oxford IGB1334T Westminster Schooner Scope A , A A

35 A

agronomy – cereals Table 2. Flowering dates for 17 barley varieties at five times of sowing (TOS) at Condobolin 2015*. TOS 1: 17/4/15 TOS 2: 8/5/15 TOS 3: 1/6/15 TOS 4: 23/6/15 TOS 5: 14/7/15

1 Hindmarsh 18 Aug IGB1334T (F) 7 Sep Hindmarsh 19 Sep Fathom (F) 2 Oct Scope (M) 11 Oct (F) (F) 2 La Trobe (F) 18 Aug Hindmarsh 8 Sep La Trobe (F) 19 Sep Hindmarsh 2 Oct Hindmarsh 14 Oct (F) (F) (F) 3 Buloke (F) 21 Aug La Trobe (F) 10 Sep Fathom (F) 20 Sep IGB1334T (F) 3 Oct La Trobe (F) 14 Oct 4 Bass (M) 22 Aug Buloke (F) 11 Sep IGB1334T (F) 20 Sep La Trobe (F) 3 Oct IGB1334T (F) 15 Oct 5 Scope (M) 22 Aug Fathom (F) 13 Sep Compass (M) 22 Sep Commander 6 Oct GrangeR (M) 16 Oct 6 Compass (M) 25 Aug Compass (M) 15 Sep Buloke (F) 23 Sep Buloke (F) 7 Oct Buloke (F) 18 Oct 7 Fleet (M) 25 Aug Scope (M) 15 Sep Commander 25 Sep GrangeR (M) 7 Oct Commander 18 Oct (M) (M) 8 Gairdner (M) 25 Aug Commander 16 Sep GrangeR (M) 25 Sep Schooner (M) 8 Oct Compass (M) 18 Oct (M) 9 Fathom (F) 26 Aug Fleet (M) 16 Sep Schooner (M) 25 Sep Westminster 8 Oct Fathom (F) 18 Oct (L) 10 Schooner (M) 27 Aug Schooner (M) 16 Sep Scope (M) 25 Sep Fleet (M) 9 Oct Schooner (M) 18 Oct 11 Flinders (L) 29 Aug Bass (M) 17 Sep Gairdner (M) 26 Sep Gairdner (M) 9 Oct Navigator (L) 19 Oct 12 GrangeR (M) 30 Aug Gairdner (M) 17 Sep Bass (M) 27 Sep Bass (M) 10 Oct Bass (M) 20 Oct 13 Oxford (L) 30 Aug Westminster 17 Sep Flinders (L) 27 Sep Compass (M) 10 Oct Westminster 20 Oct (L) (L) 14 Commander 31 Aug Flinders (L) 19 Sep Westminster 29 Sep Scope (M) 11 Oct Gairdner (M) 22 Oct (M) (L) 15 Westminster 31 Aug GrangeR (M) 19 Sep Fleet (M) 4 Oct Flinders (L) 12 Oct Fleet (M) 23 Oct (L) 16 Navigator (L) 3 Sep Oxford (L) 20 Sep Navigator (L) 4 Oct Oxford (L) 14 Oct Oxford (L) 23 Oct 17 IGB1334T (F) * Navigator (L) 22 Sep Oxford (L) 7 Oct Navigator (L) 19 Oct Flinders (L) 29 Oct Varieties are ranked (1–17) for each sowing time, from earliest to latest flowering date. Letters in brackets indicate relative maturity of variety (F = fast, M = mid, L = late). Italicised flowering dates fall within the optimum flowering window based on SOWMAN model simulation.

Figure 1. Output of the SOWMAN simulation model predicting the optimum flowering window at Condobolin. The optimum flowering window is determined by the probability of frost damage and heat stress (%). Acknowledgements Thanks to Technical Assistants Linda Brangwin and Fraser Campbell, and Technical Officer Nick Hill. This experiment was part of the project 'Management of barley and barley cultivars for the southern region', DAN00173, 2013–18, jointly funded by GRDC and NSW DPI.

36 | NSW Department of Primary Industries Treatments Site details yield foreachvarietyandsowingtimeisreported. of sowingtimeonfloweringtime,phenologyand Research andAdvisoryStation(CARAS).Theimpact dates during2015attheCondobolinAgricultural 18 commercialbarleyvarietiessownatthree This experimentassessedtheperformanceof Introduction » » » Key findings NSWDPI,CondobolinDavid andIanMenz Burch,Moody Nick at three different dates –Condobolin 2015 Grain yieldofeighteen varietiessown barley Nitrogen Varieties Sowing dates Fertiliser Soil pH Previous crop/s Soil type Experiment period Location » » » of theparticularvarietyandunderstandingregion'sclimate. events, andsowingdecisionsshouldbebasedonthephenology Early sown,earlyfloweringcropsareatriskofduringfrost mid andlatesowingsfavouredearly-floweringvarieties. While mid-seasonvarietiesyieldedwellinthefirstsowingtime, this wasthekeydeterminingfactorforgrainyield. due toheatandwaterstressduringgrainfill.In2015 Late sowingscouldhaveanegativeeffectonbarleyyield Ca Bass IGB1334T TOS 3:11June TOS 2:22May TOS 1:30April Fathom Compass Gairdner Commander GrangeR Flinders Buloke applied atsowing phosphate (MAP) 70 173 4.4 (0–10cm),6.3(10–60cm) Lucerne Red-brown chromosol April–November 2015 Research andAdvisoryStation Condobolin Agricultural A

A kg/ha mono-ammonium kg/ha A

kg/ha A A

Hindmarsh Wimmera La Trobe Westminster Oxford Navigator Scope Schooner Urambie A A

A A

dates groupedbysowingtimeat Condobolin2015. Figure 2.Yield(t/ha)of18barley varietiessownatthree negative correlationwithsowingtime(Figure from thethreesowingdates(P There wasasignificantdifferencebetweenyields resulted inaprematureendtothegrowingseason. with unseasonallyhightemperaturesinspring, Condobolin (Figure There wasverylittlerainfallthroughoutspringat Results 234 421.8 Growing seasonsrainfall(GSR),198 Figure 1.GrowingseasonrainfallforCondobolin2015. Yield (t/ha) Rainfall (mm)

mm. 70 10 20 30 40 50 60 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 0

mm. Meanannualrainfall442.9mm,meanGSR, p a u u u Sep Aug Jul Jun May Apr 30 April 22 May 11 June 11 May 22 April 30 SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 |

1), which,whencombined Time ofsowing Month

<0.001), showinga mm, totalannualrainfall l.s.d. (P = 0.05) =0.48t/ha =l.s.d. (P 0.05)

2). 37

agronomy – cereals Table 1. Yield (t/ha) of 18 barley varieties sown at three sowing dates at Condobolin.

Yield (t/ha) Variety 30 Apr 22 May 11 Jun Spartacus CL 2.93 1.91 0.90 Flinders 2.93 1.64 0.42 Wimmera 2.92 1.09 0.20 Fathom 2.89 1.77 1.19 Compass 2.68 1.61 0.49 La Trobe 2.67 1.74 0.69 Bass 2.40 1.71 0.56 Buloke 2.30 1.36 0.47 Gairdner 2.21 0.92 0.19 Hindmarsh 2.21 1.85 0.95 Scope 2.18 1.47 0.53 Schooner 1.99 1.33 0.69 GrangeR 1.88 0.71 0.42 Westminster 1.85 0.67 0.06 Commander 1.71 1.22 0.17 Navigator 1.70 0.75 0.17 Oxford 1.47 0.84 0.03 Urambie 1.29 0.64 0.12 Mean 2.23 1.29 0.46 l.s.d. (P = 0.05) variety 0.26 t/ha, date 0.15 t/ha

3.5 30-Apr

3.0 22-May

r2 = 0.81 2.5

2.0

1.5 Yield (t/ha) Yield

1.0

0.5

0.0 18-Aug 28-Aug 07-Sep 17-Sep 27-Sep 07-Oct 17-Oct Anthesis date

Figure 3. Anthesis dates vs yield for 18 barley varieties. June 11 sowing data not presented due to early senescence disrupting flowering. A strong (r2 = 0.81) correlation was observed The highest yielding varieties from the first time of between anthesis dates and yield, with varieties sowing were Spartacus CL, Flinders and Wimmera that yielded over 2.5 t/ha flowering before the (Table 1). Spartacus CL flowered on 25 August, first week of September (Figure 3). Yields declined while mid to late maturing varieties Flinders and sharply with delayed flowering. In years with Wimmera flowered 10 days later, indicating that cooler, wetter spring conditions, late sown varieties might not receive such a severe yield penalty.

38 | NSW Department of Primary Industries allowing sufficienttimeforgrainfilling. the cropflowersatoptimuminterval, have thepotentialtomaximiseyield,ensuring dry conditions,earliersowingsofthesetypes If sowingamid-seasonvarietyundersimilarhot, overshadowed bythehot,drygrainfillingconditions. treatments, however,anyimpactonyieldwas during thefloweringperiodofearlysowing 2015 therewereanumberoffrosteventsrecorded times toavoidfloweringduringthisperiod.During when frostriskisgreatest,andtargettheirsowing sowing earlyfloweringvarietiesshouldbeawareof before moistureandheatstresssetsin.Growers rainfall shortseasonswheregrainfillisachieved phenology, withearlyfloweringtypessuitedtolow Barley varietieshavewidelydifferentflowering Summary higher thanthesiteaverageforthatsowingtime. Fathom, withyieldsof1.19 time, thehighestyieldingvarietywasfeed yield commercialquantities.Fromthelatesowing as Westminster,OxfordandUrambiefailedto flowering varieties,whilelongseasontypessuch The MayandJunesowingsheavilyfavouredearly- decreases rapidlywhensowingisdelayed. be competitive.However,thiscompetitiveness at earliersowings,mid-floweringvarietiescan

t/ha thatwassignificantly packages. Forexample,earlysownHindmarshwas yield advantages,andpotentiallyimproveddisease Switching varietiesfromoldertypescanresultin sowings wereallreleasedwithinthepastthreeyears. The sixhighestyieldingvarietiesfromtheearly as thoseexperiencedatCondobolinin2015. penalties inshort,dryseasonconditionssuch long, mildgrowingseasons.Theyincursevere yield andqualityinmediumtohighrainfall Late-flowering varietieswillproducesuperior Neroli Grahamforbiometricanalysis. Campbell fortechnicalassistanceandto Thanks toDarylReardon,NickHillandFraser jointly fundedbyGRDCandNSWDPI. for thesouthernregion',DAN001732013–18, 'Management ofbarleyandcultivars This experimentwaspartoftheproject Acknowledgements additional benefitofimidazolinonetolerance. released successorSpartacusCL,whichhasthe significantly out-yielded(0.72 SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 |

t/ha) byitsrecently 39

agronomy – cereals The effect of sowing date and fungicide application on grain yield of canola – Alma Park 2015

Rohan Brill, Paula Charnock, Warren Bartlett and Sharni Hands NSW DPI, Wagga Wagga

Key findings »» Sowing date and varietal phenology both affected the exposure of canola to rain days and potential disease infection. »» Early sowing increased the level of pod blackleg infection. »» Early sowing increased sclerotinia infection in the early flowering variety Hyola® 575CL but not in the slower variety Pioneer® 45Y88 (CL). »» Grain yield was higher from the later sowing date (22 April) than the early sowing date (7 April). »» Grain yield was closely correlated to total biomass accumulation, which was greater from the 22 April sowing time than the 7 April sowing time.

Introduction Table 1. Sowing date, variety and fungicide treatments at Alma Park, 2015. Sowing canola early has become more common in Sowing date 7 April recent seasons, but there are still concerns about 22 April the potential for early sowing to increase disease Variety Pioneer® 45Y88 (CL) risk, especially Sclerotinia stem rot. This experiment Hyola® 575CL was sown to determine agronomic management Fungicide (Prosaro®) Plus practices that increase grain yield potential while Minus also minimising the risk of fungal diseases. Site details Results Location Alma Park, 25 km SW of Henty Flowering Previous crop Barley Hyola® 575CL was 21 days quicker to flower than Fertiliser applied 100 kg/ha MAP + Flutriafol SC Pioneer® 45Y88 (CL) from the 7 April sowing date, but at 200 mL/ha was only six days quicker from the 22 April sowing 400 L/ha Sulsa (27 N:7 S w/v) date. The differences in flowering date affected not Plant available 40 mm only the overall grain yield potential, but also the water (at sowing) exposure to rain events during flowering. Sowing Available nitrogen 76 kg/ha (0–30 cm) Hyola® 575CL early exposed the variety to 23 rain (N) (at sowing) days during flowering, whereas early sowing with In-crop rainfall 360 mm the slower variety Pioneer® 45Y88 (CL) exposed the (April–October) variety to only 13 rain days during flowering (Table 2).

Table 2. The effect of two sowing dates on the Treatments flowering date (date when 50% of plants have The experiment was sown as a full factorial one open flower) and number of rain days during combination of sowing date, variety and fungicide flowering of two varieties at Alma Park in 2015. (Table 1). The fungicide treatment Prosaro® was Variety Flowering date Rain days during applied at 450 mL/ha at the start of flowering flowering of each individual treatment, determined as the 7 Apr 22 Apr 7 Apr 22 Apr date when 50% of plants had one open flower. Hyola 575CL 25 Jul 24 Aug 23 10 Pioneer 15 Aug 30 Aug 13 5 45Y88 (CL)

40 | NSW Department of Primary Industries on thelevelofSclerotiniainfection,AlmaPark,2015. Table 4.Theeffectofvarietyandfungicidetreatment Sclerotinia whenfungicidewasapplied. where fungicidewasnotapplied,buthadreduced had moreSclerotiniathanPioneer® Sclerotinia inPioneer®45Y88(CL).Hyola® (Table 4).Fungicideapplicationhadnoeffecton interaction (P=0.045)betweenfungicideandvariety a plotwithdiseasesymptoms.Therewassignificant Sclerotinia isreportedasthepercentageofplantsin Sclerotinia and branchblacklegseverity,AlmaPark,2015. Table 3.Theeffectofvarietyandsowingdateonpod was notaffectedbythesowingdate. the 22Aprilsowingdate,butbranchblackleg treatments alsohadmorepodblacklegthan Hyola® 575CL(Table3).The7Aprilsowingdate pods andbranchesofPioneer®45Y88(CL)than There wassignificantlymoreblacklegonthe level ofblackleginfectiononthepodsandbranches. The experimentwasscoredatmaturitytoassessthe Blackleg Disease l.s.d. (P=0.05) Pioneer 45Y88(CL) Variety l.s.d. (p=0.05) 22 Apr 7 Apr Sowing date l.s.d. (P=0.05) 45Y88 (CL) Pioneer Hyola 575CL Variety 4 3 2 1 0 Branch blacklegratingscale 4 3 2 1 0 Pod blacklegratingscale Hyola 575CL significant yieldloss) death ofwholebranches(causing physical cankers),manylesions large lesions(largerthan40mm, medium lesions(16–40mm),few small lesions(0–15mm),few no infection >20 diseasedpods/plant 10–20 diseasedpods/plant 5–10diseasedpods/plant <5 diseasedpods/plant blackleg lesionsabsent Pod blackleg Minus fungicide Plants infectedwithSclerotinia (%) 0.34 1.4 2.3 0.34 2.3 1.4 0.9 6.5 1.4

45Y88 (CL) Branch blackleg Plus fungicide

575CL 1.7 1.9 0.34 2.2 1.4 n.s. 0.7 1.8 yield ofcanola,AlmaPark,2015. date andfungicidetreatmentongrain Table 5.Themaineffectsofvariety,sowing Prosaro® fungicideatflowering(Table5). and a0.4t/hayieldincreasefromapplying of sowingon22Aprilcomparedwith7 compared withHyola®575CL;a0.3 0.4 t/habenefitfromplantingPioneer®45Y88 interactions betweenthesefactors.Therewasa (P =0.001)ongrainyield,buttherewereno (P There weresignificanteffectsofvariety Grain yield in thefastvarietyHyola®575CL sownearly,but fungicide Prosaro®reducedSclerotinia infection with thefastervarietyHyola® 575CL.Applyingthe (averaged acrossbothsowing dates),compared had halfthenumberofraindays duringflowering development. Theslowervariety,Pioneer®45Y88 canola toraindaysandhencepotentialdisease Varietal phenologyhadalargeimpactonexposing andconclusionDiscussion grain yieldofcanolaatAlmaPark,2015. Figure 1.Therelationshipbetweenbiomassatmaturityand and withapplyingfungicide(datanotshown). Pioneer® 45Y88(CL)comparedwithHyola®575CL, at maturitycomparedwithsowingon7April; (Figure Grain yieldwasrelatedtobiomassatmaturity Fungicide treatment Sowing date Variety Treatment

<0.001), sowingdate(P=0.002)andfungicide Plus Minus 22 Apr 7 Apr l.s.d. (p=0.05) l.s.d. (p=0.05) l.s.d. (p=0.05) Hyola 575CL Pioneer 45Y88(CL)

1). Sowingonthe22Aprilincreasedbiomass SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | Grain yield(t/ha)

t/ha benefit

April; 3.2 2.8 0.18 3.2 2.9 0.16 0.19 2.8 3.2

(CL)

(CL), 41

agronomy – canola had no effect on the slower variety Pioneer® 45Y88 (CL). There was a significant grain yield response (0.4 t/ha averaged across sowing dates and varieties) to fungicide application, despite the modest levels of Sclerotinia infection. Early sowing and variety choice (i.e. Pioneer® 45Y88 (CL)) both increased the level of pod/ branch blackleg infection, but there was no effect from fungicide applied at flowering on upper canopy blackleg. Further work is required to quantify yield loss and management strategies for blackleg on branches and pods. Grain yield was strongly correlated to the amount of total biomass at maturity. Maturity biomass and grain yield were both affected by sowing date, variety choice and fungicide application. Along with nitrogen management and variety type, these factors will be investigated in more detail in the current ‘Optimising canola profitability’ project. Acknowledgements This experiment was jointly funded by GRDC and NSW DPI as part of the collaborative project ‘Optimising canola profitability’, CSP10087; 2014–19, a partnership also including CSIRO and SARDI. Thanks to Graeme Kotzur and family for experiment site cooperation.

42 | NSW Department of Primary Industries a dripperlinelaidintopre-drilled furrows The irrigationwasappliedin March 2015using (Figure treatments, Ganmain2015. Table 1.Sowingdate,varietyandirrigation variety andirrigation(Table1). factorial combinationofsowingdate, The experimentwassownasafull Treatments Site details will improvetheefficiencyofusestoredwater. was designedtodetermineifearlysowingofcanola significantly tograinyieldofallcrops.Thisexperiment Water storedinthefallowphasecancontribute Introduction » » » Key findings , Brill Rohan on thegrain 2015 yieldofcanola–Ganmain The effectofsowing date pre-sowing andirrigation Irrigation Variety Sowing date (April–October) In-crop rainfall water (atsowing): Plant available (N) atsowing Available nitrogen Fertiliser applied Previous crop Location » » » the harvestindexwasslightlyhigherfromearlysowingdate. The maturitybiomasswashigherfromthelatersowingdate,but water didnotincreasegrainyieldoroilconcentration. The irrigationtreatmentthatstored20mmplantavailable later sown(20April)Pioneer®45Y88(CL)andHyola®575CL. Early sown(9April)Pioneer®45Y88(CL)yieldedsimilarlyto

1). Anequivalent of38mmrainfallwas Paula, Charnock Minus Plus Hyola® 575CL Pioneer® 45Y88(CL) 20 April 9 April 320 mm treatment) 60 mm(non-irrigated 54 kg/ha(0–180cm) 100 kg/haUrea15-6 prior tosowing 400 L/haSulsa(27N:7Sw/v) at 200mL/ha 100 kg/haMAP+FlutriafolSC Barley Ganmain

Warren Hands andSharni Bartlett

when thesoilwascoredtwoweekslater. 38 mmapplied,20wasstoredandavailable supplied tothe‘plus’irrigationtreatment.Of open flower)oftwovarieties,Ganmain2015. flowering date(datewhen50%ofplantshadone Table 2.Theeffectoftwosowingdatesonthe from the20Aprilsowingdate(Table 45Y88 (CL),butwasonlyeightdaysquicker was 21daysquickertoflowerthanPioneer® From the9Aprilsowingdate,Hyola®575CL Flowering Results been completedonrowssevenandeightinthisimage. Figure 1.IrrigatingplotsinMarch2015.Irrigationhasjust Pioneer 45Y88(CL) Hyola 575CL Variety SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | 10 August 20 July NSW DPI, Wagga NSW 9 April Date 50%flower

2). 27 August 19 August 20 April

Wagga 43

agronomy – canola Grain yield in subsequent experiments to determine the most There was a significant interaction between variety effective way to optimise biomass accumulation and sowing date (P = 0.007) for grain yield. Pioneer® and subsequent grain yield for different regions. 45Y88 (CL) was significantly higher yielding than The lack of response to the extra water supplied Hyola® 575 CL from the 9 April sowing date, but through pre-sowing irrigation suggests that yield there was no difference between the two varieties was limited by factors other than water. Assuming from the 20 April sowing date (Table 3). The mineralisation of 40 kg/ha N through the growing irrigation treatment had no effect on grain yield. season along with available N of 54 kg/ha and fertiliser N of 164 kg/ha, this experiment would Table 3. The effect of variety and sowing date have had approximately 258 kg/ha N available in on grain yield of canola, Ganmain 2015. the soil. The ‘rule of thumb’ for canola is that it Variety 9 April 20 April requires 80 kg N/ha available in the soil to produce Grain yield (t/ha) 1 t/ha grain. The highest yielding treatments in this Pioneer 45Y88 (CL) 3.2 3.1 experiment would have required 256 kg/ha N, which Hyola 575CL 2.9 3.2 suggests that N could have limited further yield gains. l.s.d. (P = 0.05) 0.18 Acknowledgements The amount of biomass grown by the time the plant This experiment was jointly funded by GRDC and NSW matured had a large effect on grain yield (Figure 2). DPI as part of the collaborative project ‘Optimising Biomass at maturity was 1 t/ha higher for the 20 April canola profitability’, CSP10087; 2014–19, a partnership sowing date compared with the 9 April sowing, but also including CSIRO and SARDI. Thanks to Dennis the higher biomass from the later sowing date of and Dianne Brill for experiment site cooperation. 20 April resulted in a marginally lower harvest index (0.23) compared with the 9 April sowing (0.25).

Figure 2. Relationship between biomass at maturity and grain yield of canola, Ganmain 2015.

Grain quality Neither the sowing date nor irrigation affected oil concentration (at 6% moisture), but there was a significant effect between varieties. Hyola® 575CL had a higher oil content (42.8%) compared with Pioneer® 45Y88 (CL) (41.1%). Seed protein was unaffected by the treatments, averaging 21.6%. Discussion and conclusion Grain yield was strongly correlated with the amount of total biomass at maturity. The effects of the interactions between sowing date, variety choice and nitrogen management will be further investigated

44 | NSW Department of Primary Industries ranging fromlong-toshort-seasonphenologytypes. on phenologyandgrainyieldof12canolavarieties This experimentevaluatedtheeffectofsowingdate the appropriatevarietalmanagementisused. earlier thanthetraditionaldateof25April,provided are potentialgrainyieldincreasesfromsowing Canola Profitabilityprojecthaveindicatedthatthere and someearlyfieldexperimentsfromtheOptimised recent seasons.Cropmodelling(Lilleyetal.2015) and southernNSWhaveslowlyshiftedearlierin Sowing datesinthehighrainfallzonesofcentral Introduction Colin NSWDPI,Cowra; McMaster Adam Coleman NSWDPI,Orange of twelve canolavarieties–Canowindra 2015 Effect ofsowing date onphenologyandgrain yield » » » » » » » Key findings *LTA =long-term average 057 41 22 67 86 70 26 23 42 10 34 76 2015 T 95 54 45 05 65 15 601 53 51 56 46 50 50 52 44 43 45 52 59 LTA » » » » » » » grain yield,i.e.ahigherbiomassproducedyield. There wasastrongcorrelationbetweenbiomassatmaturityand followed byTOS1(7.93t/ha)and3(9.23t/ha). The biomassat50%floweringwasgreatestinTOS2(9.92t/ha) The sowingtimehadanegligibleimpactongrainyield. when averagedacrossallsowingdates. Hyola® 600RRwasthehighestyieldingvariety GT-50 (3.59t/ha)sownon1May. The highestyieldwasachievedbyNuseed The spreadofdaystoreach50%floweringwithineach differences betweenthevarieties. Early sowingexacerbatedphenological in TOS1,2and3respectively. time ofsowing(TOS)variedby35,26and14 a e a p a u u u etOtNvDcTotal Dec Nov Oct Sept Aug Jul Jun May Apr Mar Feb Jan Monthly rainfallatexperiment site

days Site details 16 events September) Frosts (July– water atsowing Plant-available (N) (0–1.8m) Mineral nitrogen (mg/kg) Colwell P0–10 Soil pH Fertiliser management Stubble Previous crop Soil type Location Ca SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 |

cm 0 4.6 29/7, 4/8,9/8,19/8,30/8 4/7, 5/7,6/7,8/7,9/7,19/7, 3/6, 4/6,21/6,29/6,3/7, 100 mm 104 kgN/ha 66 banded atsowing and 68kg/haMAP 130 kg/haureapredrilled 83 kg/haGran-Ampredrilled, Burnt Wheat Red chromosol Canowindra, NSW 96 5492 45 61 19

agronomy – canola Treatments Flowering occurred on 19 July, 8 August and 25 August for TOS 1, TOS 2 and TOS 3 respectively 12 canola Pioneer® 44Y89 (CL) Hyola® 559TT when averaged across all 12 varieties. varieties Pioneer® 45Y88 (CL) Hyola® 575CL ATR GemA Hyola® 577CL The three fastest maturing varieties (shortest time ATR StingrayA Hyola® 600RR to reach 50% flowering) were IH30 RR, ATR Stingray AV GarnetA Hyola® 750TT and Hyola® 575CL. The slowest maturing varieties Nuseed GT-50 IH30 RR were Hyola® 577CL, Hyola® 750TT and Hyola® 600RR. Sowing TOS 1: 2 April The phenological difference between varieties dates TOS 2: 15 April significantly reduced as sowing was delayed. The TOS 3: 1 May spread of days to reach 50% flowering within Results each TOS was 35, 26 and 14 days for TOS 1, TOS 2 and TOS 3 respectively. In TOS 1, the quicker The TOS 1 (2 April) and TOS 2 (15 April) treatments developing variety IH30 RR reached 50% flowering required irrigation with drip tape (equal to 12 mm on 30 June compared with 4 August (35 days) rainfall) to establish. The TOS 3 (1 May) treatment for the slower developing variety Hyola® 577CL. did not require supplementary irrigation for However, in TOS 3 the difference in flowering establishment. Plant establishment was 32, 37 and date between IH30 RR and Hyola® 577CL was 2 38 plants/m for TOS 1, TOS 2 and TOS 3 respectively. reduced, with 50% flowering occurring on The experiment had ideal conditions for crop 16 August and 30 August (14 days) respectively. growth during winter with above average rainfall for April–August (247 mm). However, spring was Dry matter at 50% flowering relatively dry with no rain during September and Dry matter at 50% flowering ranged from above average temperatures during October. 5.0 t/ha to 11.7 t/ha and was significantly affected by sowing time (P = 0.009), variety (P <0.001) and Flowering date the interaction between sowing time and variety The flowering date (50% of plants have one (P <0.001). Biomass accumulation at 50% flowering open flower) varied from 30 June to 30 August was greatest at TOS 2 (9.92 t/ha) compared and was significantly affected by time of sowing with TOS 1 (7.93 t/ha) or TOS 3 (9.23 t/ha). (P <0.001), variety (P <0.001) and the time of Biomass at 50% flowering increased as sowing sowing by variety interaction (P <0.001) (Table 1). was delayed in the faster developing varieties such as ATR Stingray, with an additional 1.0 t/ha and 2.1 t/ha produced from TOS 2 and TOS 3 Table 1. Grain yield, dry matter (DM) and flowering date at the experiment site near Canowindra, 2015. Variety Phenology 50% flowering date a Dry matter at flowering Grain yield (t/ha) (t/ha) TOS 1 TOS 2 TOS 3 TOS 1 TOS 2 TOS 3 TOS 1 TOS 2 TOS 3 2 Apr 15 Apr 1 May 2 Apr 15 Apr 1 May 2 Apr 15 Apr 1 May 44Y89 (CL) Mid 14 Jul 4 Aug 24 Aug 6.7 9.9 9.9 3.43 3.29 3.08 45Y88 (CL) Long 26 Jul 13 Aug 29 Aug 9.4 10.8 9.0 3.35 3.08 2.90 ATR Gem Mid 10 Jul 9 Aug 29 Aug 5.2 8.0 7.2 2.51 2.79 2.42 ATR Stingray Short 5 Jul 23 Jul 17 Aug 5.0 6.0 7.1 2.66 2.70 2.38 AV Garnet Mid 23 Jul 3 Aug 25 Aug 7.0 9.6 10.2 3.01 3.25 3.36 Nuseed GT-50 Mid 22 Jul 8 Aug 25 Aug 9.7 10.4 10.9 3.14 3.18 3.59 Hyola 559TT Mid 23 Jul 11 Aug 25 Aug 7.6 10.3 9.5 2.31 3.21 2.75 Hyola 575CL Short 6 Jul 4 Aug 25 Aug 6.4 10.4 11.1 3.02 2.98 2.99 Hyola 577CL Long 6 Aug 15 Aug 30 Aug 10.1 11.4 9.6 2.92 3.31 3.10 Hyola 600RR Long 31 Jul 14 Aug 28 Aug 11.2 11.8 9.6 3.40 3.23 3.52 Hyola 750TT Long 4 Aug 18 Aug 30 Aug 10.6 11.7 7.9 2.40 3.23 2.78 IH30 RR Short 30 Jun 31 Jul 16 Aug 6.1 9.0 9.1 3.36 2.97 3.05 min 30 Jun 23 Jul 16 Aug 5.0 6.0 7.1 2.31 2.70 2.38 mean 19 Jul 8 Aug 25 Aug 7.9 9.9 9.2 2.96 3.10 2.99 max 6 Aug 18 Aug 30 Aug 11.2 11.8 11.1 3.43 3.31 3.59 P = 0.05 <0.001 <0.001 0.02 5% l.s.d. 7 days 2.01 t/ha 0.49 t/ha a = flowering date was measured when 50% of plants had one open flower.

46 | NSW Department of Primary Industries flowering andgrainyield(R There wasnorelationshipbetweenbiomassat AV across allsowingdateswerePioneer®44Y89(CL), (2.38 t/ha).Varietiesthatperformedaboveaverage the lowestfromATRStingraysownon1May Nuseed The highestgrainyieldwasachievedfrom was 6–16kg/mm(datanotshown). The wateruseefficiencyofalltreatments between timeofsowingandvariety(P=0.018). affected byvariety(P only varyingby0.14t/ha.Grainyieldwasalso time ofsowing(P=0.040)despitetheyield Grain yieldwassignificantlyaffectedbythe Grain yield 7.9 t/haatTOS1,2and3respectively. e.g. Hyola® biomass accumulationfromTOS1and2, the longer-seasonvarietiesachievedgreatest respectively, comparedwithTOS1.Conversely, Figure 1.Therelationship betweengrainyieldand biomassofcanolaatmaturity, Canowindra2015. flowering period. significant biomassproducedduringthepost- yields) (Figure1).Inthisexperimenttherewas yield (greatermaturitybiomassproducedhigher relationship betweenbiomassatmaturityandgrain a biomassof11.2t/ha.However,therewasstrong of 6.1t/hawhileHyola®600RRyielded3.40from produced agrainyieldof3.36t/hafromdrymatter

Garnet, NuseedGT-50andHyola®600RR. Canola grain yield (t/ha) 0.5 1.5 2.5 3.5 4.5

0 1 2 3 4 5 GT-50 sownon1May(3.59t/ha)and

01 41 820 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 750TT hadabiomassof10.6,11.7and

<0.001) andtheinteraction 2 =0.06).InTOS1,IH30RR Biomass Biomass (t/ha) maturity at Crop andPastureScience,vol.66,pp.349–364. Australia’s highrainfallzone:asimulationanalysis’, grain yieldandgrazingpotentialofcropsacross Lilley, J,Bell,L&Kirkegaard,J2015,‘Optimising Reference grain yieldacrossarangeofseasonalconditions. between criticalphasesofbiomassaccumulationand research isrequiredtounderstandtherelationship August tolate-September)minimisefrostrisk.More flowering tooccurduringtheoptimumperiod(mid- on earlysowingopportunitiesthatstillenable required toselecttheappropriatevarietycapitalise However, theseresultsgivegrowerstheinformation influence whencanolaissownonayeartobasis. Seasonal conditionsandmanagementwillultimately is broughtforwardtoearlyApril. these differencesareexacerbatedifsowing three sowingdatesanddemonstratedhow in phenologybetweenvarietiessownat This experimenthighlightedlargedifferences Summary for technicalassistancethroughouttheyear. trial in2015andtoRobDunkleyJustinPaul Thanks totheHarrisonfamilyforhosting a partnershipalsoincludingCSIROandSARDI. ‘Optimising canolaprofitability’,CSP10087;2014–19, and NSWDPIaspartofthecollaborativeproject This experimentwasjointlyfundedbyGRDC Acknowledgements SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | R² 0.5892 = 47

agronomy – canola Effect of sowing date and applied phosphorus on canola grain yield – 2014 and 2015

Colin McMaster NSW DPI, Cowra; Mark Conyers NSW DPI, Wagga Wagga; Adam Coleman NSW DPI, Orange

Key findings »» There was no significant interaction between sowing time and phosphorus (P) response in 2014 and 2015. »» Both sites and years responded positively to P fertiliser with 10 kg P/ha achieving a relative yield of 88% and 97% in 2014 and 2015 respectively. »» Further research is required to determine if winter canola requires less applied P than slow spring phenology types (due to the longer vegetative phase to accumulate biomass by flowering).

Introduction Treatments Recent research has identified potential grain 2014 2015 yield advantages from planting canola earlier Time of sowing TOS 1: 17 Apr TOS 1: 16 Apr than the traditional date of 25 April. It is TOS 2: 5 May TOS 2: 2 May assumed that this shift in sowing time could TOS 3: 20 May TOS 3: 17 May have interactions with other components of the P fertiliser rate* 0, 10, 20 and farming system, including P management. 30 kg P/ha Previous research on wheat (Batten et al. 1999) * P was applied at sowing and placed 2 cm below the seed demonstrated that less fertiliser P is required to Results achieve maximum grain yield when the crop is sown early. The research found that plants take up more P Grain yield during both the vegetative and reproductive phases In both 2014 and 2015 grain yield was significantly of crop growth. In wheat, much of the P uptake affected by time of sowing (P = 0.004, P <0.001) and benefits from early sowing are related to increased phosphorus fertiliser rate (P <0.003, P <0.001). The P diffusion to the roots (i.e. delayed sowing reduces interaction between sowing time and P fertiliser was root growth) and a longer vegetative phase of crop not significant in either year, indicating that P fertiliser development ranging from 95 to 103 days in wheat. rates need to be maintained across all sowing times. This experiment tested the hypothesis that less In 2014, grain yield declined by an average of fertiliser P is required to achieve maximum grain 0.21 t/ha for every week sowing was delayed yield if a mid-maturing variety (Hyola® 559TT) is beyond 17 April with grain yield reducing sown earlier than the traditional date of 25 April. by 0.31 t/ha and 0.96 t/ha for the 7 May and 22 May sowing times respectively (Figure 1). This report provides only grain yield results. A more detailed paper, to be published later in 2016, will In 2015 however, there was no significant grain report on P uptake and use within the canola plant. yield difference between sowing on 16 April and 2 May, but there was a 0.79 t/ha yield Site details penalty for sowing on 15 May (Figure 1). 2014 2015 Location Cowra Cargo Soil type Red chromosol Red chromosol Previous crop Wheat Oats Colwell P (0–10 cm) 19 ppm 21 ppm Applied nitrogen 80 kg N/ha 80 kg N/ha (N) fertiliser (pre-drilled) (pre-drilled) Variety Hyola® 559TT Hyola® 559TT

48 | NSW Department of Primary Industries extra 30–40daystoachieveoptimum biomass the longerseasoncanolatype wouldhavean P thanaquickermaturingvariety sownlateas variety (i.e.wintertype)early mightrequireless Wagga Wagga.Sowingalongerseasoncanola required atfloweringtomaximisegrainyield that approximately5t/hacanoladrymatteris Research resultsfromMcCormick(2012)showed Discussion rates, threesowingdatesandtwoyears. Figure 2.Averagecanolagrainyieldoverfourphosphorus yield in2014and2015respectively. a relativeyieldof88%and97%maximum 0.59 t/hagrainyieldbenefit.The10kgP/haachieved yield wasachievedfrom10kgP/hawitha treatment (Figure and 0.54t/harespectivelyoverthenilPfertiliser produced agrainyieldbenefitof0.19t/ha,0.23t/ha both years.In2014the10,20and30kgP/ha Grain yieldrespondedpositivelytoappliedPin across twoyears. Figure 1.Averagecanolagrainyieldforthreesowingdates Canola grain yield (t/ha) Canola grain yield (t/ha) 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.3 2.5 2.7 2.9 3.1 0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 l.s.d. (P = 0.05) 0.05) l.s.d. & 2015)=0.27t/ha =(2014 (P 2014 02 30 20 10 0 TOS 1 TOS 2 TOS 3 TOS 2 TOS 1 TOS

2). In2015,thehighestgrain 2015 P fertiliser rate (kgP/ha) fertiliserP Time of sowing (TOS) sowing of Time l.s.d. l.s.d. (P = 0.05) (2015) = 0.26 t/ha l.s.d. (P = 0.05) (2014) = 0.36 t/ha 2014 2015 spring canolainmid-Aprilcomparedwithmid-May. rates shouldnotbereducedifsowingamid-maturing Results fromthisexperimentsuggestthatPfertiliser length beforefloweringandPresponse. investigate therelationshipbetweenvegetative at flowering.Furtherresearchisrequiredto Dunkley andJustinPaulfortechnicalassistance. and 2015AlbertOates,GraemePoile,Rob and RobDunkleyforhostingthetrialin2014 Thanks toCowraAgriculturalResearchStation jointly fundedbyGRDCandNSWDPI. ‘More ProfitfromCropNutrition’,DAN00168, This experimentispartoftheprogram Acknowledgements and PastureScience,vol.63,pp.635–646. rainfall zoneofsouth-easternAustralia’,Crop purpose canola(Brassicanapus)inthemedium- 2012, ‘Growth,recoveryandyieldofdual- McCormick, JI,Virgona,JM&Kirkegaard,JA Experimental Agriculture,vol.39,pp.161–170. central NewSouthWales’,AustralianJournalof of phosphorusbywheat(cv.Osprey)grownin ‘Effect ofsowingdateontheuptakeandutilisation Batten, GD,Fettell,NA,Mead,JA&Khan,MA1999, References SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | 49

agronomy – canola Effect of sowing date on phenology and grain yield of six canola varieties – Condobolin 2015

Ian Menz and Daryl Reardon NSW DPI, Condobolin; Rohan Brill NSW DPI, Wagga Wagga

Key findings »» Grain yield was highest from the early sowing date (17 April). »» Pioneer® 44Y89 (CL) was the highest yielding variety. »» The early sowing treatments grew more total biomass and had a higher harvest index than the two later sowing dates. »» Pioneer® 44Y89 (CL) had a better harvest index than all other varieties in this experiment.

Introduction Seasonal conditions The experiment was conducted to determine Rainfall for the growing season was just below the grain yield and phenology response of average, with Condobolin Agricultural Research and six canola varieties sown at three different Advisory Station (CARAS) recording 198 mm. The dates in a low rainfall environment. long-term average growing season rainfall is 209 mm. An irrigation event of 13 mm was applied to the Site details experiment on 29 April to optimise establishment. Location Condobolin Agricultural The first sowing date was 17 April. There was Research and Advisory Station adequate moisture but rainfall soon after sowing Soil type Red chromosol reduced emergence (average 20 plants/m2) Previous crop Lucerne pasture (2012–14), compared with the 4 May (average 45 plants/m2) fallowed August 2014 and 19 May (average 40 plants/m2) sowing dates. Fertiliser 70 kg/ha monoammonium phosphate (MAP) + flutriafol Results (250 g/L) @ 400 mL/ha Flowering Available nitrogen 250 kg/ha (0–180 cm) Hyola® 575CL was the fastest variety to flower at sowing from the 17 April sowing date (Table 1). The Plant available 30 mm difference between Hyola® 575CL flowering and water at sowing the slowest varieties (Pioneer® 45Y88 (CL), Pioneer® In-crop rainfall 198 mm 45Y86 (CL) and Hyola® 577CL) was 14 days. (April–October) Harvest date Various according to From the 19 May sowing date, the difference maturity (hand harvest) between the fastest variety Pioneer® 43C80 (CL) and the slowest variety Hyola® 577CL was only five days. Treatments Table 1. Date of flowering (50% of plants with Canola varieties Pioneer® 43C80 (CL) one open flower) of six canola varieties sown Pioneer® 45Y86 (CL) at three sowing dates, Condobolin 2015. Pioneer® 45Y88 (CL) Variety Date 50% flower Pioneerr 44Y89 (CL) 17 Apr 4 May 19 May Hyola® 575CL Pioneer 43C80 (CL) 1 Aug 17 Aug 30 Aug Hyola® 577CL Pioneer 44Y89 (CL) 26 Jul 20 Aug 1 Sep Sowing dates TOS 1: 17 April Pioneer 45Y88 (CL) 3 Aug 26 Aug 3 Sep TOS 2: 4 May Pioneer 45Y86 (CL) 3 Aug 26 Aug 2 Sep TOS 3: 19 May Hyola 575CL 22 Jul 20 Aug 1 Sep Hyola 577CL 3 Aug 26 Aug 4 Sep

50 | NSW Department of Primary Industries at Condobolin2015. grain yield(t/ha)ofsixcanolavarieties sownonthreedates Figure 2.Relationshipbetweenmaturitybiomass(t/ha)and There wasapositivecorrelation(R three datesatCondobolin2015. Figure 1.Grainyield(t/ha)ofsixcanolavarietiessownat and sowingdatewasnotsignificant(P=0.11). Pioneer® the nextbestvarieties:Pioneer®43C80 benefit (acrosssowingdates)of0.2 three sowingdates),withanoverallgrainyield variety intheexperiment(average0.8t/haacross Pioneer® 0.3 t/ha,19Mayaverage0.2t/ha)(Figure1). the twolatersowingdates(4Mayaverage significantly (P<0.001)higheryieldingthan The 17Aprilsowingdate(average1.2t/ha)was Grain yield sown treatments)resultinginhighergrainyield. with higherbiomassatmaturity(fromthe17April biomass atmaturityandgrainyield(Figure2),

45Y88 44Y89

(CL). Theinteractionbetweenvariety (CL) wasthehighestyielding 2 =0.79)between

t/ha over

(CL) and date, varietychoiceandnitrogenapplication. water andagronomydecisionssuchassowing water forcanolaandtheinteractionsbetweenstored environment willquantifythebenefitsofstored was only1.5kg/ha/mm.Furtherresearchinthis WUE ofallvarietiesfromthe19Maysowingdate sowing earlywas12kg/ha/mm.Theaverage achieved fromselectingthebestvarietyand is selected.Thewateruseefficiency(WUE) is optimisedandthemostappropriatevariety such asCondobolin,providedthesowingdate production ispossibleinalowrainfallenvironment This experimentshowsthatprofitablecanola averaged acrossthethreesowingdates. 44Y89 (CL)wasthehighestyieldingvarietywhen yield acrossallvarietiesinthisexperiment.Pioneer® The 17Aprilsowingdateresultedinthehighest Summary next highestvariety,Pioneer®43C80(CL)with0.11. all othervarieties,being0.13comparedwiththe Pioneer® 44Y89(CL)hadasignificantlyhigherHIthan respectively. Averagedacrossthethreesowingdates, and 19Maysowingdateswas0.16,0.06 index (HI).Harvestfromthe17April,4May Sowing dateandvarietyalsoaffectedtheHarvest throughout thisexperiment. Brangwin atCARASfortechnicalassistance Thanks toDarylReardonandLinda a partnershipalsoincludingCSIROandSARDI. ‘Optimising canolaprofitability’,CSP10087;2014–19, and NSWDPIaspartofthecollaborativeproject This experimentwasjointlyfundedbyGRDC Acknowledgements SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | 51

agronomy – canola Effect of sowing date, seeding rate and irrigation pre-sowing on grain yield of two canola varieties – Condobolin 2015

Ian Menz and Daryl Reardon NSW DPI, Condobolin; Rohan Brill NSW DPI, Wagga Wagga

Key findings »» The combination of extra stored water (20 mm) and early sowing (17 April) resulted in the highest grain yield in this experiment. »» Early sowing without extra stored water gave a higher yield than late sowing (4 May), regardless of the irrigation treatment at the later sowing date. »» The extra grain yield from early sowing and irrigation was due to increased biomass accumulation and improved harvest index. »» Oil concentration was low overall, but was higher from the early sowing (33.6%) than the later sowing (30.5%).

Introduction Variety Hyola 575CL Water stored in the fallow phase can contribute Pioneer 45Y88 (CL) significantly to the grain yield of all crops. This Sowing date 17 Apr experiment was designed to determine which 4 May management factors for canola improved Irrigation Plus the efficiency of using stored water. Minus Plant density 15 plants/m² Site details 45 plants/m² Location Condobolin Agricultural Research and Irrigation of 64 mm was applied with a small Advisory Station lateral irrigator in March. The soil was cored prior Soil type Red chromosol to sowing and the extra water stored by this Previous crop Lucerne pasture irrigation was 20 mm, giving plant available water (2012–2014), fallowed in the irrigated treatment of 50 mm compared August 2014 with 30 mm in the non-irrigated treatment. Fertiliser 70 kg/ha MAP + flutriafol Results 250 g/L @ 400 mL/ha Available 278 kg/ha (0–180 cm) Grain yield nitrogen (N) The irrigation treatment and sowing date interaction at sowing significantly affected grain yield (P = 0.006). There Plant available 30 mm (non-irrigated was a 0.7 t/ha grain yield benefit from the irrigated water at sowing treatment) treatment compared with the non-irrigated treatment In-crop rainfall 198 mm when sown early (17 April), but no benefit from the (April–October) irrigated treatment when sown on 4 May (Figure 1). Harvest date According to maturity The non-irrigated treatment sown on 17 April yielded (hand harvest) more than the irrigated treatment sown on 4 May. Variety had a significant effect on grain yield Treatments (P = 0.031). Pioneer® 45Y88 (CL) was higher The experiments were sown as a full factorial yielding when averaged across all treatments combination of variety, sowing date, irrigation than Hyola® 575CL (1.2 v 1.0 t/ha). Seeding (plus and minus) and plant density. density had no effect on grain yield.

52 | NSW Department of Primary Industries across twotargetplantdensities, Condobolin2015. Figure 2.Theeffectofsowingdate andirrigationtreatmentonbiomassatmaturityharvest indexofcanola,averaged for Hyola®575CL(33.1%)thanPioneer® content) wassignificantly(P<0.001)higher Oil concentration(reportedat6%moisture Oil concentration of irrigation)hadlowbiomassandHI. harvest index(HI)(Figure2).Latesowing(regardless in thehighestbiomassatmaturityand Sowing early(17April)withirrigationresulted proportion ofthebiomassthatisgrain. biomass andharvestindexi.e.the Grain yieldisafunctionoftotalcrop index biomassandharvest Maturity densities, Condobolin2015. on grainyieldofcanola,averagedacrosstwotargetplant Figure 1.Theeffectofsowingdateandirrigationtreatment 45Y88 (CL)(31.0%).Oilwasalsosignificantly effect onoilconcentration.ThestartingNlevelof that hasshownincreasingNanegative were consistentwithpastresearch(Brilletal.2015) The lowoillevelsobservedinthisexperiment date, nitrogenmanagementandvariety. project. Factorstobeinvestigatedincludesowing research inthe‘Optimisingcanolaprofitability’ biomass intograin,willformamajorpartoffuture affect biomass,andthentheconversionofthat as animprovedHI.Researchintothefactorsthat irrigation resultedfromincreasedbiomassaswell The extragrainyieldfromtheearlysowingwith crop touseduringthecriticalreproductivestages. fallow weedcontroltomaximisewaterstorageforthe $17.50/ha. Thishighlightstheimportanceoftimely return ofeachextramillimetrewaterstoredwas with nochangeinoilconcentration,theaverage 35 kg/ha/mm.Assumingagrainpriceof$500/tonne generated perextramillimetreofwaterstored) to marginalwateruseefficiency(extragrainyield increase whencanolawassownearly.Thisequates this moistureresultedina0.7 stored anextra20mmofwaterinthesoil;however The irrigationtreatmentinthisexperimentonly Summary all treatments,averaging29.6%. Grain proteinconcentrationwashighfor (33.6%) thanthe4Maysowingdate(30.5%). (P grain yieldwasmostlikelytobelimitedbywater. 278

<0.001) higherfromthe17Aprilsowingdate

kg/ha ensuredthatNwasnon-limitingand SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 |

t/ha grainyield 53

agronomy – canola Reference Brill, R, Street, M & Jenkins, L 2015, 'Improving WUE of canola in central NSW'. 17th Australian Agronomy Conference. Hobart 2015. Full paper at: http://www.agronomy2015.com.au/1303 Acknowledgements This experiment was jointly funded by GRDC and NSW DPI as part of the collaborative project ‘Optimising canola profitability’, CSP10087; 2014–19, a partnership also including CSIRO and SARDI. Thanks to Daryl Reardon and Linda Brangwin at CARAS for technical assistance throughout this experiment.

54 | NSW Department of Primary Industries Site details faba beanvarietiesandpromisingadvanced development andyieldofcurrentcommercial This experimentcomparedthegrowth, Introduction » » » » » Key findings ArmstrongDr Eric , Faba beantimeofsowing – Wagga Wagga 2014 population Plant Fertiliser history Paddock Soil type Site management Insect management Disease management Weed Inoculation Sowing » » » » » under earlyunfavourablefinishingconditions. sown cropswithinthiswindowcouldstillbedisadvantaged soils ofsouthernNSWtobefrom20April15May.Thelater optimum sowingwindowforfababeanonacidic,red-brown Findings fromthisandpreviousexperimentsshowthe even greateryieldpenaltiestothefirsttimeofsowing(TOS). disease andlodgingcouldhavebeenfurtherexacerbated,inflicting disease andgreaterfrostdamage.Givenamorefavourablespring, biomass, tallerplants,morefloweringnodes,additionallodging, Under theseconditions,earlyAprilsowingsresultedingreater later sownwaslimitedbyflower-nodeproductionandheatstress. Early-sown fababeanwasprimarilyaffectedbyseverefrosts,while reproductive nodenumberacrossalltreatments. differences measuredindrymatter(DM),heightand imposed acommonceilingtoyielddespitelarge The dryspring,combinedwithtemperatureconstraints, dry matterandgrainyieldoffababeanthanvarietychoice. Sowing timehasfargreaterconsequencesongrowth,development, Targeted 35plants/m 80 kg/haSuPerfect®grainlegumefertiliser(NPKS0:13.8:0:6.1)placed2cmbelowseed. the paddockinspring.Therefore,stubblewasabsentfor2014season Sown topastureinautumn2013butpoorestablishmentledchemicalfallowingof Red-brown earth,pH Paddock 20A,WaggaAgriculturalInstitute (520 g/Lhaloxyfop)and500mL/100 LUptake®sprayingoil Post emergent:330mL/haSelect® (240g/Lclethodim),100mL/haVerdict® Post sowpre-emergent:250g/haTerbyne®(750g/kgterbuthylazine) Avadex® (400g/Ltri-allate)and1kg/haTerbyne®(750g/kgterbuthylazine) Incorporated bysowing:2L/haglyphosate(450g/L),Stomp® (440g/Lpendimethalin),2 400 mL/haFastac® Duo(100g/Lalpha-cypermethrin) –20Septemberand24October Targeting Howzat® (carbendazim)–500mL/ha on8Augustand1Septemberforchocolatespot Penncozeb® 750(mancozeb)–2 kg/haon23Juneforchocolatespot Fallow weedcontrol:2L/haglyphosate(450g/L)and12,4-D LVester(680g/L) seed set. Commercial practicesaimedatweed-freeconditionstoeliminate weedcompetitionandprevent then pumpedthroughmicro-tubesintoeachsowingfurrow Group Fpeatinoculantwasmixeddirectlyintoanon-board200 Lwatertank Direct-drilled usingasix-rowconeseederwith300mmrowspacing, presswheelsandGPSauto-steer

Gerard O’Connor andLuke Gaynor Helicoverpa sp.: Ca 2 adjustedforseedsizeandgermination 5.2(0–10cm)(Table1).Thesitewaslimedin2010

for fababeanproductioninthisregion. update currentagronomicrecommendations This informationwillbeusedtoconfirmand setting, acidic,red-brownsoilatWaggaWagga. breeding linesatthreesowingdatesonahard- NSW DPI, Wagga NSW SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 |

Wagga

L/ha 55

agronomy – pulses Treatments Season Varieties (8) FarahA PBA SamiraA The 2014 season at Wagga Wagga was warmer, PBA NasmaA PBA ZahraA drier and shorter than normal (Figure 1). Early NuraA AFO7125 season rainfall (March–June) was 40% above the PBA RanaA AFO6125 long-term average and, in combination with Time of TOS 1: 2 April the mild temperatures during this period, the sowing (3) TOS 2: 24 April conditions were ideal for plant establishment and TOS 3 12 May early growth. This rainfall also replenished subsoil moisture, benefiting grain fill at the end of the Soil season when July to October rainfall was only half (93 mm) the long-term average. Crops finished Pulse growth and rhizobia survival can be affected 2–3 weeks earlier under these low rainfall and warm when soil pH falls below five. This can lead to temperatures (1–2 °C above average) conditions. problems on the acidic, red-brown soils that dominate the cropping zones of southern NSW. There were 43 frost events in 2014 where Growers need to consider this and routinely temperatures fell below 2 °C. More severe frosts monitor soil acidity to maintain a base pH of occurred in July and August (18 events where approximately five using strategic lime applications. temperatures dropped below 0 °C) causing isolated stem-splitting with some flower and pod The 2014 Wagga Wagga site was limed loss. A further three significant frosts occurred in in 2010, and its topsoil (0–10 cm) pH is Ca September (temperatures fell below −1°C on 4, 19 now 5.2. Soil nitrogen levels were low and and 20 September). Further flower and pod loss phosphorus levels medium (Table 1). resulted from these events; however, moisture Table 1. Site soil chemical characteristics for 0–10 cm and high temperature stresses ultimately became and 10–20 cm depths at Wagga Wagga, 2014. the overriding limitations to grain fill and yield. Characteristic Depth These conditions were not conducive 0–10 cm 10–20 cm to disease and incidence was low.

pH (1:5 CaCl2) 5.2 5.0 Al Sat (%) 1.7 2.5

Nitrate N (NO3) (mg/kg) 8.5 15.0 Ammonium N (mg/kg) 0.8 1.1 P (Colwell) (mg/kg) 34.0 13.0 CEC (cmol(+)kg) 7.0 6.5

Figure 1. Monthly rainfall in 2014, monthly temperature in 2014, and long- term average rainfall (1898–2014) at Wagga Wagga.

56 | NSW Department of Primary Industries Figure 2.Drymatter productionofeightvarieties offababeansownatthreetimes atWaggaWagga,2014. sowing dates(andtoalesserdegreethedifferent on podset,seedfillandyield.Nodoubt,varying and temperatureconstraintsofspringsetaceiling large variationsitseemslikelythatthemoisture eight varieties(figures2,3,4and5).Despitethese and floweringacrossthethreesowingtimes variation indrymatterproduction,height,lodging treatments wasunexpectedgiventheverylarge This absenceofanyyielddifferencesacrossall region, despitethedry,tightfinishtoseason. term averageof1.8–2.0t/haforfababeaninthis 2.87 t/ha.Thisiswellabovetheexpectedlong- eight varietieswasstatisticallythesame,averaging that grainyieldacrossallthreesowingtimesand The unusualoutcomeofthisexperimentwas index (HI%) harvest matter andGrain production yield, dry producing goodquality,unblemishedseed. above averageyields;andanearly,dryharvest stresses. Itwascharacterisedbyminimaldisease, Wagga despitethefrostsandlatemoisture Overall, 2014wasaveryfavourableyearforpulsesat dry springweatherandassociatedlowerhumidity. strategic preventativefungicideapplications,the in TOS Chocolate spot(Botrytissp.)developed,especially effects Seasonal Results

1 (2April),butwasheldincheckwith still needtoconsidertheconsequencesof: April tomid-Maysowinginthisregion.Growers maximum fababeanyieldresultingfrommid- Nevertheless, theseresultsareconsistentwith of flowerabortionobservedherealongthestems. particular) havetobeidealreducethehighrates seasonal conditions(moistureandtemperaturein & Marcellos2003).Toachievetheseyieldlevels, and insomeinstancesupto6.0t/ha(Matthews commercial fababeanyieldshavereached4.0t/ha, chickpea respectively(Scott,2013).However, 1.35 t/haand1.28forlupin,fieldpea NSW is1.83t/hacomparedwith1.46t/ha, commercial yieldoffababeansacrosssouthern To puttheseresultsinperspective,theaverage flowering nodesbutwithbetterpodretention. abortion rates;thelatersowingsproducedfewer a greaternumberoffloweringnodesbuthigh the earlysowingsproducedtallerstemswith varieties) reachedthisceilingviadifferentmeans: appropriate foliarfungicideresponses. pressure andrequirecarefulmonitoring sowings canbesubjecttogreaterdisease moist andextendedsprings,evenlateApril Growers alsoneedtoconsiderthatincool, » » » » plants andrestricteddrymattergrainyield. sowing toolate(afterthemiddleofMay)–short excessive height,lodginganddisease sowing tooearly(before15April)– SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | 57

agronomy – pulses Dry matter production was statistically the same at Growth and development phases TOS 1 and TOS 2 (mean of 9.1–9.3 t/ha) but decreased The development phases of all faba bean varieties significantly (by 20%) when sowing was delayed to contracted as sowing was progressively delayed 12 May (TOS 3 average 7.4 t/ha). The more vigorous (Figure 5). As an example, a 40-day delay of growth of PBA Rana, PBA Zahra, PBA Samira and sowing (TOS 1 to TOS 3) was reduced to a 12-day Farah was reflected in higher DM at TOS 1 and difference by the end flowering (17 September TOS 2 and higher normalised difference vegetation to 29 September), then to only a 4-day difference index (NDVI) readings at the early vegetative stage, by maturity (27 October to 31 October). especially PBA Rana (data not shown). (Note: NDVI This significant reduction in growing periods at was measured on 19 June and 25 July using a later sowing times translates into shorter flowering hand-held GreenSeeker®, which gives an index of periods (73 days down to 37 days), shorter grain- plant ‘greenness’ or photosynthetic activity). filling periods, shorter plants, reduced number of Harvest index (HI) averaged 33.8% across the flowering nodes, more erect growth, less disease experiment with no significant differences between and reduced DM. Yet, as previously stated, yield sowing time and variety, although mean HI did remained unaffected but harvest index increased. increase to 38% for TOS 3. This reflected lower This reflects greater environmental stresses imposed DM and plant heights in TOS 3 combined with a on earlier sowings in this experiment, particularly more efficient conversion of DM into grain. The frost and the extra moisture and nutrient demand implication here is that a higher proportion of plants require when producing greater biomass. fixed nitrogen is exported in the grain resulting Varieties differed in their growth patterns. For in less residual nitrogen for subsequent crops. example, PBA Nasma was the first to flower and Plant height, lodging and podding Nura the last at all sowing dates. PBA Nasma is a Late varieties, such as PBA Rana, flower and pod very early, northern NSW variety and was included later; and flower and set pods at nodes higher up in this trial to compare phenology and performance the stem compared with early varieties such as with southern lines. It flowered 60, 37 and 18 days PBA Nasma (Figure 3). As sowing was delayed from earlier than PBA Rana at the TOS 1, TOS 2 and TOS 3 early April to mid-May, plant height and bottom-pod respectively, but finished flowering only 6–8 days height reduced significantly. This places physical earlier, most likely due to high temperatures. The restrictions on reaching the lowest pods during longer flowering window of PBA Nasma enables harvest. Conversely, sowing too early extends it to produce a large number of flowering nodes, growing periods and produces excessively tall plants greater DM and yield plasticity, and provides better leading to lodging and further problems at harvest, insurance against environmental stresses during as seen with PBA Rana and Farah at TOS 1 (Figure 4). flowering and pod-fill. While its yield was similar to All varieties at TOS 2 and TOS 3 were shorter and other varieties this season, it was the top yielding remained erect, simplifying management and harvest. variety in experiments at Wagga Wagga in 2013.

Figure 3. Stem height to first flower (Ht_FF), first pod (FF to FP), last pod (FP to TP) and to the top (TP to Top) of eight varieties of faba bean sown on three dates at Wagga Wagga, 2014.

58 | NSW Department of Primary Industries » » Summary Figure 5.Phasesofdevelopmenteightvarietiesfababean sown atthreedatesWagga2014. completely erect. subjectively estimatehowwelleachvarietystandsatmaturityona1to9scale,whereisflatthegroundand Figure 4.ErectscoresatmaturityofeightvarietiesfababeansownthreedatesWaggain2014.These » » at WaggaWagga,yielding2.87 t/ha. time andvarietyduringthe2014 season Faba beanyieldwasunaffected bysowing faba beanproductionacross southernNSW. achieved, indicatingconsiderable potentialfor red-brown soilsandexcellentyieldswere appeared normalonthesehard-setting,acidic, Growth anddevelopmentoffababean » » » » by flower-nodeproductionand heatstress. by severefrosts,whilelatersown waslimited Early-sown fababeanwasprimarily affected node numberacrossalltreatments. dry matter(DM),heightandreproductive yield despitelargedifferencesmeasuredin constraints imposedacommonceilingto The dryspringcombinedwithtemperature SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | 59

agronomy – pulses »» Under these conditions, early April sowings resulted in greater biomass, taller plants, more flowering nodes, additional lodging, more disease and greater frost damage. Given a more favourable spring, disease and lodging could have been further exacerbated, inflicting even greater yield penalties to (time of sowing) TOS 1. »» Later sowing (mid-May onwards) is projected to produce fewer podding nodes, shorter plants, lower bottom pods and lower yield. »» Sowing time has far greater consequences on growth, development, DM and grain yield of faba bean than choice of variety. »» Findings from this and previous experiments shows the optimum sowing window for faba bean on acidic, red-brown soils of southern NSW to be from 20 April to 15 May. The later sown crops within this window might still be disadvantaged under early unfavourable finishing conditions. References Matthews, P & Marcellos, H 2003, Faba bean Agfact, P4.2.7, 2nd edn. NSW Agriculture. Scott, F 2013, NSW Grains Report Summary 1993–2013, NSW Department of Primary Industries, unpublished. Acknowledgements This experiment was part of the project ‘Expanding the use of pulses in the southern region’, DAV00113 2013–16, a collaborative pulse project between state agencies in Victoria, NSW and South Australia, jointly funded by NSW DPI and GRDC.

60 | NSW Department of Primary Industries Site details recommendations forfababeaninthisregion. to confirmandupdatecurrentagronomic Wagga Wagga.Thisinformationwillbeused lines atthreetimesofsowing(TOS) faba beanvarietiesandadvancedbreeding development andyieldofcurrentcommercial This experimentaimedtocomparegrowth, Introduction » » » » Key findings Jon Evans Richards, Mark Faba beantimeofsowing – Wagga Wagga 2015 Soil type Site population Plant Fertiliser management Stubble Inoculation Sowing design Experiment » » » » testing isrequiredtodetermineifthiswasaseasonaleffect. which couldhavenegativemarketingimplications.Further PBA Nasmaproducedasmallgrainsizeof53g/100seeds, and grainyieldoffababeanthanvarietyinthisexperiment. Time ofsowinghadafargreatereffectongrowth,development were thehighestyieldingcommercialvarieties. PBA Nasma,Samira,Zahra,FarahandFiestaVF Wagga in2015wasmid–lateApril. The optimumtimetosowfababeansatWagga NSW DPI, Wagga NSW Red-brown earth,pH Agricultural Institute Paddock 18,Wagga Target 30plants/m 50 mmbelowtheseed (N:P:K:S; 0:13.8:0:6.1)placed 80 kg/haGrainlegumesuper some stubblestanding) stubble (lightburnonly,still Burnt toremovewheat into eachsowingfurrow pumped throughmicro-tubes board 100Lwatertankthen mixed directlyintoanon- Group Fpeatinoculantwas press wheelsandGPSauto-steer seeder with300mmrowspacings, Direct-drilled usingasix-rowcone sub-plots; threereplications main blocksandvarietiesasthe design withsowingdateasthe Randomised completeblock (0–10 cm)(Table1) Dr Eric ArmstrongDr Eric ,

Wagga 2 Ca 5.8 Luke Gaynor, glyphosate (450g/L)2.0L/ha,Stomp® Incorporated bysowing: 2,4-D LVester(680g/L)1L/ha Fallow weedcontrol: weed competitionandseedset. of weed-freeexperimentstoeliminate Commercial practicesusedwiththeaim Weed management 30 mL/ha(24October2015) Trojan® (150g/Lgamma-cyhalothrin) 500 mL/ha(21September2015) Howzat® (500g/Lcarbendazim) 500 Howzat® (500g/Lcarbendazim) Penncozeb® 7501kg/ha(7August2015) Penncozeb® 7501kg/ha(9July2015) Lemat® 100mL/ha(12June2015) flea andchocolatespot Targeting Insect anddiseasemanagement spraying oil500mL/100L (520 g/Lhaloxyfop)100mL/haandUptake® Select® (240g/Lclethodim)500 Terbyne® (750g/kgterbuthylazine)300g/ha, Post sowing: (750 g/kgterbuthylazine)900g/ha (400 g/Ltri-allate)1.6L/haandTerbyne® (440 g/Lpendimethalin)2.0 glyphosate (450g/L) Karl Moore, Karl

mL/ha (2September2015) Helicoverpa sp,lucerne SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 |

Russell Pumpa and

2.0

L/ha and

L/ha, Avadex®

mL/ha, Verdict®

agronomy – pulses Table 1. Site soil chemical characteristics for 0–10 cm between TOS 1 and TOS 2 (at P <0.001), a delay and 10–30 cm depths at Wagga Wagga in 2015. in sowing until 18 May resulted in a yield decline Characteristic Depth of 26% across all 10 varieties (Figure 1). 0–10 cm 10–30 cm There was also a significant variety and TOS

pH (1:5 CaCl2) 5.8 5.0 interaction (P <0.001) in this experiment. The Aluminium Exc. (meq/100 g) <0.1 <0.1 2015-released variety PBA Nasma yielded significantly Total N (%) 0.026 0.041 higher than all other varieties in TOS 1. PBA Nasma Sulfur (mg/kg) 5.1 6.4 is a northern NSW variety susceptible to Ascochyta Phosphorus (Colwell) (mg/kg) 21 47 blight and its seed size in this trial was smaller CEC (cmol(+)kg) 7.4 5.5 than either PBA Zahra or PBA Samira, which could Organic carbon (OC) (%) 0.51 0.37 have marketing implications. Across all sowing The 2015 growing season at Wagga Wagga was dates, PBA Nasma, PBA Samira, PBA Zahra, Farah almost ideal for pulse production except for a dry and Fiesta VF were the highest yielding varieties. and hot September–October period. Growing season The large-seeded PBA Rana was significantly lower rainfall (April–October) was close to the long-term yielding than the other commercially available average (333 mm) with 56 mm of this falling in early varieties for all three TOS treatments (Figure 2). April enabling timely sowing. Rainfall in June, July The last significant rainfall of the growing season and August was 50% above the long-term average was on 4 September and the trial suffered severe and contributed to valuable sub-soil moisture. heat and moisture stress in the first week of October. However, the flowering and grain filling period of This caused all TOS treatments to abort flowers and September–October experienced eight continuous mature prematurely. Due to the more advanced weeks of no effective rainfall and wide temperature stage of development, TOS 1 and TOS 2 were fluctuations (5 September to 31 October). less severely affected. However, these results are Three consecutive days in late September consistent with maximum faba bean yields resulting (23–25 September) received below zero temperatures from mid-April to early-May sowing in this region. and damaging frosts only to be followed by an Growers still need to consider the consequences of: exceptionally hot, dry October. Average daily »» sowing too early (before 20 April) – maximum temperatures for the month exceeded excessive height, lodging and disease the long-term average by 8.3 °C and the first week »» sowing too late (after 10 May) – short plants experienced unseasonal temperatures in the mid-30s. and restricted dry matter and grain yield. Treatments Growers also need to be aware that in cool, moist extended springs, even late April sowings can be A A Varieties (10) PBA Zahra Farah subject to greater disease pressure and require A PBA Samira Fiesta VF careful monitoring and foliar fungicide sprays. A PBA Rana AF08207 Whilst this site experienced a wet winter and A PBA Nasma AF10089 early spring, a preventative fungicide program, A Nura Determinant type combined with dry spring conditions, reduced Time of TOS 1: 14 April disease levels to an insignificant level. sowing (TOS) TOS 2: 1 May 3.0 TOS 3: 18 May l.s.d. (P <0.05) = 0.13 t/ha 2.5 Results 2.0 Establishment 1.5 Faba bean establishment was slightly above the 1.0 2

target of 30 plants/m . TOS 1 had an average Grain Yield (t/ha) plant establishment of 36.7 plants/m2 and TOS 2 0.5 had an average of 34.5 plants/m2. TOS 3 was 0.0 14 Apr 1 May 18 May 2 significantly lower (P <0.001) at 28 plants/m . Sowing date

Grain yield, dry matter production and Figure 1. Mean faba bean grain yield from three sowing harvest index dates at Wagga Wagga in 2015. Time of sowing (TOS) was a critical factor for maximising faba bean yield in this experiment. Whilst there was no significant difference

62 | NSW Department of Primary Industries and TOS3had significantlydifferentgrainyield and 3 with40.1%and40.5%respectively. WhilstTOS2 significantly fromTOS1(35.6%) toTOS for harvestindex(HI).The indexincreased There wasasignificantTOSand varietyinteraction Rana wasreflectedinhigherDMatthefirstTOS. of PBASamira,Farah,Zahra,PBNasmaand 18 May(average5.0t/ha).Themorevigorousgrowth significantly (by29%)whensowingwasdelayedto two timesofsowing(7.7–7.0t/ha)butdecreased Dry matter(DM)productionwassimilaratthefirst Figure 3.Totaldrymatterproductionof10fababeanvarietiessown atthreedatesWaggain2015. Figure 2.Grainyieldof10fababeanvarietiessownatthreedatesWaggain2015.

18May 1 May 14Apr Grain yield (t/ha)

18 May 1 May 14 Apr Total dry matter (t/ha) 10.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 B ar B aiaPARn B am uaFet FFarah Fiesta VF Nura PBANasma PBARana PBASamira PBAZahra B ar B aiaPARn B am uaFet FFarah VF Fiesta Nura PBA Nasma PBA Rana PBA Samira PBA Zahra .322 .820 .921 .814 2.00 2.68 2.73 1.44 2.34 2.14 2.18 2.74 2.81 2.15 2.90 2.86 1.79 2.57 2.59 2.05 2.81 3.33 1.98 2.34 2.51 2.25 2.85 2.75 2.23 2.95 2.82 .761 .652 .751 .333 5.00 7.00 7.73 3.33 5.82 6.29 4.43 7.40 8.89 5.16 6.55 8.14 5.27 6.22 6.72 5.29 6.29 8.13 4.56 6.62 8.03 6.19 8.90 8.44 4.77 7.37 7.32 14Apr 1 1 May

2 andTOS 18May TOS x TOS 1.20 t/ha Variety(P l.s.d. <0.05) = 0.69 Variety(P l.s.d.<0.05) =t/ha l.s.d.TOS <0.05) = 0.58t/ha (P Variety and less residual N remains with lower biomass plants. higher HIismorenitrogen(N)exportedinthegrain, converting DMtograin.Theimplicationherefora DM totals,theyweresimilarintheirefficiencyof SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | TOS xvarietyl.s.d. <0.05) (p =0.24t/ha Variety l.s.d. <0.05) (p =0.13t/ha TOS l.s.d. <0.05) (p =0.13t/ha Determinant Determinant Type Type MEAN MEAN 63

agronomy – pulses 80

l.s.d. (P <0.05) = 3.31 g 70

30 Seed weight (grams/100 seeds) 20

0 PBA Rana PBA Zahra PBA Samira Fiesta VF Farah Nura PBA Nasma Total 69.7 64.5 63.7 60.2 59.7 56.8 53.3 Variety Figure 4. Grain weight of 10 faba bean varieties at Wagga Wagga in 2015.

Seed size There was no significant variety and time of sowing interaction in this experiment. Variety had a significant effect on seed size (P <0.001) given the normal seed size variation between faba bean varieties. Whilst PBA Rana was significantly lower yielding than the other commercial varieties, it did have a significantly larger seed size at P <0.001 (Figure 4). In this experiment, PBA Nasma was significantly smaller seeded than all other varieties tested, at 53.3 g/100 seeds (Figure 4). This could be a consequence of a number of factors including its very early maturity, the early hot and dry finish and the fact that it out-yielded all other treatments. Acknowledgements This experiment was part of the project ‘Expanding the use of pulses in the southern region’, DAV00113 2013–16, a collaborative pulse project between state agencies in Victoria, NSW and South Australia, jointly funded by NSW DPI and GRDC.

64 | NSW Department of Primary Industries Site details recommendations forfababeaninthisregion. to confirmandupdatecurrentagronomic southern NSW.Thisinformationwillbeused lines attwosowingtimesJuneeReefsin faba beanvarietiesandadvancedbreeding development andyieldofcurrentcommercial This experimentaimedtocomparethegrowth, Introduction » » » Key findings Jon Evans Richards, Mark Faba beantimeofsowing –JuneeReefs 2015 Fertiliser management Stubble weed competitionand seedset. aim ofweed-freetrialstoeliminate both Commercial practiceswereused withthe Weed management population Plant Soil type Inoculation Sowing design Experiment Location » » » appropriate varietyselectionandmanagement. Commercial yieldsof3t/haareachievablewith the highestyieldingvarieties. PBA Zahra,SamiraandNasmawere The optimumtimetosowfababeansatJuneein2015wasmid-April. NSW DPI, Wagga NSW (N:P:K:S; 0:13.8:0:6.1)placed 80 kg/hagrainlegumesuper before sowing Stubble waslightlyburnt 4.6 (0–10cm) 50 Target 30plants/m Red-brown earth;pH into eachsowingfurrow pumped throughmicro-tubes board 100Lwatertankthen mixed directlyintoanon- Group Fpeatinoculantwas press wheelsandGPSauto-steer seeder with300mmrowspacings, Direct-drilled usingasix-rowcone sub-plots; threereplications main blocksandvarietiesasthe design withsowingdateasthe Randomised completeblock Seeds, JuneeReefs ‘Carinya’ HartBros Dr Eric ArmstrongDr Eric ,

mm belowtheseed

Wagga 2

Luke Gaynor, at thetimeofsampling(Table1). the top10cmofprofilewerehigh Soil nitrogen(N)andphosphorus(P)in 5.0 throughstrategiclimeincorporation. aiming tomaintainabasepHofapproximately to bemindfulofthisandroutinelymonitorsoilacidity the croppingzonesofsouthernNSW.Growersneed problems ontheacidicred-brownsoilsthatdominate when soilpHfallsbelow5.0.Thiscanleadto Pulse growthandrhizobiasurvivalcanbeaffected 520 mm.GSRwas 297mm(Figure1). The totalrainfallreceivedduring 2015was 0–10 cmdepthatJuneeReefsin2015. Table 1.Sitesoilchemicalcharacteristicsfor Organic carbon(OC)(%) Phosphorus (Colwell)(mg/kg) Sulfur (mg/kg) Ammonium N(mg/kg) Nitrate N(NO Aluminium Exc.(meq/100g) pH (1:5CaCl Characteristic Targeting Insect anddiseasemanagement 1% BS1000(26June2015) 800 Post sowing: 900 g/haTerbyne®(750g/kgterbuthylazine) 1.6 L/haAvadex®(400g/Ltri-allate)and (450 Incorporated bysowing: 100 mL/ha(9July2015) Le-Mat® (290g/Lomethoate)@ @ 1kg/ha(7 Penncozeb 750DF®(750g/LMancozeb) Mancozeb) @1 chocolate spot: Karl Moore, Karl

mL/ha Ecopar®(20g/LPyraflufen-ethyl),

g/L), 2L/haStomp®(440g/Lpendimethalin), Helicoverpa sp,lucernefleaand 2 SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | ) 3

) (mg/kg) August 2015) TOS 2onlyforfumitory:

kg/ha (4June2015) Penncozeb 750DF®(750 Russell Pumpa and

2 L/haglyphosate

Depth (0–10cm) 0.243

1.47 4.6 g/L 79 54 9 2

agronomy – pulses 160

140 Total 2015 = 520 mm GSR 2015 = 297 mm Average 1969−2015 = 554 mm 120

100

Rainfall(mm) 60

0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2015 142 12 0 84 5 39 88 60 16 5 27 42 Long-term average 41 41 37 39 42 46 50 49 49 48 44 39 Figure 1. Total and growing season rainfall at Junee Reefs in 2015.

Treatments In this experiment, PBA Nasma was the smallest seeded variety with a mean grain weight of Varieties (10) PBA ZahraA FarahA 50.8 g/100 seeds (Figure 3). PBA SamiraA Fiesta VF PBA RanaA AF08207 The 16 April (TOS 1) sowing yielded an average PBA NasmaA AF10089 of 3.16 t/ha, which is 46% higher than the 6 May NuraA Determinant type sowing (TOS 2) (Figure 4). Due to a fumitory Time of TOS 1: 16 April infestation in the 6 May sowing, Ecopar® herbicide sowing (TOS) TOS 2: 6 May was applied, which caused some leaf burn on the faba beans. This could have had an effect on Results grain yield, but was unable to be measured. PBA Zahra, PBA Samira, PBA Nasma and Fiesta VF were The average commercial yield for faba beans the highest yielding varieties at Junee Reefs in 2015. across NSW is 1.83 t/ha compared with 1.46 t/ha, These varieties are also the highest yielding across 1.35 t/ha and 1.28 t/ha for lupin, field pea and south-eastern NSW in long-term experiments chickpea respectively. However, commercial (2008–16) (Figure 2). PBA Nasma is a northern NSW faba bean yields have reached 4.0 t/ha and, in variety susceptible to ascochyta blight and also has a some instances, up to 6.0 t/ha. To achieve these smaller seed size in southern NSW than PB Zahra or yields, seasonal conditions (particularly moisture PBA Samira, which could have marketing implications.

3.00

2.80

2.60

Yield (t/ha) Yield 2.40

2.20

2.00 PBA Zahra PBA Nasma PBA Samira FIESTA VF FARAH Nura PBA Rana Variety Figure 2. Long-term (2008–15) yield for faba bean varieties in south-eastern NSW.

66 | NSW Department of Primary Industries Australia, jointly fundedbyNSWDPIandGRDC. state agenciesinVictoria,NSW andSouth 2013–16, acollaborativepulse projectbetween the useofpulsesinsouthern region’,DAV00113 This experimentwaspartofthe project‘Expanding Acknowledgements Figure 4.Grainyieldofeightfababeanvarietiessownattwodates atJuneeReefsin2015. Figure 3.VarietyandtimeofsowingeffectonseedweightatJuneeReefsin2015. need toconsidertheconsequencesof: May sowinginthisregion.Growersstill faba beanyieldsfrommid-Apriltoearly- These resultsareconsistentwithmaximum stems thatwasobservedinthisexperiment. the highratesofflowerabortionalong and temperature)havetobeidealreduce

Grain yield (t/ha) 06 May 16 Apr Seed weight (grams/100 seeds) 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 6 6 May 16Apr 0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 B aaPAZhaPASmr aa isaV uaPBA Nasma Nura VF Fiesta Farah PBA Samira PBA Zahra PBA Rana Nasma PBA .420 .918 .816 .213 .112 1.71 3.16 1.28 2.74 1.51 2.90 1.33 2.95 1.92 3.09 1.68 3.10 1.58 3.05 1.85 3.28 1.99 3.46 2.02 3.52 1.94 3.55 65.4 64.7 isaV PBA Fiesta VF 58.2 61.1 Zahra Samira PBA 59.4 60.8 Samira 20 Samira PBA Variety Variety Variety careful monitoringandfoliarfungicidesprays. subject togreaterdiseasepressureandrequire extended springs,evenlateAprilsowingscanbe Growers alsoneedtobeawarethatincool,moist » » 53.6 57.4 uaFrhDeterm. Farah Nura » » plants andrestricteddrymattergrainyield. sowing toolate(afterthemiddleofMay)–short excessive height,lodginganddisease sowing tooearly(before15April)– 16 Apr SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | 53.0 55.8 06 May type Rana PBA l.s.d. (P<0.05)=0.25t/ha l.s.d. 50.6 53.1 l.s.d. (P <0.05)=0.23g (P l.s.d. Rana 20 PBA 50.0 51.6 MEAN 67

agronomy – pulses Faba bean time of sowing – Lockhart 2015

Mark Richards, Dr Eric Armstrong, Luke Gaynor, Karl Moore, Russell Pumpa and Jon Evans NSW DPI, Wagga Wagga

Key findings »» The optimum time to sow faba beans at Lockhart in 2015 was mid-April. »» PBA Nasma, PBA Samira and Fiesta VF were the highest yielding commercial varieties. »» The 23 April sowing had a mean bottom pod height of 42.3 cm, 29% higher than the 13 May sowing.

Introduction Fallow weed control: Glyphosate (450 g/L) 1.5 L/ha, LI 700 105 mL/ha, This experiment aimed to compare the growth, AMS 270 g/ha (27 January 2015) development and yield of current commercial faba bean varieties and advanced breeding Glyphosate (450 g/L) 1.5 L/ha, LI 700 lines on two sowing dates at Lockhart in 86 mL/ha, AMS 216 g/ha, Amicide southern NSW. This information will be used Advance 700® 300 mL/ha (23 March 2015) to confirm and update current agronomic Pre-sowing: Terbyne® 1043 g/ recommendations for faba bean in this region. ha, AMS 435 g/ha, Sencor 750WG® 304 g/ha, Chemwet 1000® 113 mL/ha, Site details Roundup DST® 1.0 L/ha (27 April 2015) Site ‘Warikirri’, Lockhart Post sowing: Sequence® 500 mL/ha, Hasten® 678 mL/ha, AMS 534 g/ha (4 June 2015) Soil type Red clay loam, pHCa 5.6 (0–10 cm) Trial design Randomised complete block Sequence® 500 mL/ha, AMS 539 g/ha, design with sowing date as the Hasten® 336 mL/ha (10 August 2015) main blocks and varieties as the Insect and disease management sub-plots; three replications Targeting Helicoverpa sp, lucerne flea and chocolate Stubble Heavy standing stubble; coulters spot: Penncozeb 750 DF® 1 kg/ha (4 June 2015) management used on time of sowing (TOS) 2 Fastac Duo® 250 mL/ha (15 October 2015) to help with the stubble flow Spin flo® 500 g/L carbendazim Fertiliser 40 kg/ha Granulock 500 mL/ha (10 August 2015) (N:P:S; 11:21.8:4) placed 50 mm below the seed Spin flo® 500 g/L carbendazim Plant Target 30 plants/m2 500 mL/ha (2 September 2015) population Harvest date 30 November Sowing Direct-drilled using a six-row DBS Pulse growth and rhizobia survival can be affected cone seeder with 240 mm row when soil pH falls below 5.0 especially with increasing spacings and GPS auto-steer free aluminium levels. This can lead to problems on Inoculation Group F peat inoculant was the acidic red-brown soils that dominate the cropping mixed directly into an on- zones of southern NSW. Growers need to consider this board 100 L water tank then and routinely monitor soil acidity, aiming to maintain pumped through micro-tubes a base pH of approximately 5.0 through strategically into each sowing furrow incorporating lime. Problems caused by subsoil Weed management constraints were not evident at this site (Table 1). Commercial practices used with the aim of weed-free trials to eliminate weed competition and weed seed set.

68 | NSW Department of Primary Industries Figure 2.Grainyield of10fababeanvarietiessown attwodatesLockhartin2015. Figure 1.Annualandgrowingseasonrainfall(GSR)for‘Warikirri’in2015thelongtermaverage. Treatments rainfall (GSR)was299mm(Figure1). the trialsiteduring2015.Thegrowingseason A totalof501mmrainfallwasrecordedat 0–10 cmdepthatLockhartin2015. Table 1.Sitesoilchemicalcharacteristicsfor (CEC) (meq) Cation exchangecapacity Organic carbon(OC)(%) Phosphorus (Colwell)(mg/kg) Sulfur (mg/kg) Zinc (mg/kg) Aluminium Exc.(meq/100g) Varieties (10) pH (1:5CaCl Characteristic Long term Long av. 2015

13 May 23 Apr Grain yield (t/ha) 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 Rainfall (mm) 2 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 ) Nasma 0 PBA .620 .516 .118 .720 .115 .91.74 2.38 1.09 1.65 1.58 1.87 1.71 2.19 2.00 2.26 1.67 2.29 1.84 2.30 1.61 2.38 1.69 2.51 1.85 2.59 2.07 2.82 1.86 3.39 Nura PBA Rana PBA Zahra PBA Samira PBA Nasma Average 1980−2014=472mm GSR 2015=299mm 2015 Total 501 mm = 263. 63. 154. 424. 284. 4335.5 34.3 44.8 42.8 45.3 44.2 45.9 41.5 36.1 36 33.2 32.6 a e a p a u u u e c o Dec Nov Oct Sep Aug Jul Jun May Apr Mar Feb Jan 13. 51. 13 552. 27. 32 77.5 12 23.5 65.5 36 61 15.5 85 0 31.5 61 A Fiesta VF A A

A A

Samira PBA Farah Determinant type AF10089 AF08207 Fiesta VF Depth (0–10cm) F08 PBA AF10089 A

12.2 2.4 2.8 0.2 5.6 45 16 Samira 20 Variety Zahra PBA (13 2.38 t/ha,whichis27%higherthanTOS2 TOS 1(23April)yieldedanaverageof determine ifthiswasonlyaseasonalinfluence. marketing implications.Furtherworkisrequiredto PBA ZahraorSamira,whichcouldhave its seedsizeinsouthernNSWissmallerthan variety susceptibletoAscochytablightand Lockhart in2015.PBANasmaisanorthernNSW PBA Nasmawasthehighestyieldingvarietyat Grain yield slightly lowerwith26.2plants/m average of28.9plants/m target of30 Faba beanestablishmentwasclosetothe Establishment Results Month sowing (TOS) Time of

F80 aa uaDeterm. Nura Farah AF08207 May), whichyielded1.74t/ha(Figure2). 23 Apr

SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | plants/m 13 May TOS 2:13May TOS 1:23April 2 . TOS 2 whileTOS

1 achievedan l.s.d. (P <0.05) =0.48t/ha (P l.s.d. type

2 .

2 was Rana PBA MEAN 69

agronomy – pulses The last significant rainfall event was on 4 September Height to bottom pod and the experiment suffered severe heat and Height from the soil surface to the bottom pod moisture stress in the first week of October. This was significantly affected by time of sowing caused both TOS 1 and TOS 2 to abort flowers and (P <0.001) and variety (P <0.001). There was mature prematurely. Due to the more advanced a significant interaction between variety and stage of development, TOS 1 was less severely TOS (P <0.038) in this experiment (Figure 3). affected. However, these results are consistent TOS 1 had a mean bottom pod height of 42.3 cm, with maximum faba bean yields from sowing 29% higher than TOS 2 (30 cm) (Figure 3). in mid-April–early-May in this region. Growers Pod height influences header knife height at still need to consider the consequences of: harvest and harvest efficiency, therefore pod »» sowing too early (before 20 April) – excessive height from TOS 1 is preferable to TOS 2. height, lodging and disease risk; »» Sowing too late (after the middle of May) – short Summary plants and restricted dry matter and grain yield. Times of sowing, followed by variety, were the Growers also need to be aware that in cool, main influences on faba bean grain yield in 2015. moist, extended springs, even late April sowings This correlates to previous years’ research, with the can be subject to greater disease pressure and exception of 2014 where TOS showed no statistical require careful monitoring and preventative foliar differences. In 2014, there were severe vegetative/ fungicide sprays. Whilst there was a wet winter and early flowering frost events that affected crops, which early spring at this site, a preventative fungicide had greater effects on early-sown treatments. program combined with dry spring conditions Growers need to carefully manage reduced disease levels to an insignificant level. disease by using preventative foliar sprays especially in wet or high rainfall zones.

60 23 Apr 13 May l.s.d. (P <0.05) = 8.45 cm 50

Height Height (cm) 20

0 PBA Farah PBA PBA AF10089 Fiesta VF AF08207 Determ. PBA Nura PBA MEAN Samira Rana Zahra type Samira 20 Nasma 23 Apr 55 49 45 44 42 40 39 39 38 38 36 42.3 13 May 35 31 32 29 33 28 27 29 31 31 24 30.0 Variety Figure 3. Height to bottom pod of 10 faba bean varieties sown at two dates at Lockhart in 2015. Acknowledgements This experiment was part of the project ‘Expanding the use of pulses in the southern region’, DAV00113 2013–16, a collaborative pulse project between state agencies in Victoria, NSW and South Australia, jointly funded by NSW DPI and GRDC.

70 | NSW Department of Primary Industries Site details recommendations forlentilinthisregion. used toconfirmandupdatecurrentagronomic in thisenvironment.Thisinformationwillbe sowing timeremainsconstantacrossvarieties also willdetermineifoptimumplantdensityand and advancedbreedinglinesatWaggaWagga.It seeding rateforcurrentcommerciallentilvarieties guidelines forlentiltimeofsowing(TOS)and This experimentaimedtoestablishagronomic Introduction » » » Key findings Wagga Richards, Mark – Waggarate2015 Wagga Lentil timeofsowing andsowing Soil type Site population Plant Fertiliser management Stubble Inoculation Sowing Trial design » » » with theothervarietiesinthisexperiment. across arangeofagronomiccharacteristicscompared Sow lentilsinearlytolateMayat120plants/m Sowing timewasacriticalmanagementfactorinthe2015season. PBA Ace cropping regionofsouthernNSWtoavoidyieldpenalties.

Wagga A andPBAJumbo2 Red sandyloam,pH Wagga AgriculturalInstitute Target 120plants/m 30–40 mmbelowtheseed (N:P:K:S; 0:13.8:0:6.1)placed 80 kg/hagrainlegumesuper paddock workedup Stubble wasburntandthe tubes intoeachsowingfurrow tank thenpumpedthroughmicro- directly intoanon-board100Lwater Group Fpeatinoculantwasmixed The sitewasrolledpost-sowing. press wheelsandGPSauto-steer. seeder with300mmrowspacings, Direct-drilled usingasix-rowcone sub-plots; threereplications. main blocksandvarietiesasthe design withsowingdateasthe Randomised completeblock (0–10 cm)5.4(Table1) Dr Eric ArmstrongDr Eric , A performedverywell Ca 2

Karl Moore, Karl 2 intheeastern this experimentatWaggain2015. Table 1.Sitesoilchemicalcharacteristicsfor (CEC) ( Cation exchangecapacity Organic carbon(OC)(%) (mg/kg) Phosphorus (Colwell) Sulfur (mg/kg) Total nitrogen(%) Aluminium Exc.(meq/100g) management Weed pH (1:5CaCl Characteristic management Insect Russell Pumpa andJonEvans cmol(+)kg 2 SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | ) Stomp® (440g/Lpendimethalin) glyphosate (450g/L)2.0L/ha, Incorporated bysowing: 2,4-D LVester(680g/L)1.0L/ha glyphosate (450g/L)2.0L/haand Fallow weedcontrol: and weedseedset eliminate weedcompetition with aimofweed-freetrialsto Commercial practiceswereused at latepodfill cypermethrin) 400mL/ha Fastac Duo®(100g/Lalpha- Targeting spraying oil500mL/100L haloxyfop) 100mL/haandUptake® 330 mL/ha,Verdict®(520g/L Select® (240g/Lclethodim) Post sowing: terbuthylazine) 1kg/ha tri-allate) andTerbyne®(750g/kg 2.0 L/ha,Avadex®L/ha(400 ) Helicoverpa sp.:

0–10 cm 0.026 <0.1 0.51 5.1 5.8 7.4 21

Depth NSW

10–30 cm

0.041 <0.1 0.37 DPI, 6.4 5.0 5.5 47

g/L 71

agronomy – pulses The 2015 growing season at Wagga Wagga southern NSW, the sowing date for lentil is one was almost ideal for pulse production except of the most critical management factors and for a dry and hot September–October period. determinants of growth, production and profit. Growing season rainfall (April–October) was 140 close to the long-term average (333 mm) with l.s.d. (P <0.05) = 26 plants/m2 56 mm of this falling in early April, which enabled 120 timely sowing. Rainfall in June, July and August ) 2 was 50% above the long-term average and 100 contributed to valuable sub-soil moisture. However, the flowering and grain filling period of 80 September–October had eight continuous weeks of no effective rainfall and wide temperature 60 fluctuations (5 September to 31 October). CIPAL_1422 Three consecutive days in late September 40 Nipper PBA_Ace

(23–25 September) received below zero temperatures densityMeasured(plants/m PBA_Bolt and damaging frosts only to be followed by an 20 PBA_Hurricane_XT exceptionally hot, dry October. Average daily PBA_Jumbo2 maximum temperatures for the month exceeded 0 0 40 80 120 160 200 the long-term average by 8.3 °C and the first week Target plant density (plants/m2) experienced unseasonal temperatures in the mid-30s. Figure 1. Measured plant densities closely followed targeted Treatments plant densities at Wagga Wagga in 2015. Varieties Six, small to medium seeded red This experiment suffered significant shattering from lentils a hail storm on 1 November, just before harvest. PBA AceA Yield loss measurements were taken and a significant BPA BoltA variety and sowing time interaction was observed PBA Jumbo2A (P <0.05). TOS 1 lost 38% more grain (247 kg/ha) than Hurricane XTA TOS 2 (150 kg/ha). This was due to Nipper, PBA Bolt CIPAL1422 and CIPAL 1422 not being fully mature at TOS 2 and NipperA hence being more resistant to hail shattering losses. Time of sowing TOS 1: 1 May 2015 (harvested 9 November 2015) Table 2. Grain yield of lentils for two sowing TOS 2: 10 June 2015 times at Wagga Wagga in 2015. (harvested 9 November 2015) Sowing time Grain yield (t/ha) TOS 1: 1 May 1.09 Results TOS 2: 10 June 0.43 l.s.d. (P <0.05) = 0.43 t/ha) Establishment A significant variety by density interaction (P <0.05) Above-ground dry matter ranged from was observed for this experiment, however, all 2.55 t/ha for Nipper, significantly less varieties followed the trend of achieving below than all other varieties, to 4.41 t/ha. target plant populations. The difference between Plant height and position of the lowest pod are the target and actual plant populations increased critical attributes of lentil, particularly since lentil is a as the target population increased, which often very short-growing winter pulse making it difficult to occurs in plant density experiments (Figure 1). harvest. TOS 1 had a mean height to bottom pod of Time of sowing, density, variety and grain 31.45 cm that was 38% higher than TOS 2 at 19.5 cm. yield PBA Ace and PBA Jumbo2 were the tallest and most vigorous varieties giving significant benefits to harvest Lentil grain yield significantly reduced (by an height and weed competition. They also had the average of 60%) when the sowing time was additional benefit of positioning bottom pods highest delayed from 1 May to 10 June (Table 2). The off the ground, again assisting harvest (Figure 2). second sowing time (10 June) performed poorly In comparison, Nipper and PBA Hurricane XT due to the quick, dry finish. Like other pulses in were disadvantaged by being relatively short.

72 | NSW Department of Primary Industries Figure 4.Grainyield ofsixlentilvarietiesattwosowing timesatWaggain 2015. over sowingtimes,atWaggain2015. Figure 3.Grainyieldresponsetoplantdensity,averaged Figure 2.HeighttobottompodforsixvarietiesandtwosowingtimesatWaggain2015. Yield (t/ha) 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 04 08 0 2 140 120 100 80 60 40 20

l.s.d. l.s.d. (P <0.05) t/ha 0.10 = Height (cm) 10 Jun 10 May 01 Yield (t/ha) Jun 10 May 01 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 0 5 0.55 B_ub2PAAeCPL12 PBA_Bolt CIPAL_1422 PBA_Ace PBA_Jumbo2 B_ub2PAAeCPL12 B_otPAHriaeX Nipper PBA_Hurricane_XT PBA_Bolt CIPAL_1422 PBA_Ace PBA_Jumbo2 Plant density (plants/m Plant density 0.48 1.27 20 40 0.71 0.74 0.54 1.24 26 36 2 ) 0.83 R² 0.98 = 0.95 0.53 1.21 18 33 Variety Variety was observedwith135plants/m A significantyieldincreasewithincreasingdensity Australia, jointlyfundedbyNSWDPIandGRDC. state agenciesinVictoria,NSWandSouth 2013–16, acollaborativepulseprojectbetween the useofpulsesinsouthernregion’,DAV00113 This experimentwaspartoftheproject‘Expanding Acknowledgements higher than77–112plants/m than PBAHurricaneandNipperatTOS12. PBA Ace,BoltandCIPAL1422yieldinggreater time wasobserved(P<0.009)withPBAJumbo2, A significantinteractionbetweenvarietyandsowing 0.47 1.20 20 32 SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | PBA_Hurricane_ 0.33 0.93 XT 20 25 l.s.d. (P (P l.s.d.<0.05) = 0.24t/ha l.s.d. (P <0.05) =(P 5.23cm <0.05)l.s.d. 2 (Figure3). 2 yielding20% Nipper 0.22 0.66 14 24 73

agronomy – pulses Lentil time of sowing and sowing rate – Yenda 2015

Mark Richards, Dr Eric Armstrong, Karl Moore, Russell Pumpa and Jon Evans NSW DPI, Wagga Wagga

Key findings »» Sowing time is a critical management factor in this environment. »» Sow lentils in late April to 10 May in the south- western cropping region of southern NSW. »» Target plant populations of 120 plants/m2. »» Commercial lentil yields of 1.2–1.5 t/ha on acidic, red- brown earths of south-western NSW are now realistic, giving growers the confidence and economic viability to introduce this pulse into their cropping rotations.

Introduction Weed Commercial practices used with aim management of weed-free trials to eliminate weed This experiment aimed to establish agronomic competition and weed seed set guidelines for sowing time and sowing rate for current commercial lentil varieties and advanced breeding Fallow weed control: lines at Yenda. It also determined if optimum plant glyphosate (450 g/L) density and sowing time remains constant across 1.5 L/ha (over summer) varieties in this environment. This information will Incorporated by sowing: be used to confirm and update current agronomic glyphosate (450 g/L) 2.0 L/ha, recommendations for lentil in this region. Stomp® (440 g/L pendimethalin) Site details 2.0 L/ha, Avadex® (400 g/L tri- allate) 1.6 L/ha and Terbyne® (750

Soil type Red sandy loam, pHCa 5.4 g/kg terbuthylazine) 900 g/ha (0–10 cm) (Table 1) Post sowing: Trial design Randomised complete block Select® (240 g/L clethodim) design with sowing date as the 500 mL/ha, Uptake® spraying main blocks and varieties as the oil 500 mL/100 L sub-plots; three replications Insect Targeting Helicoverpa sp.: Sowing Direct-drilled using a six-row cone management Fastac Duo ® (100 g/L seeder with 300 mm row spacings, alpha-cypermethrin) press wheels and GPS auto-steer. 200 mL/ha (late pod fill) The site was rolled post sowing. Inoculation Group F peat inoculant was mixed directly into an on-board 100 L water Table 1. Site soil chemical characteristics for tank then pumped through micro- 0–10 cm and 10–20 cm depth at Yenda in 2015. tubes into each sowing furrow Characteristic Depth Stubble Sown into a medium density, 0–10 cm 10–20 cm

management standing wheat stubble pH (1:5 CaCl2) 5.5 5.0 Fertiliser 80 kg/ha grain legume super Aluminium Exc. (meq/100 g) <0.1 <0.1 (N:P:K:S; 0:13.8:0:6.1) placed Total nitrogen (%) 0.082 0.047 30–40 mm below the seed Sulfur (mg/kg) 8.6 6.4 Plant Target 120 plants/m2 Phosphorus (Colwell) 47 9.4 population (mg/kg) Cation exchange capacity 6.8 6.6 (CEC) (cmol(+)kg)

74 | NSW Department of Primary Industries Table 2.MeanplantdensityforsixvarietiesatYendain2015. having thelowestplantdensity(Table2). plant densitywiththelarge-seededPBA (P <0.02)betweensomevarietiesformeasured measured. Therewasasmallbutsignificantdifference by sowingrateinteractionforanyofthevariables presented hereastherewasnosignificantvariety (Table 2).Onlyvarietyandsowingratemeansare target plantdensities(P<0.001)atbothsowingtimes Measured plantdensitiescorrelatedcloselywith Establishment Results Treatments followed byanexceptionallyhotanddryOctober. flowers andmatureprematurely.Thisheatwavewas the firstweekofOctobercausedcropstoabort of consecutivehotdaysinthehigh30degrees rapid changefromcooltemperaturestoanumber fluctuations (5Septemberto31October).The weeks ofnoeffectiverainfallandwidetemperature September–October experiencedeightcontinuous However, thefloweringandgrainfillingperiodof and contributedtovaluablesub-soilmoisture. and Augustwas63%abovethelong-termaverage April, allowingtimelysowing.RainfallinJune,July term average(231mm).Ofthis,47mmfellinearly October) was264mm,whichisabovethelong- September–October. Growingseasonrainfall(April– ideal forpulseproductionexceptadryandhot The 2015growingseasonatYendawasalmost Variety Time ofsowing Varieties PBA_Jumbo2 PBA_Hurricane_XT PBA_Bolt PBA_Ace Nipper CIPAL_1422 harvested 18 Hurricane XT Nipper CIPAL1422 PBA Jumbo2 BPA Bolt TOS 2:28May2015(both TOS 1:29April2015 PBA Ace lentils Six, smalltomediumseededred

A A A

Plant density(plants/m

A A

November 2015)

101.2 114.6 119.0 111.2 107.1 116.2

Jumbo2 2 ) were thehighestyieldingvarieties(Figure1). low, butPBABolt,AceandJumbo2 yields fromthe28Maysowingweregenerally PBA AceandJumbo2(Figure1).Grain commercial varietiesPBABolt,Hurricane, was significantlyloweryieldingthanthecurrent At thefirstTOS(29April)oldvarietyNipper of sowingatYendain2015. Table 3.Lentilgrainyieldfortwotimes determinants ofgrowth,productionandprofit. one ofthemostcriticalmanagementfactorsand pulses insouthernNSW,thelentilsowingdateis dry finishtothe2015growingseason.Likeother sowing (28May)performedpoorlygiventhequick falling by50%onaverage(Table3).Thesecond sowing wasdelayedfrom29Aprilto28May, Lentil grainyieldwassignificantlyreducedwhen yield Time ofsowing, density, andgrain variety l.s.d. (P<0.05)=0.199t/ha) TOS 2:28May TOS 1:29April Sowing time SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | Grain yield(t/ha) 0.76 1.51 75

agronomy – pulses 1.8 l.s.d. (P <0.05) = 0.18 t/ha 1.6

1.4

1.2

1.0

0.8 Yield Yield (t/ha) 0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0 PBA_Hurricane_ PBA_Bolt CIPAL_1422 PBA_Jumbo2 PBA_Ace Nipper XT 29 Apr 1.62 1.61 1.58 1.53 1.47 1.26 28 May 0.79 0.61 0.77 0.93 0.95 0.49 Variety

Figure 1. Grain yield of six lentil varieties at two sowing dates at Yenda in 2015. A significant TOS and plant density interaction was Acknowledgements observed in this experiment (P <0.001). There was This experiment was part of the project ‘Expanding no significant grain yield response to increasing the use of pulses in the southern region’, DAV00113 2 2 plant density from 48 plants/m to 170 plants/m , 2013–16, a collaborative pulse project between but there was a trend for increasing grain yield with state agencies in Victoria, NSW and South increasing plant density at the 28 May sowing only Australia, jointly funded by NSW DPI and GRDC. (Figure 2). This would indicate that late sowing and a dry spring prevents lentils from producing sufficient Thank you to Nick and Kim Eckerman, ‘Hillview’, biomass, even with very high plant populations, to Yenda for hosting the pulse research trial site. maximise or maintain yield in this environment.

1.8

1.6 1.60 1.54 1.50 1.45 1.4 1.47 TOS 1: 29 Apr 1.2 TOS 2: 28 May 1.0 0.87 0.87 0.8

Yield Yield (t/ha) 0.78 0.74 0.6 0.51 0.4

0.2 l.s.d. (P <0.05) = 0.17 t/ha 0.0 30 80 130 180 Plant density (plants/m2) Figure 2. Lentil grain yield for various plant densities and two sowing times (29 April and 28 May) at Yenda in 2015.

76 | NSW Department of Primary Industries Site details then beusedtoupdatelocalagronomicguidelines. constant acrossvarieties.Thisinformationwould systems, andiftheoptimumplantdensityremains plant densityforlentilinsouthernNSWcropping This experimentaimedtodeterminetheoptimal Introduction » » » » » Key findings ArmstrongDr Eric , Lentil sowing rate – Yenda 2014 Sowing Fertiliser management Stubble history Paddock Soil type Design Sowing date Site » » » » » yield analysisforlentilvarietiesthisregion(Figure5). rankings reflectthelong-term,multi-environmenttrial(MET) green foliagecover,closelyfollowedbyPBAAce earlier sowing,seasonconditionsanddifferentenvironments. region tobetterunderstandvarietyresponsesplantdensity, Further lentilsowingrateinvestigationsarerequiredinthis sow deepertopositionseedbelowtheherbicideband. straw ispresent.Undertheseconditions,itadvisableto herbicides onacidic,lighttexturedsoils,particularlywhen Care shouldbetakenwhenapplyingandincorporating PBA Giant increases closelyreflectedinseedlingdensity. Small yieldand'normaliseddifferencevegetationindex'(NDVI) sowing conditionsandsuspectedherbicidedamage. to drought,andwasexacerbatedbylatesowing,unfavourable The lowmeanyieldatthissite(0.69t/ha)waslargelyattributed A andPBAJumbo2 press wheelsandGPSauto-steer seeder with300mmrowspacing, Direct-drilled usingasix-rowcone 30–40 mmbelowtheseed (N:P:K:S 0:13.8:0:6.1)placed 80 kg/haGrainlegumesuper standing wheatstubble Sown intoamediumdensity, 2012 Wheat;2011Lupin 2014 wheat;2013Canola; (0–10 cm)4.6(Table1). Acidic, redsandyloam,pH design withthreereplications Randomised completeblock 23 May2014 (paddock ‘WattlePark’). ‘Hillview’Yenda,RK&JGEckerman NSW DPI, WaggaGerard Wagga O’ConnorNSW andLuke Gaynor A producedmoregrainand Ca

A . These Soil atthissitewasacidicwithpH Treatments by increasingsowingdepthfrom20to50mm. hindsight, these problems would have been alleviated damage (Terbyne®,750g/kgterbuthylazine).In variable soil/seedcoverageandsomeminorherbicide incorporation ofherbicidesatsowing,resultingin Cereal stubblecausedseveralblockagesandpatchy this experiment)leadingtoredloamsinthehollows. textured, redsandyloamsalongridges(locationof Topography wasslightlyundulating;withlight Varieties management Insect management Disease management Weed densities Target SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | PBA Ace adjusted forseed sizeandgermination PBA Jumbo2 PBA Giant 75, 100,125,150and175plants/m PBA HurricaneXT cooperator duringlategrainfill alpha-cypermethrin) appliedbythe 400 mL/haFastac®Duo(100g/L Targeting required thisseason No diseasemanagement competition andweedseedset the season,preventingweed weed-free conditionsthroughout used toestablishandmaintain Commercial managementpractices A –mediumredlentil A –largegreenlentil Helicoverpa sp.: A –largeredlentil A –smallredlentil Ca 4.6(Table1).

agronomy – pulses Table 1. Site soil-chemical characteristics for publication, Winter crop variety sowing guide 0–10 cm and 10–20 cm depth at Yenda, 2014. and no local management guidelines. Historically, Characteristic Depth very little local agronomic research has been 0–10 cm 10–20 cm conducted into the crop in southern NSW.

pHca 4.6 6.1 However, lentil varieties have vastly improved over Aluminium Sat (%) 6.4 0 the past decade due to breeding efforts by Pulse Nitrate nitrogen (mg/kg) 9.8 7 Breeding Australia (PBA). The latest released varieties Ammonium N (mg/kg) 0.8 0 have improved vigour, height, disease resistance, Phosphorus (Colwell) 34 17 pod shatter resistance and yield. To complement (mg/kg) these new varieties, agronomic management Cation exchange capacity 2.8 3.6 has also improved, backed by recent NSW DPI (CEC) (cmol(+)kg) research. We are increasing our knowledge on the crop’s adaptation to the range of acidic soils Season and environments across southern NSW: which The 2014 season at Yenda was warmer, drier and varieties perform best, what is the optimum shorter than normal. Rainfall during the critical time to sow, what plant density to target, and four months of July to October was only one third what seeding depth to sow. This new generation of the long-term average (Figure 1); and when of varieties, combined with new management combined with warmer temperatures, the season packages and ongoing technical support, will was unfavourable and finished 2–3 weeks earlier ensure a viable lentil industry in this region. than expected. Above average rainfall preceded The recommended plant density for sowing lentil the trial (particularly in March), providing much in other southern Australian production regions is needed soil moisture, which helped crops to finish. 110–130 plants/m2 (Pulse Australia, 2015). Sowing Conditions were not conducive to disease, so rates need to be adjusted according to seed size disease levels were low and no fungicides required. and germination. This equates to 45–55 kg/ha Background for small-seeded varieties (e.g. Nipper and PBA Lentil is primarily a human consumption pulse and Hurricane XT), 55–70 kg/ha for medium-sized varieties for this reason attracts a price premium over other (e.g. PBA Ace) and 75–90 kg/ha for large-seeded pulses. Current grower perception is that the crop varieties (e.g. PBA Jumbo2 and PBA Giant). Lentil is not adapted to the acidic soils of southern NSW; has excellent seedling vigour, making it one of the it is too short in height and too susceptible to weed quickest pulses to emerge and establish. Therefore, competition and weed seedbank blowouts. For lentil seeds can be sown deeper (4–6 cm) into safer these reasons, very few lentils have been grown zones below herbicide residues if present. Herbicide in southern NSW – fewer than 1000 hectares each residues, poor soil moisture and unfavourable sowing year. There is no section on lentil in the annual conditions hinder achieving these target densities.

Figure 1. Total monthly rainfall at ‘Hillview’ Yenda in 2014 compared with long-term monthly averages (1980–2014).

78 | NSW Department of Primary Industries that stage.PBAHurricaneXT not onlyhadthe reflecting amorevigorousgrowth patternat had thehighestNDVIat20August (P<0.05), PBA HurricaneXT. and PBAGiantweresimilar higherthan and 4B.GrainyieldofPBAAce,Jumbo2 Variety comparisonsareshowninfigures4A real, weredifficulttodiscernvisiblyinthefield. measured differencesinyieldandNDVI,although closely resemblingtheyieldresponses.These significantly asplantdensityincreased(Figure increased from75to175plants/m 10%–11% (P<0.05)asmeasuredplantdensity Yield increasedmodestlybutsignificantlyby rate interactionsforanyofthevariablesmeasured. since therewerenosignificantvariety×sowing variety orsowingratemeansarepresentedhere target plantdensities(P<0.001)(Figure2).Only Measured plantdensitiescorrelatedcloselywith local productionissueswereidentified. out astheseasonprogressed,andrelevant Nevertheless, growthanddevelopmentevened » » » » factors contributedtotheselowyields: (National VarietyTrialsonlinedatabase).Several term (2010–14)meanfortheregionof1.31t/ha was 0.69t/ha,whichwellbelowthelong- Mean lentilyieldattheYendasitethisseason Results column showsseedsize(g/100seeds)fromthe2014Yendatrialharvest. Table 2.SeedcharacteristicsoflentilvarietiesevaluatedatYendain2014.Thelast GreenSeeker® (NDVI)readingsalsoincreased from theseyieldincreaseswouldbemarginal. Given suchalowyieldbase,economicbenefits PBA Giant PBA Jumbo2 Variety PBA Ace PBA HurricaneXT » » » » uneven spreadofwheatstubble. shallow, unevenincorporationduetothe Terbyne® herbicidedamageresultingfrom actual 20–40mmonthislight-texturedsoil). 40–60 mmsowingdepthratherthanthe Sowing wastooshallow(shouldhavebeen considered notidealforlentilproduction. with moderatelevelsoffreealuminiumand The soilatthissitewaslighttextured,acidic exacerbated bylaterthanidealsowing(23May). The seasonwasunfavourableand green red colour Cotyledon red red

Giant andPBAJumbo2 2 (Figure3B). large large medium Category small

3A), (g/100 seeds) reflected expectedvarietydifferences(Table2). size wasunaffectedbysowingratesandclosely lowest grainyieldbutalsotheNDVI.Seed 20 Figure 3.Plantdensityeffectson NDVI(A)readingson plant densitiesatYenda,2014. Figure 2.Measuredplantdensitiescloselyfollowedtargeted Range 4.5–6 4.5–6

4–5 3–4 August andgrainyield(B)oflentil atYenda,2014. Seed size

SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | 2014 (g/100seeds) Harvested Yenda 6.53 4.95 3.97 3.39 79

agronomy – pulses References National Variety Trials, www.nvtonline.com.au. Pulse Australia Ltd 2015 (Pulseaus.com.au) ‘Southern lentil – best management practice training course 2015’. First printed March 2014, unpublished. Acknowledgments This experiment was part of the project ‘Expanding the use of pulses in the southern region’, DAV00113 2013–16, a collaborative pulse project between state agencies in Victoria, NSW and South Australia, jointly funded by NSW DPI and GRDC. Thanks to Kim and Nick Eckerman for providing the site and trial management.

Figure 4. NDVI at 20 August (A) and grain yield (B) of four lentil varieties at Yenda, 2014.

Figure 5. Long-term MET analysis of lentil variety and breeding-line yields at Yenda.

80 | NSW Department of Primary Industries Site details Raptor®) herbicidesappliedinpreviousyears. Glean® andLogran®)imidazolinone(e.g. carryover residuesofsomesulfonylurea(e.g. Broadstrike®). Theyarealsolesssensitivetothe Spinnaker® andBelta®)flumetsulam(e.g. to theGroupBherbicidesimazethapyr(e.g. weed controloptionsduetotheirtolerance Both varietieshavethepotentialtowiden adaptation andproductioninsouthernNSW. other commercialvarietiesandbreedinglinesfor PBA HeraldXTandHurricanealongside imidazolinone (IMI)herbicide-tolerantlentilvarieties This experimentevaluatedthetwonew Introduction » » » » » » Key findings ArmstrongDr Eric , lentils– Wagga2014 WaggaImidazolinone-tolerant Soil type Sowing date Site Design » » » » » » reduced by70%–80%fromapplyingimazethapyr. imidazilinone orIMI-sensitivevarietiesevaluated)was IMI-tolerant varieties.PBAHurricaneXT bulk andheight,awiderrangeofmaturity. additional featuressuchasherbicidetolerance,extra better classofacidic,red-brownsoilssouthernNSW. considerable potentialforexpandinglentilsacrossthe These newvarieties,coupledwithtechnologies,demonstrate with alimitednumberofregisteredherbicides. options inlentil,whichisapoorlycompetitivecrop IMI herbicidetolerancewillexpandweed-control Advanced breedinglinesareequalto,orbetterthan, yield. ItisveryIMI-tolerant,andtallbulkywithlatematurity. Program forAustralianLentils(CIPAL)breedinglinewithhighgrain CIPAL1422 isapromisingadvancedCoordinatedImprovement PBA HurricaneXT Yield ofPBAAce more drymatterandgrainyieldthanPBAHeraldXT PBA

Ace A andPBAJumbo2 Red-brown earth,pH 8 May2014 Agricultural Institute Paddock 20A,Wagga sub-plots; threereplications main blocksandvarietiesasthe design withherbicideasthe Randomised completeblock (Table 1).Thesitewaslimed in 2010 A A andPBAJumbo2 andPBAHeraldXT Gerard O’Connor andLuke Gaynor A insouthernNSW.Theybring Ca 5.2(0–10cm) A (theonlytwo A A aretheonlycurrentcommercial isbetteradapted,producing A insouthernNSW. Inoculation Sowing population Plant Fertiliser history Paddock NSW DPI, Wagga NSW SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | sowing furrowthroughmicro-tubes water tankthenpumpedintoeach directly intoanon-board200L Group Fpeatinoculantwasmixed press wheelsandGPSauto-steer seeder with300mmrowspacing, Direct-drilled usingasix-rowcone Target 120plants/m 2 cmbelowtheseedatsowing fertiliser (NPKS0:13.8:0:6.1)placed 80 kg/haSuPerfect®grainlegume was absentforthe2014season in thespring.Therefore,stubble chemical fallowingofthepaddock but poorestablishmentledto Sown topastureinautumn2013

Wagga 2 81

agronomy – pulses Weed Commercial weed management Table 1. Site soil chemical characteristics for 0–10 cm and 10–20 cm depth at Wagga Wagga, 2014. management practices used to maintain weed- free conditions throughout Characteristic Depth the trial, eliminating weed 0–10 cm 10–20 cm

competition and weed seed set. pHCa 5.2 5.0 Aluminium Sat (%) 1.7 2.5 Fallow weed control: 2 L/ha Nitrate nitrogen (mg/kg) 8.5 15 glyphosate (450 g/L) and 1 L/ Ammonium N (mg/kg) 0.8 1.1 ha 2,4-D LV ester (680 g/L) Phosphorus (Colwell) 34 13 Incorporated by sowing: 2 L/ (mg/kg) ha glyphosate (450 g/L), 2 L/ha Cation exchange capacity 7.0 6.5 Stomp® (440 g/L pendimethalin), (CEC) (cmol(+)kg) 2 L/ha Avadex® (400 g/L tri- allate) and 1 kg/ha Terbyne® Season (750 g/kg terbuthylazine) The 2014 season at Wagga Wagga was warmer, drier Post emergent: 330 mL/ha Select® and shorter than normal (Figure 1, Faba bean time (240 g/L clethodim), 100 mL/ha of sowing Wagga Wagga 2015). Early season rainfall Verdict® (520 g/L haloxyfop) and (March–June) was 40% above the long-term average 500 mL/100 L Uptake® spraying oil and, in combination with the mild temperatures Insect Targeting Helicoverpa sp.: during this period, conditions were ideal for plant management 400 mL/ha Fastac® Duo establishment and early growth. This rain also (100 g/L alpha-cypermethrin) – replenished sub-soil moisture, benefiting grain fill at 20 September and 24 October the end of the season when July to October rainfall was only half (93 mm) the long-term average. Crops Treatments finished 2–3 weeks earlier under these low rainfall and warm temperatures (1–2 °C above average). Varieties (54) 4 varieties: PBA AceA PBA Jumbo2A There were 43 frost events in 2014 when PBA Herald XTA temperatures fell below 2 °C. More severe frost PBA Hurricane XTA occurred in July and August (18 events when 3 CIPAL lines: CIPAL1421 temperatures dropped below 0 °C) causing isolated CIPAL1422 stem-splitting and some flower and pod loss. A CIPAL1423 further three significant frosts occurred in September 47 PBA breeding lines (temperatures fell below −1 °C on 4, 19 and Herbicides (2) ‘Plus’ and ‘Minus’ Belta® 700 WG 20 September). Further flower and pod loss occurred (700 g/kg imazethapyr) applied as a result of these events; however, moisture at 400 g/ha on 22 June when and high temperature stresses ultimately became seedlings were 3–5 cm high the overriding limitations to grain fill and yield. (NB: this is four times the These conditions were not conducive highest recommended rate) to disease and incidence was low. Results Soil A total of 54 lentil varieties and breeding lines Pulse growth and rhizobia survival can be affected were evaluated for adaptation to southern NSW when soil pH falls below five. This can lead to and tolerance to the IMI type herbicides. The trial problems on the acidic, red-brown soils that was sown on 8 May and sprayed with 400 g/ha dominate the cropping zones of southern NSW. Belta® 700 WG (700 g/kg imazethapyr) on 22 June Growers need to consider this and routinely monitor when seedlings were 3–5 cm with 3–4 true leaves. soil acidity to maintain a base pH of approximately This is four times the highest recommended rate for five by strategically incorporating lime. The 2014 this herbicide, considered sufficient to experimentally Wagga Wagga site was limed in 2010 and its top expose sensitivities in the 54 entries. Only the two soil (0–10 cm) pHCa is now 5.2. Soil nitrogen levels controls PBA Ace and PBA Jumbo2 incurred significant were low and phosphorus levels medium (Table 1). damage: grain yield reduced by 70–80% (figures 1 and 2); green foliage cover normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) reduced by 35–40%

82 | NSW Department of Primary Industries treatment with400g/haBelta®700 WG(700g/kgImazethapyr)on22June,Wagga2014. Figure 2.Lentilyieldlosses(four commercialvarieties,threeCIPALandbreedinglines)from apost-emergent Belta® Figure 1.Grainyieldoflentils(fourcommercialvarieties,threeCIPALandbreedinglines)treatedwith400g/ha (e.g. Glean®andLogran®)andimidazolinone reduced sensitivitytosomesulfonylureaherbicides registered herbicides.Thesebreedinglinesalsohave a poorlycompetitivecropwithlimitednumberof weed controloptions.Thisisparticularlyimportantin flumetsulam (e.g.Broadstrike®),providingincreased as imazethapyr(e.g.Spinnaker®andBelta®) incorporated tolerancetoGroupBherbicidessuch Breeding thisnewgenerationoflentilvarietieshas of tolerancetothissamehighrateimazethapyr. along withallbreedinglines,displayedahighlevel comparison, PBAHeraldXTandHurricaneXT, maturity significantlydelayed(fieldobservations).In (Figure

700 WG(Plus)oruntreated(Minus),WaggaWagga,2014.

3); heightscoresalmosthalved(Table2)and and Minustreatments(figures23). one ofthehighestyieldinglinesinPlus reading. Itisalsoalatematuringvariety,and and istallbulkywithaveryhighNDVI line withahighgrainyield.IthasIMI-tolerance, CIPAL1422 isapromisingadvanced-breeding grain insouthernNSW(figures1,2and3). foliage groundcover(NDVI)andyieldsmore it isbetteradapted,producesgreatergreen released ofthetwoandtheseresultsconfirm in Australia.PBAHurricaneXTisthemorerecently the onlycommercialIMI-tolerantvarietiesavailable PBA HurricaneXTandHeraldarecurrently yield lossfromresiduestheseherbicides. in reducingthelikelyriskoflentilcropdamageand herbicides (e.g.Raptor®).Thishasparticularrelevance SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | 83

agronomy – pulses Figure 3. NDVI readings on IMI-susceptible (PBA Ace and PBA Jumbo2 ) and IMI-tolerant lentil lines (remaining entries) after being treated with 400 g/ha Belta® 700 WG on 22 June at Wagga Wagga in 2014. This figure shows PBA Ace and PBA Jumbo2 to be very susceptible, however the remaining lines show high but varying levels of tolerance. A subset of three of the highest yielding breeding IMI tolerance, high NDVI, good standing ability lines (under IMI-free conditions – Minus) is presented and very early maturity (crop-topping potential) in figures 2, 3 and 4 here as well as the mean of all (Table 2). Its Height and Selection scores were, 47 breeding lines (MEAN Breeding Lines). Breeding 1 however, below those of PBA Ace and PBA Jumbo2. had the highest yield in the Plus treatments, excellent

Table 2. Maturity, Erect, Height and Selection scores* near maturity of the lentil IMI-tolerant variety trial, Wagga Wagga 2014. Variety Maturity Erect Height Selection ** Plus Minus Plus Minus Plus Minus Plus Minus PBA Ace 8.0 3.9 8.0 5.7 4.7 8.0 2.4 8.0 PBA Jumbo2 7.9 4.2 7.0 6.7 4.7 7.3 1.7 7.0 PBA Hurricane XT 4.3 4.7 7.6 7.6 7.7 7.7 7.6 8.0 PBA Herald XT 4.1 4.5 7.4 6.7 7.0 7.0 7.0 6.3 CIPAL1422 6.3 5.1 7.7 6.6 9.0 8.6 8.9 7.9 CIPAL1421 4.7 3.4 7.0 6.7 7.7 7.9 7.7 7.6 CIPAL1423 4.5 4.1 7.7 7.7 7.0 7.4 8.1 7.4 Breeding 1 *** 2.1 2.4 8.0 8.0 6.0 6.0 6.3 6.4 Breeding 2 *** 3.9 4.5 8.0 7.6 7.0 7.3 7.3 7.7 Breeding 3 *** 4.2 4.3 8.0 8.1 8.0 7.8 7.7 8.1 Mean breeding lines *** 4.5 4.4 7.5 7.4 6.9 7.0 6.7 6.8 l.s.d. (P <0.05) 1.29 0.91 1.12 1.29 * Scores range from 1 (least expression of the character) to 9 (maximum expression of the character). ** ‘Selection’ score is a subjective rating of agronomic type including height, erect growth, canopy density and ground cover, pod density and freedom from disease. ** Breeding lines 1, 2 and 3 are the highest yielding of the 47 breeding lines under evaluation, while ‘MEAN Breeding Lines’ is the mean of all breeding 47 lines.

Acknowledgements This experiment was part of the project ‘Expanding the use of pulses in the southern region’, DAV00113 2013–16, a collaborative pulse project between state agencies in Victoria, NSW and South Australia, jointly funded by NSW DPI and GRDC.

84 | NSW Department of Primary Industries Site details the south-easterncroppingzoneofsouthernNSW. on anacidic,red-brownearthatWaggain under varyingrain-fedandsoilmoistureconditions yield offieldpea,lupin,fababean,lentilandchickpea inoculant formulationsonnodulation,growthand This experimentcompareddifferentrhizobia Aim » » » » » Key findings ArmstrongDr Eric , red-brown soils– Wagga Wagga 2014 Nodulation studieswithpulsesonacidic population Plant Fertiliser management Stubble history Paddock Design Soil type Sowing date Site » » » » » soils, whilechickpearhizobiaappearlessadapted. in thisenvironmentandbetteradaptedtotheacidic Field peaandlentilrhizobiaappearmorewidespread reserves weresufficienttomakeupmostofthecrop’sneeds. measured incropgrowthandgrainyield,suggestingsoilnitrogen Differences measuredinnodulationwerenotreflecteddifferences across allpulsesbasedonnodulationandgrainyield. Peat andliquidformulationswereconsistentlyreliableinoculants growth andyieldofpulsesatthissite. Inoculation formulahadminimaleffectson Chickpea andlupinfailedtonodulatewithoutinoculation. germination totarget:40plants/m according toseedsizeand Seeding ratewasadjusted 30–40 mmbelowtheseed (N:P:K:S 0:13.8:0:6.1)placed 80 kg/hagrainlegumesuper preceding 2013season Stubble wasabsentfromthe the paddockinspring led tochemicalfallowingof 2013 butpoorestablishment Sown topastureinautumn as sub-plots;threereplications blocks andinoculationtreatments design withpulsesasthemain Randomised completeblock pH Acidic, red-brownearth, 7 June2014 Wagga AgriculturalInstitute and 130plants/m 28 plants/m for lupin,fieldpeaandchickpea; Ca 5.2(0–10cm) Gerard O’Connor andLuke Gaynor 2 forfababean; 2 forlentil. 2

management Insect management Disease management Weed Sowing NSW DPI, Wagga NSW SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | g/L alpha-cypermethrin) 400 ml/haFastac®Duo(100 Targeting required thisseason No diseasemanagement 500 mL/100LUptake®sprayingoil Verdict® (520g/Lhaloxyfop)and (240 g/Lclethodim),100mL/ha Post emergent:330mL/haSelect® (750 g/kgterbuthylazine) allate) and1kg/haTerbyne® 2 L/haAvadex®(400g/Ltri- Stomp® (440g/Lpendimethalin), ha glyphosate(450g/L),2L/ha Incorporated bysowing:2L/ 1 L/ha2,4-DLVester(680g/L) glyphosate (450g/L)and Fallow weedcontrol:2L/ha competition andweedseedset the trial,eliminatingweed free conditionsthroughout practices usedtomaintainweed- Commercial weedmanagement press wheelsandGPSauto-steer seeder with300mmrowspacing, Direct-drilled usingasix-rowcone Helicoverpa sp:

Wagga

nutrition & soil Treatments as a result of these events; however, moisture and high temperature stresses ultimately became Pulse, 1. Field pea – PBA Oura the overriding limitations to grain fill and yield. Variety 2. Faba bean – PBA Rana 3. Lentil – CIPAL0901 These conditions were not conducive 4. Lupin – Mandelup to disease and incidence was low. 5. Chickpea – PBA Slasher Methodology 6. Chickpea – PBA Slasher – seed dressed with P-PICKEL T® fungicide Inoculation one week before sowing (Chick+F) The un-inoculated control (NIL) was sown first to Inoculation 1. Peat slurry on seed avoid residual rhizobia contamination. The liquid 2. Peat liquid injected into row formulation followed, then the granules and finally 3. Granular (Becker Underwood)* the peat-coated seed. The cone and seed tubes were 4. NIL – un-inoculated control cleaned between treatments. The liquid preparation *Granular (Becker Underwood) inoculant for Lupin was was formulated by mixing the peat-based product unattainable and was substituted with Lupin+F (seed treated with water then injecting through micro-tubes with P-PICKEL T® fungicide then coated with peat slurry just before sowing) running directly into the furrow at sowing. The Moisture conditions were ideal for sowing granular formulation was mixed and sown with the after above average autumn rainfall seed. All treatments were at the recommended rate.

Soil Nodule scores Eight weeks after emergence (11 September), groups Pulse growth and rhizobia survival can be affected of plants with intact roots were randomly dug with a when soil pH falls below 5. This can lead to problems spade to a depth of 20 cm from four to five locations on the acidic red-brown soils that dominate across each plot. The plants were immediately soaked the cropping zones of southern NSW. Growers in water to remove soil for nodule assessment. Plants need to consider this and routinely monitor soil from each of the four treatments (nil, peat, liquid and acidity to maintain a base pH of approximately granular) were laid out on a table in the field to aid 5 by strategically incorporating lime. The 2014 visual comparison and scoring (Figure 1). Nodulation Wagga Wagga site was limed in 2010, and its top was assessed independently by two operators on soil (0–10 cm) pH is now 5.2. Soil nitrogen levels Ca 10 plants per plot using a 0–5 scale. Data for each were low and phosphorus levels medium. plant was recorded separately, but in this report was Season averaged across all 20 scores (Figure 2). A hand-held The 2014 season at Wagga Wagga was warmer, drier GreenSeeker was used on 1 September to record and shorter than normal (Figure 1, Faba bean time normalised difference vegetation index (NDVI) of of sowing Wagga Wagga 2015). Early season rainfall plots to identify ‘yellowing’ in non-nodulating plots. (March–June) was 40% above the long-term average and, in combination with the mild temperatures during this period, seasonal conditions were ideal for plant establishment and early growth. This rainfall also replenished sub-soil moisture, benefiting grain fill at the end of the season when July to October rainfall was only half (93 mm) of the long-term average. Crops finished 2–3 weeks earlier under these low rainfall and warm temperatures (1–2 °C above average). There were 43 frost events in 2014 when temperatures fell below 2 °C. More severe frost occurred in July and August (18 events when temperatures dropped below 0 °C) causing isolated stem-splitting and some flower/pod losses. A further three significant frosts occurred in September (temperatures fell below −1 °C on 4, 19 and Figure 1. Scoring for nodulation at Wagga Wagga in 2014. 20 September). Further flower and pod loss occurred All four samples of each treatment from each block (peat, liquid, granular and nil) were laid on a table in the field for scoring using a 0–5 scale.

86 | NSW Department of Primary Industries 20 unavailable atthetime,lupinplus P-PICKEL Chickpea includedanadditional treatmentoffungicideseeddressingP-PICKEL Figure 2.Nodulescoresoffivepulsespeciesinoculatedwithdifferent formulationsofinoculantatWaggain2014. the crownandupperportionoftaproot. abundant. Lupinnoduleswerelargeandencircled and fieldpeanoduleswerethesmallestmost scattered throughoutthewholerootsystem.Lentil present. Incontrast,fieldpeaandlentilnoduleswere region ofthestemandnolateralnoduleswere were almostexclusivelyrestrictedtothecrown When present,fababeanandchickpeanodules effect onnodulationinchickpeaandlupin. dressing ofP-PICKEL granular wasunattainableatthetime.Fungicideseed batch, sincethecurrentseason’ssupplyofGroupN the resultofusingpreviousseason’sinoculant with granularinoculationwasthoughttobemore faba bean.However,inchickpea,poornodulation inoculants wereeffectiveinfieldpea,lentiland both noduleappearanceandgrainyield.Granular reliable inoculantsacrossallpulsesbasedon Peat andliquidformulationswereconsistently site and/orpoorrhizobiacolonisationandsurvival. history ofcultivationtheselegumespeciesatthis strains wereabsent.Thisreflectseithernorecent failed tonodulate,indicatingtheirspecificrhizobia site. However,withoutinoculant,chickpeaandlupin effective backgroundrhizobiaattheWagga plots (2–3 treatments ofallfieldpea,lentilandfababean Successful nodulationoccurredintheNIL Nodulation patterns Results

August usinga0–5scale;0=no nodules;2=justadequate;5abundant.

score), indicatingthatthesespecieshad

T® hadnovisibledetrimental

T® seeddressing(Lupin+F)was substituted. Nodulescoresweretakenon differences innodulationthesetreatments. small andagaindidnotmirrorthemeasured however, differencesinyieldsweregenerally compared withinoculatedplots(Figure3), tended tobelower(byaround10%,P<0.05) Harvested grainyieldofun-inoculatedplots measured innodulationthesetreatments. pattern didnotmirrorthemagnitudeofdifferences and lupin)comparedwiththeNIL(P<0.05),butthis inoculated treatments(particularlyfieldpea,lentil matter (DM)productiontrendedhigherinpeat- treatments andresultsarepresentedinFigure4.Dry Dry mattercutswereonlytakeninthepeatandNIL nodulated plantsintheseplots(figures2and5). N fromthecropatthistimeandabsenceof would beexpectedgiventheheavydemandof these plotswasbecominglimited.Thisresult rest overthefollowingmonth,suggestingNin plots becamevisiblyyellowcomparedwiththe at sowing).However,theNILlupinandchickpea fertiliser (80kg/hagrainlegumesuperapplied adequately suppliedfromthesoil,nodules,or nutrients, includingnitrogen(N),werebeing foliage acrosstreatmentsatthisstagesuggested any measurabledifferencesin‘greenness’ofthe with thespringflushapproaching.Theabsenceof (Table with nosignificantdifferencesbetweentreatments on 1Septemberaveraged6.0forthewholetrial The normaliseddifferencevegetationindex(NDVI) matter,NDVI, dry grain yieldandseedsize

1). Atthistime,allplotsweregrowingrapidly SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 |

T® (Chick+F).Sincelupingranular was 87

nutrition & soil These results need to be interpreted in the context of The fungicide seed dressing in chickpea and lupin paddock history and soil nutrient status. This site was had little or no effect on growth, nodulation or grain limed in 2010 lifting top soil pHCa (0–10 cm) to 5.2, yield of all the pulses (Figure 3). Similarly, inoculant which is a more favourable zone for rhizobia survival formulation had no effect on seed size (Table 1). and nodulation. However, background rhizobia for Harvest index was significantly higher in chickpea these pulse species at this site could be expected to (42%) compared with other pulses (~33%). Again, be low or absent since these species had not been these patterns appeared independent of nodulation. cultivated here during the previous five years. Table 1. Differences between pulse species Also, the soil nutrient and moisture status of this for plant establishment (Estab.), seed site should have been boosted by the spring 2013 size, NDVI and harvest index (HI). fallow (the result of a poorly established pasture Pulse Estab. Seed size NDVI HI (%) sown in the proceeding autumn). Therefore, nutrient (plants/m2) (g/100) (1 Sept) deficiencies during the growth of this experiment are Field pea 49 22.1 0.58 34.3 much less likely compared with the more traditional Lentil 48 3.9 0.62 33.7 situation where pulses follow an intense cropping Faba bean 31 66.6 0.59 30.1 program. This could explain why the measured Chickpea 38 16.8 0.59 42.3 differences in DM and grain yield between treatments Chick+F 36 16.7 0.61 * in this experiment were only small or absent. Lupin 41 14.5 0.61 33.2 Lupin+F 45 14.6 0.61 * l.s.d. (P <0.05) 6.6 0.78 ns 5.60 * DM and HI% not measured in these treatments.

Figure 3. Grain yield (t/ha) of five pulse species inoculated with different formulations of inoculant at Wagga Wagga in 2014. Chickpea included an additional treatment of fungicide seed dressing P-PICKEL T® (Chick+F). Since lupin granular was unavailable at the time, lupin plus P-PICKEL T® seed dressing (Lupin+F) was substituted. Nodule scores were taken on 20 August using a 0–5 scale; 0 = no nodules; 2 = just adequate; 5 = abundant.

88 | NSW Department of Primary Industries Australia, jointlyfundedbyNSW DPIandGRDC. state agenciesinVictoria,NSW andSouth 2013–16, acollaborativepulse projectbetween the useofpulsesinsouthern region’,DAV00113 This experimentwaspartoftheproject‘Expanding Acknowledgements » » » » and Yenda comparison: WaggaNodulation Wagga Wagga in2014.The Figure 5.Theobservedrangeofnodulationinchickpeaat Note: measurementsonlydoneonpeatandNILtreatments. Figure 4.Drymatter(DM)offivepulsespeciesinoculatedwithdifferentformulationsinoculantatWaggain2014. from theun-inoculated(NIL)treatment. » » » » chickpea rhizobiaappearlessadapted. the acidicsoilsofsouthernNSW,while more widespreadandbetteradaptedto Field peaandlentilrhizobiaappear Wagga wassomewhatsurprising. The failureoflupintoeffectivelynodulateat Faba beanandlupinnodulationwassitespecific. at bothsiteswithoutinoculation. Field peaandlentilsuccessfullynodulated sites withoutinoculation. Nodulation ofchickpeafailedatboth far rightplantwassampled SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | 89

nutrition & soil Nodulation studies with pulses on acidic red sandy soils – Yenda 2014

Dr Eric Armstrong, Gerard O’Connor and Luke Gaynor NSW DPI, Wagga Wagga

Key findings »» Peat and liquid formulations were the most consistent inoculants across all pulses, having the highest nodule scores and equal or highest grain yields compared with the remaining treatments. »» Without inoculation, faba bean and chickpea failed to nodulate indicating host rhizobia were absent at this site. This consequently lowered their grain yields. »» On the other hand, lupin, field pea and lentil effectively nodulated without inoculation, indicating their respective rhizobia had colonised this site. »» Fungicide seed dressing (P-PICKEL T®) did not affect pulse nodulation, but did increase grain yield in chickpea. Further investigation is needed to establish the reasons.

Aim Weed Commercial weed management management practices used to maintain weed- The aim was to compare different rhizobia inoculant free conditions to eliminate weed formulations for nodulation, growth and yield competition and prevent weed seed set of field pea, lupin, faba bean, lentil and chickpea Disease No disease management was under varying rain-fed and soil moisture conditions management required this season at Yenda on an acidic sandy loam at Yenda in the south- Insect Targeting Helicoverpa sp.: western cropping zone of southern NSW. management 400 ml/ha Fastac® Duo (100 g/L alpha-cypermethrin) applied by the Site details cooperator during late grain fill Site ‘Hillview’ Yenda, RK & JG Eckerman (Paddock ‘Wattle Park’) Treatments Sowing date 26 May 2014 Varieties (6) 1. Field pea – PBA Oura Soil type Acidic, red sandy loam, pH Ca 2. Faba bean – PBA Rana (0–10 cm) 4.6 (Table 1) 3. Lentil –CIPAL0901 Design Randomised complete block design with 4. Lupin – Mandelup pulses the main blocks and inoculation 5. Chickpea – PBA Slasher treatments sub-plots; three replications. 6. Chickpea – PBA Slasher -seed dressed Paddock history 2014 wheat; 2013 Canola; with P-PICKEL T® fungicide one week 2012 Wheat; 2011 Lupin before sowing (Chick+F) Stubble Sown into a medium density, Inoculation 1. Peat slurry on seed management standing wheat stubble (4) 2. Peat liquid injected into row Fertiliser 80 kg/ha Grain legume super 3. Granular (Becker Underwood)* (N:P:K:S 0:13.8:0:6.1) placed 4. NIL – un-inoculated control 30–40 mm below the seed *Granular (Becker Underwood) inoculant for lupin Plant Sowing rate was adjusted according was unattainable and was substituted with Lupin+F population to seed size and germination to (lupin seed treated with P-PICKEL T® fungicide then 2 target: 40 plants/m for lupin, field pea coated with peat slurry just prior to sowing) and chickpea; 28 plants/m2 for faba bean; and 130 plants/m2 for lentil Moisture conditions were ideal for sowing after above average autumn rainfall Sowing Direct-drilled using a six-row cone seeder with 300 mm row spacing, press wheels and GPS auto-steer

90 | NSW Department of Primary Industries from eachofthe fourtreatments(NIL,peat, liquid in watertoremovesoilfornodule assessment.Plants across eachplot.Theplantswere immediatelysoaked spade toadepthof20cmfrom fourtofivelocations plants withintactrootswere randomlydugupwitha Eight weeksafteremergence (20August),groupsof Nodule scores ideal forsowingafteraboveaverageautumnrainfall. the recommendedrate.Moistureconditionswere sown withtheseed.Alltreatmentswereappliedat sowing. Thegranularformulationwasmixedand micro-tubes runningdirectlyintothefurrowat based productwithwatertheninjectingthrough preparation wasformulatedbymixingthepeat- tubes werecleanedbetweentreatments.Theliquid finally thepeat-coatedseed.Theconeandseed formulation wasnext,followedbythegranulesand avoid residualrhizobiacontamination.Theliquid The un-inoculatedcontrol(NIL)wassownfirstto Inoculation Methodology disease levelslowandnofungicidesrequired. Conditions werenotconducivetodisease,with soil moisturetohelpcropsfillgrainandfinish. trial (particularlyinMarch),providingvaluable expected. Above-averagerainfallprecededthe unfavourable andfinished2–3weeksearlierthan with warmertemperatures,theseasonwas sowing rate–Yenda2014)and,whencombined third ofthelong-termaverage(Figure1,Lentil four monthsofJulytoOctoberwasonlyone shorter thannormal.Rainfallduringthecritical The 2014seasonatYendawaswarmer,drierand Season 0–10 Table 1.Sitesoilchemicalcharacteristicsfor Soil atthissitewasacidicwithpH Soil along theridgesleadingtoredloaminhollows. topography. Itwasalighttextured,redsandy-loam and variedaccordingtotheslightlyundulating (mg/kg) Phosphorus (Colwell) Ammonium N(mg/kg) Nitrate nitrogen(mg/kg) Aluminium Sat(%) (CEC) ( Cation exchangecapacity pH Characteristic Ca

cm and10–20depthatYenda,2014. cmol(+)kg ) 0–10 cm 4.6 0.8 9.8 6.4 2.8 34 Ca 4.6(Table1) Depth 10–20 cm 6.1 3.6 17 0 7 0 and granular)werelaidoutonatableinthefield nitrogen deficienciesandnon-nodulatingplots. plots on20August,specificallyaimingtoquantify normalised differencevegetationindex(NDVI)of A hand-heldGreenSeeker®wasusedtorecordthe but inthisreportaveragedacrossall20scores. Data foreachplantwasrecordedindividually, operators on10plantsperplotusinga0–5 Nodulation wasassessedindependentlybytwo for visualcomparisonandscoring(figures1 background rhizobiapopulations werepresent. even withoutinoculation,indicating thateffective field peaandlentilhowever,nodulatedabundantly or hadpoorcolonisationofrhizobiainthesoil.Lupin, pulse specieshadnotbeencultivatedrecentlyand/ to nodulateatthissite(Figure2),indicatingthese Without inoculation,fababeanandchickpeafailed crown andupperportionofthetaproot. Lupin noduleswerelargeandencircledthe nodules werethesmallestandmostabundant. scattered throughoutthewholerootsystem.Lentil In contrast,fieldpeaandlentilnoduleswere the stemandnolateralnoduleswerepresent. exclusively restrictedtothecrownregionof Faba beanandchickpeanoduleswerealmost vegetation index (NDVI) Nodulation difference andnormalised Results laid outonatableinthefieldtoallownodulationscoring. were sampledon20August,2014.Theywashedand Figure 1.PlantsfromeachofthefourtreatmentsatYenda SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 |

scale.

5). 91

nutrition & soil The peat and liquid inoculant formulations resulted GreenSeeker® (NDVI) measurement of the plot in the most consistent nodulation and the highest green-area cover was influenced more by pulse nodule scores across all pulses. The liquid formulation species than inoculant formulation (Figure 3). It resulted in better nodulation of field pea, lentil was significantly greater in lupin (~0.42), followed and faba bean than the other formulations. by field pea (~0.34), than the other pulses Fungicide seed dressing (P-PICKEL T®) had (~0.24). Peat inoculation in faba bean and lupin, no effect on nodulation at this site. however, had a significantly higher NDVI (P <0.05) compared with other inoculant formulations.

Figure 2. Nodule scores of five pulse species inoculated with different formulations of inoculant at Yenda in 2014. Chickpea included an additional treatment of fungicide seed dressing P-PICKEL T® (Chick+F). Since lupin granular was unavailable at the time, lupin plus P-PICKEL T® seed dressing (Lupin+F) was substituted. Nodule scores were taken on 20 August using a 0–5 scale; 0 = no nodules; 2 = just adequate; 5 = abundant.

Figure 3. Green-area cover (NDVI) of five pulse species at 20 August when inoculated with different formulations of inoculant at Yenda in 2014.

92 | NSW Department of Primary Industries Australia, jointlyfundedbyNSW DPIandGRDC. state agenciesinVictoria,NSW andSouth 2013–16, acollaborativepulse projectbetween the useofpulsesinsouthern region’,DAV00113 This experimentwaspartofthe project‘Expanding Acknowledgements scores fromlefttorightare0,1,2and3. Figure 5.Examplesofchickpeaplantstreatedwithdifferentinoculant formulation,Yenda2014.Therespectivenodule unavailable atthetimesolupinplusP-PICKEL Chickpea includedanadditionaltreatmentoffungicideseeddressingP-PICKEL Figure 4.Grainyield(t/ha)offivepulsespeciesinoculatedwithdifferentformulationsinoculantatYendain2014. but alsohighergrainyield(Figure4). resulted inbetternodulation(seeabove), Peat andliquidformulationsnotonly leading tosub-optimalnitrogennutrition. treatments (Figure3),reflectingtheirpoornodulation and chickpeaweresignificantlylowerthanother Grain yieldsoftheNILtreatmentfababean Grain yieldandseedsize

T® seeddressing(Lupin+F)wassubstituted. 3.9, 65.1,18.9and14.9g/100seedsrespectively. pea, lentil,fababean,chickpeaandlupinwere21.0, size (g/100seeds).Theaverageseedsizesforfield Inoculant formulationhadlittleornoeffectonseed (Figure 2).Thereasonforthiswasnotclear. result occurredindependentofnodulation and granularformulations(Figure4);this 20% whenaveragedacrossthepeat,liquid improved thegrainyieldinchickpeabyaround The P-PICKEL SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 |

T® seeddressingsignificantly

T® (Chick+F).Also,lupingranularwas 93

nutrition & soil Use of quality legume inoculants to get the most from nitrogen fixation

Elizabeth Hartley, Greg Gemell and Jade Hartley NSW DPI, Ourimbah

Key points »» Rhizobia symbiotically fix close to three million tonnes of nitrogen a year worth $4 billion. »» The Australian Inoculants Research Group (AIRG) and its predecessors have controlled and maintained the quality of legume inoculants through collaboration with industry, universities and R&D bodies for close to 60 years. »» A symbol of inoculant quality assessment by an independent laboratory is the display of the green tick logo. »» There are different inoculant groups specific for different legumes. »» Correct storage is important to maintain high numbers of rhizobia in the inoculants. »» The AIRG continues to monitor the quality of legume inoculants at different points in the supply chain and works closely with the manufacturers to ensure that Australia’s growers have ongoing access to efficacious products.

Introduction 100 Each year in Australia, legumes grown in association 90 with their mutually beneficial rhizobia are estimated 80 to symbiotically fix close to three million tonnes of 70 nitrogen, worth $4 billion. The biological process 60 of nitrogen fixation, where rhizobia located in 50 legume root nodules convert atmospheric di- 40 nitrogen (N ) into ammonia (NH ) for plant growth, 2 3 30 is one of the great agriculture success stories.

AIRG pass (%) AIRGpass standards 20 About 120 years ago in the Agricultural Gazette of New South Wales, Guthrie (1896) stated ‘It will 10 0 prove to be one of the most valuable contributions 1955 1965 1975 1985 1995 2005 2015 ever made by science to practical agriculture. Year It is of special interest to us in Australia’. Figure 1. The AIRG laboratory pass standards from 1955 to For close to 60 years, AIRG and its predecessors have 2015. undertaken a state and national responsibility for To achieve this: independent quality control and quality assurance »» AIRG, part of NSW DPI’s Soils Unit, has an Australia- of legume inoculants and, more recently, other wide mandate to ensure that the country’s growers beneficial microbes. AIRG controls and maintains the and producers have access to high quality legume quality of legume inoculants through collaboration inoculants and inoculant products containing with industry, universities and R&D bodies. prescribed numbers of either effective root nodule The outcome of this collaboration between bacteria (rhizobia) or other beneficial microbes. AIRG and industry has improved the quality »» There is a continual Australia-wide of legume inoculants over the years. The AIRG commitment to legume inoculant R&D by laboratory pass rate for quality testing inoculants federal and state governments, universities has increased to be consistently greater than and various R&D funding bodies. 90% at the point of manufacture (Figure 1).

94 | NSW Department of Primary Industries » » » » that inoculantsreleasedforsalehave: is submittedtoAIRGandassessedensure A sampleofeachinoculantbatchproduced from theculturessuppliedbyAIRG. commercial batchesoflegumeinoculants products forquality.Manufacturersproduce and standardsforassessinglegumeinoculant incorporates asetofindependentprotocols AIRG hasdevelopedacodeofpracticethat Code ofpractice Figure 2.Rhizobia‘mother’culturepreparation. rhizobial culturesusedincommercialmanufacture. also holdsanddistributesalimitednumberofnon- stringent criteriabeforebeingreleasedbyAIRG.AIRG commercial use(Figure2).Theseculturesmustmeet tropical legumestotheinoculantmanufacturersfor recommended inoculantstrainsfortemperateand Each year,AIRGsuppliesafreshsetofcultures » » » » » » » » » » » » the rhizobiaaftermanufacture andduringstorage optimum peatmoistureforgrowth andsurvivalof microorganisms i.e.lessthan 1million/gpeat minimal numbersofothercontaminant except Lotononis,whichis500 million/gpeat) for allinoculantsis1,000million/gfreshpeat high numbersofliverhizobia(thestandard rhizobia forthelegumegroup the approvedandcorrectstrainof AIRG operatesunderISO9001:2008certification. for ongoingcollaborativeR&D. Sydney andotherinstitutions'researchers AIRG hasalinkwithNSWDPI,Universityof manufacture andatpoint-of-sale. of rhizobialinoculantsatpoint-of- AIRG conductsqualityassessments and commerciallegumeinoculantproduction. AIRG bridgesthegapbetweeninoculantR&D » » During theperiod2005–15,AIRG: Figure 3.NSWDPIgreentickregisteredtrademark. tick qualitylogoontheirproduct(Figure3). display aNSWDPIregisteredtrademarkgreen inoculants thatcomplytothestandards,can who aresignatorytothecodeandproduce supplies anexpirydate.Inoculantcompanies, does AIRGapprovethebatchforsaleand Only whenthesestandardshavebeenmet » » » » » » » legumes, AIRGadvisesthefollowing: nitrogen fixationpotentialofinoculated To ensureusers,i.e.growers,maximisethe potential ofinoculated legumes How to maximisethenitrogen fixation » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » pre-inoculated andcustom-inoculatedseed processed andqualitytested>700samplesof at time-of-manufactureandpoint-of-sale processed andqualitytested>15,000inoculants with itslegumetestplant. optimum capacityfornitrogenfixation GRDC (2012)for manufacturer'sguidelines and (see Inoculatinglegumes:apractical guidefrom or dressingsforalimitedtime beforesowing rhizobia canbecompatiblewith seedpickles as manyaretoxictorhizobia pesticides, ormineralorganic fertilisers, never mixrhizobialinoculantwith free fromchemicalandfertiliserresidues or slurriesandmakesureholdingtanksare use cleanpotablewaterwhenpreparingliquids and definitelywithin24hoursofinoculation sow freshlyinoculatedseedassoonpossible passed theexpirydate don’t useinoculantsthathave use qualityinoculants collection ofnearly2,000strains. maintained thecoreRhizobiumstrain (granular, liquidandfreeze-dried) for thenewinoculantformulations developed andratifiedstandards ratified strainchangesfor20inoculantgroups (total ofabout3,200subcultures) of 35–40strainsrhizobiaannually supplied 1–4manufacturerswithsubcultures SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | 95

nutrition & soil Table 5.4 on page 40). Always apply the seed (less than 30 °C and not frozen) away from sunlight dressing first and allow it to fully dry before and chemicals. For many years, AIRG staff members applying the rhizobia as a second process have monitored inoculant quality at the point of »» match the correct inoculant group sale. Inoculants were purchased from retail outlets to the specific legume. covering the grain cropping areas across Australia and the number of rhizobia in each packet or Inoculants for some of the common legume container counted. Temperatures and conditions of species, legume inoculant groups and the storage were recorded. Generally, rhizobial numbers amount of seed that can be treated by a 250 g in the inoculants remain high because the product bag of peat inoculant are shown in Table 1. at the point of manufacture had been prepared in Storing inoculant a suitable carrier that prolongs rhizobial survival. One of the main factors affecting the quality of However, numbers for the common legume host legume inoculants is storage temperature. Legume groups decline in rhizobial number when stored at inoculants contain live rhizobia. It is important to ambient to high temperature compared to those make sure they are kept in moderate temperatures stored at less than 10 °C (refrigerated) (Table 2).

Table 1. Common legumes species, legume inoculant groups and the amount of seed that can be treated by a 250 g bag of peat inoculant. Common legume Legume Seed size Maximum weight of inoculant group seed treated with 250 g peat inoculant Grains Pea, field pea, vetch, narbon bean, lathyrus E Large 100 kg Faba bean, broad bean, lentil F Medium–large 50–100 kg Lupin G Large 100 kg Chickpea N Large 100 kg Cowpea, mungbean (green and black gram) I Large 100 kg Peanut or groundnut P Large 100 kg Soybean H Large 100 kg Pastures Lucerne, strand and disc medics, melilotus albus AL Small 25 kg Barrel, burr, snail, sphere, gama, murex medics AM Medium 50 kg White, red, strawberry, alsike, Berseem, B Small 25 kg cluster or ball, suckling, talish clovers Subterranean, crimson, cupped, helmet, purple, rose, C Small–medium 25–50 kg arrowleaf, balansa, bladder, gland, persian clovers Greater lotus D Small 10 kg Serradellas S Medium 50 kg Biserrula Biserrula Small 10 kg Birdsfoot trefoil Lotus Small 10 kg Sulla Sulla Medium 10 kg

Table 2. Effect of retail storage temperature on rhizobial survival in peat inoculants. Group Legume Million rhizobia/g peat Refrigerated <10 °C Ambient >20 °C Difference (%) E Pea/field pea 831 614 -26 F Faba bean 934 612 -34 G Lupin 1,661 1,226 -26 N Chickpea 2,282 1,764 -23 AL Lucerne 2,503 2,888 15 AM Annual medic 1,212 1,366 13 C Subclover 676 526 -22

96 | NSW Department of Primary Industries Microbials PtyLtdandNovozymesBioAgLtd. BASF AgriculturalSpecialtiesPtyLtd,New-Edge and theAustralianLegumeInoculantmanufacturers inoculants –Continuation’,DAN00189,2013–17; and germplasmmaintenanceforRhizobium ‘AIRG: Nationalindependentqualityassurance This workisjointlyfundedbyNSWDPIandGRDC Acknowledgments New SouthWales,vol.7,pp.690–694. leguminous crops’,AgriculturalGazetteof Guthrie, FB1896,‘Inoculationofsoilfor Reference have ongoingaccesstoefficaciousproducts. manufacturers toensurethatAustralia’sgrowers in thesupplychainandworkcloselywith the qualityoflegumeinoculantsatdifferentpoints or pastureyield.TheAIRGcontinuestomonitor response toinoculationisthusmaximisedforcrop is appliedtotheseedorfurrow.Thepotential ensures thatthemaximumnumberofviablerhizobia Carefully handlinginoculantsbefore,andat,sowing by storagetemperatureshigherthan20°C. Lucerne andannualmedicwerenotaffected when theproductsarenotrefrigerated. reduction of22%ormoreinrhizobialnumbers For thegroupsE,F,G,NandCthereisa SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | 97

nutrition & soil The eXtensionAUS Crop Nutrition online learning network

Luke Beange NSW DPI, Dubbo; Sally Friis and Julie White NSW DPI, Paterson; Fleur Muller NSW DPI, Wagga Wagga; Stephanie Alt Give Soil a Chance

Key points At the eXtensionAUS website you can: »» find the most recent information on emerging crop nutrition issues »» watch an interview with one of our experts »» follow us on Twitter »» sit in on a webinar »» ask a question of our national team of experts at any time »» become part of Australia’s largest, research-based learning network.

Introduction How do I access eXtensionAUS Crop Nutrition? What is eXtensionAUS Crop Nutrition? Visit www.extensionaus.com.au and select Crop If you are a grower or adviser, or looking for the Nutrition, or follow us on Twitter @AuCropNutrition, most up-to-date information on crop nutrition, then and become part of the network (Figure 1). eXtensionAUS Crop Nutrition can provide you with the most innovative option in Australia to date. What information is available? As an online learning network, eXtensionAUS Information found on eXtensionAUS is sourced Crop Nutrition is located within the eXtensionAUS from experts in state departments of agriculture, website and can be accessed to complement your universities, CSIRO and industry bodies. Sources are regular knowledge and information gathering typically the same people you would see presenting systems. So think of eXtensionAUS as exactly that at GRDC cropping updates such as Mark Conyers – an extension of your current advice channels (southern NSW), Chris Dowling and Mike Bell that contains a wealth of information and (northern zone), Roger Armstrong (Vic.), Nigel Wilhelm advice – direct from the experts, in real time. (SA) and Craig Scanlan (WA). Published articles cover important crop nutrition issues, timed as much as Based on a successful long-term eXtension Program possible to be released when relevant to the topic or in the USA, eXtensionAUS is quickly gaining in responding to issues emerging in the current season. popularity amongst grain growers and industry. NSW DPI has gathered experts from across the country to As eXtensionAUS Crop Nutrition is led by a CoP take part in the program so we can deliver timely, that includes many of Australia’s leading crop relevant, evidence-based information to you when nutritionists, each article must be approved you need it. Also available on the eXtensionAUS by two members of the CoP before it can be network is eXtensionAUS Field Crop Diseases. published. So you can be confident the information is of the highest quality and relevance. Visit How does it work? the website to see more about the CoP. At the eXtensionAUS website you can find the The top 10 eXtensionAUS Crop most recent information on emerging crop Nutrition articles in 2015 were: nutrition issues, watch an interview with one of our experts, follow us on Twitter or sit in on a 1. Do you know your nitrogen use efficiency? webinar. You can ask a question of our national 2. What happens to P (phosphorus) team of experts at any time. You can even join us from crop residues? and become part of Australia’s largest, research- 3. What nutrients are lost when based learning network, working alongside making hay from failed crops? your peers in a Community of Practice (CoP). 4. Spotlight: Fertiliser calculator 5. How critical is the critical level?

98 | NSW Department of Primary Industries Figure 1.TheeXtensionAUShomepagehighlightingthelocation oftheeXtensionAUSCropNutritionsite. » » » 10. 9. 8. 7. 6. eXtensionAUS CropNutritioninclude: Examples ofotherpublishedarticleson » » »

potassium andsulfur Using deepsoilcoresfornitrogen, Potassium andcropstress to potassiumfertiliser Soil testdeepertopredictresponse

Uneven ureaspreadingcosts$$$. 2015 cropprospectsandnitrogen Manage pHforprofit No-till soilsandstrategictillage What isthevalueoffixedN(nitrogen)? » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » » multiple nutrientdeficiency. Understanding andmanaging Grain analysisfornutrientstrategy from drylandgrainssoil Reducing nitrousoxideemissions Data goldfromyourteststripatharvest Zinc deficiencyshowsupinthecold Nitrogen useefficiencytrainingon-line recommendations andsoiltests Research spotlight:Fertiliser your paddocks(Dec.2015) Webinar: Reviewcropnutritionin SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | 99

nutrition & soil From February 2015 to February 2016 there have been 1,559 views of eXtensionAUS Crop Nutrition YouTube videos. This totalled 3,348 minutes with an average viewing duration of 2:08 minutes. These videos provide a quick summary by the expert of the key points of a topic. The viewer can then choose to follow up if they want more detail. A YouTube highlight was the 90 views of the Better Fertiliser Decisions for Cropping (BFDCII) webinar as at January 2016. The number of followers of @AuCropNutrition on Twitter is currently 1,494. The eXtensionAUS Crop Nutrition network is also closely linked to the More Profit from Crop Nutrition (MPCNII), and the Making Better Fertiliser Decisions for Cropping Systems in Australia (BFDCII) programs. These programs support current crop nutrition research. BFDCII provides access to the best verified soil test crop calibrations on nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and sulfur by location in Australia. Hence eXtensionAUS Crop Nutrition helps make this information accessible as it becomes available. Summary The eXtensionAUS Crop Nutrition online learning network connects experts and practitioners in crop nutrition. You can find the latest scientifically verified crop nutrition information through its website, Twitter feed and YouTube videos. Acknowledgements NSW DPI manages eXtensionAUS Crop Nutrition. Funding is jointly provided by NSW DPI and GRDC.

100 | NSW Department of Primary Industries Table 1.Parkesrainfall2015. Treatments Site details concentration forsixwheatvarieties. and nitrogenrateongrainyieldprotein This experimentevaluatedtheeffectofvariety Introduction » » » » Key findings , Ian Menz six wheat varieties–Parkes 2015 yield andgrain protein concentration of The effectofnitrogen application ongrain Nitrogen rates Wheat varieties Harvest date (April–October) In-crop rainfall Available N Fertiliser Sowing date Previous crop Soil type Location » » » » Dec 2014 Applying 160kgN/haresultedinayielddecrease. was nosignificantincreaseinyieldabove20kgN/haappliednitrogen. Grain yieldincreasedasnitrogenapplicationratesincreased,butthere Lancer Suntop low screeningsatallnitrogenapplicationrates. 89.6 A A achievedhighprotein,testweightand wasthehighestyieldingvariety(4.48t/ha). 52.0 Daryl Reardon NSWDPI,Condobolin andDaryl Moody Nick Jan stage 31(GS31) sowing +40kgN/haatgrowth * splitapplication40 160 kg Lancer Suntop Viking Spitfire EGA_Gregory 0, 20,40,80,40+split*and Condo 24 November 249.5 mm 68 kg/ha(0–60cm) 70 kg/haMAP+Sapphire 14 May Canola 2014 Red clayloam North ParkesMines 36.0 Feb A

A A A N/ha A

Mar 1.0

73.0 Apr

kg May 34.5

Parkes rainfallfor2015(mm) N/ha at 14.0 Jun 61.0 Jul had evenestablishmentandwereweed-free. The experimentsweresownintoadequatemoisture, temperature atthesitewas41.7°Con17October. wheat varietiessown.Thehighestrecorded coincided withthefloweringwindowformany thirties wererecordedduringOctober,which on 19August).Temperaturesinthemidtohigh and fourinSeptember(−3.9°Cwasrecorded The siteexperienced15frosteventsinAugust rainfall wasrecordedinSeptember(9.5mm). this, 73mmfellinApril(Table1).Belowaverage (April–October; 10-yearaverageis240mm).Of average growingseasonrainfallof249.5mm In 2015,theexperimentsitereceivedabove conditionsSeasonal interaction didnotaffectgrainyield(Table3). yield decrease(4.21t/ha).Thevariety×Nrate highest rateof160kgN/haresultedinasignificant did notincreasewithfurtherincreasesinNrate.The 0 kgN/ha(4.25t/ha)to20(4.35t/ha),but increased whennitrogen(N)ratefrom the lowestyieldingvariety(Table2).Grainyield highest yieldingvarietiesandDart(4.22t/ha)was (4.44 t/ha)andEGA_Gregory(4.31werethe effect ongrainyield.Suntop(4.48t/ha),Condo Variety andnitrogenratebothhadasignificant Grain yield Results Aug 33.0 SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | Sep 9.5 24.5 Oct Nov 52.0 Dec 9.0 399.5 Total In-crop 249.5 101

nutrition & soil Table 2. Grain yield and qrain quality for six wheat varieties sown 14 May at Parkes 2015. Variety Grain yield Grain protein Grain nitrogen yield Screenings Test weight (t/ha) (%) (kg N/ha) (%) (kg/hL) Condo 4.44 11.49 89.3 1.20 78.26 Dart 4.22 11.67 86.2 1.58 78.66 EGA_Gregory 4.31 11.40 86.0 1.30 78.87 Lancer 4.23 12.36 91.5 0.75 79.65 Spitfire 4.27 12.31 92.0 1.31 80.68 Suntop 4.48 11.55 90.6 1.76 79.45 l.s.d. (P = 0.05) 0.09 0.21 0.13 0.27

Table 3. Grain yield and grain quality for six nitrogen application rates across all varieties for 14 May sown wheat varieties at Parkes 2015. Nitrogen rate Grain yield (t/ha) Grain protein (%) Grain nitrogen Screenings (%) Test weight (kg N/ha) yield (kg N/ha) (kg/hL) 0 4.25 10.07 74.9 0.93 79.79 20 4.35 10.68 81.2 0.99 79.87 40 4.38 11.19 85.7 1.13 79.62 80 4.38 12.20 93.5 1.45 78.98 40 + 40 split 4.39 12.62 96.9 1.45 78.97 160 4.21 14.02 103.4 1.95 77.75 l.s.d. (P = 0.05) 0.09 0.21 0.13 0.28

Figure 1. Grain protein of six wheat varieties by six N rates at Parkes 2015.

Grain quality All varieties except Suntop maintained screening Variety and N rate both significantly affected grain percentages below 5% when 40 kg N/ha was protein, screenings and test weight. Lancer had the applied. The increased application rates of nitrogen highest grain protein content (12.36%) followed by resulted in EGA_Gregory, Dart and Suntop having Spitfire (12.31%) and Dart (11.67%) (Figure 1). Lancer screenings higher than the acceptable level of 5%. had significantly lower screenings than all other Spitfire, Lancer and Condo achieved standard varieties (0.75%). Spitfire had the highest test weight grade levels of screenings up to 80 kg N/ha (80.68 kg/hL) followed by Lancer (79.65 kg/hL). (both upfront and split application). Suntop and Dart had screenings above the 5% level.

102 | NSW Department of Primary Industries Dr NeroliGrahamforstatistical analyses. Agricultural ResearchandAdvisory Stationand Dubbo, DarylReardonandNick Moody,Condobolin Thanks toRyanPotts,Broadacre CroppingUnit, jointly fundedbyGRDCandNSW DPI. northern NewSouthWales’,DAN00167,2013–17, Agronomy Packagesforsouthern,centraland This experimentispartof‘VarietySpecific Acknowledgements across allthenitrogenapplicationrates. protein, hightestweightandlowscreenings Lancer wasabletomaintainhighgrain when averagedacrossallvarieties(4.21t/ha). in thelowestyieldofallnitrogentreatments upfront (4.38t/ha).Applying160kgN/haresulted not yieldsignificantlyhigherthanthe80kgN/ha the crop,as40+kgN/hasplit(4.39t/ha)did no indicationthatthesplitapplicationbenefitted 20 kgN/ha(4.35t/ha)ofNwasapplied.There There wasnosignificantyieldincreaseafter before thehightemperaturesinOctober2015. quick maturingwhichallowedthemtofinish EGA_Gregory (4.31t/ha).Allthreevarietiesare different fromthethirdhighestyieldingvariety, Suntop inyield,buttheyweresignificantly There waslittledifferencebetweenCondoand varieties (4.48t/ha)followedbyCondo(4.44t/ha). environment beingthehighestyieldingofsix of centralNSW.Suntopperformedwellinthis The Parkessiteisinthemediumrainfallzone Summary had screenings over 5% at this nitrogen rate (Figure 2). 160 kgN/hawasapplied.AllvarietiesexceptLancer All varietieshadthehighestscreeningswhen Figure 2.ScreeningsofsixwheatvarietiesbyNrates(kgN/ha)atParkes2015. SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | 103

nutrition & soil Effect of nitrogen rate and sowing rate on the grain yield and quality of barley

David Burch, Nick Moody and Ian Menz NSW DPI, Condobolin

Key findings »» La Trobe and Compass displayed the best combination of yield and quality traits for achieving malt specification. »» The environment, or experiment site, had a greater effect on yield than variety, nitrogen (N) rate or sowing rate. Low rainfall at Condobolin resulted in significantly lower yields than at Parkes. »» The sowing rate did not significantly affect yield above 150 plants/m2 at Condobolin or Parkes. »» Nitrogen (N) applications, in the absence of adequate rainfall, can have a negative effect on yield.

Introduction m2. Higher sowing and N rates had no significant Eight barley varieties were sown at Condobolin and effect on any variety. At Condobolin, there were Parkes to assess the varietal response to N application significant effects from seeding density and N and seeding rate on grain yield and quality. rate, although there was no varietal interaction between the two variables (tables 3 and 4). Site details Table 1. Grain yield (t/ha) of eight barley varieties with Location Condobolin Parkes three nitrogen rates applied at sowing at Parkes, 2015. Sowing date 25 May 2015 14 May 2015 Variety N applied (kg/ha) Soil type Red chromosol Red dermosol 0 30 90 Previous crop Wheat Canola Rainfall 198 mm Apr–Sep. 326 mm Apr–Oct. Bass 4.94 5.11 5.15 Buloke 5.04 5.18 4.91 Fertiliser MAP 70 kg/ha Granulock Commander 5.35 5.27 5.20 90 kg/ha Compass 5.49 5.79 5.56 Available N 60.7 kg/ha 42.6 kg/ha Flinders 5.19 5.20 5.11 GrangeR 5.34 5.60 5.38 Treatments La Trobe 5.64 5.80 5.60 N rates 0, 30 and 90 kg/ha at sowing Wimmera 5.29 5.30 4.72 Sowing rates 75, 150 and 300 seeds/m2 * l.s.d. (P = 0.05) 26 Varieties BassA BulokeA Table 2. Grain yield (t/ha) of eight barley varieties CommanderA sown at three sowing rates at Parkes, 2015. CompassA Variety Sowing rate (plants/m2) A Flinders 75 150 300 A GrangeR Bass 5.01 5.10 5.09 A La Trobe Buloke 5.05 5.05 5.04 WimmeraA Commander 5.16 5.41 5.25 *Seeding rates of 75, 150 and 300 seeds/m2 is equivalent to 34, Compass 5.45 5.61 5.78 68 and 135 kg seed per ha, assuming a grain size of 45 mg. Flinders 5.11 5.17 5.22 GrangeR 5.18 5.50 5.64 Results La Trobe 5.52 5.78 5.74 Parkes was the highest yielding site, with significant Wimmera 5.10 5.09 5.12 differences between sowing rate, N rate and variety l.s.d. (P = 0.05) 0.21 (tables 1 and 2). La Trobe yielded the highest at 30 kg/ha of N and a sowing rate of 150 plants/

104 | NSW Department of Primary Industries Parkes (5.04t/ha). Commander atCondobolin(0.50t/ha)andBuloke (Figure 1).Thelowestyieldingvarietieswere varieties atParkes,andallbutBulokeCondobolin varieties, withsignificantyieldincreasesoverallother Compass andLaTrobewerethehighestyielding Varieties sown atthreesowingratesCondobolin,2015. Table 4.Grainyield(t/ha)ofeightbarleyvarieties with threenitrogenratesatCondobolin,2015. Table 3.Grainyield(t/ha)ofeightbarleyvarieties Figure 1.Yieldof eightbarleyvarietiesatCondobolin andParkesacrossallsowing andnitrogenrates. Wimmera La Trobe GrangeR Flinders Compass Commander Buloke Bass l.s.d. (P=0.05) l.s.d. (P=0.05) Wimmera La Trobe GrangeR Flinders Compass Commander Buloke Bass Variety Variety Yield (t/ha) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 asBlk omne ops lnesGagrL rb Wimmera La Trobe Granger Flinders Compass Commander Buloke Bass 0.50 1.19 0.46 0.56 1.07 0.41 0.83 0.82 0.64 0.636 1.33 0.73 0.70 1.25 0.60 1.04 1.06 75 0.22 0 Sowing rate(plants/m N rate(kg/ha) 0.71 1.26 0.60 0.66 1.07 0.55 0.90 0.86 150 0.79 1.43 0.57 0.59 1.12 0.52 0.95 0.88 30 2 ) Condobolin 0.41 0.90 0.36 0.52 0.86 0.37 0.69 0.58 0.61 1.21 0.59 0.60 1.09 0.53 0.95 0.84 300 90 Variety grain proteinconcentrationof9%–12%tomeet in 2015(Figure5).Maltingbarleymusthavea representative oftheconditionsinsouthernNSW presented inthispaperasthesitewasmore The Parkesproteinandscreeningsdatais Grain quality concentrating theimpactofNonoverallyield. to Parkes.ThisincreasedavailableNperplant, period atCondobolindecreasedyieldrelative (Figure 4).Lowrainfallduringthegrain-filling differences inyieldfromanyNtreatment the Parkestrialdidnotdemonstratesignificant decrease (P=0.05)atNratesof90kg/ha,while At theCondobolintrialtherewasasignificantyield Nitrogen effect from 75to150plants/m both siteswhensowingratewasincreased There wasasignificantyieldimprovementat Effect ofsowing rate high yielddistributingNacrossagreatersink. lowest proteinconcentration,possiblyduetoits other variety,andat0kg/haofN,alsohadthe lower Naccumulationat30kg/ha(9.6%)thanany Compass (12.3%).displayedsignificantly lowest concentrationsbeingLaTrobe(12.2%)and Parkes, allvarietiesexceededthatlimit,withthe malt specifications.Byadding90 per headwasaffectedbysowingrate. shown inFigure3.Thisimpliesgrainnumber between allsowingratesatbothsitesas There wasasignificantdifferenceinearnumber increased from150to300plants/m significant differencewhensowingratewas Parkes SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | 2 , buttherewasno Parkes 0.15t/ha Condobolin 0.14t/ha l.s.d. (p=0.05)

kg/ha Nat 2 (Figure2). 105

nutrition & soil Condobolin Parkes 75 ) 2

150

Sowing rate (plants/m l.s.d. (P = 0.05) 300 Condobolin 5.01% Parkes 1.32%

-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 Difference from site mean yield (%) Figure 2. Yield differences at different sowing rates of barley across two sites in 2015. The site mean for Parkes was 5.30 t/ha and the site mean for Condobolin was 0.79 t/ha.

800 Condobolin Parkes 750

700 2 650

600

550 Number of ears/m 500 l.s.d. (P = 0.05) Condobolin 33.4 ears/m2 450 Parkes 38.7 ears/m2 400 75 150 300 Sowing rate (seeds/m2) Figure 3. The effect of sowing density on number of ears/m2 at anthesis across two sites in 2015.

l.s.d. (P = 0.05) 0 Condobolin 11.44% Parkes 1.73%

30 N rate (kg/ha) Condobolin Parkes 90

-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 Difference from site mean yield (%)

Figure 4. Yield difference under different N rates across two sites in 2015. The site mean for Parkes was 5.30 t/ha and the site mean for Condobolin was 0.79 t/ha.

106 | NSW Department of Primary Industries 150 plants/m did nothaveasignificanteffect onyieldsabove rates toparticularvarieties.Increased sowingrates in ordertobesttailorsowing ratesandNfertiliser responses tobothsowingrates andnitrogenarevital inputs insowingacrop.Understanding varietal Seed andfertiliseraretwoofthemostexpensive grain proteinconcentrationsunderallthreeNrates. Compass andLaTrobedemonstratedthelowest with itsearliestaccreditationdateestimatedas2018. sites, andhasenteredthemaltaccreditationprocess out-yielded itspredecessorCommander,atboth low rainfallenvironments.Compasssignificantly consistently competitiveyieldsinbothmediumand malt accreditedin2015,andhasdemonstrated a successorandsisterlinetoHindmarsh,was at bothCondobolinandParkesin2015.LaTrobe, and Compassmadethemthestandoutvarieties The agronomiccharacteristicsofbothLaTrobe Summary and lessthan7%ofgrainsmaller2.2 contain morethan70%ofgrainplumper2.5 to achievemaltstandard,abarleysamplemust increased from0.94%to4.9%(P<0.0001).Inorder 70.0%, whilegrainbelow2.2mmplumpness plumper than2.5mmdecreasedfrom91.6%to As Nratesincreased,thepercentageofgrain retention decreasedfrom91.6%to70.0%. sieve. AsNrateincreasedfrom0to90kg/ha, the materialthatwasretainedabove2.5 Nitrogen ratesignificantlydecreased(P above 2.5 not causeanysignificantdifferencetoscreenings significant effectongrainweight.Seedratedid Screenings dataindicatedthatseedratehadno sowing. Figure 5.GrainproteinconcentrationofeightbarleyvarietiessownatParkesandtreatedwith0,3090kg/haN Grain protein (%) 10 11 12 13 14 15 8 9

mm, orbelow2.2 2 l.s.d. (pl.s.d. = 0kg/ha0.69, 30kg/ha 0.05) = = 0.58,90kg/ha=0.83 . Nappliedat90 kg/hasignificantly asBlk omne ops lnesGagrLToeWimmera LaTrobe Granger Flinders Compass Commander Buloke Bass Maximum Maximum allowable proteinconectrationformaltbarley

mm sieve.

<0.001)

mm.

mm 0 kg N/ha Kate Gibsonisgratefullyacknowledged. Nick Hill,FraserCampbell,LindaBrangwinand assistance providedbySarahBaxter,DarylReardon, performed byDrNeroliGraham,andtechnical gratefully acknowledged.Thebiometricanalysis Matthew BurkittandNorthParkesMineare Unit forsowingandharvestingtheexperiment. Thank youtotheDubboBroadacreCropEvaluation jointly fundedbyGRDCandNSWDPI. southern region',DAN00173,2013–18, of barleyandcultivarsforthe This experimentwaspartof'Management Acknowledgements plumpness, screeningsorretentionatParkes. grades. Sowingdensitydidnotaffectgrain be carefullymanagedwhentargetingmalting N fertiliserapplications.Highratesofneedto demonstrating thenecessitytoproperlymanage retention above2.5mmorincreasescreenings, of 90kg/haatParkesdidsignificantlydecrease N ratewasincreasedfrom30to90kg/ha.rates there wasnosignificantdifferenceinyieldwhen reduced yieldatCondobolin,howeverParkes, SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | 30 kg N/ha 90 kg N/ha 107

nutrition & soil Managing barley on acidic soil in southern NSW – Wagga Wagga 2015

Rohan Brill, Paula Charnock, Warren Bartlett and Sharni Hands NSW DPI, Wagga Wagga

Key findings »» There was no effect on barley yield from applying lime in this

experiment, despite the low soil pHCa of 4.5, potentially due to the low levels of exchangeable aluminium in the soil. »» The highest yield came from planting either Compass or La Trobe on 8 May, applying 80 kg/ha of nitrogen (N) at sowing. Applying N did not increase grain yield in the 28 May sowing treatments. »» The acid tolerant barley variety Litmus yielded less than Compass or La Trobe from the 8 May sowing. Delayed sowing reduced the grain yield of Compass and La Trobe, but not of Litmus. »» Applying phosphorus (P) (20 P kg/ha) did not increase grain yield at either sowing time.

Introduction treatment (80 kg N/ha, applied as urea pre-drilled), Barley cultivation in southern NSW has increased phosphorus (20 kg P/ha, applied as Triple Super markedly in recent seasons, especially in the higher at sowing), fungicide (300 mL/ha Prosaro applied rainfall zones of the South West Slopes where soils three times before major rain events in June, are often acidic. This experiment aimed to evaluate July and August) and lime (4 t/ha lime applied agronomic management options that enhance and incorporated pre-sowing) were excluded to the yield potential on this specific soil type. determine their absolute contribution to grain yield. Site details Table 2. Sowing date, varieties and treatments applied in a barley experiment at Wagga Wagga 2015. Soil type Red dermosol (Table 1) Sowing Varieties Treatment Treatment Previous crop Canola dates description Rainfall 333 mm April–October + 160 mm 8 May CompassA All N + P + fungicide December 2014–March 2015 28 May La TrobeA + lime LitmusA Nil N P + fungicide + lime Table 1. Soil test results for experimental Nil P N + fungicide + lime site at Wagga Wagga – 1 May 2015. Nil lime N + P + fungicide 0–10 cm 10–30 cm 0–120 cm Nil fungicide N + P + lime pH (Ca) 4.5 4.7 – Phosphorus 71.0 13.0 – (Colwell mg/kg) Exc. aluminium 3.8 3.7 – (%) Available 115.0 nitrogen (kg/ha)

Treatments Treatment details are summarised in Table 2. Three varieties were sown on two sowing dates. Within each sowing date and for each variety, a ‘best bet’ rate of nitrogen, phosphorus, fungicide and lime were applied at rates to maximise the yield, which becomes the ‘All’ treatment. In turn, each nitrogen

108 | NSW Department of Primary Industries jointly fundedbyGRDCandNSWDPI. for thesouthernregion',DAN00173,2013–18, 'Management ofbarleyandcultivars This experimentwaspartoftheproject Acknowledgements Figure 1.Effectofsowingdateandtreatmentongrainyieldbarley(averagethreevarieties)atWaggain2015. early sowing,butnotthelatersowing(Figure1). significant grainyieldreduction(0.6t/ha)fromthe Excluding Nfromthe‘All’treatmentresultedina sowing datesatWaggain2015. (averaged acrosstreatments)sownattwo Table 3.Grainyield(t/ha)ofthreebarleyvarieties Figure 1)butnotforLitmus. yield forCompassandLaTrobe(Table Early sowingresultedinhighergrain Results Litmus La Trobe Compass Variety 8 May 4.70 5.47 5.49 Grain yield(t/ha)

3, 28 May 4.55 4.36 4.82 the sowingdates.Grainqualityisyettobeanalysed. yield fromexcludinglimeorphosphorusateitherof not theearlysowing.Therewasnoeffectongrain yield reductionfromthelatersowing(0.3t/ha),but Excluding fungicideresultedinasignificantgrain exchangeable aluminiumlevelwasquitelow. apparent asitwasappliedclosetosowingandthe lime. Theeffectoflimingmightnothavebeen pH atthesite,therewasnobenefitfromapplying nitrogen reducinggrainyield.Despitethelowsoil nitrogen, withdelayedsowingand/orexcluding sow eitherCompassorLaTrobeearlyandtoapply improving barleyyieldonthisacidicsoilsitewereto The mostimportantmanagementfactorsfor Summary SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | 109

nutrition & soil Factors affecting critical phosphorus values and responsiveness in different soil types

Tony Cox NSW DPI, Orange and Dr Mark Conyers NSW DPI, Wagga Wagga

Key findings »» The Making Better Fertiliser Decisions for Cropping Systems in Australia (BFDC) database allows us to search for soil test calibrations for four macronutrients across a range of crops, soils types, regions and time spans. »» As an example, the critical range for soil test P (Colwell) for wheat grown in red chromosols in NSW has increased under minimum-tillage management.

Introduction Methodology The Making Better Fertiliser Decisions for Cropping Fifty years of soil test crop response experiments Systems in Australia project (BFDC) aims to provide were manually entered into the BFDC database. This the fertiliser industry, agency staff, agribusiness historic data was then used, together with current advisors and growers with the knowledge and research data sets, to produce soil test calibrations resources to improve nutrient recommendations for for N, P, K and S. The data is presented in critical optimising crop production. The BFDC database is nutrient levels for 80%, 90% and 95% of relative yield a national database of historical fertiliser response as well as a confidence range for the relative yield data for the main grain crops grown in Australia. levels. The critical nutrient ranges are across all soil BFDC is recognised by Fertilizer Australia, the peak types and can be interrogated for many agronomic body for the industry, as the best available data fields such as rainfall, soil pH and yield. The major for supporting the decision tools that fertiliser crops are included in the database and the soils industry members use as the basis for interpreting are classified under the Australian Soil Classification soil tests and formulating recommendations. system. The data sets are classified into A and B data Fertiliser decisions made by grain growers and their sets depending on how much information is supplied advisers should all start with, and rely on, objective and the experiment’s scientific vigour. When filters knowledge about their paddock fertility status. These are applied to the database it can be interrogated to decisions need to account for the plant nutrient evaluate factors that can affect P responsiveness. requirements for growth, nutrient availability in The BFDC database holds extensive historic data soils, and nutrient losses that can occur during for 5698 key N, P, K and S experiment treatment crop growth (e.g. de-nitrification or erosion). series for different grain crops and soil types across Making better decisions about soil nutrient Australia. Each experiment has a soil test and relative management and crop nutrition starts with gaining an grain yield data that enables users to determine the understanding of how soil fertility fits into the whole critical soil test values for a range of management crop production process. The BFDC Interrogator and growing conditions. These include farming provides information about soil test critical levels system, growing season rainfall and paddock history. for the four nutrients that frequently account for The data set is currently still being added to by 20–30% of variable crop production costs: nitrogen researchers from the More Profit from Crop Nutrition (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K) and sulfur (S). (MPCNII) program, as well as agency researchers Different soils have different critical nutrient and agribusiness via the online data entry tool. ranges and differing P availability. Understanding Results and discussion your soil type and its critical P values is crucial to The database allows the authorised user to making informed fertiliser decisions in cropping. interrogate the database across different soil tests, BFDC allows you to look at different soil types, tillage systems and growing seasons, which enables cropping scenarios and many other agronomic the user to calibrate a soil test crop response for factors that may come into play in a season.

110 | NSW Department of Primary Industries database andfindthelevelsrequiredfor80%,90% for wheatonaredchromosolcaninterrogatethe consultant wishingtoknowthecriticalPrange their ownparticularconditions.Forexample,a Figure 2.Calibration ofrelativeyieldwheatwith ColwellPonredchromosols post-1990. Figure 1.CalibrationofrelativeyieldwheatwithColwellPonredchromosolspre-1987. 90% Relativeyield:38.0(20.0–75.0) 80% Relativeyield:27.0(15.0–47.0) Soil testcalibration: 90% Relativeyield:25.0(20.0–31.0) 80% Relativeyield:18.0(15.0–22.0) Soil testcalibration: 95% Relativeyield:49.0(22.0–110.0) 95% Relativeyield:31.0(24.0–40.0) Regression equation:×=e Correlation R:0.61SlopeRY(50–80): 2.0(0.54–3.5) Regression equation:×=e Correlation R:0.73SlopeRY(50–80):3.2(2.2–4.2) 70% confidencelimitat90%Relative yield:38.0(27.0–54.0) 70% confidencelimitat90%RelativeYield:25.0(22.0–28.0) minimum tillagebecamemorecommon(Figure2). was common(Figure1),orfrom1990when and 95%relativeyieldpre-1987whenfullcultivation (2.5023(arcsin(sqrt(y/100))) +0.52267) (2.2924(arcsin(sqrt(y/100))) +0.35343) SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 |

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nutrition & soil The data shows that the apparent critical P range was lower under conventional tillage practice. This could be attributed to the nutrient stratification that can occur in minimum or no till situations. The P might be concentrated in the top few centimetres and not throughout the surface 10 cm where the crop can more readily access it. Col McMaster, Research Agronomist at Cowra is continuing this work by evaluating response to different rates of P under contrasting cultivation regimes. Other team members are evaluating N × P interactions at high rates on N and the corresponding rates of P required to meet crop demand (projects UA00154, DAN00168). Acknowledgements This study is part of the project 'Making better fertiliser decisions for cropping systems in Australia (phase 2)' (DAN00166, 2012–17) and jointly funded by GRDC and NSW DPI. See more at grdc.com.au/Research-and- Development/GRDC-Update-Papers/2014/03/ BFDC-Interrogator#sthash.8XA7MxF6.dpuf

112 | NSW Department of Primary Industries CSIRO, andDr Megan DanielKidd Canberra; estimate ofthedrymatterproduction foreachplot. dried at70°Cfor72hoursand weighedtoprovidean quadrats (200×500mm)ineach plot.Shootswere At peakspringgrowth,shoots werecutfromthree appropriate rhizobiastrainbefore sowing(Table1). Varieties testedin2014wereinoculatedwiththeir through aboomsprayat100L/haofwatercarrier. and zincsulfate3.5kg/ha)wereappliedateachsite boric acid1.75kg/ha,coppersulfatekg/ha sulfate 60kg/ha,molybdenumtrioxide0.07 nutrients (potassiumsulfate100kg/ha,magnesium triple-superphosphate (P=20.7%,S1.5%).Basal Belfrayden andBeckom(2014).Pwasappliedas different ratesof0,15,30,50,65and85kgP/haat at Yass(2012)andBurrinjuck(2013)withslightly levels. Ratesincluded0,15,30,45,60and80kgP/ha weighed bagsperplottoestablishsixequalPfertility Phosphorus wasappliedbyhandfromtwopre- Procedures and 147001’59.22’’E)insouthernNSW. and 146059’34.51’’E)Beckom(34012’10.56’’S and 148040’21.45’’S),Belfrayden(35006’58.06’’S and 148055’48.02’’E),Burrinjuck(34052’11.80’’S Four siteswereestablishednearYass(34056’54.02’’S Sites testing andsoilPfertilitymanagementonfarms. information canbeusedasabenchmarkforsoil legume speciesunderfieldconditions.This 90% ofmaximumyield)arangepasture extractable-P concentrationrequiredtoachieve critical phosphorus(P)requirement(i.e.thesoil This researchaimedtodeterminetheexternal Introduction » » Key findings NSW Graeme Sandral, requirements ofpasture legumes phosphorus external Critical » » maximum yieldwasoftenlowerthanthatofT.subterraneum. than Ornithopus compressus(yellowserradella)required30%lessP clover) with30%lessphosphorus(P). yielding asmuchTrifoliumsubterraneum(subterranean Ornithopus sativus(Frenchserradella)wascapableof

DPI, Wagga Wagga; T. subterraneumtoproducethemaximumyield,howeverits Andrew Price, Dr Richard Simpson, Dr WaynePitt,

Ryan three replicates,sixPratesand12varieties.Where row, columnanddiagonaltreatmentduplicateswith (Coombes 2009)toproduceadesignthatavoids Experimental designsweregeneratedusingDiGGer® Colwell Pextractable-Pconcentration(Colwell1963). homogenised andsubsampledtodeterminethe dried at40°C.Oncedry,thesoilsampleswereagain from eachplot.Soilswerethenhomogenisedand spring growthbysampling24cores(0–10cmdepth) Soil Plevelsweredeterminedatthetimeofpeak coinciding with90%ofmaximum drymatter). Colwell P(i.e.theconcentrations (mg/kg) toprovideanestimateofcritical matter (kg/ha)andxisthesoilColwellP [y =a−b*(−cx)]whereyistheshootdry level wasthenusedtofitMitscherlichequation measurements. FitteddatafromAsremlattheplot level werecalculatedforColwellPanddrymatter cultivar effects.Estimatesofl.s.d.valuesatthe5% effects weresignificant(P>0.05),butnotPrate× 3.84. ThisanalysisshowedthatPrateandcultivar correlations usingloglikdifferencesgreaterthan and rep.ploteffectswithtestingforauto-regressive test. Therandommodelincludedrow,column,rep which werecheckedforsignificanceusingtheWald P ratewithtestingforlinearcolumnandroweffects, Asreml andthefixedmodelappliedascultivarplus matter andsoiltestdatawerefirstanalysedusing Results wereanalysedusingRversion3.3.1.1.Dry it highlightsvarietyfailureatthatspecificlocation. results forfewerthan12varietiesareshown(Table Adam andDr Rebecca Haling Stefanski andChris Shane Hildebrand University of University Western Australia SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 |

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nutrition & soil Results southern Australia. It is also known to have a Subterranean clover (cvs. Leura, Narrikup, Izmir) high critical external requirement for P, which was used as a benchmark/control species as it is is the basis of the soil test P benchmarks that the most commonly grown legume in permanent are currently used for pasture management in pastures and mixed crop-pasture systems in southern Australia (Gourley et al. 2007; Moody 2007). Results for 2014 are presented below.

Table 1. Critical Colwell P requirements (mg P/kg soil) of pasture legumes determined as the soil test P (STP) concentration required to achieve either 90% of maximum herbage yield (kg dry matter/ha) for peak spring growth. Parameters were derived by fitting a Mitscherlich response (yield = a – b *(e − c*Colwell P)) to data collected from the Yass, Burrinjuck, Beckom and Belfrayden sites. Maximum yield is predicted by a, the asymptote; responsiveness to P is reflected in c, the curvature parameter; and the intercept (a-b) is an extrapolation reflecting yield at a theoretical Colwell P value of zero. Site and species Cultivar 90% Critical STP Parameter concentration (mg/kg) Colwell P Intercept a b c Yass 2014 Ornithopus compressus Avila 20 -1305 3984 -5289 0.8801 Ornithopus compressus Santorini 19 -977 5976 -6953 0.8784 Ornithopus sativus Margurita 17 -2461 6987 -9448 0.8572 Trifolium subterraneum Leura 31 -2095 6715 -8810 0.9200 T. subterraneum+ Leura + Luxor 19 -3293 5518 -8811 0.8663 Lupinus albus Trifolium purpureum Electra 25 -1898 5652 -7550 0.9015 Burrinjuck 2014 Trifolium incarnatum Dixie 20 -17915 10726 -28641 0.8502 Trifolium subterraneum Leura 27 -5472 9489 -14961 0.9037 Ornithopus sativus Margurita 17 -29840 9267 -39107 0.807 Trifolium michelianum Bolta 22 -5474 11903 -17377 0.8836 Beckom 2014 Trifolium spumosum Bartolo 21 512 3542 -3030 0.902 Biserrula pelecinus Casbah 18 -1764 2549 -4313 0.8524 Trifolium incarnatum Dixie 19 1552 3618 -2066 0.9127 Trifolium hirtum Hykon 19 -284 3117 -3401 0.8804 Trifolium subterraneum Izmir 25 1052 2591 -1539 0.9323 Ornithopus sativus Margurita 10 -1336 2576 -3912 0.7580 Trifolium subterraneum Narrikup 26 746 3488 -2742 0.9234 Trifolium glanduliferum Prima 33 296 2467 -2171 0.9356 Ornithopus compressus Santorini 7 -102963 2009 -104972 0.385 Medicago truncatula Sultan-SU 30 410 3631 -3221 0.9303 Trifolium vesiculosum Zulu II 12 -2838 2945 -5783 0.7792 Belfrayden 2014 Trifolium spumosum Bartolo 39 460 7518 -7058 0.9436 Biserrula pelecinus Casbah 42 1215 7012 -5797 0.9515 Trifolium incarnatum Dixie 41 2518 9120 -6602 0.9531 Trifolium hirtum Hykon 29 -3649 7421 -11070 0.9103 Trifolium subterraneum Izmir 48 -52 6053 -6105 0.9528 Ornithopus sativus Margurita 24 -1927 5054 -6981 0.8976 Trifolium subterraneum Narrikup 48 2143 7489 -5346 0.9598 Trifolium glanduliferum Prima 46 280 5694 -5414 0.9526 Ornithopus compressus Santorini 24 534 4331 -3797 0.9125 Medicago truncatula Sultan-SU 47 2508 6642 -4134 0.9617 Trifolium vesiculosum Zulu II 24 -459 5694 -6153 0.9057 l.s.d. (P = 0.05) 8.0

114 | NSW Department of Primary Industries requirements thatdidnotdiffer fromsubterranean and barrelmedic(cv.Sultan-SU) hadcriticalP gland clover(cv.Prima),crimson clover(cv. Bladder clover(cv.Bartolo),Biserrula (cv.Casbah), clover (cvs.IzmirandNarrikup) was48mgP/kg. The criticalColwellPrequirementofsubterranean Belfrayden clover, butdidnotdifferincriticalPrequirement. 22 mgP/kg)yieldedmorethansubterranean 20 mgP/kg)andBalansaclover(cv.Bolta: of 17mgP/kg.Crimsonclover(cv. clover buthadacriticalColwellPrequirement (cv. clover was27mgP/kg.Frenchserradella The criticalColwellPrequirementforsubterranean Burrinjuck also aloweryieldthanthesubterraneanclover. had alowercriticalColwellPrequirement,but The mixtureofwhitelupinandsubterraneanclover subterranean clover(withtheexceptionofcv. that forsubterraneancloverandyieldedaswell Colwell Prequirementsapproximately60%of serradella (cv.Margurita:17mgP/kg)hadcritical 20 mgP/kg,Santorini:19P/kg)andFrench clover was31mgP/kg.Yellowserradella(cvs.Avila: The criticalColwellPrequirementofsubterranean Yass 22 Figure 1.Frenchserradellagrownat22mg/kgColwellP(foreground)andsubterraneanclover(backright)also

mg/kg ColwellP.

Margurita) yieldedaswellsubterranean

Dixie:

Dixie)

Avila). but werelowerthanthatofcv.Narrikup. different fromsubterraneanclovercv.Izmir, Serradella speciesyieldswerenotsignificantly requirements uptohalfthatofsubterraneanclover. clover (cv.ZuluII:24mgP/kg)hadcriticalP serradella (cv.Santorini:24mgP/kg)andarrowleaf serradella (cv.Margurita:24mgP/kg),yellow clover. Roseclover(cv.Hykon:29mgP/kg),French has asignificantly lowercriticalPrequirement first timethatFrenchserradella (cv.Margurita) The fieldexperimentshaveidentified forthe Conclusion yields tosubterraneanclover (25–26mgP/kg). 18 mgP/kg)hadsimilarcriticalPrequirementsand (cv. clover. Theremainingcloverspecies,barrelmedic significantly lowerthanthatofsubterranean clover. TheFrenchserradellayieldwasnot requirements lessthanhalfthatofsubterranean clover (cv.ZuluII:12mgP/kg)hadcriticalP serradella (cv.Santorini:7mgP/kg)andarrowleaf French serradella(cv.Margurita:10mgP/kg),yellow clover (cvv.IzmirandNarrikup)was25–26mgP/kg. critical ColwellPrequirementofsubterranean lower thanthosemeasuredatBelfrayden.The Dry matteryieldsandcriticalPrequirementswere Beckom

Sultan-SU: 30mgP/kg)andbiserrula(cv.Casbah SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | 115

nutrition & soil than subterranean clover and is also capable of producing equivalent peak spring biomass. This result, similar to that for yellow serradella, confirmed the substantial differences in critical STP requirements of the serradella species relative to subterranean clover. These differences in external P requirement occurred whilst roots of all species were highly colonised by arbuscular mycorrizhal fungi, despite their reputed role in P nutrition of pasture legumes. The results indicate that the serradella species could potentially be used to achieve productive, low P-input pasture systems. References Coombes, N 2009, DiGGer design generator under correlation and blocking. R package version 0.2-1. Colwell, JD 1963, ‘The estimation of the phosphorus fertiliser requirements of wheat in southern New South Wales by soil analysis’, Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, vol. 3, pp. 190–197. Gourley, CJP, Melland, AR, Waller, RA, Awty, IM, Smith, AP, Peverill, KI & Hannah, MC 2007, Making better fertiliser decisions for grazed pastures in Australia, Victorian Government Department of Primary Industries, Melbourne. www.asris.csiro.au/downloads/BFD/Making%20 Better%20Fertiliser%20Decisions%20 for%20Grazed%20Pastures%20in%20 Australia.pdf, viewed 29 April 2016. Gourley, CJP, Powell, JM, Dougherty, WJ & Weaver, DM 2007, ‘Nutrient budgeting as an approach to improving nutrient management on Australian dairy farms’, Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, Vol. 47, pp. 1064–1074. Moody, PW 2007, ‘Interpretation of a single- point P buffering index for adjusting critical levels of the Colwell soil P test’, Australian Journal of Soil Research, Vol. 45, pp. 55–62. Acknowledgements Edward Story of ‘Werong’ near Yass; Peter Southwell of ‘Fairview’ near Burrinjuck; Gnadbro Pastoral Company of ‘Lyndoch’ near Belfrayden and Peter Carmody of ‘Wybimbie’ near Beckom are thanked for providing land for these experiments and their support for the research is gratefully acknowledged. Meat and Livestock Australia, Australian Wool Innovation, NSW DPI, CSIRO and the University of Western Australia financially supported this research through the ‘Phosphorus efficient legume pasture systems project’ (B.PUE.0104). Results presented here are a small component of a larger research effort supported by the above organisations.

116 | NSW Department of Primary Industries DPI, Wagga Wagga; Canberra; Canberra; Table 1.Rhizobiuminoculantgroupandstrainfordifferentpasture species. an appropriaterhizobiumstrainandplacedina were inoculatedwithaslurryofpeatcontaining of viableseedperpot.Aftersevendays,pots legumes (Table1)weresownatarateof50mg P identify thetraitsinfluencingexternalcritical A glasshouseexperimentwasestablishedto Experiment differences inexternalcriticalPrequirement. is importantinprovidingconfidencearoundfield affect criticalPrequirementsofpasturelegumes species. Understandingtraitdifferencesthat 90% ofmaximumyield)pasturelegume extractable-P concentrationrequiredtoachieve critical phosphorus(P)requirements(i.e.thesoil likely todeterminedifferencesinexternal This researchidentifiedtheplanttraitsmost Introduction » Key findings Graeme Sandral, phosphorus requirements ofpasture legumes Understanding differences external incritical Trifolium subterraneumL. Trifolium spumosumL. Trifolium incarnatumL. Medicago truncatulaGaertn. Trifolium purpureumLoisel. Trifolium hirtumAll. Trifolium glanduliferumBoiss. Trifolium vesiculosumSavi. Trifolium michelianumSavi. Biserrula pelecinusL. Ornithopus sativusBrot. Ornithopus compressusL. Scientific name »

requirement ofpasturelegumes.Twelve species haslowercriticalPrequirementsthanT.subterraneum. phosphorus (P)foragingabilityandhelpsexplainwhytheOrnithopus compared withTrifoliumsubterraneum,whichprovidesforagreat serradella) hadasignificantlyhighroothaircylindervolume Ornithopus sativus(Frenchserradella)andO.compressus(yellow University of University andDaniel Kidd Dr Megan Ryan Western Australia Andrew Price, Dr

Rebecca Haling, subterranean clover bladder clover crimson clover barrel medic purple clover rose clover gland clover arrowleaf clover balansa clover biserrula French serradella yellow serradella Common name Dr WaynePitt, Dr Richard Simpson andAdam CSIRO, Stefanski (0–48 mmheight)andun-amendedsubsoil. cut attheinterfaceofP-amendedtopsoil removed fromthepotasanintactcoreand sowing. Shootswerecutatsoillevel.Soilwas a week.Plantswereharvestedsixweeksafter field capacitybywateringtoweightthreetimes Pots weremaintainedatapproximately80% surface fertiliserapplicationonpastures. to mimicthestratificationofPthatoccurswith for eachpasturelegumespecies.Thiswasused 30, 60,90,140and250mg/kg)wereprepared each pot.FivereplicatesofPrate(0,15, 0–50 mmdepth)wasthenaddedtothetopof depth). Anadditional403gofP-amended(topsoil Colwell P)withnoappliedP(subsoil50–200mm were filledwith1.2kgofalowPsoil(6mg/kg PVC pots(90mmdiameter;210height) (July–August, WaggaWagga,NSW,Australia). 20 °C,minimum16°C)undernaturallight temperature-controlled glasshouse(maximum andChris Shane Hildebrand Leura Bartolo Dixie Sultan-SU Electra Hykon Prima Zulu II Bolta Casbah Margurita Santorini Cultivar SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | Group C,WSM1325 Group C,WSM1325 Group C,WSM1325 Group AM,WSM1115 Group C,WSM1325 Group C,WSM1325 Group C,WSM1325 Group C,WSM1325 Group C,WSM1325 Biserrula special,WSM1497 Group S,WSM471 Group S,WSM471 group andstrain Rhizobium inoculant

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nutrition & soil Roots were washed from each section of the topsoil Results core, and the entire core of subsoil. Roots from one of the quarters of the topsoil core were immediately Shoot dry matter scanned using a flatbed scanner and analysed for root Maximum shoot dry matter ranged from length and average root diameter using WinRHIZO 1.75 g/pot (Biserrula pelecinus) to 2.53 g/pot (Regent Instruments Inc., Quebec, Canada). Using (Medicago truncatula) (1.4-fold) while critical external these roots, two images of fully elongated root hairs requirements for P ranged from 57 (Ornithopus were taken using a Nikon SMZ25 stereomicroscope sativus) to 203 mg applied P/kg soil (Trifolium fitted with a high resolution DS-Fi2 digital camera subterraneum) (3.6-fold, Figure 1). Lower critical and digital sight DS-U3 camera controller. external requirements for P were not associated with a lower maximum yield. The Ornithopus spp. had Shoots and roots were dried at 70 °C before being significantly lower critical external requirements for P weighed for dry mass. Root dry mass from the quarter than all other species (57–63 mg applied P/kg soil). of topsoil that was scanned was used to calculate specific root length (length per unit dry mass). The Root dry matter total length of roots in the topsoil was then calculated Topsoil root dry matter for most species increased based on the total dry mass measured in the topsoil in response to declining P. However, species and the specific root length of the scanned quarter. generally reached a low-P threshold below which Root hair length was determined by measuring the root dry matter was not maintained. Both the length of 10 root hairs (five per image) using the peak in topsoil root dry matter and the rate of P software package ImageJ (Rasband 1997–2014). application at which it occurred varied between species. Trifolium subterraneum and T. versiculosum had the most prominent peaks in topsoil root dry matter (0.52–0.47 g) and these peaks occurred at a higher rate of P application (90 mg P applied/kg) than that observed for any other species.

2.5

2.0

Hykon 1.5 Leura Margarita

1.0 Prima Santorini Shoot dry matter (g/pot) Sultan 0.5 Zulu II

0.0 0 50 100 150 200 250 Phosphorus rate (mg/kg) Figure 1. Shoot dry matter in response to P applied for seven of the 12 legume species. l.s.d. = 0.05 g for species × P applied (P <0.05; n = 5).

118 | NSW Department of Primary Industries 34 (lefthandside)and88mg/kg(rightside).Scalebar:500micrometres. root haircylindervolumes(136–168cm Ornithopus spp.andB.pelecinusachievedthelargest response tolowPsupply(figures2and3).The Figure 2.Roothairsof ( RHCV ofthespeciesincreasedbetween2.0 volume (RHCV) haircylinder Root levels ofappliedPrelativetomostotherspecies the topsoil.Thesemaximumsoccurredatverylow represented approximately50%ofthevolume T.

purpureum ) and4.3-fold(O.compressusin T. subterraneumcv.Leura(tophalf)andO.compressuscvSantorini(bottomatColwellPlevelsof 3 ), which cylinder volumes(upto41.7cm consistently hadamongstthelowestroothair (15–30 mgPappliedkg).Trifoliumsubterraneum levels ofappliedP(e.g.at15mg/kgR The relationshipwasgenerallystrongestatlower correlated withthecriticalexternalPrequirement. hair cylinderperunitrootdrymass)wasnegatively area oftheroothaircylinder(i.e.surface topsoil. Amongstthespecies,specificsurface less than15%explorationofthevolume SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | 3 ), whichrepresented 2 =0.87).

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nutrition & soil 180

160

140 Hykon 120 Leura 100 Margarita Prima RHCV 80 Santorini 60 Sultan

40 Zulu II

0 0 50 100 150 200 250 Phosphorus rate (mg/kg) Figure 3. Root hair cylinder volume (RHCV) in response to P applied for seven of the 12 legume species. l.s.d. = 0.05 for species × P applied (P <0.05; n = 5).

Discussion Yang, Z, Culvenor, R, Haling, R, Stefanski, A, Ryan, M, Long roots combined with long root hairs Sandral, G, Kidd, D, Lambers, H & Simpson, R 2015, resulted in a large RHCV, which proved to be an ‘Variation in root traits associated with nutrient efficient strategy for acquiring P and maximising foraging amongst temperate pasture legumes shoot growth in lower P soils. Among the wider and grasses’, Grass and Forage Science, In Press. range of species in the present experiment, the Acknowledgements Ornithopus species demonstrated the greatest Meat and Livestock Australia, along with Australian ability to achieve a large root hair cylinder. Wool Innovation, NSW DPI, CSIRO and UWA Consistent with findings by Yang et al. (2015) financially supported this research through the and Haling et al. (2016), T. subterraneum ranked project ‘Phosphorus efficient legume pasture amongst the poorest species for nutrient foraging systems’ (B.PUE.0104). Results presented here potential because of its very short root hairs. are a small component of a larger research Conclusion effort supported by the above organisations. The results indicate that the Ornithopus species has a greater P foraging ability than T. subterraneum, which is likely to explain the lower external critical P requirement of Ornithopus species. This is further supported by data showing that internal P efficiencies were similar for all legume species. The very low ranking of Ornithopus species critical P requirements relative to T. subterraneum suggests that pastures based on the Ornithopus spp. could deliver an approximately one third reduction in P fertiliser inputs. References Rasband, WS 1997–2014, ImageJ. U. S. National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA. Haling, R, Yang, Z, Shadwell, N, Culvenor, R, Stefanski, A, Ryan, M, Sandral, G, Kidd, D, Lambers, H & Simpson, R 2016, ‘Growth and root dry matter allocation by plants with contrasting external critical phosphorus requirements’, Plant and Soil submitted.

120 | NSW Department of Primary Industries and lupinscanolawereharvestedforgrain. was cutforhayorbrownmanuredatpeakDM, at peakdrymatter(DM),vetchandlegumepasture peas wereharvestedforgrainorbrownmanured with andwithoutNwereusedascontrol.Field or highdensitylegumepasture.Wheat–wheat–wheat The breakcropswerecanola,lupins,fieldpea,vetch in fouryears)witharangeofcropsequences. years) anddoublebreaks(breakcropusedtwice with singlebreak(breakcropusedonceinfour three setsoftreatmentsphasedacrossyears of breakcropstosubsequentcrops.Therewere from 2011–2014thatfocusedontheNbenefits year cropsequenceexperimentwasconducted At theGrahamCentresiteatWaggaWagga,afour- of incomefrombreakcropsinthelongerterm. savings fromweedcontrol,couldoffsettheloss to subsequentcerealsfromthebreakcrops,and The questioniswhetherthenitrogen(N)benefits legume crops,willresultinnilincomefortheyear. management options,suchasbrownmanuringgrain not asprofitablecereals.Indeed,someofthe growers animpressionthatbroadleafoptionsare and low/variableincomefrombreakcropsgive control cropdiseases.However,thehighinputcost options tomanagedifficultweedsaswell can improvesoilfertilityandgivegrowersmore Including breakcropsintocroppingrotations Introduction Dr GuangdiLi, grain andprofitability production species incrop sequences to improve adoptionof broadleafIncreasing on-farm » » Key findings » » treatments aswellcontinuouscerealwithoutnitrogeninput. a singlebreakcrop(2:8)andthelowestforallbrownmanure The profit/costratiowasthehighestwhencanolausedas gross margin($529/year)acrossthreeyears. wheat–wheat rotation)hadthehighestaverage The rotationwithcanolaasasinglebreakcrop(canola– Richard Lowrie, Graeme Poile andAdam Lowrie when vetchwasbrownmanuredorcutforhay. hay inY1.Therewasnodifferencegrainyield yield inY2was18%higherthanpasturecutfor pasture wasbrownmanured,thewheatgrain grain inyearone(Y1)(P=0.055).Incontrast,when (Y2) was10%higherthanfieldpeaharvestedfor grain yieldfromthefirstwheatcropinyeartwo treatment. Whenfieldpeawasbrownmanured, yields tendedtobehigheronthebrownmanure wheat crop(inyearthree(Y3))althoughthegrain benefit frombreakcropsdiminishedinthesecond and pasture)whenbrownmanured(Table1).The crop followinganybreak(fieldpea,vetch Grain yieldincreasedsignificantlyforthefirstwheat Grain yield Results spring 2013. Figure 1.CropsequenceexperimentatPaddock45in SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | NSW DPI, Wagga NSW

Wagga 121

nutrition & soil Table 1. Crop yield for the various crops under different crop management. 2011 Crop 2012 2013 Grain (t/ha) Y1 management Y2 Y3 Y1 Y2 Y3 Field pea Grain Wheat Wheat 2.5 3.5 3.5 Brown manured Wheat Wheat 3.7 4.1 Significance P = 0.055 n.s. Vetch Hay cut Wheat Wheat 3.4 3.6 Brown manured Wheat Wheat 3.7 3.8 Significance n.s. n.s. Pasture Hay cut Wheat Wheat 3.1 3.5 Brown manured Wheat Wheat 3.6 3.6 Significance P = 0.01 n.s. Wheat+N Grain Wheat–N Wheat–N 5.2 2.4 3.1 Grain Wheat+N Wheat+N 3.5 3.6 Significance P <0.05 P <0.05 n.s. not significant.

Under brown manure treatments, there was no with N fertiliser applied. Due to the loss of a year’s difference in wheat grain yield in Y2 between break income when break crops were brown manured, crops (field pea, vetch and pasture) (Table 1). For the the gross margin was lower than grain harvested. second wheat crop, the grain yield from the field pea The profit/cost ratio was the highest when canola brown manure treatment was significantly higher was used as a single break crop (2:8) and the than those from vetch and pasture. For the hay cut lowest for all brown manure treatments as well treatment, wheat following vetch produced more as continuous cereal without N input (Table 2). grain than that following pasture (Table 1). There Results indicated that the nitrogen benefit from was no difference in grain yield whether wheat the brown manured treatments itself could not crops followed field pea or lupins in Y2 or Y3. offset the cost of establishment of break crops For continuous cereal (control), the grain yield was and loss of production. Nevertheless, the brown 48% higher on the 75 kg N/ha treatment (25 kg N/ha manure option could offer a great opportunity to at sowing and 50 kg N/ha at tillering) compared with reduce herbicide cost if the paddock has a weed the nil N treatment (Table 1). The yield increase was problem, or had herbicide-resistant weeds. lower in Y3 compared with Y2. However, the grain In general, the double break crop option improves yield from the N treatment was much lower than the gross margin of all the crop management those following break crops, indicating that the N options, particularly for the brown manure benefit from break crops was greater than fertiliser options. The gross margin increased more than N for at least two wheat crops after the break crop. $100/year when canola was used as a break Gross margin analysis crop in combination with the brown manure Gross margin analysis showed that averaged across option with pasture and pea, compared with two phases, the rotation with canola as a single rotation with a single break crop (Table 2). break crop (canola–wheat–wheat rotation) had the Pasture cutting for hay with one canola crop as highest average gross margin ($529/year) across double-break crops had the highest gross margin three years (Table 2). Cutting for hay significantly ($524/year), which is much higher than continuous improved financial return for the rotation including cereals with N fertiliser. Double-break crops offer vetch ($482/year) or pasture ($453/year) as a break more opportunity to reduce disease incidence, as crop compared with the brown manure option, well as more options to control difficult weeds. which is higher than the continuous-wheat option

122 | NSW Department of Primary Industries jointly fundedbyNSWDPIandGRDC. production andprofitability’,CSP00146,2012–15, species incropsequencestoimprovegrain increased on-farmadoptionofbroadleaf This experimentispartoftheproject‘Facilitating Acknowledgments Table 2.AveragegrossmarginanalysisunderdifferentcropsequencesattheGrahamCentresite. Brown manure Hay Grain Grain Grain Grain Grain Hay Brown manure Brown manure Crop management Pea Vetch Pasture Vetch Pasture Pea Lupin −N +N Pea Lupin Pasture Pea Pasture Canola Treatment Income $558 $553 $530 $825 $776 $695 $682 $663 $875 $770 $781 $853 $678 $664 $826 Continuous cereals Double break Single break Variable cost $255 $257 $246 $342 $323 $287 $279 $274 $415 $301 $295 $328 $277 $271 $297 SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | Gross margin $303 $296 $284 $482 $453 $407 $403 $390 $460 $469 $486 $524 $401 $393 $529 Profit/cost ratio 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.1 2.6 2.6 2.6 2.4 2.5 2.8 123

nutrition & soil Options for reducing nitrous oxide emissions from dryland cropping in the southern NSW grains region

Dr Guangdi Li and Dr De Li Liu NSW DPI, Wagga Wagga; Dr Graeme Schwenke NSW DPI, Tamworth

Key findings

»» Nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions respond to large rainfall events.

»» Most N2O emissions were generated after the crop was harvested.

»» Tillage did not increase N2O emissions significantly in the first two years under wheat and canola. »» Including perennial grass into legume-based

pastures would reduce N2O emissions.

Introduction In 2015 (year 4), a wheat crop was sown to capture A four-year rotational experiment with wheat–canola– any residual nitrogen fixed from the legume crops. The N O emission from legume-derived nitrogen legumes–wheat in sequence was established at 2 Wagga Wagga in 2012. The soil is a red kandosol and was measured during the final crop (wheat). the long-term average rainfall at the site is 541 mm. Measurements The objectives were to: An automated gas chromatograph system was 1. reduce nitrous oxide emissions setup on the site (Figure 2). The system consisted from dryland grains cropping. of 12 pneumatically operated static chambers 2. improve nitrogen use efficiency. linked to an automated sampling system to

3. validate and develop process-based measure N2O, CH4 and CO2 eight times a day biogeochemistry models. over 24 hours for three years. Manual chambers 4. simulate net greenhouse gas emission under (24 chambers) were also installed to cover more current and projected future climate scenarios. treatments than the automated system allowed.

This article reports on the N2O emissions from different crops under different tillage systems. Treatment and design The crop sequence was wheat–canola–legumes– wheat from 2012 to 2015. The experimental area was divided into four quadrants. The gas emissions equipment was installed in one quadrant and moved to another quadrant each year (Figure 1). The experimental design was a randomised split-plot design with tillage (tilled vs. no-till) for the whole plot and nitrogen rates (0, 20, 50 and 100 kg N/ha) as subplots in 2012 (year 1) and 2013 (year 2), or legume types as subplots in 2014 (year 3). In 2014, grain legumes (field pea and lupins) were either harvested for grain or brown manured. Forage legumes (vetch and annual legumes) were either cut for hay or brown manured.

124 | NSW Department of Primary Industries Figure 1.CropsequenceandtreatmentlayoutfortheN 2 O project. SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | 125

nutrition & soil Figure 2. An automated greenhouse gas measurement system setup with solar power supply. Dr Yantao Song is taking gas samples in the field (bottom right).

Results There was no significant difference in N2O emissions between tillage and no-till treatment N O emission under crops 2 in any year. However, applying N fertiliser at a Total N O emitted was 81–343 g N O-N/ha for a 2 2 higher rate increased N O emissions compared wheat crop in 2012 and 154–354 g N O-N/ha for a 2 2 with nil nitrogen treatments (Table 1). canola crop in 2013 (Table 1). The daily N2O emission rate was relatively low ranging from −0.81 to In a wheat crop in 2012, the nitrogen inhibitor

Entec® significantly reduced N2O emissions 6.71 g N2O-N/ha/day measured from auto-chambers on canola in 2013. These losses are comparable compared with normal urea, but no difference with those recorded for rain-fed wheat in other was detected between normal urea and Green temperate regions of south-eastern Australia. Urea™ (urease inhibitor). For the canola crop in 2013, there was no difference in N O emissions The emission factor (%N emitted as N O compared 2 2 between nitrogen rates when Entec® was used. with N applied in fertiliser) averaged 0.06% based on data over two years. This was nearly identical There was no yield benefit from using N inhibitors. As to that measured from a canola crop grown on a a result, the gross margin was lower when N inhibitors sandy soil (0.06%) in Western Australia, but only a were used simply due to the higher input costs. quarter of the current emission factor for all non- irrigated N-fertilised crop in Australia (0.2%).

126 | NSW Department of Primary Industries Table 2.N There wasadistinctseasonalvariationinN Table 1.N N contributed. Significantrainfalleventsstimulated though temperaturechangescouldalsohave emission ratesthatfollowedtherainfallpattern, day beforesowing),N (tillage onthetilledtreatmentswascarriedoutone Immediately aftertillageandsowingoperations emissions occurredafterthecropwasharvested. (Figure 3).TheN two significantrainfalleventsinlateMayandJune and no-tilltreatmentsincreasedcoincidingwith early summerandinthefollowingautumn in thetilledtreatmentduringwinter,latespring, more than10mmofrain(Figure3).MostN Lupin(grainharvested) Crop type Subclovermonoculture(S) Lucernemonoculture(L) Significance Phalaris–subclovermix(PS) Phalaris–lucernemix(PL) Wheat –2012 Treatment Pea(grainharvested) Vetch(haycut) Canola –2013 Pasture(haycut) Mean Canola –2013 Treatment Pasture –2013–2015 2 O emissions,particularlysummerstormsdelivering Urea Entec® Green Urea™ Entec® Urea Legumes –2014 2 2 O emissionunderlegumes. O emissionsandemissionfactors.

2 O emissionswereslightlyhigher 100 0 (kg N/ha) N rate 100 100 0 25 50 0 100 100 2 O emissionfrombothtilled

Manual chambers(219daysfrom7/8/2012to14/3/2013) Manual chambers(334daysfrom23/5/2013to22/4/2014) Auto-chambers (366daysfrom23/5/2013to22/4/2014) No-till N No-till 255 280 262 321 280 N 2 179 105 172 250 305 319 154 186 300 O-N emission(g/ha) 2 81 O-N emission(g/ha) 2 2 O O P =0.057 Manual chambers658daysfrom14/5/2013to3/3/15) 417 517 405 438 Manual chambers(279daysfrom28/5/14to3/3/15) 130 294 218 343 354 332 305 263 196 306 Till 335 353 334 394 354 Till There werenosignificantdifferencesinN N crop managements.However,N between differentlegumecropsunder was 354gN compared withtillagetreatment(Table2). across allcrops,thecumulativeN no-till treatments(P=0.09)(Table2).Averaged tended toincreaseaftertillagecomparedwith N there wasnooverallsignificantdifferenceindaily compared withtheno-tilltreatment.However, and 280gN No-till treatmentreducedN 2 2 O emittedbetweentilledandno-tilltreatments. O emissionunderlegumes Tillage, NS N rate,P<0.01 Significance N type,P<0.05 Tillage, NS N rate,NS N rate,P=0.058 Tillage, NS Significance Tillage, P=0.09 Crop type,NS SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | 2 2 O-N/ha/day underno-tilltreatment. O-N/ha/day undertillagetreatment -7.6% (PLvsPS) -19.3% (LvsS) Emission reduction 2 O emissionby21% No-till Emission factor(%) 0.10 0.09 0.02 0.05 0.05 0.07 0.03 2 O emissions 2 O emission Emission reduction −15.2% (LvsPL) −3.0% (SvsPS) 23.9% 20.6% 21.5% 18.4% 21.0% 2 O emissions -0.03 -0.03 0.16 0.21 0.09 0.02 0.07 Till 127

nutrition & soil Figure 3. a) Air and soil temperatures (°C); b) Rainfall (mm) and water-filled pore space (WFPS, %) under tilled and no-till treatments; c) Daily N2O emission rate (g N2O-N/ha/day) under tilled and no-till treatments; d) Daily N2O emission rate

(g N2O-N/ha/day) under 0 and 100 kg N/ha treatments for a canola crop in 2013. Lines on c) to d) are fitted splines for respective treatments.

At the perennial pasture site, the N2O emission has species were actively growing (Figure 4). After the been monitored over two years since May 2013. pasture was sprayed out, the N2O emissions increased The pastures were sown in May 2012 and sprayed dramatically when large rainfall events occurred. out in October 2014 in preparation for cropping in 2015. The rainfall events during the summer months stimulated N2O emissions when subclover had died out or lucerne and phalaris were less active, compared with the growing season when all pasture

128 | NSW Department of Primary Industries emission (517gN 658 days,lucernemonoculturehadthehighestN emissions betweenpasturetypes(P=0.057).Over industry’, 2011–15)wasconducted attheWagga emissions fromtheNewSouth Walesdrylandgrains 01202.027, ‘Optionsforreducing nitrousoxide National AgriculturalNitrous Oxide ResearchProgram: (Filling theResearchGapAustralian Government up theautomatedchambersystem.Theproject of Technologyfortechnicalsupportwhilesetting and ChristianBrunkfromQueenslandUniversity Vince Richard Lowrie,AlbertOates,BinbinXuand We aregratefultoAdamLowrie,GraemePoile, Acknowledgments N When legumesweresownasamonoculture,the There wasasignificantdifferenceincumulativeN Figure 4.N monocultures. Forexample,theN were reducedcomparedwithcorrespondinglegume compared withlucernegrownonitsown(Table2). reduced by15%inphalaris–lucernemixtureswards had thelowestemission(405gN from May2013to2015;measuredusingmanualchambers. legumes weremixedwithphalaris,N with theannualsystem(Table2).However,when 2 O emissionswerereducedby19%compared

N2O (g/ha/day) N2O (g/ha/day)

10.0 12.0 14.0 van -2.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 -2.0 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10-33-71 71-32-31 50-42-11 22-03-15 22-11-14 25-07-14 27-03-14 27-11-13 30-07-13 01-04-13 10-33-71 71-32-31 50-42-11 22-03-15 22-11-14 25-07-14 27-03-14 27-11-13 30-07-13 01-04-13

2 der RijtfromNSWDPIforfieldassistance; O emissionsundera)lucernevssubclover,andb)phalarismixedwithsubcloverovertwoyears 2 O-N/ha) andphalaris–subclover rainfall rainfall a) Legumes mono-culture b) Pasture mixture 2 2 O-N/ha) (Table O emissionswere 2 O emissions lucerne monoculture phalaris-lucerne mix phalaris-lucerne

2). 2 2 O O of AgricultureandWaterResourcesGRDC. DPI withfinancialsupportfromtheDepartment Wagga AgriculturalInstituteandfundedbyNSW SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | subclover monoculture subclover phalaris-subclover mix phalaris-subclover 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

129 Rainfall (mm) Rainfall (mm)

nutrition & soil Nutrient supply from soil organic matter under different farming practices in the Central West of NSW

Dr Bhupinder Pal Singh, Jharna R Sarker, Yunying Fang, Satvinder Singh Bawa and Dr Warwick Dougherty NSW DPI, Menangle; Dr Warwick Badgery NSW DPI, Orange; Dr Annette Cowie NSW DPI, Armidale

Key findings »» Conventional tillage enhances soil organic carbon (SOC) turnover with the potential to simultaneously increase plant available nutrients [nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), sulfur (S)] in the soil compared with no-till and perennial pasture. »» Across farming management practices and under ideal soil moisture, soil organic matter (SOM) could have supplied up to 45 kg N, 16 kg P and 19 kg S/ha in the absence of plant carbon (C) input. »» Over a longer period (126 days), particularly if there is a lack of plant C input (e.g. a normal fallow period), any P or S released via native SOM turnover over a shorter period (e.g. over 30 days) would have been immobilised by microorganisms and/or adsorbed to soil minerals, hence decreasing P and S availability for crop uptake.

Introduction Total C (0−10 cm) 1.2%–1.4% Total N (0−10 cm) 0.10%–0.12% Soil organic matter is an important source of pH (water) 5.5–6.3 nutrients, including nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur, for plants and a key indicator of soil quality. However, decomposition of SOM and Farming practices its nutrient supply potential could vary with The site has four farming practices (see http://cwfs. farming management practices. It is important org.au/2015/12/10/cwfs-aog-soil-carbon-results- to understand the supply of nutrients under summary for more information (sighted 22-02-2016)). different farming practices to optimise grain The selected rotation treatments in each cropping systems productivity and profitability. of the farming practices in May 2014 (i.e. The aim of this study was to examine the at end of the fallow period) were: impact of long-term farming practices on SOM »» CT (Pa_LFW) = conventional tillage (pasture decomposition and N, P and S net release in 2013, long fallow wheat in 2014) in soil, thus evaluating the nutrient supply »» CT (SFWus_Pa) = CT (short fallow wheat/ value of SOM in grain cropping systems. undersown pasture in 2013, pasture in 2014) Site description and methodology »» RT (Pa_LFW) = reduced tillage (pasture in 2013, long fallow wheat in 2014) Location Condobolin Agricultural »» RT (LFWus_Pa) = RT (long fallow wheat/ Research and Advisory undersown pasture in 2013, pasture in 2014) Station NSW »» NT (Ba_Pu) = no-till (barley in 2013, pulse in 2014) Coordinates 33°05'19"S and 147°08'58"E, »» PP = perennial pasture (195 m above sea level) History Established in 1998, (16-year- Soil samples were collected (0–10 cm) from old farming systems trial) each plot, sieved (6.5 mm sieve), air dried and Climate Hot, semi-arid climate stored at 4 °C for various analyses (Table 1). Soil Red chromosol, 27% clay (sandy clay loam)

130 | NSW Department of Primary Industries extractable SO extractable mineralS 2. NetmineralisableS= extractable mineralN 1. NetmineralisableN= respired CO one litrebucketat22±0.5°Cfor18weeks.Soil- of WHC.Thesoilswereincubatedinasealed, vials withtheirmoisturecontentadjustedto60% Soil samples(35g)wereweighedinto70mLplastic incubationLaboratory andanalyses Table 1:Basicpropertiesofsoil(0–10cm).Valuesinbracketsare±standarderrors. Over 126daysofincubation,185–370mgCO organic turnoverSoil carbon Results 3. NetavailableP=Colwell SOC turnoveracrossthefarmingpractices. might havealsocontributedtodifferencesin Changes inorganicchemicalcompounds microbial attackcomparedwiththeCTtreatments. soil aggregationanddecreaseddecomposabilityto RT (Pa_LFW)treatmentsmighthaveenhancedSOM treatments. LesssoildisturbanceinthePP,NTand wheat [CT(Pa_LFW)]thanthePP,NTorRT(Pa_LFW) phases transitioningtopasture[CT(SFWus_Pa)]or under conventionaltillage,whetherrotational (Figure 1).TherewasagreaterturnoverofSOC soil wasreleasedacrossdifferentfarmingpractices mineral N(NH PO was quantifiedusingthefollowingequations: processes duringSOMturnoverover30or126days minerals and/orprecipitationwithmetalcations) organic forms)andfixation(adsorptiononsoil to inorganicforms),immobilisation(inorganic following thesimultaneousmineralisation(organic measured. NetnutrientavailabilityforN,PorS PP NT (Ba_Pu) RT (LFWus_Pa) RT (Pa_LFW) CT (SFWus_Pa) CT (Pa_LFW) Treatment 4 -P (standardColwell-P)wereperiodically 2 -C (mineralisableC),2MKCl-extractable 4 4 + 2- -N andNO -S, and0.5MNaHCO day30 orday126 day30 orday126

Total C(%) 1.4 (±0.1) 1.3 (±0.0) 1.4 (±0.1) 1.2 (±0.1) 1.3 (±0.1) 1.4 (±0.1) day30 orday126 3 - -N), 0.016MKH −extractablemineralS −extractablemineralN –ColwellP 3 -extractable 2 0.12 (±0.01) 0.11 (±0.00) 0.12 (±0.00) 0.11 (±0.01) 0.11 (±0.00) 0.12 (±0.00) Total N(%) PO day0 2 -C/kg 4 - day0 day0 paper. See detailsofabbreviatedlegendsinthemaintext farming practicesover126daysoflaboratoryincubation. Figure 1.CumulativeSOCmineralisedunderdifferent which mightbeduetoSmicrobial immobilisation. net Simmobilisationofupto11mg/kgsoil(Figure3), treatments. Thereafter(over126days),therewasa over 30daysofincubationacrossthefarming was anetreleaseofmineralS(4–20mgS/kg Consistent withthedynamicsofnetavailableP,there inorganic Pbyclaymineralsandmetalcations. due tomicrobialimmobilisationand/orfixationof to theothertreatments(Figure3).Thiscouldbe the greatestdecreaseandPPlowest,relative between 3and−23mg/kgsoil,withtheRThaving of incubation,netavailablePwasnegative,ranging available P(−5mg/kgsoil).However,over126days in CT of incubationacrossallthetreatmentsexcept Net availablePwas3–16mg/kgsoilover30days CT higher intheCTtreatments,particularly with SOCturnover,netmineralisableNwas 126 daysofincubation(Figure3).Consistent 30 days(Figure2)and11–40mg/kgsoilover Net mineralisableNwas8–22mg/kgsoilover Nutrient supplypotential ofSOM Cumulative mineralised C

(Pa_LFW), thantheotherfarmingpractices. 12.5 (±1.3) 22.0 (±3.4) -1 18.5 (±4.1) Mineral N

(mg CO - C kg soil) 3.2 (±0.8) 1.7 (±0.5) 2 3.2 (±0.8) (Pa_LFW) wheretherewasadecreasein 100 200 300 400 0 04 08 0 2 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | Before incubation(dayzero) PP NT(Ba_Pu) RT(LFWus_Pa) RT(Pa_LFW) (SFWus_Pa) CT (Pa_LFW) CT Incubation time (Days) time Incubation 14.6 (±0.4) 30.6 (±2.5) 11.9 (±1.9) 22.2 (±3.6) 17.3 (±3.9) Mineral P 7.3 (±1.3) 16.2 (±0.7) Mineral S 1.4 (±0.8) 2.3 (±1.5) 0.1 (±0.1) 9.7 (±0.5) 1.4 (±0.8)

soil) 131

nutrition & soil Figure 2. Effect of farming practices on net nutrient availability in soil over 30 days of laboratory incubation. See details of abbreviated legends in the main text of the paper.

Figure 3. Effect of farming practices on net nutrient availability in soil over 126 days of laboratory incubation. See details of abbreviated legends in the main text of the paper.

132 | NSW Department of Primary Industries West FarmingSystemsandon-farmcollaborators. funded byNSWDPIandGRDC.ItalsoinvolvesCentral fractions andtheirfunctionality’,DAN00169,jointly through improvedknowledgeofsoilorganiccarbon resilient andprofitablegraincroppingsystems This experimentispartoftheproject‘Building Acknowledgements via no-tillorincludinglong-termpasturephases. nutrient turnoverwhileimprovingsoilstructure for microbialattackversusslowingSOClossand that disruptssoilaggregatesandexposesSOM enhancing SOCturnoverviaconventionaltillage perennial pasture.Thereisatrade-offbetween release fromSOMrelativetonotillorlong-term tillage increasedSOCturnoverandnetnutrient farming practicessuggestthattheconventional to meetcropdemand.Theresultsontheeffectof these nutrients(includingNasrequired)isneeded minerals inthesoil.Hence,additionalsupplyof could belockedupbymicroorganismsand/or release fromSOM,mineralPandSinparticular productivity. However,aftertheinitialnutrients value intermsofN,PandSsupplytosupportcrop NSW DPIdataindicatethatnativeSOMhasafertiliser Summary immobilisation oradsorptiononmineralsinsoil. nutrient lockingeffect,forexampleviamicrobial nutrients needtobesuppliedcounteractthe the longerterm(126days).Thus,theseessential mineral PandScouldbelockedupinsoilover Our dataalsosuggestthatanyshort-termreleased 13–52 kgN,4–21Pand5–26Sperhectare. our studysuggeststhatSOMcouldsupply the soilbulkdensityof1.3t/m under idealsoilmoistureconditions.Considering and Scouldalsobereleasedoveraone-monthperiod mineral Noverafour-monthperiod,whileP This studysuggeststhatSOMcanslowlyrelease Nutrient value ofSOM 3 (0–10

cm depth), SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | 133

nutrition & soil Carbon allocation dynamics in contrasting crop-soil system trials in southern NSW

Dr Bhupinder Pal Singh, Yunying Fang and Jharna R Sarker NSW DPI, Menangle

Key findings »» Although high below-ground carbon input by plants is important to enhance soil organic matter, only a few studies have quantified carbon allocation dynamics in crop-soil systems in dryland regions under contrasting management practices. »» There seems to be environmental constraints and features of dryland farming systems (such as high aridity and low rainfall, low soil carbon and low moisture) that limit the extent of below-ground carbon allocation as found in this study. It is thus challenging to enhance soil organic matter stocks in the dryland regions through conservation tillage only. »» The majority of newly assimilated carbon remained in above- ground plant material, particularly in the wheat-soil system at Condobolin, which is a relatively drier climate than Wagga Wagga. »» A larger proportion of newly assimilated carbon was translocated to below-ground carbon pools in the canola-soil system at Wagga Wagga (7%−11%) than in the wheat-soil system at Condobolin (2%). »» Tillage practices had no effect on the allocation and storage of newly assimilated carbon in the crop-soil systems. Moreover, the management practices had no significant effect on grain yield, soil carbon stocks or bulk density. »» These results suggest that reduced tillage or no-till can maintain equivalent soil functionality relative to conventional tillage while reducing operational costs associated with energy and machinery inputs.

Introduction Site details Organic matter (OM) plays a vital role in maintaining Two trial sites were selected: one short- soil functions such as carbon (C) storage and term trial at Wagga Wagga and one long- nutrient cycling. It is hypothesised that improved term trial at Condobolin (Table 1). crop management practices can increase soil C, Table 1. Sites for the carbon isotope labelling studies. for example by increasing plant-derived organic matter input into the soil, and influence nutrient Location Wagga Wagga Condobolin use efficiency and crop yield. This understanding Coordinates 35°07' S and 33°05' S and can be enhanced through using in-situ techniques 147°22' E 147°08' E to examine above-ground and below-ground History Established Established allocation of newly assimilated C and its stabilisation in 2012 in 1998 and interaction with nitrogen (N) in soil under Experiment period Sep–Nov 2013 Sep–Nov 2014 Total C (0−10 cm) 1.5% 1.2% contrasting crop management practices. The aim of Total N (0−10 cm) 0.13% 0.10%−0.12% these experiments is to examine how tillage intensity pH 5.8 5.8 influences allocation and stabilisation (storage) of Bulk density 1.3 g/cm3 1.3 g/cm3 newly assimilated C in canola crop-soil and wheat (0−10 cm) crop-soil systems at Wagga Wagga and Condobolin. Soil classification Red kandosol Red chromosol Soil texture Sandy clay loam Sandy clay loam Crop Canola Wheat

134 | NSW Department of Primary Industries areas usedforpulselabellingwere1.5mwide× plants viaphotosynthesis.Thecrop-soilsystem wheat-soil systematCondobolin (candd). Figure 1.In-situstablecarbonand nitrogenisotopelabellingofacanola-soilsystematWagga (aandb)a conventional versusreducedtillagetreatments. wheat croprotationwasselectedin2014acrossthe (five rotationalphasesofwheatandpastures),the each). IntheCondobolinmixedfarmingsystemtrials conventional tillage,andnotill,withthreereplicates of fourtreatments(0kgN/haand100under canola wasgrownin2013afactorialcombination crop rotationtrial(wheat–canola–legume–wheat), (Figure 1.photos1cand1d).IntheWagga and 1b)1.8mwide×2.0longatCondobolin 2.0 m to carbon tobetraced.Weexposedcrop-soilsystems that allowsthefateofnewlyassimilatedatmospheric An in-situCisotopelabellingtechniquewasused andtreatmentsMethods Location (long-term) Annual rainfall Fertiliser practices Management 13 CO

long atWagga(Figure1.photos1a 2 (5Lor10of99atom%)forfixationby Wagga ~570 mm 100 kgurea-N/ha 2. Notillage tillage 1. Conventional Condobolin ~435 mm Farmer’s practice 2. Reducedtillage tillage 1. Conventional plus fineroots,and2.3%–3.3%wasrespiredCO 0.3%–0.5% inthenodalroots,1.2%−1.3%soil with 74%ofthe‘new’Crecoveredinshoot, remained inthewheatcrop-soilsystemafter50 At Condobolin,77%−80%oftheadded grain harvestinginNovember2013(Figure2a). root, and5.6%−7.8%inthesoilplusfinerootsat recovered intheshoot,1.8%–2.8%tap after 45 added two sites.AtWaggaWagga,43%−55%ofthe in plantand/orsoilcomponentsvariedatthese The allocationandstorageofnewlyassimilatedC conventional tillageand2.1t/hainreducedtillage. tillage. Grainyieldforthewheatcropwas2.3t/hain 36 t/hainconventionaltillageto40reduced Condobolin, soilorganicC(0−30cm)rangedfrom in notilland1.6t/haconventionaltillage.At tillage. Grainyieldforthecanolacropwas1.2t/ha from 30t/hainnotillto40conventional At WaggaWagga,soilorganicC(0−30cm)ranged stocks intheyearslabellingstudywasconducted. significant effectongrainyieldandsoilCN At bothsites,managementpracticeshadno Results grain harvestinginNovember2014(Figure 13

days, while36%−45%ofthe‘new’Cwas CO SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | 2 -C remainedinthecrop-soilsystem 13 CO

2b). 2 -C -C 2

at at days, 135

nutrition & soil (a) (b) 80 80

70 70

60 60

50 50

40 40

30 30 Recovery of Recoveryof 'new'(%) C 20 Recoveryof 'new'(%) C 20

10 10

0 0 Conventional tillage No till Conventional tillage Reduced tillage

Above ground Tap root Aboveground Nodal roots Fine root (0–30 cm) Soil (0–30 cm) Soil + ﬁne roots (0–30 cm) Soil + root respiration

Figure 2. Allocation of isotopically-labelled ‘new’ carbon in a canola crop-soil system at the grain harvesting stage at Wagga Wagga (a) and Condobolin (b). ‘New’ carbon means the newly assimilated isotopically labelled-C. The contrasting tillage practices had no effect on Acknowledgements allocation and storage of new C among plant, soil and/or respiration C pools (figures 2a and 2b). These experiments involved collaborations with Our results show that the majority of newly Guangdi Li (Wagga Wagga trial), Annette Cowie assimilated C remained above-ground and (Wagga Wagga trial), Warwick Badgery (Condobolin only a small amount was translocated to trial) and Xinhua He (both trials). As part of the project below-ground in both crop-soil systems. ‘Building resilient and profitable grain cropping This pattern could be attributed to both: systems through improved knowledge of soil organic carbon fractions and their functionality’, DAN00169, 1. smaller below-ground plant C pools (i.e. root the experiment was jointly funded by NSW DPI biomass) relative to above-ground plant C pools and GRDC. It also involved Central West Farming 2. dry conditions hampering C translocation Systems and on-farm collaborators. We acknowledge from shoots to roots and root-derived technical input from Khushbu Gandhi, Adam Lowrie, organic matter (exudates). Richard Lowrie, Rebecca Coburn, Michael McLean, Less assimilated C was translocated to below-ground Satvinder Bawa, Dougal Pottie, Luke Beange, in the Condobolin wheat-red chromosol system than Nilusha Henaka Arachchi, Kamal Hossain and in the Wagga Wagga canola-red kandosol system. This Mathew Coggan. We also thank Central West Farming was possibly due to the relatively dry environment at Systems for allowing access to the long-term trial. Condobolin compared with that of Wagga Wagga, and Condobolin’s soil-gravimetric moisture at 4%–8%, which was lower than that recorded at Wagga Wagga (7%–16%) during the C tracing period. Summary The results reveal no effect of contrasting tillage practices on the dynamics and magnitude of ‘new’ C (13C-labelled) allocation and storage in the crop- soil system, soil C stock or crop yield. These results suggest that reduced tillage or no till could maintain the same level of soil functionality as conventional tillage in the low to medium rainfall regions. It seems that the climate and low soil C features of the dryland regions limit the effect of tillage management on below-ground C input and crop productivity.

136 | NSW Department of Primary Industries Resources, Hamilton; Dr ofEconomic Jobs, Development, Department Dr Fiona Robertson Transport and Innovation, Brisbane; Dr Brisbane; Innovation, and pasturerotationwereall modelled. continuously grazedpasture andmixedcropping investigated. Acontinuouscropping regime, SOC sequestrationacrosseasternAustraliawere what strategiesgrowersmightusetoincrease management andstockingrateonSOC, The effectofnitrogenfertilisation,stubble Treatments western Victoria(HorshamandHamilton). and Dalby),northernVictoria(Rutherglen) Nyngan), south-westernQueensland(Roma Wagga Wagga),northernNSW(Narrabriand southern NewSouthWales(Deniliquinand nine locationsineasternAustralia:centraland of cropandpasturemanagementsystemsacross were usedtosimulatechangesinSOCarange (APSIM)-Wheat andAPSIM-Agpasturemodels The AgriculturalProductionSystemsSimulator Site details SOC, fromsub-tropicaltotemperateenvironments. pasture managementoptionseffectedchangesin project exploredtheextenttowhichvariouscropand residue) managementandfertiliserapplication.This various agronomicpracticessuchasstubble(crop on ratesofcarboninputanddecompositionunder SOC levelsinagriculturalsystemsdependlargely Introduction of Economic Jobs, Development, Transport andResources, Horsham;Yuchun Ma DPI, Wagga Wagga;NSW Conyers LiLiuandDrMark Dr De in cropping andgrazing systems soilorganic changesModelling carbon » » Key findings Dr Frank Yonghong University, Mongolia Inner China;Dr Malcolm Visiting GrahamCentre, Scientist, Wagga Wagga; Dr Annette Cowie NSWDPI,Armidale; » » to reducecarbonsequestrationdespitefavourablerainfall. (stocking rate,nitrogenapplicationandresidueincorporation) High temperaturestronglyinteractedwithmanagementpractices characterised bymeantemperatureandrainfall. between ninesitesacrosseasternAustraliawaslargely The differenceinsoilorganiccarbon(SOC)changes

Ram Warwick

Department of Science, Information ofScience, Information Dalal Department Technology and

NSWDPI,Menangle Dougherty » Summary thereby reducingthedeclineinSOC. stocking rateeffectseenincontinuousgrazing, and stubbleincorporationamelioratedthe during croppingphases.Nitrogenfertilisation decline inSOClevelsatlownitrogenapplications pasture islikelytobesignificantinreducingthe In crop–pasturerotations,evenfouryearsof Mixed cropping andpasture rotation decreased theratesofSOCchangeatallsites. 60 years.However,increasingstockingrates pasture generallyresultedinSOCincreasesover At allbutonesiteofcontinuouslygrazed Continuous grazing cropping wasthelevelofstubbleincorporation. The mostinfluentialfactorforboostingSOCunder other sitesshowedbenefitsabove70kgN/ha. nitrogen applicationabove70kgN/ha,butmost was littleadditionalgaininSOCfromincreasing locations. AtRoma,thenorthern-mostsite,there incorporation increasedtheSOClevelsatall application andhigheramountsofstubble Under continuouscropping,highernitrogen Continuous cropping Results » characterised bymeantemperature andrainfall. nine sitesacrosseasternAustralia waslargely The differenceinSOCchanges between SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | Department Department Dr Garry O’Leary

andMcCaskill

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nutrition & soil »» High temperature strongly interacted with management practices (stocking rate, nitrogen application and residue incorporation) to reduce carbon sequestration, despite favourable rainfall. »» A mean annual temperature higher than about 20 °C can switch a soil from net sink into a net

source of atmospheric CO2 if other factors affecting soil carbon changes such as stubble incorporation, stocking rate and site rainfall, are constant. Acknowledgements This study was completed as part of the project ‘Increasing soil carbon in eastern Australian farming systems: linking management, nitrogen and productivity’, 01203.013, 2012–15, jointly funded by NSW DPI, Department of Agriculture and Water Resources (Australian Government), Department of Economic Development, Jobs, Transport and Resources (Victoria), Department of Science, Information Technology and Innovation (Queensland) and the University of New England. Rebecca Lines-Kelly collated the key messages from Liu, DL, O'Leary, G, Ma, Y, Cowie, A, Li, FY, McCaskill, M, Conyers, M, Dalal, R, Robertson, F & Dougherty, W 2016, ‘Modelling soil organic carbon 2. Changes under a range of cropping and grazing farming systems in eastern Australia’, Geoderma vol. 265, pp. 164–175.

138 | NSW Department of Primary Industries had thesameparent material(granite,sedimentary history ofthemanagementpractice. Pairedsites within 500mandwherethe site hadanexisting study siteswherethedesired comparisonsitewas Nineteen sitesweresampled aspairedortriplet level withanaverageannual rainfallof645mm. The Monaroregionislocated800mabovesea Site detailsandtreatments presents theCstock(tC/ha)datafor2012and2014. HUM) andmajorsoilchemicalproperties.Thisreport carbon andorganicfractions:POC,ROC 2012 and2014.AnalysisincludedsoilC(totalorganic were sampledtoadepthof50cminlatespring landholder cooperationandagreement.Allsites vegetation andmanagementclass,aswell on theland-systemcomparison,parentmaterial, on commercialfarmseligiblefortheproject,based A groupoftechnicalspecialistsidentified19sites » » » » management practicestobemonitored,including: Monaro FarmingSystemsgroupidentifiedthe in southernNewSouthWales.Membersofthe soil organiccarbon(C)intheMonaroregion management practicesthatcouldincrease This projectidentifiedanddemonstratedfarm Introduction » » » » » Key findings DPI, Wagga WaggaNSW Susan Orgill from report ‘Action ontheground’ intheMonaro carbon region:Soil a » » » » » » » » » minimum disturbancecropping. introduced perennialpastures nutrient management liming id1035198100 orhttp://tinyurl.com/zrr9mht). in theMonaroregion(https://itunes.apple.com/au/book/ For moreinformationpleaseseeoureBook:Soilcarbon followed byarapiddecrease. A rapidincreaseofsoilcarboncaneasilybe are rightwithoutdepletingtheirsoilcarbon. to diversifytheirenterpriseswhentheconditions stocks. OpportunitiescouldexistforMonarolandholders Cropping inagoodseasonmightnotdecreasesoilcarbon production willpotentiallyincreasesoilcarbon. Providing necessarynutrientsandpHforoptimumpasture effect oncarbonthanmanagement. Seasonal conditionsandsoiltypehaveagreater (Table 1).Managementpracticescomparedwere: the influenceofmanagementpracticesonsoilC Farming Systemslandholdergrouptodemonstrate Site comparisonswereselectedbytheMonaro or basalt)andsimilarsoillandscapeattributes. subterranean clover(Trifoliumsubterraneum ). pastures includedexoticannual speciessuchas glomerata L.).Bothnativeandintroduced perennial ( perennial pastures(IPP)weretypicallyphalaris spp.) andsnowgrass(Poasieberiana).Introduced grasses (Rytidospermaspp.),speargrassesAustrostipa never beencultivatedandweretypicallywallaby Sites withnativeperennialpastures(NPP)had » » » » » » » » Phalaris aquaticaL.)andcocksfoot( Dactylis » » » » » » » » introduced perennialpasture. Crop vsnativeperennialpasturenew perennial pasture Old introducedvsnew Unlimed vslimed–introducedperennialpasture new introducedperennialpasture Crop vsnativeperennialpasture pasture vspineplantation Crop vsoldintroducedperennial introduced perennialpasture Northerly aspectvseasterly– input –nativeperennialpasture Low fertiliserinputvshigh Cropping vsnativeperennialpasture SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | 139

nutrition & soil Table 1. Summary of the comparison with parent material class (IPP: introduced perennial pasture, NPP: native perennial pasture). All pasture paddocks were grazed. Comparison Treatment Basalt Crop vs NPP Short-term cropping (since 2012, previously NPP) paddock (barley in 2012) compared with a native perennial pasture. Low fertiliser vs Low compared with high Phosphorus, Sulfur input high fertiliser (since 2005) on a native perennial pasture. Low grade metamorphics IPP: Aspect north vs east Northerly aspect compared with easterly aspect within the same paddock under an introduced perennial pasture (sown 1989). Crop vs >35-year-old Long-term cropping (since 1998) paddock (oats 2012) compared with an old introduced IPP vs pine plantation perennial pasture (sown 1960) and commercial pine plantation (established 2002). Crop vs NPP vs <5 yr old IPP Short-term cropping (since 2009, previously native perennial pasture) paddock (wheat 2012) compared with a native perennial pasture and a new introduced perennial pasture (sown 2010, previously crop since 2004). Granite IPP: Unlimed vs limed Unlimed compared with limed paddock (2.5 t/ha lime broadcast in 2002) under introduced perennial pasture (sown 1970). IPP: >35 yr old vs <10 yr old Old (sown 1974) compared with new (sown 2003) introduced perennial pasture. Crop vs NPP vs <5 yr old IPP Short-term cropping (since 2011, previously introduced perennial pasture) paddock (wheat 2012) compared with a native perennial pasture and new introduced perennial pasture (sown 2012, previously crop since 2009).

Sites were sampled within a 25 × 25 m quadrat Summary according to the Soil Carbon and Research Project Overall, C stocks were influenced by protocols (Sanderman et al. 2011). Soil samples for landscape attributes, including: total organic carbon (TOC) were oven-dried at 40 °C, »» parent material passed through a 2 mm sieve and analysed on a »» soil depth LECO combustion furnace (LECO 1995) (Rayment & Lyons 2011; Method 6B2b). Results were reported »» clay content as TOC g/100g on an oven-dry basis. Bulk density »» aspect was determined on each core with samples dried at »» topography and relief 105 °C (Dane & Topp 2002). Results were calculated »» soil nutrients such as nitrogen, as bulk density (BD) in g/cm3 on an oven-dry basis. phosphorus and sulfur. Carbon stock was calculated using the equivalent The soil C stocks for each treatment comparison soil mass (ESM) method within a specified soil layer. and sampling time are summarised in Table 2. Carbon stock was calculated in 10 cm increments Liming to 30 cm or 50 cm. For each site, the C stock was There were no consistent results indicating first calculated to a depth standard (DS) as; DS C an increase or decline in C stocks with liming stock (g/100 cm2) = C concentration (g/100 g) × an introduced perennial pasture. In 2012, BD (g/cm3) × depth (cm) × gravel correction factor there was 1.4 t C/ha/30 cm more under the (1 − proportion gravel >2 mm), where C stock limed treatment, while in 2014, there was (g/100 cm2) = C stock (t C/ha). Carbon stock using 4.9 t C/ha/30 cm less under the limed treatment. the ESM was then calculated. For changes within a site between 2012 and 2014, the 2012 soil mass Correcting soil acidity with lime can have both an was used as the reference soil mass. So in 2012, immediate and long-term influence on soil C stocks. C stocks were calculated to a depth standard (as a If soil pH was limiting plant growth, then liming to starting reference soil mass) and 2014 C stocks for increase soil pH (and thereby reducing aluminium the same site were calculated based on a soil mass toxicity) can increase pasture growth and organic equivalent to 2012. Carbon stock in the ESM of matter (OM) supply. However, liming can also increase the soil layer (e.g. 0–30 cm) t C/ha = DS C stock (to microbial activity and, therefore, there may be a short- 20 cm) + (DS C stock 20–30 cm × (ESM for the total term decrease in C stocks associated with increased soil layer/actual soil mass for the total soil layer)). decomposition of labile OM. Liming can also influence the pasture composition, in particular the leguminous component of the pasture, which supplies N to the

140 | NSW Department of Primary Industries calculated basedonanequivalentsoilmass(withthe2012asreferencemass). comparison. The2012Cstocksarecalculatedtoadepthstandardandthe2014were Table 2.Carbonstocks(tC/ha)foreachtreatmentandsamplingtime(20122014) existing stockofCpotentiallyrepresentingthisrapid in thisstudywassown2003,andhadagreater C continuingforupto30years.Thenewpasture years andthenplateauwithsteadyincreasesinsoil will increasesoilCrapidlyinthefirstfiveto10 It ishypothesisedthatnewlyestablishedpastures Pasture composition liming ifresponsiveplantspeciesarepresent. sites mightachieveincreasesinsoilCstockswith values atorbelowthecriticalvalueof4.6.These there areseveralsitesinthisstudythathavesoilpH to thesoil.Basedon2012and2014soilsurvey, for increasingbiomassproductionandOMsupply grass component,andagaincanberesponsible Crop Basalt derivedsoil Δ OldIPP–pine Native pasture Unlimed IPP Granite derivedsoil Δ Nativepasture–crop Lime IPP Low fertiliser Δ Lime–unlimedIPP High fertiliser Crop Δ High–low Native pasture Northerly aspectIPP Low grademetamorphics New IPP Easterly aspectIPP Δ Nativepasture–newIPP Δ North–eastaspect Δ Nativepasture–crop Crop Old IPP Native pasture New IPP New IPP Δ OldIPP–new Δ Nativepasture–newIPP Δ Nativepasture–crop Pine Crop Old intro.pasture Δ OldIPP–crop -21.90 -23.81 46.39 59.98 45.87 13.59 47.30 2012 61.38 78.82 40.21 17.44 39.94 46.97 36.66 42.37 47.65 46.66 45.15 50.80 68.96 66.83 42.37 44.93 -0.27 -4.15 -2.50 1.43 3.28 4.60 2.56 -50.24 -13.99 50.12 64.94 52.29 14.82 47.43 2014 77.10 73.48 53.19 46.80 49.38 42.79 48.09 45.36 44.99 55.91 40.79 69.91 10.55 93.87 46.53 43.63 -4.86 -3.62 -6.39 -2.90 4.01 1.29 4.20 quadrat andnotsolelyduetomanagementeffects. to spatialvariabilityinsoilCwithinthesampling decrease, itwouldseemthisismorelikelydue pasture. However,giventhemagnitudeof soil nutrientlimitationsunderthenewintroduced or adecreaseinpastureproductionassociatedwith could beanincreaseintherateofdecomposition, occurred duringthisperiod,apossibleexplanation in Cstock.Ifthisisatruerepresentationofwhat 2012 to2014therewasa10tC/ha/30cmdecrease establishment. Basedonthesesoilsurveyresults,from conditions forthefirstsixyearsfollowingpasture given thattheMonaroregionexperienceddrought increase. However,thisincreaseissurprisinglyhigh Difference -28.34 -21.06 -10.02 15.72 12.98 10.76 13.05 27.04 -6.29 -5.34 -3.31 -6.12 -2.29 -1.67 -1.30 -5.46 3.74 4.97 6.42 1.23 0.13 6.86 2.41 6.13 5.72 0.73 0.95 8.35 9.81 4.16 SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | 108.65 -25.73 -28.00 71.72 80.80 58.85 2012 60.04 75.87 54.92 32.78 54.88 55.69 47.64 52.29 55.69 66.27 56.76 65.91 84.76 85.06 53.82 59.33 -0.04 9.08 1.19 7.23 3.40 0.35 1.07 5.51 101.45 101.11 125.14 -69.34 -11.87 -16.38 77.09 87.10 67.43 10.01 2014 63.61 67.26 62.45 58.09 54.69 69.96 52.43 61.29 70.34 54.62 86.73 17.91 57.72 55.80 -3.82 -0.34 -4.81 -1.92 7.76 6.67 Difference -43.61 -33.12 -15.27 -11.29 25.58 12.34 17.67 13.59 11.62 16.84 40.07 -5.00 -7.54 -4.77 -3.26 -4.98 -3.53 -7.43 5.37 6.30 8.57 0.93 3.57 7.57 2.40 7.05 0.52 1.97 6.31 3.90 141

nutrition & soil Cropping The cropping comparisons in this field study highlighted opportunities for cropping in this region on a range of soil types to at least maintain C stocks that are comparable with introduced pastures. We suggest that soil nutrient management programs associated with cropping and favourable climate years immediately before, and during this project, would have contributed to comparable C stocks. Under drier conditions, the C stocks could decline more under the crop compared with a perennial pasture. References Dane, JH & Topp, CG (eds) 2002, Methods of soil analysis : Part 4 Physical methods. Agronomy no. 9. Soil Science Society of America Inc., Madison, Wis. USA. Rayment, GE & Lyons, DJ 2011, Soil chemical methods: Australasia. CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood, Vic. Australia. Sanderman, J, Baldock J, Hawke, B, MacDonald, L, Massis-Puccini, A & Szarvas, S 2011, National Soil Carbon Research Programme: Field and Laboratory Methodologies. CSIRO, Adelaide. Acknowledgements Funding for this research was provided by The Australian Government, Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry (Action on the ground program) and NSW Department of Primary Industries; The Soil Carbon Project 2012–15. We gratefully acknowledge Nancy Spoljaric, the Monaro Farming Systems (MFS) group and the cooperation of the growers in the Monaro region whose properties were sampled.

142 | NSW Department of Primary Industries Horsham accuracy inpredictingSOCturnover. (1979–2004) experimentand showedamoderate The modelwasvalidatedagainst along-term soil, plantandfarmingmanagementmodules. New SouthWales.APSIMconsistsofclimate, future climatesontheSOCdynamicsacross management optionsundercurrentand (APSIM) wasusedtoevaluatetheeffectof The AgriculturalProductionSystemsSimulator Treatments APSoil databaseintheNSWwheatbeltistakingplace. the NSWwheatbelt,and169soildatasetsfrom minimum temperaturesandrainfallfor509sitesin data comprisingsolarradiation,maximumand of 25–35t/ha.Modellingincorporateddailyweather SOC inthecentralslopesisalsolowerrange tablelands, SOCisinalowerrangeof25–35t/ha. northern plainsandextendingtotheNewEngland of 40–50t/ha,whilefromthesouth-westplainsto NSW, SOCinthetop30cmlayerisahigherrange In theLiverpoolPlainsandsouthernslopesof Site details Sequestering atmosphericcarbondioxide(CO crop productionandtheglobalcarboncycle. because ofSOC’simportancetosoilfertility, management practicesthatenhanceSOCstocks climates. Moreattentionisbeingpaidtofarm stubble managementundercurrentandfuture This projectmodelschangesinSOCfrom Introduction » » Key findings Dr LiLiu, Dr De environment: inasemi-arid carbon spatial modelling Managing wheat stubbleto effectively sequester soil SOC haspotentialfeedbackforclimatechange. » » incorporation undertheprojectedclimate(2049–2098). and SOCincreasesof80±23kg/ha/yearwith100%stubble SOC lossesof135±15kg/ha/yearwith100%stubbleremoval with 100%stubbleincorporationinthecurrentclimate. 100% stubbleremovalandSOCincreasesofupto200kg/ha/year Soil organiccarbon(SOC)lossesofupto200kg/ha/yearwith

Garry

Department ofEconomic Jobs, Development, Department TransportO’Leary andResources, Dr Muhuddin RAnwarDr Muhuddin Conyers and Dr Mark 2 ) as (high rainfall),40–60%wheatstubbleisrequired. be incorporatedintosoil.Inthenorth-easternarea of thestate,20–40%wheatstubbleisrequiredto south-western wheatgrowingregion(lowerrainfall) To maintainthecurrentlevelofSOCin is increasedby100±34kg/ha/year. With 100%incorporation,theaveragedSOC SOC isdecreasedby126±40kg/ha/year. With 100%wheatstubbleremoval,theaverage (0–200 kg/ha/year)underthecurrentclimate. and alsowhen100%ofstubblewasincorporated 100% ofstubblewasremoved(0–200kg/ha/year) There wasalargesimulatedrangeofSOCwhen Current climate Results decrease CO There isacleartrendtotheoretically Emissions increase 80±23kg/ha/yearwith100%incorporation. under theprojectedclimate(2049–2098),and 135 ±15kg/ha/yearwith100%stubbleremoval Averaged SOClevelswilldecreaseby rise, lessSOCwillbesequestered. future climate,butastemperatures SOC changepatternsaresimilarunderaprojected Future climate under theprojectedclimate. current climate,orby2.68± 0.77 MtCO emissions by3.29±1.11MtCO 100% incorporationofallwheat stubblereduces Across theactualwheatgrowing areainNSW, wheat stubbleincorporation. SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | 2 emissionswithincreasing NSW DPI, Wagga NSW 2 /year underthe

Wagga; 2 /year 143

nutrition & soil Complete (100%) wheat stubble removal results in 3.90 ± 1.23 Mt CO2 emissions/year under the current climate and

4.06 ± 0.50 Mt CO2/year under the future climate. Summary Modelling changes in SOC in NSW’s wheat growing areas shows: »» SOC losses of up to 200 kg/ha/year with 100% stubble removal and SOC increases of up to 200 kg/ha/year with 100% stubble incorporation in the current climate. »» SOC losses of 135 ± 15 kg/ha/year with 100% stubble removal and SOC increases of 80 ± 23 kg/ha/year with 100% stubble incorporation under the projected climate (2049–2098). Acknowledgements This study was completed as part of the project ‘Increasing soil carbon in eastern Australian farming systems: linking management, nitrogen and productivity’, 01203.013, 2012–15, jointly funded by NSW DPI, Department of Agriculture and Water Resources (Australian Government), Department of Economic Development, Jobs, Transport and Resources (Victoria), Department of Science, Information Technology and Innovation (Queensland) and the University of New England. Rebecca Lines-Kelly collated the key messages from Liu, DL, Anwar, MR, O'Leary, G & Conyers, M 2014, ‘Managing wheat stubble as an effective approach to sequester soil carbon in a semi-arid environment: Spatial modelling’, Geoderma, vol. 214–215, pp. 50–61.

144 | NSW Department of Primary Industries Wollongbar were comparedtoadepthof 1.2m.Thesesites continuous croppingandperennial pasturephases of 1.0m.Atsite2(YerongCreek), Cstocksunder and perennialpastureswerecomparedtoadepth At site1(WaggaWagga),Cstocksunderannual Wagga andYerongCreek,insouthernNSW. study wereexistingEverCrop®siteslocatedat Australia. Thetwoexperimentsitesusedinthis in phaseswithwintercropssouth-eastern as lucerne,Medicagosativa)commonlygrown temperate herbaceousperennials(speciessuch The perennial-basedfarmingsystemsincluded soil Crelativetoannual-basedcroppingsystems. into croppingsystemscouldmaintainorincrease whether includingdeep-rootedperennialpastures The purposeofthisstudywastodetermine otherwise bewarmingtheatmosphere. emissions, andsequesterinsoilCthatcould applied tothecrop,andthereforenitrousoxide decrease theamountofnitrogenousfertiliser climate changemitigationperspective,thiscould to beappliedinthecroppingphase.Froma decrease theamountofmineralNthatneeds farming andprofitabilityperspective,thiscould compared withcontinuouscropping.Froma soil aggregationandincreasecarbon(C) (N) forthefollowingcroppingphase,improve offer theopportunitytoincreasesoilnitrogen Perennial pasturephasesincroppingsystemscan Introduction » » » Key findings Vince Susan Orgill, fromResults theEverCrop® Carbon Plus project systems(1 m)underphasefarming inNSW? Can we achieve sequestration carbon to depth » » » continuously croppedtreatment. There wasnodeclineinCstockwiththe short-term andnotsustainedthroughthefollowingcroppingphase. Increases inCstockachievedwiththeperennialpasturephasewere increasing carbon(C)stocksmightnotbeoneofthem. systems; however,theseresultsindicatethatintheshort-term, Perennial pasturesplayanimportantroleinphasefarming

van

der Richard Hayes,

andYan Rijt

Jia Dr Mark ConyersDr Mark , NSW

DPI, Wagga was repeatedin2009and2010 immediatelyadjacent treatment wasreplicatedthree times.Thisexperiment and acontinuouscrop(control) treatment.Each chicory (Cichoriumintybus)/subterraneanclovermix, in soilCwhenthecroppingphasestarted. a perennialpasturephaseandassessanychanges were usedtoinvestigatechangesinsoilCduring ( phalaris/subterranean clovermix,cocksfoot mixtures; lucerne/subterraneanclovermix, 2008 tooneoffourperennial-basedpasture Site 2(YerongCreek)wassowninautumn Each treatmentwasreplicatedthreetimes. species (lucerne/phalaris/subterraneanclover). subterranean clovermix,oramixofallthree subterranean clovermix,phalaris(Phalarisaquatica)/ monoculture (theannualpasturecontrol),lucerne/ subterranean clover(Trifoliumsubterraneum) 2012 tooneoffourpasturetreatments; Site 1(WaggaWagga)wassowninlateautumn Treatments approximately 80kmsouth-westofsite1. farm atYerongCreek(35.38796°S,146.930745°E), University. Site2waslocatedonacommercial site (35.032628°S,147.359144°E)atCharlesSturt at WaggaontheGrahamCentreresearch were examinedinthisproject.Site1waslocated and locatedonredkandosolsinsouthernNSW Two EverCrop®trialsitesofapproximately0.5 Site details Dactylis

Albert Oates, Albert W agga;

glomerata SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | Stephen Binbin Xu, )/subterranean clovermix,or

NSWDPI,Morris Graeme Poile,

ha 145

nutrition & soil to the previous trial (therefore three sowing years; as the 10th percentile of all values of soil mass for 2008, 2009 and 2010). Pasture phases were in for the given soil layer (as no other suitable undisturbed three years before returning to the cropping phase. reference soil was available). Carbon stock in the ESM of the soil layer (e.g. 0 to 30 cm) t C/ha = DS C stock Soil sampling, analysis and calculations (to 20 cm) + (DS C stock 20–30 cm × (ESM for the At site 1 (Wagga Wagga), soil samples were collected total soil layer/actual soil mass for the total soil layer)). in late spring (after sowing in late autumn) in 2012, 2013 and 2014. At site 2 (Yerong Creek), soil samples Results were collected in early autumn 2013 and 2014. At site 1 (Wagga Wagga), there was no difference Intact cores were collected using a tractor-mounted in C stock in the 0–30 cm, 30–100 cm or 0–100 hydraulic corer with a 44 mm core diameter and cut cm soil layers with pasture type or pasture type into depth increments of 0–5 cm, 5–10 cm (0–10 cm × year interaction (Table 1). While there were at site 2), 10–20 cm, 20–30 cm, 30–40 cm, 40–60 cm, observed differences in mean C stock for all soil 60–80 cm, 80–100 cm, 100–120 cm and 120–150 cm. layers between the control (annual pasture) and Soil samples for total organic carbon and total pasture types, these were not significant for any nitrogen were oven-dried at 40 °C, passed through year. However, there was a significant increase a 2 mm sieve and analysed on a LECO combustion in C stock with year for the 0–30 cm, 30–100 cm furnace (LECO 1995) (Rayment & Lyons, 2011; and 0–100 cm soil layers (Table 1). There was Method 6B2b). Bulk density was determined on also a significant increase in C stock within the each core with samples dried at 105 °C (Dane year for all soil layers with phalaris and for the & Topp, 2002). Results were calculated as bulk 0–30 cm and 0–100 cm soil layers for lucerne. density (BD) in g/cm3 on an oven-dry basis. At site 2 (Yerong Creek) there was no difference Carbon stock was calculated using an equivalent in C stock for any soil layer with pasture type or mass of soil (ESM) within a specified soil layer. between perennial pasture and continuous cropping; For each core, gravel was broken to <2 mm by and no difference in C stock with sowing year in a jaw crusher or mortar and pestle and retained the 0–30 cm soil layer (Figure 1). However, there in the sample. Initially, C stock was calculated to was a significant difference with sowing year in a depth standard (DS); DS C stock (g/100 cm2) = the 30–120 cm (P <0.001) and 0–120 cm soil layer C concentration (g/100 g) × BD (g/cm3) × depth (P = 0.02). Within each sowing year there were (cm), where C stock (g/100 cm2) = C stock (t C/ha). occasional high C stocks attributed to pasture Carbon stock using the equivalent mass of soil (ESM) treatment, however, these were not consistent in was then calculated. Here, the ESM was calculated the two sampling years, and observed data revealed significant (P <0.05) plot effects (Figure 1). Table 1. Site 1 (Wagga Wagga) mean carbon stock (t C/ha) classed by pasture type, year and depth (cm), with standard error of the means (se), least significant difference (5% critical value) for comparison of year for a given treatment (l.s.d. year) and treatments between year (l.s.d. treatment) and null hypothesis significance test probabilities for treatment (p.trt), year (p.year) and the interaction (p.trt.year). Treatment Year C stock (t C/ha) 0–30 cm 30–100 cm 0–100 cm Control 2012 34.86 22.46 57.45 2013 36.33 23.92 59.33 2014 36.17 24.38 60.64 Lucerne 2012 35.98 24.27 60.29 2013 37.34 26.50 63.35 2014 38.22 25.83 64.04 Phalaris 2012 35.03 21.56 56.80 2013 36.49 25.17 60.86 2014 37.43 25.11 62.54 Lucerne+phalaris 2012 38.05 24.13 62.42 2013 36.33 25.92 61.98 2014 37.61 25.31 62.76 se 0.97 1.12 1.88 l.s.d..year 1.76 2.63 3.65 l.s.d..treatment 3.34 3.87 6.51 p.trt 0.56 0.40 0.41 p.year 0.01 0.00 0.01 p.trt.year 0.09 0.81 0.45

146 | NSW Department of Primary Industries Collingwood, Vic.Australia. methods: Australasia.CSIROPublishing, Rayment, GE&Lyons,DJ2011, Soilchemical Science SocietyofAmericaInc., Madison,Wis.USA. analysis :Part4Physicalmethods.Agronomyno.9.Soil Dane, JH&Topp,CG(eds)2002,Methodsofsoil References closed circles. layer (b:rightgraph)basedonanequivalentmassofsoilforthe 2013and2014samplings.Plotreplicatesindicatedby Figure 1.Site2(YerongCreek)observedcarbonstock(MgC/ha = tC/ha)inthe0–30cm(a:leftgraph)and30–120soil 1), orone3-yearperennialpasturephase(site2). only representthreeyearsofperennialpasture(site pastures. Firstly,thestudiesincludedinthispaper under annualpasturesandcropsrelativetoperennial few likelyreasonstoexplaincomparableCstocks the continuouslycroppedtreatment.Therearea Importantly, therewasnodeclineinCstockwith sustained throughthefollowingcroppingphase. pasture phasewasonlyshort-term,andnot increase inCstockachievedwiththeperennial compared withanannual-basedsystem.Any rotations withcropswouldincreasesoilCstocks that includingperennialpasturesusedintypical There waslittleevidenceinthisstudytosuggest Summary C stocksmightnotbeoneofthem. results indicatethatintheshortterm,increasing role inphasefarmingsystems;however,our Perennial pasturesundeniablyplayanimportant the annualpasturecontroltreatmentatsite1. perennial pasturetreatments,asistheorisedfor supplied asimilaramountofOMtothesoilas 2 hadNappliedanditisconceivablethatthecrop phase. Thecontinuouslycroppedtreatmentatsite phase wastosupplyNforthefollowingcropping Secondly, atsite2,theprimarypurposeofapasture therefore Cstocks,relativetotheannualcomparison. long enoughtoincreaseorganicmatter(OM)inputs, Under drylandconditions,threeyearsmightnotbe Farm IndustriesCooperative Research Centre. (National SoilCarbonProgram) andtheFuture Department ofAgricultureand WaterResources Primary Industries,theAustralian Government was providedbytheNSWDepartmentof Funding fortheEverCrop®CarbonPlusproject Acknowledgements SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | 147

nutrition & soil Table 2. The five STB treatments applied in the experiment. Septoria tritici blotch experiments Treatment Stubble application Fungicide application – southern NSW 2015 High disease pressure 2,500 kg/ha infected stubble added to plots No foliar fungicide applications Medium disease pressure 500 kg/ha infected stubble added to plots No foliar fungicide applications Dr Andrew Milgate and Michael McCaig NSW DPI, Wagga Wagga Low disease pressure 100 kg/ha infected stubble added to plots No foliar fungicide applications Very low disease pressure No stubble treatments No foliar fungicide applications Protected # No stubble treatments Received multiple applications Key findings Seed treated with Jockey® (fluquinconazole of Bumper® (propiconazole »» Fungicide application reduced disease levels in all 167 g/L) at 4.5 L/tonne of seed 250 g/L) at 500 mL/ha # Disclaimer: The protected treatments used do not constitute a recommendation for grower practice. varieties and had a large effect on yield. Growers must follow label guidelines to ensure minimum residue levels are not exceeded. »» Observed differences in disease levels were broadly in agreement with published variety resistance ratings. »» Infected stubble increased the disease progression through the canopy, but yield results between stubble treatments were similar. »» Sowing a variety with a high septoria tritici blotch (STB) resistance will increase yields under high disease pressure.

Introduction The crop was sown on 27 April and fungicide was This experiment aimed to develop disease response applied to the protected treatment only on 7 July, curves indicating potential yield losses for five 30 July and 19 August (full control every three weeks). varieties that represent various resistance categories Supplementary spray irrigations were applied for septoria tritici blotch (STB). Yields were measured to promote the disease. The timing and against five different treatments within southern NSW. rate varied in response to seasonal factors between August and November to ensure Site details a conducive disease environment. Wagga Wagga was selected for the experiment There were five treatments ranging from protected to as it represents the medium–high rainfall zone high disease pressure (Table 2). in southern NSW winter cropping region. This site also has an overhead irrigation system Results available to promote disease in experiments. Disease severity Varieties Disease progress was monitored and recorded Five locally relevant varieties with a range of weekly. Results indicated that the amount of resistance to STB were used (Table 1). infected stubble applied to varieties produced different levels of disease. The disease progress Table 1. Varieties included in the STB experiment 2015. on resistant varieties also significantly changed Variety STB rating # with the interaction of stubble load (Figure 1). The Sentinel3RA Moderately resistant–moderately percentage of leaf area damage varied between susceptible (MR–MS) varieties and with stubble loads. For example, the SunvexA Moderately resistant–moderately 2.5 t/ha treatment caused leaf area losses of: Axe 80%, susceptible (MR–MS) Bolac 50%, Forrest 75%, Sentinel3R 20% and Sunvex BolacA Moderately susceptible (MS) 20%. Signs of the epidemic started to show in early ForrestA Moderately susceptible–susceptible (MS–S) July due to favourable conditions. The experiment AxeA Susceptible–very susceptible (S–VS) also received daily irrigation from August which, # As published in the NSW DPI Winter when combined with the infected stubble loads, crop variety sowing guide 2015. provided high disease pressure on all varieties.

Treatments Before sowing, the experiment was inoculated with STB-infected stubble collected the previous year. The stubble was applied to plots before plant emergence to simulate the disease under paddock conditions.

148 | NSW Department of Primary Industries high diseasepressure(Table2). There werefivetreatmentsrangingfromprotectedto a conducivediseaseenvironment. between AugustandNovembertoensure rate variedinresponsetoseasonalfactors to promotethedisease.Thetimingand Supplementary sprayirrigationswereapplied 30 July and19August(fullcontroleverythreeweeks). applied totheprotectedtreatmentonlyon7July, The cropwassownon27Aprilandfungicide provided highdiseasepressureonallvarieties. when combinedwiththeinfectedstubbleloads, also receiveddailyirrigationfromAugustwhich, July duetofavourableconditions.Theexperiment 20%. Signsoftheepidemicstartedtoshowinearly Bolac 50%,Forrest75%,Sentinel3R20%andSunvex 2.5 t/ha treatmentcausedleafarealossesof:Axe80%, varieties andwithstubbleloads.Forexample,the percentage ofleafareadamagevariedbetween with theinteractionofstubbleload(Figure1).The on resistantvarietiesalsosignificantlychanged different levelsofdisease.Thediseaseprogress infected stubbleappliedtovarietiesproduced weekly. Resultsindicatedthattheamountof Disease progresswasmonitoredandrecorded Disease severity Results Figure 1.Diseaseprogressinthe irrigatedSTBexperimentatWaggaWagga,2015. Table 2.ThefiveSTBtreatmentsappliedintheexperiment. # Nofoliarfungicideapplications 2,500kg/hainfectedstubbleaddedtoplots High diseasepressure Treatment Growers mustfollowlabelguidelinestoensureminimumresiduelevelsarenotexceeded. eimdsaepesr 0 gh netdsubeaddt lt Nofoliarfungicideapplications 500kg/hainfectedstubbleaddedtoplots Medium diseasepressure o ies rsue10k/aifce tbl de oposNofoliarfungicideapplications 100kg/hainfectedstubbleaddedtoplots Low diseasepressure eylwdsaepesr Nostubbletreatments Very lowdiseasepressure Protected Disclaimer:Theprotectedtreatmentsuseddonotconstitutearecommendationforgrowerpractice. # Stubble application 167 g/L)at4.5L/tonneofseed Seed treatedwithJockey®(fluquinconazole No stubbletreatments

SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | Fungicide application 250 g/L)at500mL/ha of Bumper®(propiconazole Received multipleapplications No foliarfungicideapplications 149

crop protection Figure 2. Yield of five wheat varieties in the irrigated STB experiment at Wagga Wagga, 2015. Standard error bars indicate a significant difference between treatments where they do not overlap.

Yield Acknowledgements The protected treatment developed no disease This experiment is part of the ‘Improving Grower and was the highest yielding in all varieties. All Surveillance, Management, Epidemiology treatments that developed disease had a reduced Knowledge and Tools to Manage Crop Disease yield (Figure 2). The extent of yield loss was similar in southern NSW project’, DAN00177, 2013–18, for each treatment in each variety, which was jointly funded by GRDC and NSW DPI. unexpected and does not follow trends observed Thank you to Tony Goldthorpe, Brad Baxter in other diseases. Further investigation is required. and Michael McCaig for technical support. Summary This experiment confirms that managing infected stubble is important for controlling STB. Results also show that variety resistance has a large effect on disease development within a season. Yield responses of varieties to disease in this experiment appear complex; they are from a single experiment and, as such, should be viewed in conjunction with other guidelines for controlling STB. This experiment will be repeated in 2016 to confirm results. Note: This is an industry summary provided pre-publication. Further information and analysis will be published in due course.

150 | NSW Department of Primary Industries The experimentalcropwassownon15May2015. had non-infectedstubbleappliedatthesamerates. which isequivalentto2.5t/ha.Controlplotsalso Table 2.ThefourYLStreatmentsappliedintheexperiment. YLS-infected stubbleon19May2015at250g/m The experiment(diseaseplots)wasinoculatedwith Yellow leafspottreatment reduce confoundingeffectsfromthisdisease. adequate striperustresistancewereselectedto resistance toYLSwereused(Table1).Varietieswith Three locallyrelevantvarietiesrangingin Varieties winter croppingregionsofsouthernNSW. as itrepresentsthemedium–highrainfall Wagga wasselectedfortheexperiment Site details of differingresistanceinsouthernNSW. leaf spot(YLS)onyieldinthreewheatvarieties This experimentexaminedtheeffectofyellow Introduction Dr Andrew andTony Milgate DPI, Wagga WaggaNSW Goldthorpe NSW2015 – southern Yellow leafspotyieldlossexperiment » » » » » Key findings No fungicide Fungicide atGS31+GS39 Fungicide at5-leafstage Full control# practice. Growersmustfollowlabel guidelinestoensureminimumresiduelevelsarenotexceeded. #Disclaimer: Thefullcontroltreatment usedinthisexperimentdoesnotconstitutearecommendationfor grower All plotsweresownwithJubilee®(flutriafol 250g/L)treatedfertiliserat800mL/haforstriperustcontrol. Treatment » » » » » in managingdiseasehighriskareas. Variety selectionwillalwaysplayanimportantrole Low diseaselevelsfromanearlystagecancauseyieldlosses. varieties duetoearlydiseasedevelopment. Yield losseswereobservedinthemoresusceptible agreement withpublishedvarietyresistanceratings. Observed differencesindiseaselevelswerebroadly failed toeliminatethediseasecompletely. Fungicide reduceddiseaselevelsinallvarieties,but Infected stubbleadded2.5t/ha Infected stubbleadded2.5t/ha Infected stubbleadded2.5t/ha Non-infected stubbleadded2.5t/ha Stubble application 2 , ensure aconducivediseaseenvironment. factors betweenAugustandNovemberto and ratevariedinresponsetoseasonal to promotediseaseintheexperiment;timing Supplementary sprayirrigationswereapplied in theexperiment(tables2and3). there werefourfungicidetreatmentsapplied The experimentwassownon15 Table 1.VarietiesincludedinYLSexperiments2015. # Phantom Variety crop varietysowingguide2015. Strzelecki EGA_Gregory AspublishedintheNSWDPIWinter No foliarfungicideapplications applied atgrowthstage31and39 Bumper® (propiconazole250g/L)at500mL/ha Bumper® (propiconazole250g/L)at500mL/ha (propiconazole 250g/L)at500mL/ha Multiple applicationsofBumper® Fungicide application A A SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | A YLS rating Moderately susceptible(MS) Susceptible (S) Susceptible–very susceptible(S–VS) #

May and 151

crop protection Table 3. Fungicide application dates. Fungicide applications throughout the growing Growth stage Fungicide application dates period separated the treatments to some extent, Full control 30 July, 1 September, 1 October but they did not give complete control of the (approximately every 3–4 weeks) disease. This is more noticeable in the S–VS variety 5-leaf stage 30 July Phantom than in the S variety EGA_Gregory GS31 1 September or the MS variety Strzelecki (Figure 1). GS39 1 October Yield Results Yield loss due to treatment effects were observed in all varieties. However, it was most evident in the S–VS Disease severity variety Phantom with a yield loss of 26% between Disease development was expressed early at the full control and no fungicide treatments (Figure the 5-leaf stage in all varieties and treatments. 2). The benefit of higher varietal resistance was This was due to heavy disease pressure from observed with EGA_Gregory and Strzelecki having the stubble collected from a susceptible yield losses of only 17% and 12% respectively. variety infected with YLS the previous year. Fungicide applied at the 5-leaf stage improved Disease development did not conform to the disease yield, but it was not significantly different to progress curves observed in many other crop the no fungicide treatment. Phantom and diseases. There was no extended lag period when EGA_Gregory had significant higher yields when the disease was at a low level relative to the amount fungicides were applied at GS31 and GS39, but of green leaf area in the canopy. Disease symptoms this effect was not observed for Strzelecki. were expressed continuously throughout the season, which illustrates that conditions conducive to YLS can result in disease symptoms keeping pace with new leaf production as the plants grow.

Figure 1. Disease progress in the YLS experiment at Wagga Wagga, 2015.

152 | NSW Department of Primary Industries and BradBaxterfortechnical support. Thank youtoMichaelMcCaig, TonyGoldthorpe jointly fundedbyGRDCandNSW DPI. in southernNSWproject’,DAN00177,2013–18, Knowledge andToolstoManageCropDisease Surveillance, Management,Epidemiology This experimentispartofthe‘ImprovingGrower Acknowledgements analysis willbepublishedinduecourse. pre-publication. Furtherinformationand Note: Thisisanindustrysummaryprovided regular applicationsthroughoutthegrowingseason. achieved inthesusceptiblevarieties,evenwith Complete controlofYLSwithfungicideswasnot in determiningiftherewillbeaneffectonyield. However, infectiontimingplaysanimportantrole in thesusceptible-ratedvarietyEGA_Gregory. losses inhigheryieldingsituationsaswasobserved Low levelsofdiseasecanresultinsignificantyield more considerationinhighYLSriskareas. such asPhantom.Varietyselectionneeds a significantyieldlossinsusceptiblevarieties Strzelecki. Highlevelsofdiseasecanresultin Phantom toYLSrelativeEGA_Gregoryand This experimentconfirmsthesusceptibilityof Summary significant differencebetweentreatments. Figure 2.YellowleafspotyieldexperimentatWaggaWagga,2015.Wherestandarderrorbarsdonotoverlapindicatesa SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | 153

crop protection Southern NSW root and crown disease paddock survey – 2014 and 2015

Dr Andrew Milgate and Brad Baxter NSW DPI, Wagga Wagga

Key findings »» 55% of paddocks tested in 2014 and 80% of paddocks in 2015 had crown rot. »» 90% of paddocks tested in 2014 and 2015 had take all. »» The previous crop grown in the paddock can greatly influence the pre-sowing levels of crown rot and take all in the following year, particularly in a cereal on cereal rotation. »» Most paddocks with pre-sowing levels of crown rot and take all had increased inoculum levels throughout the growing season. »» Crop rotation and duration, and stubble management can reduce crown rot and take all infection risk.

Introduction The soil and stubble sample was subjected A total of 87 paddocks were surveyed as a part to DNA analysis using PreDicta B to of a longitudinal study of soil- and stubble- measure selected pathogen levels. borne diseases in southern NSW (sNSW) farming Results systems. Particular emphasis has been placed on the soil-borne disease, crown rot. Crown rot Crown rot was present in 55% of paddocks Crown rot is caused by the pathogens Fusarium surveyed in 2014 and 80% of paddocks in 2015. pseudograminearum (Fp) and Fusarium culmorum Most paddocks that had crown rot before sowing (Fc). Crown rot restricts the flow of nutrients resulted in the pathogen building up considerably and water up the stem resulting in pinched throughout the growing season (Figure 1). or empty grain heads. Previous experiments have shown that grain yield can be reduced by Cereal–cereal–canola–cereal–cereal rotations such 40% or more in susceptible cereal cultivars. as in paddock number 6 (Figure 1) clearly show the rapid buildup of crown rot over the two-year Other relevant observations identified from the period. This particular paddock went from a low survey data include take all’s ability to rapidly crown rot risk before sowing in 2014 to high risk increase inoculum levels during the growing after one season. The inoculum survived over the season. Take all is caused by the pathogens 2014–15 summer, which then provided a high Gaeumannomyces graminis var. tritici (Ggt) and risk starting level for the 2015 wheat crop. Gaeumannomyces graminis var. avenae (Gga). A paddock within the data set was sown to peas Site and method in 2013 and canola in 2014. The pre-sowing and The 87 paddocks were selected to reflect medium postharvest PreDicta B samples gathered in 2015 to high rainfall cropping systems in sNSW. Samples showed no crown rot. This underlies the importance were collected at permanent GPS locations in a spiral of crop rotation and duration in breaking down and pattern working from the centre moving outwards. maintaining low levels of crown rot inoculum. Ten soil cores and 10 pieces of stubble were collected at 10 points along the spiral. The samples were bulked, homogenised and a sub sample taken for analysis. The sub sample was comprised of 500 g of soil and 30 random pieces of stubble 4–5 cm long, ensuring the crown was present on the stubble.

154 | NSW Department of Primary Industries and 2015.Logrisklevels:Below detection =<0.8.Low0.8–<1.1.Medium1.1–<2.0.High≥2.0. Figure 2.Increaseinthelevelsof Takeall(Ggt+Gga)duringthegrowingseasonfrompre-sowing topostharvestin2014 resulted inamedium–highriskpostharvest(Figure2). detection orlowriskcategorybeforesowingand paddocks hadstartinglevelsofinoculuminthebelow were presentduringthe2015growingseason.Most increase undersuitableclimaticconditions,which in 2014and2015.Takeallhastheabilitytorapidly Take allwaspresentin90%ofpaddockssurveyed Take all southern NSW. and 2015.Logrisklevels:Belowdetection=<0.6.Low0.6–<2.0.Medium2.0–<2.5.High≥2.5forbreadwheatsin Figure 1.Increaseinthelevelsofcrownrot(Fp+Fc)duringgrowingseasonfrompre-sowingtopostharvest2014 reduce inoculumlevelsby30%(SARDI2015). rainfall eventof>25mmoversummercan by variablerainfallreceivedoversummer.Each This variationininoculumlevelscouldbeexplained declined oversummerandintothe2015season. paddocks spikedpostharvestin2014andthen carried thoselevelsinto2015.Inoculuminother had medium–highlevelspostharvestin2014 from paddocktopaddock.Somepaddocksthat The inoculumcarryoverfrom2014to2015varied SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | 155

crop protection Previous crop effects take all inoculum can be carried over summer. The The crop grown in the previous year has a majority of paddocks fell in the below detection–low significant effect on the pre-sowing levels of risk categories for crown rot relating to a 0–10% crown rot and take all (figures 3 and 4). Host yield loss (SARDI 2015). A number of paddocks fell crops such as wheat allow inoculum levels to into the medium–high risk category, which could build up and carryover through summer. result in a 5–60% yield loss (SARDI 2015). Take all levels were less responsive following a single canola Approximately half of the paddocks surveyed break when compared with crown rot levels. At the pre-sowing were in the medium and high risk beginning of 2015, the majority of the paddocks categories for crown rot following a cereal crop fell into the below detection–low risk category. (Figure 3). This translates to a potential yield loss of 5–60% before the crop is sown (SARDI 2015). Summary Take all levels following a cereal crop are not as The 2014 and 2015 climatic conditions were substantial as crown rot. Most of the paddocks fell conducive for high levels of crown rot and take all in the below detectable–low risk category. This disease to develop. Cool wet winters followed by translates to 10–30% of paddocks expecting a 1–10% a relatively dry spring (in many instances) allowed yield loss (SARDI 2015). Even low levels of take all low levels of crown rot and take all to develop are concerning due to the pathogen’s ability to to medium–high risk in paddocks. Many of the rapidly increase and cause yield loss (Figure 2). paddocks observed have disease complexes that A one-year canola break crop reduced inoculum can exacerbate yield losses in the presence of build-up compared with a previous cereal crop. one, two or more significant pathogen levels. However, considerable levels of both crown rot and

Figure 3. Previous crop effects on the background levels of crown rot (Fp + Fc) before sowing in 2014 and 2015. Log risk levels: Below detection = <0.6. Low = 0.6–<2.0. Medium = 2.0–<2.5. High = ≥2.5 for bread wheats in southern NSW.

156 | NSW Department of Primary Industries analysis willbepublishedindue course. pre-publication. Furtherinformation and Note: Thisisanindustrysummary provided inoculum build-upduringthe growingseason. crown rotandtakeallit will notreducethe fill stage.However,barleyissusceptibletoboth negate theeffectsofcrownrotduringgrain Because barleymaturesearlieritcanpotentially cereal mustbegrown,considersowingbarley. down formorethanoneseasonifpossible.Ifa pulse oroilseedcroptoallowinoculumbreak remove cerealsfromthepaddockrotation.Sowa there arehighlevelsofcrownrotortakeall,isto The currentrecommendationtogrowers,where crop tomakerelevantconclusionsatthisstage. vetch donothaveenoughdataassociatedwitheach Other non-hostcropssuchaslupins,fieldpeaand when comparedwithcanolaasthepreviouscrop. pre-sowing levelsofbothcrownrotandtakeall disease. Cerealoncerealrotationsincreasedthe on thestartinglevelsofcrownrotandtakeall The previousyear’scrophasasignificanteffect levels: Belowdetection=<0.8.Low=0.8-<1.1.Medium=1.1-<2.0.High=≥2.0. Figure 4.PreviouscropeffectonthebackgroundlevelsofTakeall(Ggt+Gga)priortosowingin2014and2015.Logrisk PreDicta Institute 2015,Broadacresoilbornediseasemanual: South AustralianResearchand Development Reference Haines (Landmark)fortechnicalassistance. Co-op), TimTarlington(RiverinaCo-op)andWill Strategies), JamesWhiteley(previouslyRiverina (NSW DPI),ChrisMinehan(RuralManagement Thank youtoTonyGoldthorpeandBradBaxter and theagronomistsforarrangingaccess. to theirpaddocksforsurveydatabecollected Thank youtothegrowerswhoallowedaccess jointly fundedbyGRDCandNSWDPI. in southernNSW,DAN00177,2013–18; Knowledge andToolstoManageCropDisease Grower Surveillance,ManagementEpidemiology program’, DAN00175,2013–18;and‘Improving This surveyispartofthe‘Nationalcrownrot Acknowledgements

B DNAsoilbornediseasetests SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | . 157

crop protection Crown rot variety trials – southern NSW 2015

Dr Andrew Milgate and Brad Baxter NSW DPI, Wagga Wagga

Key findings »» Yield losses of up to 20% due to crown rot were observed in 2015. »» Losses ranged from 2%–11% in bread wheat and 1.5%–3% for barley. »» Crown rot has a significant effect on gross margins when comparing grain quality and yields between crown rot treated and untreated plots. »» Select the highest yielding varieties rather than those with enhanced crown rot tolerance to minimise losses. »» Reduce the risk of crown rot infection by using crop rotation as well as stubble management.

Introduction Table 1. Barley and wheat varieties included in the 2015 crown rot trial. The aim of the experiment was to examine the Variety Cr rating # effect of crown rot on yield in 12 bread wheats, A S–VS P one durum wheat and five barley varieties of Buloke A MS–S differing tolerance levels in southern NSW (sNSW). Commander CompassA S Crown rot is caused by the pathogens Fusarium GrangeRA S pseudograminearum and Fusarium culmorum. Crown HindmarshA S rot restricts the flow of nutrients and water up the WaaganA S stem resulting in pinched or empty grain heads. Elmore CL PlusA MS–S P A Site details Emu Rock MS–S EGA_GregoryA S Wagga Wagga was the site selected for 2015 ImpalaA MS–S as it represents the medium–high rainfall LancerA MS–S cropping region of southern NSW. The MerlinA MS experiment was sown on 2 June 2015. PhantomA MS–S SunguardA MS Treatments Figure 1. Crown rot yield trial Wagga Wagga, 2015. The effect of crown rot on yield in treated and untreated SuntopA MS–S Eighteen locally relevant varieties with a range plots. Standard error bars indicate a significant difference between treatments where they do not overlap. TrojanA MS of tolerance levels to crown rot were used EGA_WedgetailA MS–S (Table 1). Trials were inoculated with a mixture EGA_BellaroiA VS of isolates collected from southern NSW . # Crown rot rating from NSW DPI Winter There were two treatments: crop variety sowing guide 2015. 1. Crown rot added (Plus CR): 72 g of P Provisional rating. crown rot infected non-viable seed sown per plot with the viable seed. Results 2. Control/no crown rot added (Minus CR): Yield no crown rot inoculum sown in plots. Adding crown rot inoculated seed resulted in a yield A foliar spray of Bumper® at 0.5 L/ha was applied loss in all varieties in the experiment with the on 14 September for foliar disease control. The exception of Suntop (Figure 1), but not all these herbicides Precept 150® at 1.5 L/ha, Axial® at differences were statistically significant. The greatest 0.2 L/ha and Adigor® at 0.5 L/ha were applied on yield loss comparing the crown rot treated and 9 September to ensure good weed control. untreated plots was in the VS durum wheat variety EGA_Bellaroi (20%). Where there was crown rot, Trojan performed well, yielding higher than 9 of the10 other bread wheats that had no crown rot. Yield losses

158 | NSW Department of Primary Industries in the2015crownrottrial. Table 1.Barleyandwheatvarietiesincluded wheats thathad nocrownrot.Yieldlosses well, yieldinghigherthan9of the10otherbread Where therewascrownrot,Trojan performed EGA_Bellaroi (20%). untreated plotswasintheVS durumwheatvariety yield losscomparingthecrownrottreatedand differences werestatisticallysignificant.Thegreatest exception ofSuntop(Figure1),butnotallthese loss inallvarietiestheexperimentwith Adding crownrotinoculatedseedresultedinayield Yield Results P # Emu Rock Commander Buloke crop varietysowingguide2015. Variety EGA_Bellaroi EGA_Wedgetail Trojan Suntop Sunguard Phantom Merlin Lancer Impala EGA_Gregory Elmore CLPlus Waagan Hindmarsh GrangeR Compass CrownrotratingfromNSWDPIWinter Provisionalrating. A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A Cr rating VS MS–S MS MS–S MS MS–S MS MS–S MS–S S MS–S MS–S S S S S MS–S S–VS P P # reductions, retention reductionsandvariation margin throughincreasedscreenings, testweight Figure 1.Crownrotcanalsoaffect thegross The effectsofcrownrotonyield areshownin Gross margins varieties inthetrialwith1.5–3%yieldlosses. were minimaldifferencesbetweentheotherthree (5%) betweentreatedanduntreatedplots.There However, Compassshowedthegreatestyieldloss barley varietieswheretherewascrownrot. Compass andHindmarshwerethebestperforming were loweryieldingduetothelatesowingtime. The latermaturinglinessuchasEGA_Wedgetail EGA_Bellaroi wastheworstperformingvariety. minimal lossesbetweentreatedanduntreatedplots. CL PLUS,Sunguard,SuntopandTrojandisplayed the remainingbreadandbiscuitwheats.Elmore associated withcrownrotvariedfrom2–11%in plots. Standarderrorbarsindicateasignificantdifferencebetweentreatmentswheretheydonotoverlap. Figure 1.CrownrotyieldtrialWaggaWagga,2015.Theeffectofcrownonintreatedanduntreated comparing crownrottreated anduntreatedplots. resulted ina$288.60netloss perhectarewhen to $178,or$54/tonnepenalty. Theflowoneffect resulted inadropperhectare pricefrom$232 feed qualityduetoreduced test weight.This Commander tobedowngradedfrommalt particular, crownrotcausedthebarleycultivar yield reductionandgrainqualitydowngrades.In varieties, $78.51perhectarewaslostdueto quality downgrades.Onaverageacrossthe18 varieties dependingonyield,toleranceandgrain The figure($)lostperhectarevariedbetween and untreatedplotsforthe18varietiesselected. and effectongrossmarginbetweencrownrottreated Table 1showsthevariationinyield,qualitygrades a multipliereffecttoanyreducedyield. to downgradegrainqualityandpricing,adding in grainproteincontent.Thesefactorscombine SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | 159

crop protection Table 1. Crown rot effects on gross margin, grain quality and yield. Variety Treatment Grade Grade Actual Actual Loss in Mean Gross Loss potential potential grade grade downgrades yield margin (minus CR (a) price (c) price ($/t) (t/ha) ($/ha) versus Plus ($/t) ($/t) CR) (b) (d) (e) (b) (d) (e) ($/ha) Buloke Minus CR BU1 229.00 BU1 229.00 0.00 5.02 1149.34 Buloke Plus CR BU1 229.00 BU1 229.00 0.00 4.85 1111.73 -37.61 Commander (d) Minus CR CO1 232.00 CO1 232.00 0.00 4.99 1157.90 Commander (d) Plus CR CO1 232.00 F1 178.00 -54.00 4.88 869.30 -288.60 Compass Minus CR F1 178.00 F1 178.00 0.00 5.26 937.14 Compass Plus CR F1 178.00 F1 178.00 0.00 5.00 890.65 -46.49 GrangeR Minus CR GN1 229.00 GN1 229.00 0.00 5.04 1155.07 GrangeR Plus CR GN1 229.00 GN1 229.00 0.00 4.97 1137.45 -17.62 Hindmarsh Minus CR HIND 202.00 HIND 202.00 0.00 5.25 1059.79 Hindmarsh Plus CR HIND 202.00 HIND 202.00 0.00 5.08 1025.73 -34.06 EGA_Bellaroi (E) Minus CR DR1 340.00 DR3 270.00 -70.00 3.25 877.70 EGA_Bellaroi (E) Plus CR DR1 340.00 DR3 270.00 -70.00 2.59 698.95 -178.76 EGA_Gregory Minus CR AH 231.50 ASW1 211.50 -20.00 4.61 975.55 EGA_Gregory Plus CR AH 231.50 AGP1 210.50 -21.00 4.24 892.31 -83.24 EGA_Wedgetail Minus CR APH 246.50 ASW1 212.50 -34.00 4.30 913.28 EGA_Wedgetail Plus CR APH 246.50 ASW1 212.50 -34.00 3.89 827.09 -86.19 Elmore CL Plus Minus CR AH 231.50 HPS1 213.50 -18.00 4.69 1001.12 Elmore CL Plus Plus CR AH 231.50 AGP1 210.50 -21.00 4.64 977.43 -23.69 Emu Rock Minus CR AH 231.50 AUH2 220.50 -11.00 4.89 1078.64 Emu Rock Plus CR AH 231.50 AGP1 210.50 -21.00 4.66 981.65 -96.99 Impala (E) Minus CR ASF1 330.00 ASF1 330.00 0.00 5.14 1695.84 Impala (E) Plus CR ASF1 330.00 ASF1 330.00 0.00 4.64 1529.77 -166.07 Lancer Minus CR APH 246.50 AGP1 210.50 -36.00 4.64 977.06 Lancer Plus CR APH 246.50 AGP1 210.50 -36.00 4.09 860.60 -116.46 Merlin Minus CR AH 231.50 ASW1 212.50 -19.00 4.79 1018.90 Merlin Plus CR AH 231.50 ASW1 212.50 -19.00 4.54 964.41 -54.49 Phantom Minus CR APW 217.50 APW1 217.50 0.00 4.98 1082.52 Phantom Plus CR APW 217.50 AGP1 210.50 -7.00 4.56 960.39 -122.14 Sunguard Minus CR AH 231.50 AGP1 210.50 -21.00 4.59 965.71 Sunguard Plus CR AH 231.50 AGP1 210.50 -21.00 4.50 947.12 -18.59 Suntop Minus CR APH 246.50 AGP1 210.50 -36.00 4.53 954.08 Suntop Plus CR APH 246.50 AGP1 210.50 -36.00 4.62 971.61 17.53 Trojan Minus CR APW 217.50 AGP1 210.50 -7.00 4.92 1036.69 Trojan Plus CR APW 217.50 AGP1 210.50 -7.00 4.90 1030.54 -6.15 Waagan Minus CR ASW 212.50 ASW1 212.50 0.00 4.90 1042.30 Waagan Plus CR ASW 212.50 AGP1 210.50 -2.00 4.70 989.00 -53.31 (a) NSW DPI Winter crop variety sowing guide 2015 (b) GrainCorp prices at Grong Grong at 23 February 2015 (c) GrainCorp 2015–16 grain specifications (d) GrainCorp prices at Coolamon at 23 February 2016 (e) Grain Link specifications and price at 23 February 2016

Not all varieties were as severely penalised as Summary Commander. The majority of wheat and barley in The dry spring conditions (September and the experiment lost significantly less per hectare (in October 2015) were conducive to the expression the vicinity of $20–$80). This is still a considerable of crown rot in sNSW. The combination of high loss when multiplied out on a paddock scale. Suntop infection rates and warm conditions resulted in was not consistent with the rest of the data as it the observed yield losses. However, yield losses increased yield even though crown rot was present. were less than expected, possibly due to adequate However, this yield increase was not significant. winter rainfall providing sub soil moisture at depth, reducing stress during the grain fill stage.

160 | NSW Department of Primary Industries Brad Baxterfortheirtechnicalassistance. Goldthorpe, MichaelMcCaig,JoelGrayand by GRDCandNSWDPI.ThankyoutoTony program’, DAN00175,2014–18,jointlyfunded This trialispartofthe‘Nationalcrownrot Acknowledgements analysis willbepublishedinduecourse. pre-publication. Furtherinformationand Note: Thisisanindustrysummaryprovided on soleywhenselectingvarieties. site summaryandshouldnotberelied Growers shouldnotethatthisisasingle for thebestyieldinarea,orconsiderbarley. cereal mustbegrownthenselectwheatvarieties crop andformorethanoneseasonifpossible.Ifa high levelsofcrownrot.Sowapulseoroilseedbreak should removecerealsfromtheirrotationsunder The currentrecommendationremainsthatgrowers can occurevenwhenyieldisnotaffected. grower aconsiderableincome.Qualitylosses Downgraded grainqualityandyieldcancostthe grain proteinresultinginqualitydowngrades. increase screenings,affecttestweightand margins. Itnotonlyreducesyield,butcanalso Crown rothastheabilitytoseverelyaffectgross varieties willbeassessedduringthecomingyear. performed wellinthe2015experiment.More whilst Trojan,Suntop,GrangeRandCommander performed wellinthe2014and2015experiments, Elmore CLPlus,Sunguard,BulokeandHindmarsh to maintainyieldinthepresenceofcrownrot. A fewvarietiesofbothwheatandbarleywereable SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | 161

crop protection Yellow leaf spot epidemiology trial – southern NSW 2015

Dr Andrew Milgate and Tony Goldthorpe NSW DPI, Wagga Wagga

Key findings »» Fungicide reduced disease levels in all varieties, but failed to eliminate disease completely. »» Observed differences in disease levels agreed with published variety resistance ratings. »» Early infection of yellow leaf spot (YLS) caused high yield losses in the more susceptible varieties. »» Variety selection will always play an important role in high risk areas. »» Crop rotation and best practice methods are required to maximise the benefits of correct variety selection.

Introduction Varieties The aim of this experiment was to develop Five locally relevant varieties of similar maturity disease response curves indicating potential and with a range of YLS resistance ratings yield losses for a selection of varieties that were used (Table 1). Varieties with adequate represent various resistance categories for YLS. stripe rust resistance were selected to reduce confounding effects from this disease. Site details Treatments Wagga Wagga was selected for the experiment as it YLS-infected stubble was collected locally and represents the medium–high rainfall winter cropping applied to disease plots on 19 May 2015 to simulate regions of southern NSW. The site has an overhead stubble retained from the previous year’s crop. The irrigation system available to promote disease in trials. treatments ranged from full control to high disease The experimental crop was sown on 15 May 2015. pressure (Table 2). All plots were sown with Jubilee® (flutriafol 250 g/L) treated fertiliser at 800 mL/ha for stripe rust control. Supplementary spray irrigations were applied to promote disease in the experiment. The timing and rate of these varied in response to seasonal factors between August and November to ensure a conducive disease environment.

Table 1. Yellow leaf spot (YLS) and stripe rust (Yr) ratings for varieties included in the YLS trial, 2015. Variety YLS rating # YR rating # Emu RockA Moderately resistant–moderately Moderately resistant–moderately susceptible (MR–MS) susceptible (MR–MS) EspadaA Moderately susceptible (MS) Moderately resistant–moderately susceptible (MR–MS) LincolnA Moderately susceptible–susceptible (MS–S) Resistant–moderately resistant (R–MR) EGA_GregoryA Susceptible (S) Moderately resistant (MR) PhantomA Susceptible–very susceptible (S–VS) Moderately resistant (MR) # As published in the NSW DPI Winter crop variety sowing guide 2015.

162 | NSW Department of Primary Industries Figure 1.Disease progressintheYLSepidemiology trialatWaggaWagga,2015. wetness periodthroughoutthedayandmild With theabilitytomaintainanextendedleaf inoculum assoontheseedlingsemerged. varieties, withsporesreleasedfromthestubble Disease developmentwasexpressedearlyinall Disease severity Results Table 2.Treatmentsappliedintheexperiment. # Full control Treatment Very lowdiseasepressure Low diseasepressure Medium diseasepressure High diseasepressure practice. Growersmustfollowlabelguidelinestoensureminimumresiduelevelsarenotexceeded. Disclaimer:Thefullcontroltreatmentsusedinthisexperimentdonotconstitutearecommendationforgrower # Stubble andfungicideapplication Natural infectiononly(nostubbleapplied) Infected stubbleappliedat0.1t/ha Infected stubbleappliedat0.5t/ha Infected stubbleappliedat2.5t/ha (30 July,19August,1September,Octoberand27October) Five applicationsofBumper®(propiconazole250g/L)at500 and theSvarietyEGA_Gregory(Figure1). was morenoticeableintheS–VSvarietyPhantom paddock affectstheepidemicdevelopment.This the amountofinfectedstubblepresentina treatments formostofthegrowthcycleindicating were ideal.Diseaseprogressiondifferedinthe temperatures, conditionsfordiseasedevelopment SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 |

mL/ha 163

crop protection Figure 2. Yield of five varieties in the YLS epidemiology trial at Wagga Wagga, 2015. Standard error bars indicate a significant difference between treatments where they do not overlap. The final expression of disease varied between Summary 40%–75% on the S–VS variety Phantom. Although These results confirm the susceptibility of Phantom there was little difference between the plots that and EGA_Gregory to early YLS infection. In high had no fungicide applied, the level of disease ranged risk areas, disease resistance should be considered from 60% to 75% of total leaf area diseased, with the when selecting a suitable variety for your region more resistant varieties able to limit the amount of confirmed by the MR–MS varieties that reduce leaf area infected. The disease progress observed yield losses under high disease pressure. Full in this experiment shows no lag phase where control of YLS was not achieved by the fungicides the disease is low then progressively gets higher used, but the infection rate was slowed and through the season. This could be due to the short disease restricted to the lower canopy of the plant, life cycle of the YLS pathogen, Pyrenophora tritici- achieving higher yields in the control plots. ripentis, which allows for rapid spore production and re-infection of newly emerged leaves. Note: This is an industry summary provided pre-publication. Further information and Yield analysis will be published in due course. The different rates of infected stubble applied to the plots affected yield, with the biggest Acknowledgements differences in the S–VS variety Phantom (Figure 2). This experiment is part of the ‘Improving Grower Surveillance, Management, Epidemiology Differences between treatments with no fungicide Knowledge and Tools to Manage Crop Disease applied were not significant in the MR–MS variety in southern NSW project’, DAN00177, 2013–18, Emu Rock, but total yield loss was still 13% compared jointly funded by GRDC and NSW DPI. with the full control treatment. Early YLS infection clearly had a larger impact on the S–VS variety Thank you to Michael McCaig, Tony Goldthorpe Phantom (with a total yield loss of 26% and leaf and Brad Baxter for technical support. necrosis up to 75%) and S variety EGA_Gregory (with a total yield loss of 18% and leaf necrosis up to 55%). The MS variety Espada had a total yield loss of 17%, which was higher than that of the MS–S variety Lincoln, which had a total yield loss of 13%.

164 | NSW Department of Primary Industries Table 1.NewwheatgermplasmwithresistancetoKarnalbunt. bunt resistancegenes.Thesewillbemadeavailable developed newwheatgermplasmcarryingKarnal Maize andWheatImprovementCenter,Mexico)has research collaborationwithCIMMYT(International yield penalty(Oliveretal.2014).Aninternational in theabsenceofparasite,mightresulta process thatrequiresinvestmentbytheplantwhich, Genetic resistancetoplantdiseaseisanactive to managingdiseaserisk(Murray&Brennan1998). sustainable andenvironmentallyfriendlyapproach Developing resistantvarietiesisthemosteconomical, Australia, butcarriesasignificantbiosecurityrisk. (Beattie &Biggerstaff1999).Itisnotpresentin it isaquarantinebarriertointernationaltrade damage theAustralianwheatindustrybecause fungus Karnal bunt,adiseaseofwheatcausedbythe Introduction » » Key findings , Dr LivinusEmebiri withresistance buntgermplasm to Karnal ofnewwheatGrain yieldperformance » ZWB12_62 ZWB12_4 ZWB12_31 ZWB12_30 ZWB12_187 ZWB12_14 ZWB11_95 ZWB11_172 ZWB10_44 ZVS13_406 ZVS13¬_385 ZVS13_312 germplasm Wheat » » » Three ofthenewwheatlineshadyieldscomparabletoMace were comparedwithcommercialvarieties. with Karnalbuntresistancewhennewwheatlines There wasnodetectableyieldpenaltyassociated bunt hadgrainyieldsabovetheexperiment’saverage. Half ofthenewwheatgermplasmwithresistancetoKarnal Scout Tilletia indica,hasthepotentialtoseriously A andSuntop KLEIN DONENRIQUE*2/3/FRET2/WBLL1//TACUPETO F2001 CHIBIA//PRLII/CM65531/3/SKAUZ/BAV92/4/MUNAL#1 BAJ#1/3/KIRITATI//ATTILA*2/PASTOR BAJ#1/3/KIRITATI//ATTILA*2/PASTOR FRANCOLIN#1BECARD//FRNCLN KIRITATI//ATTILA*2PASTOR/3/AKURI MUNAL#1/FRANCOLIN#1 WAXWING/4/BL 1496/MILAN/3/CROC_1/AE.SQUARROSA(205)//KAUZ/5/FRNCLN ROLF07/7/CAL/NH//H567.71/3/SERI/4/CAL/NH/H567.71/5/2*KAUZ/6/PASTOR CHUANMAI 43*2/3/ATTILA/3*BCN*2//BAV92 TAM200/PASTOR/TOBA97/3/HEILO CHIBIA//PRLII/CM65531/3/SKAUZ/BAV92/4/MUNAL1 Pedigree A , thehighestyieldingcommercialvarieties. Kerry TaylorDPI, Wagga andKerry WaggaShane Hildebrand NSW due toincorporatingKarnalbuntresistance. what penaltiescouldaffectyieldoritscomponents prerequisite, thisstudywascarriedouttodetermine to Australianbreedersforvarietydevelopment.Asa Treatments (rows andcolumns)(Cullis&Gleeson1991). by usingspatialinformationoftheplotlayouts spatially analysedtoaccountforfieldheterogeneity a p-repwithtworeplicates.Dataongrainyieldwas were usedforthestudy.Theexperimentdesignwas (Super172) fromtheCIMMYTbreedingprogram, bunt (Table new wheatgermplasmwithresistancetoKarnal Australian-adapted cultivars.Incomparison,12 to Karnalbuntwerechosenrepresentthe season. Sixvarietiesknowntobesusceptible Agricultural Instituteinthe2015wintercropping The experimentwasconductedattheWagga A , SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 |

1), includinganewlyreleasedcultivar 165

crop protection Results References The experiment was managed to achieve maximum Beattie, BR and Biggerstaff, DR 1999 ‘Karnal bunt, yield potential. It was irrigated to the optimal level a wimp of a disease...but an irresistible political and top-dressed with nitrogen. The resulting grain opportunity’, Choices, vol. 14(2), pp. 4–8. yield was 4.7–8.0 t/ha (Figure 1). Grain yield variability Cullis, BR and Gleeson, AC 1991, ‘Spatial analysis was higher in the new wheat germplasm than in of field experiments – an extension to two the commercial cultivars, probably indicating the dimensions’, Biometrics, vol. 47, pp. 1449–1460. difference in adaptation. Nevertheless, variance analysis indicated that there was no significant Murray, GM and Brennan, JP 1998, ‘The risk to Australia (P = 0.19) difference in grain yield amongst the from Tilletia indica, the cause of Karnal bunt of wheat’, genotypes. Super172, the newly released Karnal bunt Australasian Plant Pathology, vol. 27, pp. 212–225. resistant variety from CIMMYT, did not perform well Oliver, R, Lichtenzveig, J, Tan, K-C, Waters, O, Rybak, in the experiment. Mace, Scout and Suntop were the K, Lawrence, J, Friesen, T and Burgess, P 2014, highest yielding of the commercial varieties (Figure 1), ‘Absence of detectable yield penalty associated but some of the Karnal bunt resistant lines also had with insensitivity to Pleosporales necrotrophic comparable yields of ≥7.0 t/ha and six of the 12 lines effectors in wheat grown in the West Australian had grain yields above the experiment’s average. wheat belt’, Plant Pathology, vol. 63, pp. 1027–1032. Summary Acknowledgements This study used a field experiment to examine the This work was part of the project ‘Managing on- yield performance of new wheat germplasm selected farm biosecurity risk in wheat through preemptive for resistance to Karnal bunt. There was no significant breeding’, DAN00174, 2013–18, and jointly funded difference in yield between the new wheat lines and by NSW DPI and GRDC. Collaborative support and adapted, commercial varieties, indicating no evidence germplasm provided by Pawan Singh and RP Singh of yield penalty. On the contrary, three of the new (CIMMYT) are also gratefully acknowledged. lines yielded over 7 t/ha that compared favourably with the highest yielding of the commercial varieties.

Mace ZWB12_4 Scout Suntop ZWB11_95 ZWB12_30 ZVS13_312 Waagan ZWB10_44 Axe ZWB12_31 ZVS13_385 ZWB11_172 ZWB12_14 ZVS13_406 Commercial varieties and new germplasm Commercial ZWB12_187 Karnal bunt resistance status Rosella Resistant Super172 Susceptible ZWB12_62

4.50 5.00 5.50 6.00 6.50 7.00 7.50 8.00 Grain yield (t/ha)

Figure 1. Yield performance of novel wheat germplasm with Karnal bunt resistance and current commercial varieties.

166 | NSW Department of Primary Industries from 2015)wereusedinthestudy(Figure1). of 39isolates(15from2013,112014and13 from barleygrowingareasinsouthernNSW.Atotal under glasshouseconditionswithisolatescollected The varietieswereinoculatedatseedlingstage inoculum Scald to scaldwereused(Table1). with arangeofadultplantresistance Thirty-five commerciallyavailablevarieties Varieties Treatments the WaggaAgriculturalInstitute. The trialwasconductedinaglasshouseat Site details complements theadultplantscreeningprocess. to scaldisolatescollectedfromsouthernNSW.It of Australianbarleyvarietiesattheseedlingstage experiment isbeginningtocharacterisethereaction virulence profilepresentinsNSWisrequired.This years, thereforeabetterunderstandingofthe number ofvarietiesattheadultstageinrecent Changes invirulencehavebeenobserveda a region.Barleyscaldishighlyvariabledisease. depth understandingofthepathogenspresentin Successful diseasemanagementrequiresanin- Introduction » » » Key findings DPI, Wagga WaggaDr DanteNSW Adorada andDrAndrew Milgate to scaldfrom NSW2015 southern ofAustralian varietiesReaction barley » » » Strategic varietychoicecanaffecttheexistenceofvirulentpathotypes. based changesinvirulence. The varietygrowninaregioninfluencestime- seedling stageinsouthernNSW(sNSW). There arelargedifferencesinvirulenceatthe glasshouse trialsandtheiradultplantreactiontoscald. Table 1.Australianbarleyvarieties(AusBar)usedin Westminster Finniss Capstan Baudin Skipper Skiff Litmus La Trobe Fathom SY Rattler Scope Schooner Oxford GrangeR Fairview Commander Bass Barque Cultivar **No data. Winter cropvarietysowingguide2014 and2015. *Adult plantreactiontoscaldaspublished intheNSWDPI Wimmera Urambie Tulla Tilga Tantangara Shepherd Hindmarsh Gairdner Franklin Flagship Fitzroy Charger Buloke Compass Flinders Fleet Navigator A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | A A Scald rating2014* MR-MS MS-S MS-S nd** S-VS S-VS S-VS S-VS S-VS S-VS S-VS MR MR MR MS nd nd nd nd VS VS VS VS VS VS S S S S S S S S S S Scald rating2015* S-VS S-VS S-VS S-VS S-VS S-VS S-VS S-VS S-VS S-VS S-VS S-VS S-VS S-VS S-VS S-VS S-VS MR MR nd nd nd nd nd nd VS VS VS VS VS VS S S S S 167

crop protection Results The results appear to show differences in cultivar Differential reactions were observed among barley reactions to scald isolates influenced by where varieties from the different scald isolates (Table 2). and when the isolates were collected. However, For example, a 2013 isolate collected from Franklin, a many more isolates will need to be tested before barley cultivar identified to have adult plant resistance these apparent patterns can be verified. At this (APR), caused a susceptible (S) seedling reaction to early stage of data collection, it is apparent that Franklin and the majority of the varieties tested. It the scald pathogen is highly variable and that also caused moderately susceptible (MS) reaction the changes in adult plant reaction recently to Buloke, previously identified to have seedling observed are also present at the seedling stage. resistance to the disease. Some isolates also displayed In addition, these virulences have been collected lower levels of virulence such as 2013 isolate collected from growers’ paddocks and, as such, represent a from Keel and a barley breeding line (BL no.1). In the more broad potential risk for infection in the region. 2015 collection, more virulent isolates were observed, The absence of any virulent isolates detected which were able to infect most of the varieties tested. on Tantangara in these tests appears promising; These results highlight the variable nature of scald. however, further isolates are required to determine if this resistance is effective in the whole region.

Figure 1. Locations of barley scald isolates collection in southern NSW 2013–2015.

168 | NSW Department of Primary Industries collected frombarleygrowingareasofsouthernNSW2013–2015*. Table 2.ReactionofAusBartoselectedscaldisolatesrepresentingthe39 Skipper Fleet** Litmus Barque** AusBar # *** n/a–nocultivarinformation available ** Withidentifiedadultplantresistancetoscald * R=Resistant,MRModeratelyresistant,MS susceptibleandS=Susceptible Wimmera SyRattler Commander** Navigator Capstan Compass Flinders Bass Fairview Franklin** Tantangara** Fathom Gairdner** Oxford Baudin** Charger Granger Schooner Finniss** Buloke** Hindmarsh Scope Tilga** Fitzroy Tulla** Shepherd Urambie LaTrobe Flagship** Skiff** Westminster Withidentifiedseedlingresistance # Year ofcollection,locationandcultivarsourceisolates MR MR MR MR MR MR MR MR MR MR MS MS MS MS MS MS MS MS MS MS MS MS R R R S S S S S S S S S S Wagga Wagga, Franklin ** MR MR MR MR MR MR MR MR MR MS MS MS MS MS MS MS MS MS MS MS MS MS MS R R R R R S S S S S S S Wagga Wagga, Hindmarsh 2013 MR MR MR MR MR MR MR MR MR MR MR MR MR MR MR MR MR MR MS MS MS MS MS MS MS MS MS R R R R R R R R Wagga Wagga, Keel MR MR MR MR MR MR MR MR MR R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R Wagga Wagga, BL no. 1 MR MR MR MR MR MR MR MR MR MR MR MR MS MS MS MS MS MS MS MS R R R R R R R R R R R R S S S Wagga Wagga, Franklin ** MR MR MR MR MR MR MR MS MS MS MS MS MS MS MS MS R R R R R R R R R R R R S S S S S S S Wagga Wagga, Tilga** MR MR MR MR MR MR MR MR MR MR MR MS R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R Wagga Wagga, Keel 2014 MR MR MR MR MR MR MR MR MR MR MR MR MR R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R Wagga Wagga, Fathom MR MR MR MR MR MR MR MR MR MR MR MR MR MR MS MS MS MS MS MS R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R Narrandera, n/a *** R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R Uranquinty, Hindmarsh SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | MR MR MR MR MR MR MS MS R R R R S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S Wagga Wagga, Skiff ** MR MR MR MR MR MR R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R Wagga Wagga, Hindmarsh MR MR MR MR MR MS MS MS MS R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R S S S S S S S S Downside, n/a MR MR MR MR MS MS MS MS R R R R R R R R R R R R R R S S S S S S S S S S S S S Grong Grong, n/a 2015 MR MR MR MR MR MS MS MS MS MS R R R R R R R R R R R R S S S S S S S S S S S S S Derriwong, Hindmarsh n/a MS MS R R R R R R R R R R R R R R S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S Bogan Gate, Buloke MR MR MR MR MR MR MR MR MR MS MS MS MS MS MS MS MS MS R R R R R R R R R R R R S R R S S Garema, n/a MR MS 169 R R R R R R S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S S Mirrool, n/a

crop protection Summary Changes in scale virulence can significantly affect both crop losses and control costs, especially for regularly grown commercial varieties. The variety’s genetic composition influences changes in scald virulence, which leads to increased prevalence of virulent pathotypes against a variety. This has implications for variety selection by growers. Strategically choosing varieties with resistance levels of MS or better will have an effect on reducing the overall pathogen population size and help protect resistant genes. It is important to also remember the results presented here are seedling reactions and that these do not always agree with results at the adult plant stage. The seedling results will be used to improve the understanding of the pathogen’s dynamic nature. The NSW DPI Winter crop variety sowing guide is the recommended source of information for variety resistance ratings. Surveying and collecting scald isolates in sNSW and testing against barley varieties is continuing to provide guidance to growers and agronomists in their variety selection and disease management strategies. Note: This is an industry summary provided pre-publication. Further information and analysis will bepublished in due course. Acknowledgements This trial is part of ‘The National Barley Foliar Pathogen Variety Improvement Program (NBFPVIP)’, DAQ187, 2013–17, jointly funded by GRDC and NSW DPI. Thank you to Joel Gray, Encarnacion Adorada and Sujeewa Rathnayake for technical assistance.

170 | NSW Department of Primary Industries and breedersto findalternativesourcesof sowing guide2015,prompted plantpathologists as reportedintheNSWDPIWinter cropvariety varieties resistanttoscaldin the pasttwoyears, The declineinthenumberof Australianbarley Results the epidemicdevelopedtohighlevels. was conductedtospreadthediseaseandensure an epidemic.Regularoverheadsprinklerirrigation season wasspreadonthebufferrowstopromote Scald-infected barleystubblefromtheprevious Treatments more adaptedtomodernagriculturalpractices. germplasm fromancientlandracestomaterial (NBFPVIP). Thisprogramcontainsdiversebarley Foliar PathogenVarietalImprovementProgram field conditionsaspartoftheNationalBarley A totalof335Ethiopianlineswerescreenedunder Varieties in anumberofotherlocationsaroundAustralia. material isalsobeingevaluatedforotherdiseases rainfall wintercroppingregionsofsouthernNSW.This Agricultural Institute,whichrepresentsthemedium The trialwasconductedattheWagga Site details centres oforiginbarleycultivation. to barleyscaldandotherdiseasesfromthe identifying possiblesourcesofresistance This isbeingachievedbyscreeningand for barleyvarietyimprovementinAustralia. of multi-diseaseresistantgermplasmavailable The aimofthisworkistoincreasethesources Introduction » » » Key findings DPI, Wagga WaggaDr DanteNSW Adorada andDrAndrew Milgate cultivars scald2015 –barley resistance to barley protect ourmodern Tapping into ancient sources ofdisease » » » important toretainotherdesirabletraits. Careful selectionfordisease-resistantlinesis moderately resistanttoscald. Twenty-eight outof355Ethiopianlineswere resistance toscaldandotherdiseases. Ancient barleygermplasmfromEthiopiaharbours could lackresistanceagainstothers(Table1). with acceptableresistanceagainstonepathogen the besttheselineshavetooffer,asavariety to diseases.Carefulselectionisimperativerecover thought toharbourdesirabletraitssuchasresistance of originbarley(Badr&El-Shazly2012)andis were usedbecauseEthiopiaisproposedasthecentre for modernagriculture.TheEthiopiangermplasm there areoftenassociatedtraitsthatnotdesirable it isadaptedtoAustralianconditions.Thisbecause through crossingtoeliteAustralianvarietiesensure The materialwillrequirefurtherdevelopment into researchandbreedingprograms. sources ofscaldresistancethatcanbeincorporated can nowbeinvestigatedfurtheraspossiblenew resistant (MR)reactiontoscald(Figure1).These conditions, 28werefoundtohaveamoderately Ethiopian linesevaluatedagainstscaldunderfield resistance tothedisease.Of335diversesetof SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | 171

crop protection 160

140

120

100

60 Number of entries

0 R RMR MR MRMS MS MSS S SVS VS Reaction to scald

Figure 1. Frequency distribution of the 335 Ethiopian lines’ reaction to scald under field conditions, 2015. NB: R = resistant; R–MR = resistant–moderately resistant; MR = moderately resistant; MR–MS = moderately resistant–moderately susceptible; MS = moderately susceptible; MS–S = moderately susceptible–susceptible; S = susceptible; S–VS = musceptible–very susceptible; VS = very susceptible.

Table 1. Example list of Ethiopian lines that are possible sources of resistance (MR) to barley scald, spot form of net blotch (SFNB), net form of net blotch (NFNB) and leaf rust (LR), plus some other attributes.* Name Grain colour Row No. Scald SFNB NFNB LR AUS400105 White 6 MR S R VS AUS400107 White 6 MR MS R R AUS400110 White 6 MR MS R MS AUS400112 White 4 MR MS R MS AUS400115 White 6 MR S R S AUS400210 White 6 MR VS R MS AUS400213 Blue 6 MR MS R MS AUS400216 Blue 6 MR VS R VS AUS400217 White 2 MR VS R R AUS400411 White 6 MR MS R R AUS402784 White 6 MR MR–MS R VS AUS403034 Blue 4 MR MR R MS AUS403071 Black 6 MR MS R MS AUS403223 Black 6 MR VS R R AUS403839 White 2 MR VS R R AUS403850 White 6 MR MR–MS R R AUS403864 Pink-Blue 6 MR S R R AUS403884 White 2 MR MS R MS AUS403888 Black 6 MR S R R AUS403896 Pink (Brown) 4 MR MR–MS R MS AUS403920 White 6 MR S R R AUS403932 White 6 MR VS R R AUS403946 White 6 MR MR–MS R R AUS405821 White 6 MR S R MS AUS407177 White 6 MR MR R S–VS AUS407337 White 6 & 2 MR S R R AUS408654 Blue 4 MR S R R AUS409392 Brown 6 MR VS R VS *Attributes and reaction to barley diseases provided by Ryan Fowler, Department of Agriculture and Fisheries Queensland.

172 | NSW Department of Primary Industries Biotechnology, vol.10,no.1,pp.1–12. examples’, history ofcropplants:Barleyandcloveras approaches toorigin,ancestryanddomestication Badr, A&El-Shazly,H2012,‘Molecular Reference Sujeewa Rathnayakefortechnicalassistance. Thank youtoJoelGray,MichaelMcCaigand jointly fundedbyGRDCandNSWDPI. Program (NBFPVIP)’,DAQ187,2013–17, Barley FoliarPathogenVarietyImprovement This experimentispartof‘TheNational Acknowledgements analysis willbepublishedinduecourse. pre-publication. Furtherinformationand Note: Thisisanindustrysummaryprovided protection tothebarleyindustryintofuture. hope todiscoverresistancethatwillprovide from wherethecroporiginated,researchers By tappingintoancientgermplasmcollections develop improvedvarietieswithresistancetoscald. for incorporationintheirbreedingprogramto sources ofresistanceareprovidedtobreeders performance ofbarleyvarietiesforNSW.Identified disease resistancesplaysavitalroleinimprovingthe Screening forsourcesofbarleyscaldandother Summary Journal ofGeneticEngineeringand SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | 173

crop protection A petal survey for Sclerotinia in canola across NSW and northern Victoria

Audrey Leo, Fleur Muller, Gerard O’Connor and Dr Kurt Lindbeck NSW DPI, Wagga Wagga

Key findings »» Sites in the Riverina, Cootamundra, Cowra and Grenfell developed high levels of Sclerotinia-infested petals during the flowering period in 2015. »» No correlation was found between individual districts and petal infestation levels. »» The amount of rainfall during flowering was positively correlated to the level of inoculum. »» Rainfall during flowering is not the only factor that determines the level of petal infestation. Other factors such as initial inoculum level (from sclerotia), crop height, crop-canopy density and paddock history play a significant role.

Introduction West Slopes included Mirrool, Pucawan, Coolamon, Petal testing, used as one of the Sclerotinia disease Junee, Harden and Cootamundra. Sites within the forecasting tools, can provide information on Central West Slopes and Plains included Condobolin, the presence and levels of Sclerotinia inoculum, Forbes, Parkes, Manildra, Cowra and Grenfell. All which can lead to the stem rot developing in petal samples from Victoria were collected from canola. Ascospores are released from apothecia four commercial crops located at Dookie. Details (the fruiting structures of the Sclerotinia fungus) on the paddock, time of sowing, time of fungicide in winter and early spring and colonise canola application, date of sample collection, bloom stage, petals when conditions are favourable. The variety, nearest town location, the presence of infected canola petals fall into the canola crop apothecia and stem lesions (weekly) were recorded. canopy and can become lodged against a stem Sample collection and analysis (main stem or branch). If environmental conditions Flower heads were collected weekly from each site are favourable, a stem lesion and stem rot can during the flowering period and were sampled from subsequently develop, causing yield loss. areas within the crop where no foliar fungicide had Some districts in NSW and Victoria are known to been applied. Collected samples were then sent frequently develop Sclerotinia stem rot. The purpose to NSW DPI at Wagga Wagga for analysis. Random of conducting the petal survey was to identify if petals from the flower heads were plated onto there are significant differences in the level of petal agar plates and analysed after seven days. Counts infestation between districts where the disease were then taken for the number of Sclerotinia develops frequently, compared with those districts colonies present on a plate. Daily rainfall from where the disease develops once every few years. Bureau of Meteorology (BOM) weather stations This information will indicate what influences nearest to each site or location was used. disease development, background inoculum There are limitations with the testing procedure. levels or environmental conditions, or both. The test cannot differentiate whether the Site details Sclerotinia colony grew from an ungerminated Weekly petal samples were collected from resting Sclerotinia ascospore, or from an infected commercial crops. Locations in NSW were divided and colonised petal. However the result does into three meteorological districts: Riverina; South give an indication of inoculum potential. Hence West Slopes; and Central West Slopes and Plains. the term ‘infested’ is used rather than ‘infected’ Sites within the Riverina included Lockhart, Alma to describe the level of inoculum present. Park, Morven and Howlong. Sites within the South

174 | NSW Department of Primary Industries Table 1.PercentageofSclerotiniainfestedpetalsandtotalrainfallduringfloweringattheRiverinasites. to theirmeteorologicaldistricts(P>0.05).Thisismost NSW andVictoriansitesdidnotcongregateaccording levels throughoutthefloweringperiod.Therestof were showntohavethesamepatternofinfestation Out of all the sites tested, only sites within the Riverina showed moderatelevelsofinfestation(Table4). of petalinfestationwhiletheothertwosites (Table 3).TwopaddocksinDookiehadhighlevels district hadlowtomoderatelevelsofinfestation of petalinfestation,whileothersiteswithinthe and Plains,CowraGrenfell,hadhighlevels (Table 2).OnlytwositesintheCentralWestSlopes which hadmoderatelevelsofpetalinfestation compared withothersiteswithinthedistrict, levels ofpetalinfestationintheSouthWestSlopes Pucawan andCootamundrahadthehighest throughout mostofthefloweringperiod(Table sites intheRiverinahadhighlevelsofinfestation The overallpetaltestsurveyshowedthatall anddiscussion Results flowering (mm) Total rainfallduring Date 27/07/15–02/08/15 03/08/15–09/08/15 10/08/15–16/08/15 17/08/15–23/08/15 24/08/15–30/08/15 31/08/15–06/09/15 07/09/15–13/09/15 14/09/15–20/09/15 21/09/15–27/09/15 28/09/15–04/10/15 05/10/15–11/10/15 12/10/15–18/10/15 Week 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Lockhart 100 100 100 100 96 98 94 18 99

1). Alma Park1 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 111 98 96 23 % Petalinfestation–Riverina density andpaddockhistorycanallhaveaneffect. such asvariety,cropheight,growthstage,canopy despite beinglocatedincloseproximity.Factors the sporadicnatureofSclerotiniadevelopment, from thefourcropssampledatDookiehighlight determining thelevelofinoculum.Theresults In thisinstance,paddockhistoryissignificantin moderate levelsofpetalinfestationwererecorded. of rainfall.However,atsomehighrainfallsitesonly and earlySeptember,duetotheincreasingamount the percentageofinfestationpeakedinlateAugust is clearlyobservedatCondobolin(Figure1),where increase inthelevelofpetalinfestation.Thispattern during thefloweringperiodcoincidedwithan West SlopesandPlains,whereanincreaseinrainfall apparent intheSouthWestSlopesandCentral during flowering(P<0.05).Thiswasparticularly of petalinfestationandtheamounttotalrainfall Positive correlationwasdetectedbetweenthelevel released intheindividualsitewithinadistrict. other factorsthatcontributetothelevelofinoculum likely duetothedifferentamountsofrainfalland Alma Park2 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | 111 94 98 33 Howlong 100 100 100 100 100 107 96 64 Morven 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 131 90 98 28 175

crop protection Table 2. Percentage of Sclerotinia infested petals and total rainfall during flowering at the South West Slopes sites. Date Week % Petal infestation – South West Slopes Mirrool Pucawan Coolamon Junee Cootamundra 1 Cootamundra 2 Harden 27/07/15–02/08/15 1 03/08/15–09/08/15 2 100 100 10/08/15–16/08/15 3 36 100 100 17/08/15–23/08/15 4 60 100 100 24/08/15–30/08/15 5 62 40 94 96 46 31/08/15–06/09/15 6 46 94 54 96 100 100 80 07/09/15–13/09/15 7 76 98 88 90 100 36 14/09/15–20/09/15 8 50 82 68 58 100 100 48 21/09/15–27/09/15 9 38 96 58 28/09/15–04/10/15 10 48 42 78 100 100 78 05/10/15–11/10/15 11 12 30 18 10 12/10/15–18/10/15 12 8 Total rainfall during 90 90 131 92 112 112 97 flowering (mm)

Table 3. Percentage of Sclerotinia infested petals and total rainfall during flowering at the Central West Slopes and Plains sites. Date Week % Petal infestation – Central West Slopes and Plains Condobolin Condobolin Forbes Parkes Parkes Manildra Cowra Grenfell 1 2 1 2 27/07/15–02/08/15 1 03/08/15–09/08/15 2 4 10/08/15–16/08/15 3 4 90 17/08/15–23/08/15 4 6 82 58 50 100 24/08/15–30/08/15 5 15 30 68 100 31/08/15–06/09/15 6 20 20 22 48 62 96 92 07/09/15–13/09/15 7 14 46 18 64 94 14/09/15–20/09/15 8 4 8 62 58 30 76 100 21/09/15–27/09/15 9 10 22 18 10 20 94 94 28/09/15–04/10/15 10 26 4 8 6 4 05/10/15–11/10/15 11 12/10/15–18/10/15 12 Total rainfall during 54 54 57 83 83 51 127 219 flowering (mm)

Table 4. Percentage of Sclerotinia infested petals and total rainfall during flowering at the Dookie sites. Date Week % Petal infestation – Dookie Dookie 1 Dookie 2 Dookie 3 Dookie 4 27/07/15–02/08/15 1 03/08/15–09/08/15 2 60 48 10/08/15–16/08/15 3 58 96 17/08/15–23/08/15 4 96 100 54 98 24/08/15–30/08/15 5 98 100 42 92 31/08/15–06/09/15 6 72 98 84 100 07/09/15–13/09/15 7 26 30 28 78 14/09/15–20/09/15 8 46 92 26 88 21/09/15–27/09/15 9 28/09/15–04/10/15 10 4 34 4 05/10/15–11/10/15 11 12/10/15–18/10/15 12 Total rainfall during 47 50 56 57 flowering (mm)

176 | NSW Department of Primary Industries jointly fundedbyGRDCandNSW DPI. Pathology project’,UM0051, 2013–18, This studyispartofthe‘National Canola Acknowledgements ascospores leadingtoahighdiseaseincidence. climate fortheapotheciatogrowandproduce impact increatingafavourablemicro-environmental should beconsideredasthesewillhaveamajor crop-canopy density,varietyandpaddockhistory and amountofrainfallaswell.Otherfactorssuch on theinitiallevelofinoculum,butfrequency that theincidenceofstemrotdependsnotonly environmental conditionspermit.Itshouldbenoted sites todevelopasignificantlevelofstemrotifthe factor andthereisahighdiseasepotentialforthese This showsthatthelevelofinoculumisnotalimiting developing withinthecropbeforestemelongation. as AlmaPark,largenumbersofapotheciawereseen early untillatebloom.Atsomeofthesesitessuch found tohavehighlevelsofpetalinfestationfrom Cootamundra andfiveoftheRiverinasites,were High rainfallsites,forexampleatCowra,Grenfell, individual siteduringthefloweringperiod. correlated tothetotalamountofrainfallatan meteorological districts,butitwaspositively within eachsitedidnotclusteraccordingtothe levels ofinfestation.Thelevelpetalinfestation All sitesinthisstudywerefoundtohavevarying Summary the floweringperiod. Figure 1.PercentageofpetalinfestationandweeklyrainfalleventsatCondobolin12during SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 |

177

crop protection Monitoring Sclerotinia stem rot development in commercial canola crops in southern NSW

Dr Kurt Lindbeck, Audrey Leo and Gerard O’Connor NSW DPI, Wagga Wagga

Key findings »» Sclerotinia stem rot is a very sporadic disease in southern NSW. Variations in the level of disease can occur between districts, between years and between paddocks. »» The best indicators of a high Sclerotinia risk district are a high intensity of canola production, frequent development of Sclerotinia stem rot (e.g. every year) and reliable spring rainfall during flowering. »» Results indicate that prolonged (at least 48 hours) durations of relative humidity above 95% can trigger Sclerotinia stem rot development. »» A high level of petal infestation with Sclerotinia ascospores does not guarantee that stem rot will develop.

Introduction of ascospore infestation and counting the level of In 2015 commercial canola crops in southern NSW plant infection within the crop. The type of infection were closely monitored to increase our knowledge (leaf, lateral branch or main stem) was recorded. of Sclerotinia stem rot epidemiology. Six commercial Results crops in districts where the disease is known to Of the six commercial crops monitored, frequently occur were specifically chosen to identify all developed varying levels of Sclerotinia the trigger points that lead to Sclerotinia stem rot stem rot in spring (Table 1). outbreaks. This is the third season of this study. The outcome of this work is to improve our Table 1. Date of first observed stem lesion and understanding of the interaction between the highest level of stem infection recorded in six pathogen life cycle, the host crop and environmental commercial canola crops in southern NSW conditions with the view to developing a Site Date of 1st stem Highest level of disease prediction model for industry to use. lesion – 2015 stem infection Howlong 13 October 13.6% Sites and monitoring Alma Park 1 14 September 21% Six commercial canola crops were chosen and Alma Park 2 21 September 7% located in districts with a high Sclerotinia risk. Morven 14 September 3.6% These districts feature high yield potential with Cootamundra 1 07 October 10% reliable spring rainfall, extended flowering periods Cootamundra 2 14 October 3% for canola and a high frequency of canola in the Apothecia were observed in all crops from the start district (meaning ample inoculum availability). of flowering. Petal testing showed high levels (over The crops were located at Howlong, Alma Park 90%) of petal infestation by Sclerotinia ascospores for (south-west of Henty), Morven (east of Culcairn) virtually all of the flowering period until the first week and two crops located east of Cootamundra. of October (see report ‘A petal survey for Sclerotinia Each crop had half hourly recordings of relative in canola across NSW and northern Victoria’). humidity (RH) and temperature using electronic data Using a similar approach to previous years, RH, loggers located within the crop canopy. The nearest rainfall and temperature data were plotted against Bureau of Meteorology (BOM) weather station was plant infection observations made during the used to access rainfall records. Weekly observations growing season to identify infection events. were taken within each crop from early stem elongation to maturity. These included scouting for apothecia development, sampling petals for levels

178 | NSW Department of Primary Industries favourable conditions withinthecropcanopy. development ofstemrotsymptoms alsorelianton one partoftheSclerotiniaequation, withthe However, thepresenceofinfested petalsisonly Sclerotinia stemrottodevelop inthosecrops. This impliesthattherewasa high potentialfor levels above90%formostofthefloweringperiod. in thosecropsmonitored,withpetalinfestation inoculum (asviableascospores)wasnotlimiting and in2015indicatedthatthepresenceoffungal symptom development.Petaltestinginpastyears least 95%for48hours),rainfallevents,andstemrot relationship betweenthedurationofhighRH(at Results frompreviousyearsvalidatethestrong Summary any furtherstemrotsymptomsfromdeveloping. prevented theformationofawetcropcanopyand is typical.DryconditionsinSeptemberandOctober expressed about 14 days later on 14 September, which Hence, thefirstsignsofstemrotsymptomswere infection tospreadfrompetalsontocanolastems. but alsosenescingintothecropcanopy,allowing point, significantnumbersofpetalsaredeveloping, occurred asthecropwasreaching30%bloom.Atthis and 24–26 and infect.Theseeventsoccurredtwice,5–6August this timeallowsSclerotiniaascosporestogerminate that freewaterispresentwithinthecropcanopyand 48 hoursormore.WhenRHisabove95%itlikely have beendefinedasdurationsofRHabove95%for observed atanAlmaParksitein2015.Infectionevents development patternwithinacanolacrop,whichwas Figure 1showsthetypicalSclerotiniastemrot the twolargearrows.Rainfallevents(mm)arerepresentedbypalecolumnsalongbottomlineofgraph. it isassumedabovethisleveltherefreewaterwithinthecropcanopy.Infectionevents(>95%RH,48h)areindicatedby represented bythedashedline,with30%bloomindicated.Thesolidlineattoprepresents95%relativehumidity(RH), square linerepresentsthelevelofmainstemandbranchinfectionfromSclerotiniarot.Floweringperiodis Figure 1.Relationshipbetweenrelativehumidity(diamondline)andlevelofSclerotiniastemrotatAlmaParkin2015.The

August. Thesecondinfectioneventalso analysis willbepublishedatalaterdate. pre-publication. Furtherinformationand Note: Thisisanindustrysummaryprovided the severityofyieldlossinanyyear. crop developmentstagelargelydetermines regions andyears.Rainfalleventatthecritical varying inincidenceandseveritybetween of Sclerotiniastemrotasasporadicdisease, observations furtherreinforcethereputation Results collatedfromthepastthreeyearsof promoting furthersymptomdevelopment. to developinthecrop,withfollowuprainfallevents is requiredtotriggersignificantlevelsofthedisease observations indicatethatonlyoneinfectionevent and theinfectionofpetalsleaves.Thecrop leaf wetnessperiodsforascosporestogerminate development reliesoneventstoprovidesufficient rot developmentinsouthernNSW.Symptom are themajorinfluencesinSclerotiniastem flowering (particularlyafterthe30%bloomstage) (48 hours)durationsofhighRHandrainfallduring Results fromthisstudyareindicatingthatprolonged are jointlyfundedbyGRDCand NSWDPI. project’, DAN00177,2013–18. Theseprojects tools tomanagecropdisease insouthernNSW management, epidemiology knowledgeand 2013–18; andthe‘Improvinggrowersurveillance, ‘National pathogenmodellingproject’DAW00228, pathology project’,UM0051,2013–18;the This studyispartofthe‘Nationalcanola Acknowledgements SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | 179

crop protection Powdery mildew control in soybeans – southern NSW 2014–15

Mark Richards and Luke Gaynor NSW DPI, Wagga Wagga; Mathew Dunn and Alan Boulton NSW DPI, Yanco

Key findings »» Djakal has powdery mildew resistance. »» Other varieties are susceptible to powdery mildew. »» New chemistries are effective in powdery mildew control. »» Split fungicide application can have excellent results. »» BidgeeA and Djakal grain yields were not affected by powdery mildew. »» SnowyA and N005A-80 grain yields were reduced by powdery mildew.

Introduction Treatments Powdery mildew is a disease in soybeans caused by Varieties Djakal, BidgeeA, SnowyA, NOO5A-80 the fungal pathogen Erisyphe diffusa (Microsphera (unreleased breeding line) diffusa syn.) It thrives in both dry (no rainfall) and Fungicides Control = no fungicide applied humid conditions and causes major production (PM control) Tebuconazole 430 g/L: losses in the tropical and subtropical soybean full rate at full flower production areas of Australia. It first appeared in the Riverina (NSW), in 2011–12 and has caused Tebuconazole 430 g/L: 80% rate significant infection in susceptible varieties. at full flower, 80% approximately three weeks later In 2014–15, this experiment was conducted at the NSW DPI Leeton Field Station to investigate the Product A: full rate at full flower potential impact of naturally occurring powdery Product A: split application mildew (PM) and four fungicide treatments on 50% rate at full flower, 50% the grain yield of three commercial soybean approximately three weeks later varieties and an unreleased line (N005A-80). Fungicide Control, no fungicide applied Site details applications Tebuconazole: at full flower applied at 240 mL/ha on 3 February 2015 Sowing date 4 December 2014 Soil type Self-mulching, medium clay soil Tebuconazole: at full flower applied Target sowing 35 plants/m2 at 200 mL/ha on 3 February 2015 and density at 200 mL/ha on 19 February 2015 Inoculation Water injected peat slurry Group H Product A: at full flower applied Fertiliser 125 kg/ha legume starter at 400 mL/ha + 1% Hasten® Herbicides Glyphosate 450 g/L at 2 L/ha on 3 February 2015 pre-emergent Pendimethalin 330 g/L at 2.5 L/ha Product A: at full flower applied Insecticides Abamectin @ 300 mL/ha on at 200 mL/ha + 1% Hasten® on 3 30 December 2014 February 2015 and at 200 mL/ha + Lamdacyhalothrin @ 80 mL/ha 1% Hasten® on 19 February 2015 on 11 March 2015 In-crop rainfall 113 mm Results Irrigation layout 1.83 m raised bed irrigation layout Irrigations 8 ML/ha (approximately) Powdery mildew infection The beds where pre-irrigated While both Tebuconazole and Product A were before the soybeans were sown effective against powdery mildew, Tebuconazole was Harvest date 29 April 2015 most effective when applied in a split application, and product A was most effective as a single application

180 | NSW Department of Primary Industries Figure 1.Fungicideefficacyonpowdery mildew(PM)onfoursoybeanvarieties. impact onproteinandoillevels.However,the during the2014–15seasonhadnosignificant The powderymildewinfectionthatoccurred where powderymildewpressureisstronger. it maybeanoptioninthenortherngrowingregion in thesouthernsoybean-growingregions.However, Product Aisalsoexpensive,whichwilldeteritsuse currently permittedinAustraliaforusesoybeans. soybeans tocontrolpowderymildew.ProductAisnot Tebuconazole hasapermitforuse(PER14645)in Tebuconazole applicationatfullflower(Figure2). higher yieldingthanthecontrolwithsingle However, N005A-80wasonlysignificantly treatments fortheBidgeeandDjakalvarieties. yield betweenthecontrolandallfungicide There werenosignificantdifferencesingrain drying favouringpowderymildewinfection. dense canopystructurereducedairflowandleaf to powderymildew.Itisalsolikelythatthevariety’s all fungicidetreatments,duetoitshighsusceptibility The yieldfromSnowywassignificantlyincreasedby Grain yield levels ofinfectiondetectedintheseplants. resistance topowderymildewwithverylow each treatment.Djakaldemonstrateditsknown similar levelsofpowderymildewinfectionfor Bidgee, SnowyandN005A-80allencountered was themosteffectivetreatmentinthisexperiment. application ofafullrateProductAatflowering could havereduceditseffectiveness.Thesingle application, eachapplicationwasonlyhalfrate,which (Figure 1).WhenProductAwasappliedasasplit Leaves with noticable PM infection (%) 100 20 40 60 80 0 Nil Tebuconazole full Tebuconazole Nil flower Tebuconazole split Product A full flower Product A A Product split A flower Product full split Tebuconazole Treatment Treatment quality lossesduetopowderymildewinfection. in highpressureseasonstopreventpotentialseed these marketsmightneedtoconsiderfungicideuse products. Asaresult,producersaimingtosupply varieties toproducehighqualitysoymilkandtofu line N005A-80arethepreferredhumanconsumption hilum varietiesSnowy,Bidgeeandtheunreleased resistance topowderymildew.However,thewhite The resultsconfirmthatDjakalhasastronglevelof mildew cancausetotalleafdesiccation. northern growingregionswherepowdery region isconsideredlowcomparedwiththe severity ofpowderymildewinfectioninthis » » and fungicideefficacyfoundthat: experiment toevaluatevarietysusceptibility this diseasehasappearedintheRiverina.This of northernAustralia.Inthepastfourseasons, soybeans inthetropicalandsubtropicalregions Powdery mildewisamajordiseaseaffecting Summary lines withpowderymildewresistance. NSW DPIwillcontinuetoresearchnewbreeding » » » » » » » » » » other varietiesaresusceptibletopowderymildew Djakal haspowderymildewresistance reduced bypowderymildew. Snowy andN005A-80grainyieldswere not affectedbypowderymildew Bidgee andDjakalgrainyieldswere split fungicideapplicationcanhaveexcellentresults powdery mildewcontrol new chemistriesareeffectivein Bidgee SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | Djakal N005A-80 l.s.d. l.s.d. 0.05) = (P = 15.3% Snowy 181

crop protection 5.0 Nil 4.5 4.3 4.2 4.2 4.0 Tebuconazole 4.0 3.9 3.9 3.8 full ﬂower 3.6 3.6 3.5 3.5 Tebuconazole 3.5 3.3 3.3 3.4 3.1 split 3.0 2.7 2.7 Product A full 2.6 2.7 ﬂower 2.5 2.2 Product A split Yield Yield (t/ha) 2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0 Bidgee Djakal N005A-80 Snowy Variety Figure 2. Soybean grain yield for variety and fungicide treatment interaction on four soybean varieties. Acknowledgements The experiment is part of the ‘Southern NSW Soybean Agronomy project’, DAN00192, 2014–18, which is jointly funded by GRDC and NSW DPI. Technical assistance was provided by John Dando and Paul Morris.

182 | NSW Department of Primary Industries Site details thrips spraythresholdsandrecommendations. in accessingthevalidityofcottonindustry the southerncottonproductionregionisimportant species compositionduringcottonestablishmentin thrips insecticides.Therefore,understanding is aspeciesthathighlyresistanttomostregistered compared withthenorthernproductionareas.WFT more importantinsoutherncottonproductionareas in theRiverinaandwasanticipatedtoberelatively is awidespreadthripspestinhorticulturalproduction Western flowerthrips(WFT),Frankliniellaoccidentalis, has beenstronglylinkedwithhighyields. have ashorterseasonandearlycropestablishment Guide 2015–16).Thesouthernproductionareas production areas(seeCottonPestManagement in manyresearchexperimentsthenorthern to 6-leafstagehasbeendevelopedandvalidated per plantand>80%leafarealossfromseedling cotton industrythripsspraythresholdof10 production regionaretargetedagainstthrips.The insecticides appliedinthesoutherncotton result inyieldlossanddelayedmaturity.Most death oftheterminals.Heavyinfestationcan terminals causingleafdistortionandsometimes most growingdistricts.Theyfeedon Thrips arecommonseedlingpestsofcottonin Introduction Dr Mark Stevens , Dr JianhuaMo cotton speciescompositionSouthern seedlingthrips » » » Key findings Site 2 Site 1 » » » larval numbersexceededtomatothripsnumbers. thrips larvaethanonionlarvae.ByDecember, During earlycottonestablishmentthereweremoretomato Western flowerthripsconstitutedlessthan5%ofmonitored. observed duringmonitoring. Onion thripswerethedominantspecies -34.60 S];plantedand1stwater 8 October2014 Huddersfield (H),DarlingtonPoint[145.91E; 2014; cooperators:MattToscanandBenWitham E; -34.74S];plantedand1stwater8October Coleambally DemonstrationFarm(CDF)[145.95 Scott Munro , NSW

DPI, Yanco , Dr Sandra McDougall Treatments Analysis Monitored Sample unit dates Monitoring Irrigation treatment Seed Variety Site 4 Site 3 Hill (agronomist)andfarmoperationsstaff Stott (lesseeofIRECdemonstrationsite);James water 14October2014;cooperators:Matt -34.65 S];planted10October2014and1st Point Farms(PF),Darlington[145.91E; for Matt)andfarmoperationsstaff demonstration site);JamesHill(agronomist 2014; cooperators:MattStott(lesseeofIREC E; -34.65S];plantedand1stwater1October (IREC) demonstrationsite,Whitton[145.92 Irrigation ResearchandExtensionCommittee Sarah Beaumontand SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | effects weredetected(P<0.05) Variance (MANOVA),significant treatment Permutational MultivariateAnalysis of species composition Thrips adults,nymphsand Bt andconventionalcottonplots 10 wholerandomplantsfromuntreated 10 November,17 CDF: 28October,3November, Drip (IREC);furrow(PF,CDF&H) metalaxyl-M+ fludioxonil D2= Dynasty®-azoxystrobin+ cotton: Sicot71RRFD2 Bt cotton:Sicot74BRFD2;conventional 25 10 PF: 27October,3November, 20 3 IREC: 21October;27October, and 1December2014 17 November,25 Huddersfield: 28October,11 27

November, 13

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crop protection Results and discussion Four thrips species were regularly identified Thrips pressure was relatively low in October, ranging from the foliage samples and a number of from 0.55 to 2.20 per plant for adult thrips and 0.60 other species were occasionally identified to 2.33 per plant for larval thrips (Figure 1). The and are grouped as 'other thrips': pressure built up quickly in the next two months, 1. onion thrips (Thrips tabaci) reaching >40 per plant in November for adult 2. tomato thrips (Frankliniella schultzei) thrips and >190 per plant for larval thrips. The IREC 3. western flower thrips (Frankliniella occidentalis) site recorded the highest thrips pressure for both 4. plague thrips (Thrips imaginis) adult and larval thrips, with peak thrips density over 5. ‘other thrips’ including: Haplothrips sp., twice as many than that at the other three sites. Australothrips bicolor, Tenothrips frici, Desmothrips sp., Anophothrips sp., and Andrewarthaia kellyana. Overall, onion thrips is the most dominant adult thrips species (71–83%), followed by tomato thrips (9–22%) (Figure 2). Adults of the other thrips species were only found in very small numbers (<5%). Onion thrips and tomato thrips also dominated in larval thrips, accounting for 29–69% and 19–50%, respectively. It is worth noting that tomato thrips was much more abundant in larval samples than in adult samples. Larval tomato thrips even outnumbered larval onion thrips in some samples. From month to month, there were noticeable changes in the relative abundance of onion thrips, tomato thrips, and WFT. Relative abundance of tomato thrips decreased steadily from October to December in both adults and larvae (Figure 2). In larval thrips, the gradual decrease of tomato thrips was accompanied by a gradual increase of onion thrips (Figure 2). Figure 1. Density of adult (top) and larval thrips (bottom) In particular, the abundance of tomato thrips during October–December 2014 at the monitoring sites in larvae was twice as high as onion thrips larvae Coleambally, Huddersfield, IREC and Point Farms. in October, but dropped to less than one third of onion thrips larvae in December. There is also a noticeable increase in WFT larvae abundance from October (1%) to December (9%).

Figure 2. Monthly changes in overall compositions of adult and larval thrips species across four sites. Coloured areas indicate the relative proportions of the thrips species.

184 | NSW Department of Primary Industries as estimatedbypermutationalMANOVAusingdistancematrices. Table 1.Effectsofsite,month,andvarietyonthecomposition adultthripsspecies Coloured areasindicatetherelativeproportionsofthripsspecies Figure 4.ComparingthecompositionsofadultandlarvalthripsspeciesbetweenBtconventionalcottoncrops. proportions ofthethripsspecies. Figure 3.Overallcompositionsofadultandlarvalthripsspeciesatindividualsites.Colouredareasindicatetherelative larvae innon-BtcropsthanBt(Figure4). onion thripslarvaeandslightlylesstomato (26–30%) (Figure3)andtherewereslightlymore at PointFarms(55%)thantheotherthreesites tomato thripslarvaewerenoticeablymoreabundant between Btandnon-Btcrops(Figure4).However, was similaracrossthefoursites(Figure3)and Relative abundanceofdifferentadultthripsspecies Total Residual Variety Month Site 72 66 DF 1 2 3 7.1785 4.3623 0.1475 1.4709 1.1978 SS 0.0661 0.1475 0.7355 0.3993 MS significant effectsonthespeciescompositions. On theotherhand,variety(Btornon-Bt)hadno and larvalthripsspecies(P<0.05)(tables12). site andmonthonthecompositionsofbothadult analysis ofvarianceshowedsignificanteffects Analyses ofpermutationalMANOVAormultivariate 11.1272 SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | 2.2321 6.0408 F 0.0206 0.2049 0.1669 R 2 < 0.0001 < 0.0001 0.0818 P (>F) 185

crop protection Table 2. Effects of site, month, and variety on the composition of larval thrips species as estimated by permutational MANOVA using distance matrices. DF SS MS F R2 P (>F) Site 3 1.2558 0.4186 5.5696 0.1807 0.0002 Month 2 0.9419 0.4710 6.2664 0.1356 0.0006 Variety 1 0.1664 0.1664 2.2138 0.0239 0.0993 Residual 61 4.5846 0.0752 Total 67 6.9488

Summary Acknowledgements Thrips populations in cotton seedlings in the Riverina This project has been jointly funded by NSW DPI were dominated by onion thrips and tomato thrips. and the CRDC ‘Establishing Southern Cotton Onion thrips was the single most dominant species - IPM project’, DAN1501, 2014–17. We greatly in adult populations across the four sites and three appreciate the Coleambally Demonstration Farm monitoring months. Thrips larval numbers were committee’s cooperation, Apex Coleambally and initially dominated by tomato thrips and only at the grower cooperators: Matt Toscan and Ben the end of the seedling period did onion thrips Witham. Thanks to Ross Askins at Huddersfield dominate. The results suggest that tomato thrips and the IREC demonstration farm committee, prefer to breed in cotton and probably only migrated the Stott family and farm staff, James Hill, and into the crop early in cotton establishment, whereas Matt Watson. Thanks to Jorian Millyard (Cotton onion thrips continually migrated into the cotton Seed Distributors) for supplying seed. as adults and either didn’t breed in the cotton until late spring, or were less successful in their breeding. Reference WFT appeared to have been occasional visitors to CottonInfo 2015, Cotton Pest Management Guide cotton seedlings in the Riverina. Although it also 2015–16: www.crdc.com.au/publications/cotton-pest- established breeding populations in cotton, WFT management-guide-2015–16, viewed 28 April 2016. did not appear to have colonised the study sites in significant numbers, resulting in its overall low numbers during the study period. The significant effect of the site on thrips composition could have been due to different vegetation at the four sites, with some sites having more alternative hosts to some thrips species than others. Bt toxin presence or absence in cotton crops did not appear to have made them more or less attractive to, or suitable for, some thrips species than others. Given the dominance of onion thrips and relative absence of WFT, recommendations on thrips to the cotton industry are relevant to the southern cotton production areas. Pesticide management and thrips spray threshold validation is the subject of other experiments.

186 | NSW Department of Primary Industries Figure 1.ColeamballyDemonstration Farmtrialfieldplan:fourtreatmentsreplicatedtimes (plot=6rows×900m). likely toreduceinvertebratepestestablishment. furrow atplantingtargetingwireworm,butalsois sucking pests.Phorate(Thimet®)isappliedin- seed treatmentisaimedatcontrollingearlyseason targeted againstthrips.Thiamethoxam(Cruiser®) in thesoutherncottonproductionregionare and delayedmaturity.Mostinsecticidesapplied terminals. Heavyinfestationcanresultinyieldloss causing leafdistortionandsometimesdeathofthe growing districts.Theyfeedonterminals Thrips arecommonseedlingpestsofcottoninmost Introduction » » » » » Key findings , Dr Sandra McDougall –commercial-scalethrips trials orplanting treatmentsSeed on impact NSW DPI, YancoNSW T3 No in-furrowspray(−T) Thimet® in-furrowspray(+T) » » » » » different betweentreatments. Machine harvestyieldswerenotsignificantly increased yieldsovernoThimet®-treatedplots. Hand-harvest yieldsindicatedtheThimet®treatment at oneandthreeweeksaftercottonemergence. Thimet® in-furrowtreatmentreducedthripslarvaenumbers numbers atoneweekaftercottonemergence. Cruiser® seedtreatmentreducedthripslarvae 60 thripsperplantfourweeksaftercottonemergence. Replicate 1 T4 T2 T1 T1 Replicate 2 T2 , Dr JianhuaMo T4 T3 Dynasty® +Cruiser®seedtreatment(+C) T1 Replicate 3 T4 Scott Munro , T1: D2C+T T3: D2C T2 Site details Treatments Establishment Irrigation Seed treatment Variety & 1stWater Sowing date Cooperators Location T4 T3 T2 T1 Harvest date T3 fungicide seedtreatmentonly Untreated Control:Dynasty® Cruiser only–Dynasty®andCruiser®seedtreatment Thimet only–Dynasty®seedtreatment+Thimet® (thimethoxam) seedtreatment+Thimet®(phorate) Cruiser +Thimet–Dynasty®andCruiser® T3 andSarah Beaumont Liz Munn SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | Replicate 4 T2 T4 10 plants/m Furrow metalaxyl-M+ fludioxonil Dynasty® -azoxystrobin+ Sicot 74BRF 8 October2014 Matt ToscanandBenWitham Coleambally DemonstrationFarm 14 May2015 T1 Dynasty® seedtreatment(−C) 2 T2: D2+T T4: D2

187

crop protection Experiment details provides an excellent indicator of the treatment effects. Figure 2 shows the larval thrips numbers on Design Randomised block-plot each monitoring occasion. On 28 October or eight Plot size 6 rows × 0.9 m beds × 900 m days after cotton emergence (DAE), plots treated = 0.486 ha only with fungicide seed treatment had a statistically Replicates 4 significantly higher number of larval thrips per plant Area per 1.94 ha than the other plots (P <0.05). On 11 November, the treatment two Thimet® (phorate) treatments had lower larval Trial area 7.76 ha thrips numbers than the Cruiser® (thiomethoxam) Monitoring 28 October, 11 November, or the fungicide only treatment. All subsequent dates 17 November, 25 November monitoring periods showed no statistical difference and 1 December 2014 of thrips numbers between treatments (P >0.05). Sample unit 10 whole random plants Monitored Thrips adults, nymphs and Onion thrips (Thrips tabaci) was the dominant thrips species composition species observed at Coleambally Demonstration Analysis Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), Farm (Figure 3) and at the other project monitoring significant treatment effects sites in Whitton and Darlington Point. Such were detected (P <0.05), dominance is consistent with what was found treatment means were in other cotton production areas (Lewis Wilson separated by Fisher’s l.s.d. pers. com). Tomato thrips (Frankliniella schultzei) was the next most dominant thrips species. Its Results proportions were even higher among larval thrips, suggesting it was more residential than onion Each week, 20 whole plants were sampled with thrips in cotton. The insecticide-resistant Western both adult and larval thrips counted. Adult thrips flower thrips (WFT) (Frankliniella occidentalis), are mobile and hence are not useful for showing plague thrips (Thrips imaginis) and a number of treatment effects, whereas the larvae don’t normally predatory thrips species, were observed in very move from plant to plant so their abundance small numbers during cotton establishment.

Figure 2. Larval thrips per plant during early establishment from 8–42 days after emergence (DAE). At 8 DAE the cotton was at the cotyledon stage, at 22 DAE it was at 1.5–2-leaf stage, at 28 DAE was 5-leaf stage, at 36 DAE 6–8-leaf stage and at 42 DAE was at 14-leaf stage. Error bars show the standard errors. At eight DAE, the three treatments with Thimet® and Cruiser® reduced thrips larval numbers compared with the untreated control. At 22 DAE, only the two Thimet treatments had significantly reduced numbers of thrips larvae. From 28 DAE on, the differences between treatments were no longer significantly at P = 0.05. A foliar application of the insecticide fipronil was applied across all plots after the 36 DAE assessment.

188 | NSW Department of Primary Industries Matt ToscanandBenWitham. ThankstoDupont, Apex Coleamballyandthegrower cooperators: Coleambally Demonstration Farm committee, We greatlyappreciatethecooperation ofthe Southern Cotton–IPM’,DAN1501,2014–17. NSW DPIandtheCRDCproject‘Establishing This projecthasbeenjointlyfundedby Acknowledgements harvest samples.Thetreatmentdifferencesarenotsignificantly different. single roundperplot,theround’sweightandhand-ginturnout figuresfromtheplothand Figure 5.Machineharvesttreatmentyieldswerecalculatedonthe areaittooktoharvesta of asignificantoveralltreatmenteffect. the samegrouplabelledwithdifferentlettersaresignificantlyatP=0.05byFisher’sl.s.d.followingdetection Figure 4.Handharvesttreatmentyieldswerecalculatedfrom2×1mhandharvestsandhand-ginturnoutfigures.Barsin (CSD) trailerscalesandtheturnoutwascalculated round wasweighedonCottonSeedDistributors’ machine harvest.Eachharvestedmodule/ needed togenerateasinglemodule/roundfromthe bales perhectarebasedonplotareasand harvester. Handharvestdatawasconvertedto harvest andwithacommercialcottonmachine Cotton yieldswereassessedbya2×1mhand (8–42 Demonstration Farmduringcottonestablishment Figure 3.AdultthripsspeciesfoundatColeambally

days afteremergence). 2% 13% 1% 1% 83% other thripsplague thrips ﬂower western tomato thrips onion thrips was detectedbymachineharvest(Figure5). treatments (Figure4),however,nosuchdifference analysis showedaloweryieldinthenon-Thimet® from thehand-harvestedsamples.Statistical from thehand-ginnedresults(CSIRONarrabri) Cotton SeedDistributorsforsupplyingseed. for supplyinginsecticidesthetrialand Dow AgroSciencesandUPLAustraliaLimited harvest datawerenotsignificantlydifferent. higher yields,butyieldscalculatedfromthemachine samples indicatedtheThimet®-treatedplotshad declining. Yieldscalculatedfromhandharvest about fourweeksaftercottonemergence,before numbers peakedatapproximately60perplant,or subsequent monitoringoccasions.Larvalthrips were nosignificanttreatmentdifferenceson numbers atthreeweeksafteremergence.There only theThimet®treatmentsreducedthripslarvae when comparedwithun-treatedplots.However, larvae numbersaweekaftercottonemergence Thimet®, andThimet®-onlytreatmentsreducedthrips (phorate) treatment.Cruiser®withandwithout treatment withandwithoutin-furrowThimet® season comparingCruiser®(thiamethoxam)seed the ColeamballyDemonstrationFarmin2014–15 A commercialscalecottontrialwasconductedat Summary SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | 189

crop protection Thrips threshold validation – commercial-scale experiments

Dr Sandra McDougall, Dr Jianhua Mo, Scott Munro, Liz Munn, Sarah Beaumont and Dr Mark Stevens NSW DPI, Yanco

Key findings »» Thrips pressure reached the positive control threshold of one thrips per plant in late October while plants were at the cotyledon to 1-leaf stage. »» Thrips pressure reached the industry threshold of 10 thrips per plant in mid-November when plants were at the 4–5-leaf stage. »» Onion thrips were the dominant thrips species observed during monitoring. »» Western flower thrips (WFT) constituted less than 5% of thrips monitored. »» There was no yield difference between sprayed and unsprayed plots.

Introduction Dimethoate and omethoate are two thrips Thrips are common seedling pests of cotton in insecticides permitted or registered in cotton that most growing districts. They feed on growing are relatively ineffective against WFT. Fipronil is terminals causing leaf distortion and sometimes another foliar insecticide registered for thrips in death of the terminals. Heavy infestation can result cotton, which is effective against WFT, however it is in yield loss and delayed maturity. Most insecticides highly toxic to bees and both our commercial scale applied in the southern cotton production region experiment areas were near horticultural crops, are targeted against thrips. The cotton industry so it was initially agreed to avoid it as a treatment. thrips spray threshold of 10 thrips per plant and Sulfoxaflor is newly registered in cotton for aphid >80% leaf area loss from seedling to 6-leaf stage control. Baseline insecticide resistance testing in was developed and validated in many research the Dr Grant Herron’s laboratory (Biosecurity NSW) experiments in the northern production areas based at Elizabeth Macarthur Agricultural Institute, (Wilson and Room 1983; Sadras and Wilson 1998; found that it had good activity against WFT, hence Wilson 1999, 2002, 2005; Wilson et al. 2003; Lei its use as the positive control. Similarly, another and Wilson 2004; Cotton Info 2015). The southern newly registered cotton insecticide, Cyantraniliprole, production areas have a shorter season than showed laboratory activity against WFT and was used the northern production areas and early crop in a second threshold treatment in the larger of the establishment has been strongly linked to high yields. two commercial threshold experiments. A petroleum spray oil was used as a third threshold treatment, These experiments were conducted to evaluate also in the larger commercial threshold experiment. whether thrips controls applied at the thrips threshold led to higher or lower yields when Site details compared with treatments at a lower threshold Location Smaller experiment: Irrigation (one thrips per plant) and a non-spray treatment. Research and Extension Committee The local cotton industry supported commercial- (IREC) demonstration site, scale experiments over small plot experiments. Whitton [145.92 E; -34.65 S] WFT (Frankliniella occidentalis) is a widespread thrips Larger experiment: Point Farms (PF), pest in horticultural production in the Riverina and Darlington Point [145.91 E; -34.65 S] was anticipated to be relatively more important Cooperators Matt Stott (owner PF and current lessee in southern cotton than the northern production of IREC demonstration site); James Hill areas. WFT is a species that is highly resistant to (agronomist) and farm operations staff most registered thrips insecticides, hence the Sowing date 1 October 2014 (IREC); 10 October 2014 (PF) treatment options needed to include insecticides that were expected to be efficacious against WFT.

190 | NSW Department of Primary Industries Figure 1.Totalnumbersofthrips perplantateachmonitoringdatefrom20wholewashes fromeachplot–IREC. Treatments Exirel® Transform® T2 T1 T1-5 T1-3 T5: Oil10 T4: Exirel10 T3: Trans10 T2: Trans1 T1: Unsprayed harvest date Machine Establishment Irrigation Seed treatment Variety 1st Water Regent® Canopy oil® date Hand harvest rate: 300mL/ha+Agral sulfoxaflor 240g/LGroup4C; positive control negative control PF IREC site 10 thripsperplant Dynasty® +CanopyOil®at 10 thripsperplant Dynasty® +Transform®at + Transform®atonethripsperplant Dynasty® andCruiser®seedtreatment Dynasty® fungicideseedtreatmentonly rate 125mL/ha fipronil 800g/LWGGroup paraffinic oilC27792g/L2%v/v rate: 600mL/ha+Hasten cyantraniliprole 100g/LGroup Dynasty® +Exirel®at10 6 plants/m Drip (IREC);furrow(PF) metalaxyl-M+ fludioxonil Dynasty® –azoxystrobin+ Sicot 74BRF 1 October2014(IREC); 14 26 May2015(IREC);23 7 May2015(IREC);14

October 2014(PF) 2 (IREC);9.6

May 2015(PF)

plants/m

thrips perplant May 2015(PF)

2B;

28: 2 (PF) IREC Results Experiment details imaginis) andsomepredatorythripsspecies. flower thrips(F.occidentalis),plagueThrips were: tomatothrips(Frankliniellaschultzei),western stage (Figure2).Otherthripsspeciesobserved adult thripsmonitoredfromseedlingto17-leaf was thedominantthripsspecieswith80%ofall first spray(Figure1).Onionthrips(Thripstabaci) Thrips pressurewassimilarinallplotsbeforethe Analysis Monitored Sample unit dates Monitoring Replicates Plot size Trial design SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | were separatedbyFisher’sl.s.d. detected (P<0.05),treatmentmeans significant treatmenteffectswere Analysis ofVariance(ANOVA), species composition Thrips adults,nymphsand 10 wholerandomplants November and4December2014 November, 1725 PF: 27October,3November,10 November, and1December2014 3 November,1320 IREC: 21October,27 4 1.8 mbeds×420=0.91ha PF: 12beds(2rowstoabed)× 1.8 mbeds×750=1.62ha IREC: 12beds(2rowstoabed)× Randomised block-plot 191

crop protection numbers had continued to increase despite the two 3% 4% sprays. In an effort to bring down thrips numbers 5% in the positive control plots, Fipronil was applied in

8% lieu of Transform® in these plots at the time when onion thrips the first high-threshold sprays were triggered. tomato thrips Following this round of sprays, larval thrips numbers western ﬂower thrips in both Fipronil-treated plots (positive control plots) plague thrips and plots receiving the high-threshold Transform® other sprays were significantly reduced compared with 80% the negative control plots (P <0.05). The significant effects persisted at the last assessment following a further round of high-threshold sprays (P <0.05). Figure 2. Breakdown of total adult thrips by species It is worth noting that although thrips pressure collected between 21 October and 1 December 2014 from the IREC experiment site. remained relatively high in the two spray treatments (>10 thrips per plant), the density was less than The low threshold was reached in late October and a quarter of that in the negative control plots. the high threshold in mid-November. Two sprays of There were no significant differences in lint yield Transform® were applied before the high-threshold (kg/ha) among the threshold treatments in the sprays were triggered. Neither showed any effects in hand harvest data (P >0.05) (Figure 4) at the IREC thrips control (P >0.05) (Figure 3). In fact, larval thrips site. Machine harvest data are yet to be finalised.

Figure 3. Comparing average numbers of larval thrips in different threshold treatments at IREC. Trans 1 – Transform applied at one thrips per plant, Trans 10 – Transform applied at 10 thrips per plant. Bars in the same group labelled with different letters were significantly different at P = 0.05 by Fisher’s l.s.d. tests after detecting significant overall treatment effects by ANOVA. Error bars show the standard errors. Arrows indicate spray timings.

192 | NSW Department of Primary Industries the PointFarmsexperimentsite. collected between27Octoberand 4December2014from Figure 6.Breakdownoftotaladultthripsbyspecies Figure 5.Totalnumbersofthripsperplantateachmonitoringdatefrom20wholewashesplot. same letterswerenotsignificantlydifferentatP=0.05by in thehandharvestdataatIRECsite.Barssharing Figure 4.Effectsofthresholdtreatmentsonlintyield(kg/ha) 16 1 3 10 70 other thrips plague thrips ﬂower western thrips tomato thrips onion imaginis) andsomepredatorythripsspecies. flower thrips(F.occidentalis),plagueThrips were: tomatothrips(Frankliniellaschultzei),western 17-leaf stage(Figure6).Otherthripsspeciesobserved 71% ofalladultthripsmonitoredfromseedlingto ( Similarly totheIRECsiteatPointFarms,onionthrips before thefirstspray(Figure5). Thrips pressurewassimilarinallplots Point Farms three high-thresholdtreatments)(Figure7). (negative controlplotsandassignedforthe plots toabouthalfofthatintheun-sprayed the numbersoflarvalthripsinpositivecontrol threshold spraysweretriggered.Bothreduced Transform® wereappliedbeforeanyofthehigh- threshold. Thefirsttwolow-thresholdspraysof high threshold,andtwospraysofoilatthe one sprayeachofTransform®andExirel®atthe of Transform®wereappliedatthelowthreshold, the highthresholdinmid-November.Fivesprays The lowthresholdwasreachedinlateOctoberand error. treatment effectsbyANOVA.Errorbarsshowthestandard Fisher’s l.s.d.testsafterdetectingsignificantoverall Thrips tabaci)wasthedominantthripsspecieswith SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | 193

crop protection Figure 7. Comparing average numbers of larval thrips in different threshold treatments at Point Farms. Trans 1 – Transform applied at one thrips per plant, Trans 10 – Transform applied at 10 thrips per plant, Exirel® 10 – Exirel® applied at 10 thrips per plant, Oil 10 – Canopy oil® applied at 10 thrips per plant. Bars in the same group labelled with different letters were significantly different at P = 0.05 by Fisher’s l.s.d. tests following detection of significant overall treatment effects by ANOVA. Error bars show the standard errors. Arrows indicate spray timings. In mid-November, a single spray of Transform® reached the 10 thrips per plant threshold by and Exirel® at the high threshold also significantly mid- November when plants were at about the reduced larval thrips numbers (P <0.05), bringing 4 to 4.5-leaf stage at both sites. Eighty-three per down the population to a similar level to those in cent of the adult thrips monitored up to the 15-leaf the positive control plots, which had already been stage were onion thrips. Tomato thrips constituted sprayed twice before with Transform®. The first 13% of the thrips population and other species oil spray at the high threshold also significantly made up no more than 2% each. The positive reduced larval thrips compared with the negative control plots received four and five foliar insecticide control plots (P <0.05), however, the reduction sprays at the Whitton and Darlington Point sites was significantly less than the other two high- respectively; the industry threshold treatment threshold treatments. Oil was applied again at the plots received two foliar insecticide sprays. The high threshold in the following week, but failed to experiments are part of a project to validate whether show significant effects of thrips control (P >0.05). At the Australian cotton industry thrips threshold the last assessment, only the positive control plots applies in southern NSW cotton production areas. maintained significantly lower numbers of larval The treatment plots were 1.62 ha (Whitton) and 0.9 thrips than the negative control plots (P <0.05). ha (Darlington Point) and replicated four times. There were no significant differences in lint yield among the threshold treatments in either the hand harvest data or the machine harvest data at the Point Farms site (P >0.05) (Figure 8). Summary No yield differences were observed in plots where thrips were uncontrolled versus plots where thrips were sprayed with insecticides at either one thrips per plant (positive control) or at the cotton industry threshold of 10 thrips per plant at either of two commercial-scale experiments. Thrips pressure

194 | NSW Department of Primary Industries guide-2015–16, viewed28April 2016. publications/cotton-pest-management- Guide 2015–16’:www.crdc.com.au/ CottonInfo 2015,‘CottonPest Management References team forhandginningourcottonsamples. advice. ThankstoWarrickStillard(CSIRO)and modules. ThankstoLewisWilson(CSIRO)for supplying seedandtrailerscalesforweighing to JorianMillyard(CottonSeedDistributors)for supplying insecticidesfortheexperiment.Thanks to Dupont,DowAgroSciencesandCaltexfor and farmstaff,JamesHill,MattWatson.Thanks demonstration farmcommittee,theStottfamily We greatlyappreciatethecooperationofIREC DAN1501, 2014–17,andNSWDPI. ‘Establishing SouthernCotton-IPMproject’, This projectwasjointlyfundedbytheCRDC Acknowledgements from hand-ginnedsamplesthehandharvest. round moduleperplot.Turn-outwasdetermined samples andatleastonecommerciallyharvested rig andyieldsassessedfrombothhandharvest Foliar insecticidesprayswereappliedusingaground after detectingsignificantoveralltreatmenteffectsbyANOVA.Errorbarsshowthestandarderror. (right) atthePointFarmssite.BarssharingsameletterswerenotsignificantlydifferentP=0.05byFisher’sl.s.d.tests Figure 8.Effectsofthresholdtreatmentsonlintyield(kg/ha)inthehandharvestdata(left)andmachine industrythrips IPM. CSP147CCRDCFinalReport. and earlyseasonplantcompensation in Wilson, LJ2005,Incorporating aphids,insecticides cotton. CSP103CCRDCFinalReport. season damageandsecondarypestsin Wilson, LJ2002,Managementofearly and thripsoncotton.CSP74CCRDCFinalReport. Wilson, LJ 1999, Improved pest management for mites damage’ compensation aftersimulatedearly-seasonpest 2003, ‘Howtosucceedbydoingnothing:cotton Wilson, LJ,Sadras,VO,Heimoana,SCandGibb,D Environmental Entomologyvol.12,pp.50–54. with implicationsforbinomialsampling’, patterns offruitandarthropodsincotton Wilson, LTandRoom,PM1983,‘Clumping (Thysanoptera)’, cotton cropsafterearlyseasondamagebythrips Sadras, VOandWilson,LJ,1998,‘Recoveryof Annals ofBotanyvol.94,pp.179–186. in Thrips-damagedCottonSeedlings’, Area throughAcceleratedShootOntogeny Lei, TTandWilson,LJ2004,‘RecoveryofLeaf Crop Sciencevol.43,pp.2125±2134. SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | Crop Sciencevol.38,pp.399–409. 195

crop protection Summer herbicide trials on prickly lettuce 2015–16

Dr Hanwen Wu, Adam Shephard, Michael Hopwood and Colin Fritsch NSW DPI, Wagga Wagga

Key findings »» After stem elongation, mature prickly lettuce plants are difficult to control. »» Controlling mature prickly lettuce plants early achieves better results. »» No single treatments, except paraquat, achieved 100% control of mature prickly lettuce plants that emerged after a wheat crop was harvested. The paraquat, either used alone or as a follow-up application, was the only outstanding treatment, achieving 100% control.

Introduction A randomised complete block design with three Prickly lettuce (Lactuca serriola) has recently become replicates was used, with plot size 2 m × 16 m. an increasing problem in southern NSW, mostly A total of 17 and 20 treatments were imposed in cereals and lucerne pastures. It can grow up to respectively at Lake Cowal and Temora, two metres tall and is therefore highly competitive including an untreated control. After the initial with crops or pastures. If left uncontrolled, it application, each plot was equally divided with uses soil moisture and nutrients during summer. half the plot receiving an additional application The seed has a white pappus that could be of paraquat as a double knockdown. easily spread by wind and through surface water Herbicides were applied using a hand-held run-off. Prickly lettuce forms a rosette of leaves boom sprayer, calibrated to deliver 100 L/ha at after emergence and develops a strong taproot. 2 bar pressure. The first application was applied Plants are difficult to control with herbicides at the Lake Cowal and Temora sites on 10 and once the plants start to elongate. The weed was 15 December 2015 respectively, and the double- reported to have evolved resistance to Group B knockdown paraquat application at the Lake herbicides in both Australia and the United States, Cowal and Temora sites on 16 and 21 December to Group I herbicides in the USA in 2007 and, most 2015, respectively. At the time of application, the recently, to glyphosate in Australia in 2015. prickly lettuce plants were at the elongating/re- Little is known about its emergence patterns branching stage (after being cut during wheat-crop in southern NSW. Elongated plants are often harvest) and were not under moisture stress. cut during harvest operations and regrow with Visual rating (% of control) was conducted competitive branches after harvest. Limited control on 8 January 2016. The number of prickly options are available for the mature plants. lettuce plants was recorded in a 1 × 6 m strip These two experiments aimed to evaluate a within each plot on 2 February 2016. range of herbicides with different modes of Results action on prickly lettuce control, and to evaluate At the Lake Cowal site, the single-knock application if a ‘double-knockdown’ technique is needed differed significantly in controlling prickly lettuce to effectively control mature prickly lettuce. (Table 1). Five treatments, Amicide® Advance 700 Treatments + Weedmaster® Argo, Weedmaster® Argo, Ally® Two experiments were established on two + Weedmaster® Argo, Basta® and Starane™ properties (one at Lake Cowal and one at Temora), Advanced had a control rating of more than after the wheat harvest in December 2015. 90%, while the remaining 11 treatments only Average prickly lettuce density was 9.5 plants/m2 controlled prickly lettuce from 30% to 87%. at Lake Cowal and 10 plants/m2 at Temora. The single knock herbicide application at the Temora site was generally less effective than at the Lake Cowal site. Only four treatments had control efficacy slightly over 80%, including Amicide®

196 | NSW Department of Primary Industries Table 1.HerbicidecontrolefficacyonmaturepricklylettuceplantsattheLakeCowaltrialsite. without thefollow-upparaquatisshowninFigure1. prickly lettuceplants.Thedistinctdifferencewithand treatment, achievingcompletecontrolofthemature The paraquatapplicationwastheonlyoutstanding severely damaged,managedtosurviveandre-branch. plants aftercropharvest.Manyplants,eventhough achieved 100%controlofmaturepricklylettuce In general,nosingletreatmentsexceptparaquat the firstknockofherbicideapplications. even intheuntreatedplotsthatdidnothave provided 100%controlofpricklylettuce, find thatthefollow-uptreatmentwithparaquat At bothtrialsites,itwasveryencouragingto of pricklylettucefrom7%to72%(Table2). T. Theother15treatmentshadpoorcontrol 75-D +Weedmaster®Argo,Basta®andAmitrole Advance 700+Weedmaster®Argo,Tordon™ 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 16 4 17 15 14 2 13 3 c b a 1 Paraquatat2.4L/hawasusedasa secondknockandappliedacrossalltreatmentson16/12/2015. Visualratingwasconductedon8/01/2016 inthesingletreatments(nodoubleknock)andplantcounts on4/02/2016. Singleapplicationoftherespective herbicideon10/12/2015. Treatment Tigrex® Tordon™ 75-D Amitrole T Basta® Weedmaster® Argo Kamba® 500+ Weedmaster® Argo Goal™ + Weedmaster® Argo Ally® + Weedmaster® Argo Starane™ Advance+ l.s.d. (P=0.05) Hotshot™ + Starane™ Advance Control L.V.E. Agritone® Lontrel™ + Weedmaster® Argo Advance 700+ Amicide® Affinity Force+ Weedmaster® Argo L.V.E. L.V.E. Agritone® Herbicide Advance 700 Amicide®

Agritone® Agritone®

750 Group F, I I Q N I, M G, M B,I I, M I – I I, M M I I G, I I 250 g/LMCPAand + 75g/Lpicloram 300 g/L2,4-Damine ammonium thiocyanate 250 g/Lamitrole+220 ammonium 200 g/Lglufosinate 540 g/Lglyphosate 500 g/Ldicamba+ 540 g/Lglyphosate 240 g/Loxyfluorfen+ methyl +540g/Lglyphosate 600 g/kgmetsulfuron- 540 g/Lglyphosate 333 g/Lfluroxypyr+ 333 g/Lfluroxypyr – 570 g/LLVEMCPA 700 g/L2,4-Damine+ 540 g/Lglyphosate + 570g/LLVEMCPA and 140g/Lfluroxypyr 10 g/Laminopyralid 570 g/LLVEMCPA 300 g/Lclopyralid+ + 750g/LMCPAamine 240 g/Lcarfentrazone-ethyl 25 540 Active 700 g/L2,4-Damine

g/L diflufenican

g/L glyphosate application, right)attheLakeCowaltrialsite. and thedoubleknockdown(withafollow-upparaquat knockdown (withoutafollow-upparaquatapplication,left) Figure 1.Contrastingthedifferencebetweensingle 700 mL 5600 mL 4000 mL 1300 mL 240 mL+ 1300 mL 75 mL+ 1300 mL 7 g+ 1300 mL 600 mL+ 600 mL – 1000 mL 1300 mL 1000 mL 750 mL+ +1000 mL 150 mL 333 mL 100 mL+ g/ha) (mL or Rate 1150 mL 1000 mL 1300 mL 515 mL+

SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | – LI 700®at0.3% – – BS1000 at1% – – Uptake™ at0.5% – – LI 700®at0.3% – – – Adjuvant Liase at2% – LI 700®at0.3% rating Visual (%) 53.3 85.0 91.7 85.0 86.7 95.0 88.3 95.0 17.93 40.0 90.0 86.7 63.3 76.7 30.0 81.7 93.3 0.0 a Density (plants/m Single 3.9 1.6 1.8 4.5 2.1 1.6 2.4 0.8 1.89 6.2 4.3 2.0 3.5 2.4 2.5 3.7 3.7 0.6 b

Double- knock 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 NA 197 c 2 )

crop protection Table 2. Herbicide control efficacy on mature prickly lettuce plants at the Temora trial site. Herbicide Group Active Rate Adjuvant Visual Density (plants/m2) (mL or rating Single Double- g/ha) (%) a b knock c Treatment 1 Amicide® I 700 g/L 2,4-D amine 1150 mL Liase at 2% 51.7 4.6 0.0 Advance 700 2 Amicide® I, M 700 g/L 2,4-D amine + 515 mL + LI 700® at 0.3% 80.0 1.2 0.1 Advance 700 + 540 g/L glyphosate 1300 mL Weedmaster® Argo 3 Weedmaster® Argo M 540 g/L glyphosate 1300 mL LI 700® at 0.3% 78.3 4.2 0.0 4 Ally® + B, I 600 g/kg metsulfuron- 7 g + – 28.3 5.5 0.0 Weedmaster® Argo methyl + 540 g/L glyphosate 1300 mL 5 Goal™ + G, M 240 g/L OXYFLUORFEN 75 mL + BS1000 at 1% 60.0 8.7 0.0 Weedmaster® Argo + 540 g/L glyphosate 1300 mL 6 Kamba® 500 + I, M 500 g/L dicamba + 240 mL+ – 71.7 2.6 0.0 Weedmaster® Argo 540 g/L glyphosate 1300 mL 7 Starane™ Advance I 333 g/L fluroxypyr 600 mL Uptake™ 53.3 6.8 0.1 at 0.5% 8 Starane™ Advance + I, M 333 g/L fluroxypyr + 600 mL + – 63.3 5.7 0.1 Weedmaster® argo 540 g/L glyphosate 1300 mL 9 Tordon 75D + I, M 300 g/L 2,4-D amine 700 mL + – 81.7 2.6 0.1 Weedmaster® Argo and 75 g/L picloram + 1300 mL 540 g/L glyphosate 10 Garlon™ 600 + I, M 600 g/L triclopyr + 700 mL + Uptake™ 0.5% 53.3 5.8 0.1 Weedmaster® Argo 540 g/L glyphosate 1300 mL 11 Sharpen® WG + G, M 700 g/kg saflufenacil + 34 g + Bonza® at 1% 53.3 5.0 0.1 Weedmaster® 540 g/L glyphosate 1300 mL Argo 12 GF-2688 I, M fluroxypyr + arylex 400 mL Uptake™ 55.0 6.3 0.6 at 0.5% 13 Basta® N 200 g/L Glufosinate 4000 mL 83.3 1.3 0.1 ammonium 14 Amitrole T Q 250 g/L amitrole 5600 mL LI 700® at 0.3% 81.7 4.9 0.1 220 g/L ammonium thiocyanate 15 Tordon™ 75-D I 300 g/L 2,4-D amine 700 mL – 30.0 6.1 0.1 and 75 g/L picloram 16 Affinity Force + G, I 240 g/L carfentrazone- 100 mL + – 6.7 5.4 0.1 Agritone® 750 ethyl + 750 MCPA amine 333 mL 17 Lontrel™ + I 300 g/L clopyralid + 150 mL + Uptake™ 30.0 6.3 0.0 L.V.E. Agritone® 570 g/L LVE MCPA 1000 mL at 0.5% 18 L.V.E. Agritone® I 570 g/L LVE MCPA 1000 mL – 28.3 5.7 0.0 19 Hotshot™ + I 10 g/L aminopyralid 750 mL + – 58.3 5.8 0.0 L.V.E. Agritone® and 140 g/L fluroxypyr 1000 m +570 g/L LVE MCPA 20 Control – – – – 0.0 7.4 0.0 l.s.d. 0.05 21.6 3.9 0.3 a: Visual rating was conducted on 8/01/2016 in the single treatments (no double knock) and plant counts on 4/02/2016. b: Single application of the respective herbicide on 10/12/2015. c: Paraquat at 2.4 L/ha was used as a second knock and applied across all the treatments on 16/12/2015.

Acknowledgements This experiment was jointly funded by NSW DPI and GRDC as part of the collaborative project 'Improving IWM practice of emerging weeds in the southern and western regions', UA00149, 2014–17, a partnership between University of Adelaide, DAFWA and NSW DPI.

198 | NSW Department of Primary Industries in eachpaddockattwodepths (0–10cmand10–30 were takenfromarandomly chosen 50×mgrid herbicides. Compositesamples (12subsamples) season (April/May)beforeapplying pre-emergent cropping soilsatthebeginning ofthe2015growing representative snapshotofherbicideresiduelevelsin Soil samplingwasundertakentoprovidea Treatments/sampling The topsoil(0–10cm)pH(H NSW werelocatedintheCoonamblearea. Young andArdlethan.Twositesinnorthern located insouthernNSWbetweenWaggaWagga, from Queensland.Eightofthesesiteswere Australia, 10fromNewSouthWalesandthree 12 fromWesternAustralia,15South A totalof40paddocksweresurveyedincluding Site details on thoseherbicidesmostfrequentlydetected. biological processesandcrophealthwithafocus It looksattherelevanceoftheseresiduestosoil and pre-emergentherbicideapplicationin2015. herbicide residuesin40croppingsoilsbeforesowing presents theresultsofanationalfieldsurvey Australian graincroppingsoilsisscarce.Thisreport information aboutherbicideresiduelevelsin Due tothehighcostofherbicideresidueanalysis, Introduction andDrLukas Rose Dr Mick Van Zwieten NSWDPI, Wollongbar Nationwide for residues herbicide fieldsurvey insoil » » » » Key findings 7.0 insouthernNSWand8.8–8.9northernNSW. The subsoil(10–30cm)pH(H 7.5 insouthernNSWand7.3–8.2northernNSW. » » » » potential negativeeffectsonsoilfunctionandcropproduction. to definesite-specificcriticalthresholdsforthesechemicalsavoid persistence oftrifluralinanddiflufenican,furtherresearchisneeded However, giventhefrequencyofglyphosateapplicationand sufficient timetodissipatebeforere-application. when herbicidesareusedatlabelratesandgiven The risktosoilbiologicalprocessesisgenerallyminor lower rainfallandsandysoilswithloworganicmatter. in NSWisminorcomparedwithsomesitesWAthathave These findingssuggestthatthecurrentriskofdamagetocrops accumulate toagronomicallysignificantlevelsincertainsoils. diflufenican residues,plustheglyphosatemetaboliteAMPA,can Growers needtobeawarethatglyphosate,trifluralinand 2 O) rangedfrom5.4to 2 O) rangedfrom5.4to developed andvalidatedbytheprojectteam. herbicides usingadvancedanalyticaltechniques cm). Sampleswereanalysedfor15commonlyused paddocks, butlesssoinNSW,QldandSA. frequently detectedinsamplesfromWA Diflufenican anddiuronresidueswere textured soilsthathaveloworganicmattercontent. of particle-boundtrifluralincanalsooccuronlighter due tocultivation,however,leachingormovement to remainclosetheapplicationsite.Thisispossibly movement, despitethestrongtendencyoftrifluralin the 10–30cmsoillayer,indicatingsomevertical of thepaddockssurveyed,bothintopsoiland Trifluralin residueswerealsodetectedinover75% residues presentineverytopsoilsampletaken. most commonlydetectedresidues,withAMPA aminomethylphosphonic acid(AMPA)werethe its primarybreak-downproduct(metabolite) out ofthe15analysed(Figure1).Glyphosateand around Australiadetectedresiduesof11chemicals The soilsurveyof40differentpaddocksfrom Which are herbicides remaining insoil? Results SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | 199

crop protection Figure 1. Number of positive detections of herbicides and the glyphosate metabolite AMPA in soil samples from 40 grain cropping paddocks around Australia. Interestingly, despite known application of SA, NSW and Qld. This probably reflects the lighter triasulfuron and metsulfuron-methyl in many of soil types, lower organic matter, dry summers and the surveyed paddocks, neither of these residual cool winters, which contribute to lower microbial herbicides were detected in any of the samples activity and constrained herbicide breakdown. The tested. This is probably a reflection of low higher load of atrazine in SA paddocks is probably application rates, close to the limit of analytical due to the higher persistence of s-triazine herbicides detection. It should be noted that sulfonylurea in alkaline soils. The higher values for 2,4-D in the (SU) herbicides might still have some residual NSW and Qld soil profiles was due to a high value in activity at levels below the limit of (currently a single paddock that had recently been sprayed. available) analytical detection. By contrast, the Notably, in a number of paddocks (especially in WA lack of positive detections of frequently applied but also in other states), there was a higher load of MCPA reflects its relatively short persistence. glyphosate than was applied in the previous spray, By multiplying herbicide concentrations (mg/kg) by demonstrating glyphosate accumulation and its soil bulk density (kg/dm [dry matter]) and area, the metabolite AMPA over time. Although the half- estimated total load of herbicide in the 0–30 cm soil life of glyphosate is relatively low (10–40 days), a profile for each paddock was calculated (Table 1). The significant portion of the glyphosate (and AMPA) average and maximum estimated loads of glyphosate, is bound to the soil and is much less accessible for trifluralin, diflufenican and diuron were all significantly continued degradation. This, combined with the high higher in paddocks in WA compared with those in frequency of glyphosate use, can lead to a build-up

200 | NSW Department of Primary Industries (a.i.) inthe0–30cmsoilprofileofpaddocksbyregion. Table 1.Residueloads(averageandmaximum)ofherbicideactiveingredients diseases incerealsandlegumes.Theseeffects linked withincreasedincidencesofrhizoctonia in N-cycling.PersistenceofSUssoilhasalsobeen nitrogen (N)byslowingdowntheprocessesinvolved after repeatapplicationcanreduceplant-available accumulation ofsomesulfonylurea(SU)herbicides application. Forexample,thereisevidencethatthe regarding theeffectsfromrepeatedherbicide However, someexceptionswereapparent,especially minor andonlylastedforlessthanonemonth. negative effectswereobserved,theyusually recommended rates.Eveninthecaseswhere on beneficialsoilfunctionswhenappliedat had reportsofnegligibleimpactsfromherbicides on soilfunction(Roseetal.2016).Mostpapers identified commonthemesforherbicideimpacts A literaturereviewofover300publishedstudies residues? respondHow to dosoilfunctions herbicide so anybiologicaleffectcanbedifficulttopredict. binding overtime,andareductioninbioavailability, fraction. Residuesaginginthesoilresultsstronger represent thetotalloads,ratherthanbio-available in WA.Itshouldbereiteratedthattheselevels trifluralin wasalsoapparentinanumberofpaddocks of glyphosateandAMPAinsoil.Anaccumulation AMPA bulk density(derivedfromsoilquality.org) foreachsoillayer. *Calculated bymultiplyingmassconcentration(mg/kg)detected area andaverage Herbicide Glyphosate Trifluralin Diflufenican Diuron 2,4-D MCPA Atrazine Simazine Fluroxypyr Dicamba Triclopyr Chlorsulfuron Sulfometuron-methyl Metsulfuron-methyl Triasulfuron NSW/Qld 0.91 0.56 0.08 0.01 0.14 0.20 0 0.02 0 0.03 0 0 0 0 0 0 Estimated averageloadacross all sites(kga.i./ha)* 0.95 0.48 0.11 0.03 0.05 0.02 0 0.03 0.04 0 0 0.04 0 0 0 0 SA yet bemadewithrespecttotheresiduesdetected. data ontrifluralin,meansthatfirmconclusionscannot interactions withglyphosate,andthelackofspecific plant-pathogen interactions.Thelocalisednatureof and trifluralincouldbealteringsomesoilfunctionsor high residueloadsofglyphosate,itsmetaboliteAMPA functions inthepaddockssurveyed.However, residues arehavingongoingnegativeeffectsonsoil detected inthesoilsurvey,itisunlikelythatSU Based onthisinformationandtheherbicideresidues often occurunderstressfulgrowingconditions. but theseinteractionsappeartobesite-specificand glyphosate) canincreasetheincidenceofdisease, There arealsocasesinwhichotherherbicides(e.g. SU herbicidesaresignificantlymorepersistent. are morelikelytooccurinalkalinesoils,where subsequent detectionintheresiduesurvey. given theirhighfrequencyofapplicationand or trifluralinresiduestocauseseedlingdamage there isthepotentialforglyphosate(+AMPA) plant-back riskarenotreadilyavailable.However, as soilresidueconcentrations)forassessing crop, comprehensivedamagethresholds(given crops variesaccordingtosoil,agroclimateand Because thepotentialforeachherbicidetodamage How docrops respond to residues? herbicide 0.92 0.79 0.53 0.04 0.17 0.01 0 0.02 0 0 0 0.01 0 0 0 0 WA SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | NSW/Qld 1.92 2.05 0.14 0.02 0.16 1.00 0 0.03 0.00 0.03 0 0 0 0 0 0 Estimated maximumload detected (kga.i./ha)* 1.97 1.05 0.26 0.05 0.05 0.05 0 0.05 0.05 0 0 0.07 0 0 0 0 SA 2.21 1.75 1.34 0.09 0.29 0.02 0 0.02 0 0 0 0.01 0 0 0 0 WA 201

crop protection It is generally accepted that glyphosate is deactivated at 20 kg P/ha, both wheat and lupin showed signs when it reaches the soil and poses little risk to crops. of damage at a lower glyphosate concentration However, recent research has shown that under – for lupin this occurred at levels of glyphosate certain circumstances glyphosate can be remobilised >3.5 kg/ha and for wheat >12.5 kg/ha (Figure 2). and become plant bioavailable, including: Previous research has shown that increasing levels »» in the event of phosphorus (P) fertilisation, which of P fertiliser application will continue to lower the can compete with glyphosate for binding sites on toxicity threshold to glyphosate/AMPA residues soil and remobilise bound glyphosate residues in soil. The soil samples from this experiment are »» in the event of glyphosate applied to a high currently being analysed to determine the residue weed density shortly before sowing, such level of both glyphosate and AMPA in soil. This will that dying weeds translocate glyphosate provide a more accurate understanding of whether into the soil and act as a more soluble pool the residues found in the field survey are likely of glyphosate to the germinating crop. to affect crop growth following P fertilisation. A sandy, low organic matter soil from Wongan Hills, For trifluralin, plant-back damage thresholds for oats WA, was used to construct dose-response curves vary from 0.1 to 0.2 mg/kg, and wheat from 0.2 to 0.4 for wheat and lupin encountering glyphosate mg/kg depending on the soil type (Hager & Refsell residues applied one month before sowing. To 2008). Table 2 shows the number of paddocks in demonstrate circumstance, half the test plots which the topsoil trifluralin residue concentration received a one-off application of 20 kg/ha P fertiliser exceeds the lower threshold for oats and wheat, (as soluble potassium phosphate) at sowing. respectively. Again, it must be stressed that the residues detected in our field survey constitute ‘aged’ In the soil not receiving P fertiliser, wheat was not residues, which are likely to be less bioavailable and affected by levels of glyphosate in soil resulting from hence less of a threat to crop growth. Nevertheless, a 27 kg/ha application rate, whilst lupin biomass was considering that some of these paddocks will receive only significantly reduced at rates above 12 kg/ha a pre-emergent application of trifluralin in 2016, (when upper 95% confidence level falls below 100% the risk of some plant-back damage is tangible. biomass) (Figure 2). When P fertiliser was added

Figure 2. Growth response of lupin and wheat to glyphosate applied to soil one month before sowing with and without P fertiliser (20 kg/ha) added at sowing.

202 | NSW Department of Primary Industries Advances inAgronomy,136.InPress. of herbicidesonsoilbiologyandfunction.' RS andvanZwieten,L2016,'Theimpacts Vancov, T,Kimber,S,Kennedy,IR,Kookana, Rose, MT,Cavagnaro,TR,Scanlan,CA,TJ, handbook, UniversityofIllinois,Urbana-Champaign,IL. Overmier (ed.),Illinoisagriculturalpestmanagement and howtotestforherbicideresiduesinsoil’,M Hager, AGandRefsell,D2008,‘Herbicidepersistence References excellent supportinprocessingsoilsamples. Ken LishaandScottPetty,NSWDPIwhoprovided with soilsamplingandliaison.Thankyoualsoto Helen Burns,NSWDPI,fortheirinvaluableassistance Webb, Annabelle Georgia Wainwright fromLiebeGroup,WA;SarahHydeand Butler fromSANTFA,SA;ClareJohnstonandElly and KellieJonesfromFarmlink,NSW;Greg use. SpecialthankstoCindyCassidy,TonyPratt and informationregardingon-farmherbicide participating inthissurveyforsupport,access We acknowledgethegenerosityofallgrowers jointly fundedbyGRDCandNSWDPI. processes project’,DAN001802013–18, herbicide useimpactonkeysoilbiological This researchispartofthe‘Doesincreased Acknowledgements and wheat(0.2mg/kg)intopsoil(0–10cm). lower phytotoxicitythresholdsforoats(0.1mg/kg) Table 2.Numberofpaddocksexceedingtrifluralin WA Region NSW–Qld SA

Oliver fromFaceyGroup,WA;andAshley >0.1 mg/kg Trifluralin 10

0 2 McPherson, ClarenceMercerand >0.2 mg/kg Trifluralin 5 0 0 Number of paddocks surveyed 12 13 15 SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | 203

crop protection Crop sequencing for irrigated double cropping

Tony Napier and Daniel Johnston NSW DPI, Yanco; Luke Gaynor, Cynthia Podmore and Rajinder Pal Singh NSW DPI, Wagga Wagga; Rob Fisher Irrigated Cropping Council, Kerang

Key findings »» The single cropping phase of cotton achieved the highest returns for both $/ha and $/ML. »» The double cropping treatment of canola and maize achieved the highest returns for $/ha. »» All double cropping treatments achieved similar returns for $/ML.

Introduction Site details The project aims to overcome some of the difficulties The experimental site was established at the with double cropping systems (growing a winter Leeton Field Station in a field with a history of and summer crop following one another) and to irrigated lucerne. The paddock was formed into provide the opportunity for growers to capitalise on 1.83 m-wide beds suitable for furrow irrigated their investment in irrigated agriculture. This project cropping. The crop sequencing started in early considers the issues of herbicide residues; irrigation 2014 with a winter cropping or fallow phase. layouts and management; stubble management; and The project will run for two years (four cropping quantifying achievable crop yield and profitability. seasons) ending in mid-2016 with the harvest The project has two core sites, one located in Boort of the second summer cropping phase. (northern Victoria) and the other at the Leeton Treatments Field Station (southern NSW). The Victorian site is The experiment includes both single cropping focusing on herbicide and stubble management. (one crop per year) and double cropping (three This report is a summary of the first year’s results or four crops in two years) treatments. The from the southern NSW experiment where the focus experiment has seven treatments with four is on evaluating the different crop sequences to replications of each treatment (Table 1). Each quantify achievable crop yield and profitability. plot includes three beds 1.83 m wide by 120 m long, giving a total plot area of 660 m2 and a treatment area of 0.26 ha. There is a fallow buffer area of one bed between each plot (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Irrigated double cropping experiment located at the Leeton Field Station.

204 | NSW Department of Primary Industries crop wasirrigatedfourtimes requiringatotalof crop wasre-sownon20June 2014.Thewheat 23 May2014,butduetopoor establishment,the The firstwintercropwassown toDart summer fallow Treatment five –winter wheat followed by winter wheatphasetobesownon16May2015. 2.79 t/ha.Theplotswerethenpreparedforthe 21 April2015andachievedanaverageyieldof of 7ML/hawater.Thecropwasharvestedon soybeans wereirrigated12timesrequiringatotal 2014 (fivedaysafterharvestingthewheat).The soybeans weredirectseededon16December 5.25 t/ha.ThecropstubblewasburnedandDjakal on 11Decemberandachievedanaverageyieldof 3.5 ML/haofwater.Thewheatcropwasharvested crop wasirrigatedfourtimesrequiringatotalof crop wasre-sownon20June2014.Thewheat 23 The firstwintercropwassowntoDart summer soybeans Treatment four –winter wheat followed by the fababeanphasetobesownon22May2015. ha. Theplotswerethencultivatedandpreparedfor 2015 andachievedanaverageyieldof13.95 10 ML/ha of water. The crop was harvested on 29 April The cottonwasirrigated16timesrequiringatotalof cotton wassownon1October2014andirrigatedup. The firstwinterphasewasleftasfallow.Sitcot summer cotton Treatment three –winter fallow followed by were leftasfallowduringthe2015winterphase. 3.09 t/haand3.36respectively.Bothtreatments on 5 water foreachtreatment.Bothcropswereharvested were irrigated14times,usingatotalof8ML/ha soybeans on20November2014.Bothtreatments crop waspre-irrigatedandsownwithDjakal The firstwinterphasewasleftasfallow.summer followed by summersoybeans Treatments oneandtwo –winter fallow Yield results offirsttwo seasons Table 1.Summaryoftheseventreatmentsevaluatedinexperiment. Summer 2015–16 Winter 2015 Summer 2014–15 Winter 2014 Season/Year

May 2014,butduetopoorestablishment,the

May 2015andachievedanaverageyieldof Soybean Fallow Fallow Maize 1 A A wheaton wheaton Soybean Soybean Fallow Fallow

bales/ 2

71 Faba bean Cotton Fallow Fallow 3.5 ML/haofwater.Thewheatcropwasharvested the winterbarleyphasetobesownon18May2015. yield of2.79t/ha.Theplotswerethenpreparedfor harvested on21April2015andachievedanaverage requiring atotalof7.5ML/hawater.Thecropwas the barley).Thesoybeanswereirrigated13times on 2December2014(threedaysafterharvesting was burntandDjakalsoybeansweredirectseeded an averageyieldof4.19t/ha.Thecropstubble crop washarvestedon29Novemberandachieved requiring atotalof3.5ML/hawater.Thebarley 23 May2014.Thebarleycropwasirrigatedfourtimes The firstwintercropwassowntoScopeCL summer soybeans Treatment six–winter followed barley by 5.17 on 12 significantly lowerthanallother treatments(Figure2). hectare withagrossmarginof $461/ha,whichwas treatments. Treatmentfivehad thelowestprofitper was significantlyhigherthantheremainingfive highest profitperhectarewith$1840/ha,which other treatments.Treatmentsevenhadthesecond $4766/ha, whichwassignificantlyhigherthanall profit perhectarewithagrossmarginreturnof Treatment threedemonstratedthehighest Profitability results offirsttwo seasons bean phasetobesownon22May2015. The plotswerethenpreparedforthewinterfaba 2015 andachievedanaverageyieldof9.75t/ha. water. Themaizecropwasharvestedon21April irrigated 14timesrequiringatotalof9ML/ha days afterharvestingthecanola).Themaizewas was directseededon21November2014(eight stubble wasmulchedandPioneerP0012maize achieved anaverageyieldof3.44t/ha.Thecrop canola cropwasharvestedon13Novemberand times requiringatotalof3ML/hawater.The on 16May2014.Thecanolacropwasirrigatedfour The firstwintercropwassowntoHyola®50canola summer maize Treatment seven –winter canolafollowed by 3

t/ha. The2014–15summerphasewasleftfallow.

December andachievedanaverageyieldof Treatment Soybean Soybean Wheat Wheat SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | 4 Wheat Fallow Wheat Fallow 5 Soybean Soybean Barley Barley 6 A Faba bean barleyon Canola Fallow Maize 7 205

irrigation & climate $6,000 l.s.d. (P <0.05) = $377/ha

$5,000

$4,000

$3,000

$2,000 Gross margin ($/ha)

$1,000

$0 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 Treatment Figure 2. Gross margin ($/ha) return for the irrigated double cropping experiment at Leeton from April 2014 to April 2015.

$600

l.s.d. (P <0.05) = $58.3/ML $500

$400

$300

$200 Gross margin ($/ML)

$100

$0 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 Treatment Figure 3. Gross margin ($/ML) return for the irrigated double cropping experiment at Leeton from April 2014 to April 2015. Treatment three achieved the highest profit the highest return per hectare for the treatments per megalitre with a gross margin return of with a cropping phase over both winter and $477/ML, which was significantly higher than summer. All double cropping treatments all other treatments. Treatment seven had achieved statistically similar returns for $/ML. the second highest profit per megalitre with $153/ML, which was statistically similar to Acknowledgements the remaining five treatments (Figure 3). The research is part of the ‘Correct crop sequencing for irrigated double cropping project’, Summary VIC00010, 2014–16, jointly funded by NSW DPI The first two season’s results clearly demonstrate and GRDC, and ICC are the Project Leaders. that the single cropping phase of cotton The support of Alan Boulton, Glenn Morris and produced a significantly higher return for both Paul Morris is gratefully acknowledged. $/ha and $/ML than any other single or double cropping treatment. Treatment seven achieved

206 | NSW Department of Primary Industries line depictingthe irrigationtriggerpoint. Figure 1.Soilmoisturetension(kPa) at30cmand60deepforthe2015LFSirrigatedwheatexperiments withadashed population canalsosignificantlyreducelodging. grain proteinandreducedlodging.Managingplant nitrogen timingsignificantlyincreasedgrainyield, major influenceonirrigatedwheatyields.Correct (LFS). Varietalselectionagainprovedtobethe second yearattheNSWDPILeetonFieldStation management ongrainyieldwasevaluatedfora The effectofvariety,plantdensityandnitrogen Introduction » » » » Key findings Wagga TonyDPI, Yanco; NapierNSW irrigated wheat –2015 production and nitrogen rate onhigh-yielding The effectofvariety, plant population » » » » Managing plantpopulationalsosignificantlyreducedlodging. grain proteinandsignificantlyreducedlodging. Correct nitrogentimingsignificantlyincreasedgrainyield, Cobra experiments inirrigatedwheatproductionatLeeton. in achievinghigherwheatyieldsthesecondyearof Varietal selectionagainprovedtobethemajorfactor Suntop Soil tension (kPa) 100 150 200 50 A

Wagga; 0 09 Aug 23 Aug 06 Sep 20 Sep 04 Oct 18 Oct 01 Nov 15 Nov 29 Nov 29 Nov 15 Nov 01 Oct 18 Oct 04 Sep 20 Sep 06 Aug 23 Aug 09 wasthehighestyieldingvarietyinthisexperimentbutCorack A andthedurumbreedingline280913alsoperformedverywell. Dr Neroli Graham NSWDPI, Tamworth Luke Gaynor, Deb SlingerandCynthiaDeb Podmore NSWDPI, Site details Date Irrigation Harvest date Sowing date Previous crop Soil type period Experiment Location SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | applied 4.2ML/ha)(Figure1) irrigations (totalirrigationwater One pre-sowingandtwospring 3 December 8 May2015 Barley Self-mulching mediumclay Winter cropgrowingseason2015 Leeton FieldStation,NSW A , 30 cm 30 60 cm 60 207

irrigation & climate Treatments Treatment Early nitrogen Late nitrogen Fourteen wheat varieties were evaluated over two Total (kg N/ha) 245 245 plant densities and two nitrogen timings (tables 1 and 2). The plant density treatments were ‘high The experiment was sown with six rows per plot and density’ (average 163 plants/m2) and low density a row spacing of 250 mm. There were three replicates (average 117 plants/m2). Both nitrogen timing of 56 treatments (168 plots) in a randomised block treatments had a total of 245 kg N/ha applied design. Each plot was 1.5 m wide and 10.5 m long. 2 throughout the growing season. The early nitrogen The experiment was both hand harvested (2 m 2 treatment had the majority of nitrogen applied at cuts) and machine harvested (the remaining 12 m ) sowing while the late nitrogen treatment had the for yield. The hand-harvested cuts were taken from majority of the nitrogen applied later in the season. the middle four rows so there was no outside- row effect. The machine harvest was taken from Table 1. Wheat varieties evaluated in the 2015 the whole six rows. The machine harvested yields Leeton Field Station irrigated wheat experiment. have been used in this report as there was much Variety less variation between the mean yields for each 280913 (durum KioraA WallupA treatment. The machine harvest yields were on breeding line) average 14% higher than the hand harvested yields; EGA_BellaroiA LancerA EGA_GregoryA including the outside rows that are higher yielding CharaA MaceA TrojanA due to no competition for light and nutrients. CobraA MerindaA ImpalaA CorackA SuntopA Results Grain yield averaged 9.60 t/ha across all variety, density and nitrogen treatments (machine harvest Table 2. Nitrogen timing treatments evaluated in the 2015 Leeton Field Station irrigated wheat experiment. yields). Cobra was the highest yielding variety at 11.03 t/ha, significantly higher than all other Treatment Early nitrogen Late nitrogen varieties. Corack, Suntop and 280913 (durum Base (kg N/ha) 135 65 breeding line) also achieved very high grain yields First node 80 80 exceeding 10 t/ha. Merinda, Impala and EGA_Gregory (kg N/ha) Booting (kg N/ha) 30 100 were the lowest yielding varieties (Figure 2).

11.5 l.s.d. (P <0.05) = 0.27 t/ha 11.0

10.5

10.0

9.5

9.0

8.5 Grain yield (t/ha) yieldGrain 8.0

7.5

7.0

6.5

6.0 Merinda Impala EGA Lancer Kiora Wallup Chara EGA Trojan Mace 280913 Suntop Corack Cobra Gregory Bellaroi Variety

Figure 2. Machine harvested grain yield for the 2015 Leeton Field Station irrigated wheat experiment.

208 | NSW Department of Primary Industries for the2015LeetonFieldStationirrigatedwheatexperiment. Table 3.Grainqualityandlodgingaveragedacrossdensitynitrogentreatments (163 plants/m wheat grainyield.Thehighdensitytreatment Plant densitydidnotsignificantlyaffect that averaged9.49t/ha(l.s.d.(P<0.05)=0.10t/ha). statistically higherthantheearlynitrogentreatments treatments yieldedanaverageof9.71t/ha,whichwas nitrogen appliedpre-sowing.Thelate grain yieldcomparedwithoverhalf(55%)ofthe at orafterthefirstnodestagesignificantlyincreased grain yield.Applyingthemajority(73%)ofnitrogen effect thatnitrogenapplicationtiminghasonwheat The experimentalsodemonstratedthesignificant density hadnoeffectongrainproteincontent. nitrogen treatments,whichaveraged12.3%.Plant which wassignificantlyhigherthantheearly highest averagegrainproteincontentof12.5%, grain protein.Thelatenitrogentreatmentshadthe Suntop with11.7%.Nitrogentimingalsoaffected protein contentof11.5%,whichwassimilarto 280913 with13.1%.Impalahadthelowestgrain of 13.1%,whichwassimilartothebreedingline Lancer hadthehighestgrainproteincontent (117 plants/m Merinda Mace Corack Cobra Impala Suntop Kiora Wallup EGA_Bellaroi 280913 Lodging score:0=nolodging;9=completelylodged * Statisticallyinthehighestgrouping # l.s.d. (P<0.05) Trojan Variety EGA_Gregory Chara Lancer Statisticallyinthelowestgrouping 2 2 ) treatmentyielded9.63t/ha. ) yielded9.57t/haandthelowdensity Grain protein 12.6 12.0 12.1 12.4 11.5 11.7 12.3 12.7 12.8 13.1 * 12.1 12.2 12.6 13.1 * 0.3 (%)

# #

Test weight (kg/hL) 82.8 83.3 85.4 * 83.3 84.0 85.0* 82.8 83.1 84.6 * 84.7 * 84.0 84.8 * 84.3 * 85.0 0.9 # # # # # * timing hadnoeffectonlodging(Table3). the highdensitytreatments.Nitrogenapplication treatments havingsignificantlylesslodgingthan significant effectonlodgingwiththelowdensity than allothervarieties.Plantpopulationhada a scoreof8.1andhadsignificantlymorelodging varieties. EGA_Bellaroihadthemostlodgingwith and hadsignificantlylesslodgingthanallother Corack hadtheleastlodgingwithascoreof1.8 screenings thanthehighdensitytreatments. low densitytreatmentsalsohadsignificantlylower screenings thantheearlynitrogentreatments.The late nitrogentreatmentshadsignificantlylower density hadasignificanteffectonscreenings.The to Kiora(6.0%).Bothnitrogentimingandplant screenings (6.3%)andwasstatisticallysimilar than allothervarieties.Merindahadthehighest screenings (1.2%)andwassignificantlylower The durumbreedingline280913hadthelowest plant densityhadaneffectontestweight. Mace andCobra.Neithernitrogentimingnor which wasstatisticallysimilartoMerinda,280913, EGA_Bellaroi hadthelowesttestweight–82.8 Impala, EGA_Gregory,TrojanandSuntop. which wasstatisticallysimilartoWallup,Lancer, Corack hadthehighesttestweightof85.4kg/hL,

SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | (% <2mm) Screenings 2.3 6.0 3.1 4.3 3.8 4.5 4.8 4.0 3.2 2.7 6.3 3.3 1.2 * 3.0 0.7 # #

Lodging score (0 to9) 1.8 4.3 5.0 4.7 4.6 7.0 4.4 3.5 5.0 8.1 * 7.4 4.0 4.9 5.7 0.7 #

kg/hL,

209

irrigation & climate Summary The 2015 irrigated wheat experiment at Leeton Field Station demonstrated that varietal selection and irrigation management have the most influence for achieving maximum yields. The experiments averaged 9.60 t/ha across all varieties and treatments (machine harvested samples including edge rows). These yields are about 14% higher than plots with the outside rows removed. Cobra was the highest yielding variety with an average machine harvest yield of 11.0 t/ha. Without the edge row effect, Cobra yielded 9.5 t/ha. Other high yielding varieties included Corack, Suntop and the durum breeding line 280913. Irrigation management also had a significant effect on grain yield in this experiment. Soil moisture was monitored throughout the season and the plots were irrigated before any moisture stress occurred. The experiment was pre-irrigated and received two spring irrigations. In total, 4.2 ML/ha of irrigation water was applied. Nitrogen timing and plant density also influenced the results. Applying the majority of nitrogen (73%) at or after the first node stage (late nitrogen treatment) significantly increased both grain yield and grain protein. The late nitrogen treatment also significantly reduced screenings. The low density treatment significantly reduced screenings and lodging. Acknowledgements This research is part of the ‘Southern irrigated cereal and canola varieties achieving target yields project’, DAN00198, 2014–17, jointly funded by GRDC and NSW DPI. The support of Daniel Johnston, Glenn Morris, Gabby Napier and Michael Hately for assistance with experiment management, field assessments and data collection is gratefully acknowledged.

210 | NSW Department of Primary Industries Site details grain quality,wateruseandefficiency. irrigation intensityandwaterpondingongrainyield, requirements ofawheatcropandtheimpact This experimentinvestigatedtheirrigationwater Introduction » » » Key findings , Dunn Brian grain yield, grain andwater quality useefficiency The management effectofirrigation onwheat Spring rainfall Irrigation dates nitrogen Topdressed Herbicides Establishment Sowing fertiliser seeding rate Variety and irrigation rainfall/ Establishment Sowing preparation Field Previous crop Soil type Location » » » and ensuringadequatemoistureisavailableduringflowering. balance betweenirrigatingbeforesignificantmoisturestressoccurs If thenumberofspringirrigationsislimited,itimportanttofinda water useandreducedefficiencyby25%. did notreducegrainyieldinthisexperiment,butincreased Ponding irrigationwaterfor48hourstoinducewaterlogging the highestwateruseefficiency(1.7t/ML). wheat grainyield(7.61t/ha),butoneirrigationprovided In 2015,twospringirrigationsproducedthehighest Tina, Dunn 18 29 Suntop –110plants/m and 6November 64 mmbetween31October 2 irrigationtreatments– 1 irrigationtreatment–2October 21 July(Z30)–before10mmrain Precept @1L/ha Axial @300mL/ha; Corack –89plants/m @ 175kg/hasownwithseed Diammonium phosphate(DAP) @ 85kg/haseed Corack andSuntopwheat 2 June–11mmsprinkleirrigation 19 May–8mmrain 18 May(discdrillat – nocultivation Canola stubbleburnt Canola Self-mulching heavyclay Leeton

September and14October cm rowspacing) Craig Dawe HodgesandChris NSWDPI, Yanco

adequate availablesoilmoistureduringflowering. while consideringthenecessityforwheattohave evapotranspiration data,cropfactorsandrainfall, timing wasdeterminedusingacombinationof water usetobeaccuratelymeasured.Irrigation were insmallseparatebays(Figure1)toallow Each oftheabovementionedtreatments water pondedfor48hoursbeforedraining. T4: waterlogged–twospringirrigationswith draining T3: twospringirrigations–fivehourspondingbefore draining T2: onespringirrigation–fivehourspondingbefore T1: noirrigation(rainfallonly) replicates ineachtreatment: There werefourirrigationtreatmentsand Irrigation managementtreatments Treatments Figure 1.Aerialphoto ofexperiment(1November 2015).

SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 |

211

irrigation & climate Wheat varieties Grain quality The irrigation treatments were applied to The zero irrigation treatment (T1) produced grain two wheat varieties, Corack and Suntop. with a significantly higher protein content than Nitrogen treatments the other three irrigation treatments (Figure 3). Four nitrogen treatments (0, 130, 260 and Increasing the rate of topdressed nitrogen 390 kg/ha of urea) were applied to each irrigation/ increased grain protein levels in all irrigation variety treatment at the beginning of stem treatments (Table 1). Corack (12.0%) produced elongation (Z30) and before 10 mm of rainfall. significantly higher grain protein levels than Suntop (11.7%) when averaged across all treatments. Results Suntop had a significantly higher level of screenings Grain yield than Corack at 9.6% and 7.1% respectively (when The T3 irrigation treatment (two-irrigations) averaged across all treatments). Screenings were produced the highest grain yield when averaged highest in the zero irrigation treatment (T1) for across variety and nitrogen treatments with both varieties with no significant difference 7.6 t/ha. T4 (waterlogged with two-irrigation) between the other irrigation treatments. yielded 7.3 t/ha and T2 (one-irrigation) yielded Grain test weight averaged 79 kg/hL, 6.8 t/ha. The lowest yield 4.9 t/ha was obtained with all treatments above the 76 kg/hL from T1 (zero irrigation) as expected. Overall, minimum limit for many wheat grades. Corack achieved a significantly higher grain yield (7.0 t/ha) than Suntop (6.4 t/ha) (Figure 2). 14.0 Corack Suntop Very little rainfall was received between 3 September 13.5 and 31 October. As a result, the zero irrigation 13.0 treatment was very moisture-stressed before 64 mm of rain was received at the end of October 12.5 and in early November. This stress was the major 12.0 cause of lower grain yields in the zero irrigation treatment compared with the other treatments 11.5 Grain Grain protein (%) that received irrigations during this period. 11.0 Despite the extended period of ponding, 10.5 the waterlogged treatment achieved a high grain yield, which can be attributed to the 10.0 No irrigation 1 Irrigation 2 Irrigations 2 Irrigations/ very good structure and internal drainage waterlogged of the soil at the experiment site. Irrigation management Figure 3. Grain protein (%) for irrigation by variety 9 Corack Suntop interaction, averaged across nitrogen treatments 8 (l.s.d. (P <0.05) = 1.6). 7 Water use and water use efficiency 6 The zero irrigation treatment (T1) received 5 3.1 ML/ha as rainfall during the crop growing 4 period. The one (T2), two (T3) and waterlogged (T4) irrigation treatments received 4.1, 4.9 and

Grain yieldGrain(t/ha) 3 6.1 ML/ha total water respectively consisting of 2 rainfall and irrigation water (Table 1). Increasing 1 the ponding period from five hours to 48 hours for 0 the waterlogging treatment, as can often occur in No irrigation 1 Irrigation 2 Irrigations 2 Irrigations / commercial fields with flatter slopes, slow supply or waterlogged Irrigation management poor drainage, significantly increased water use. Figure 2. Grain yield (t/ha) for irrigation by variety interaction, averaged across nitrogen treatments (l.s.d. (P <0.05) = 0.40).

212 | NSW Department of Primary Industries moisture isavailableduringflowering. stress occurs,whilealsoensuring adequate between irrigatingbeforesignificant moisture crop islimited,itimportanttofindabalance number ofspringirrigationsappliedtoawheat available toawheatcropduringflowering.Ifthe It isimportantthatadequatesoilmoisture stress beforetherainfalleventduringgrainfill. this dryperiod,resultinginonlyslightmoisture irrigation treatmentreceivedtheduring quality inthezeroirrigationtreatment.Theone- reduction ingrainyieldandadverselyaffected period duringSeptemberandOctobercausedalarge rainfall wasreceivedduringgrainfill,theverydry Even thoughitwasawetwinterandconsiderable Summary use efficiencywiththistreatment(Table1). waterlogging createda25%reductioninwater were similar,theextrawateruseassociatedwith waterlogged (T4)andtwo-irrigation(T3)treatments with 1.2t/ML.Eventhoughthegrainyieldof with 1.6t/MLandthewaterloggedtreatment(T4) zero (T1)andtwoirrigation(T3)treatmentsboth water productivitywith1.7t/MLfollowedbythe The oneirrigationtreatment(T2)hadthehighest Table 1.Wheatgrainyield,wateruseandproductivity,qualitywheatgrade(averageofvarieties). waterlogged 2 irrigations 2 irrigations 1 irrigation l.s.d. (P<0.05) Zero management Irrigation Treatment with acommercialharvester,butthetrendisconsistentpreviousresults. * Screeningscouldbehigherthanexpectedduetoharvestingwithaplotharvestercompared (kg urea/ha) Topdressed nitrogen 390 260 130 390 260 130 390 260 130 390 260 130 0 0 0 0

(t/ha) Grain yield 0.37 7.1 7.3 7.6 7.2 7.5 7.7 7.9 7.2 6.6 6.8 7.2 6.9 4.4 4.5 5.1 5.8

rain+irrigation Water use (ML/ha) 0.2 6.1 4.9 4.1 3.1 returns fromtheveryvaluablewaterresource. and irrigationmanagementplayinmaximising demonstrates theimportancethateffectivelayouts management (i.e.48hourponding)clearly in wateruseefficiencyduetopoorirrigation irrigation management.The25%reduction This researchhighlightstheimportanceof jointly fundedbyNSWDPIandGRDC. target yieldsproject’,DAN00198,2014–17, irrigated cerealandcanolavarietiesachieving This researchisapartofthe‘Southern Acknowledgements Water use efficiency (t/ML) 0.10 1.2 1.2 1.3 1.2 1.5 1.6 1.6 1.5 1.6 1.6 1.7 1.7 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.9 SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | protein Grain 10.2 12.4 12.0 11.2 12.9 12.5 11.5 15.1 14.3 12.9 12.4 12.1 11.4 0.46 (%) 9.6 9.6 9.7 (kg/hL) weight Test 2.6 78 80 80 81 78 79 81 82 76 76 78 82 77 78 79 79 Screenings <2 mm* 17.5 15.9 11.4 (%) 1.6 6.8 6.5 6.4 6.0 8.1 7.5 6.8 6.1 7.9 7.7 6.8 6.1 6.2 AUH2 AUH2 AGP1 AGP1 AUH2 AUH2 AUH2 AGP1 HPS1 HPS1 HPS1 AGP1 AUH2 AUH2 AGP1 AGP1 Wheat grade 213

irrigation & climate The effect of variety, time of sowing and plant population on high-yielding irrigated canola – 2015

Tony Napier NSW DPI, Yanco; Luke Gaynor, Deb Slinger and Cynthia Podmore NSW DPI, Wagga Wagga; Dr Neroli Graham NSW DPI, Tamworth

Key findings »» Varietal selection again proved to be the strongest determinant of irrigated canola grain yield in the second year of experiments at Leeton. »» The three highest yielding varieties were Nuseed® Diamond, Hyola® 50 and Nuseed® GT-50. »» Sowing time and variety interaction affected lodging, grain yield and harvest index (HI). »» Plant population alone only affected lodging but the variety interaction affected lodging and the harvest index.

Introduction Treatments The second year of irrigated canola experiments Variety as part of the Southern irrigated cereal and Canola varieties (14) canola varieties achieving target yields project ATR BonitoA Hyola® 577CL were conducted in 2015. The experiment at ATR GemA Hyola® 600RR Leeton evaluated the effect of variety, time of AV GarnetA Nuseed Diamond sowing, plant population and their interactions Hyola® 50 Nuseed GT-50 on canola grain yield, grain quality (oil content) Hyola® 559TT Pioneer® 44Y84 (CL) and crop growth (lodging and harvest index). Hyola® 750TT Pioneer 45Y88 (CL) The experiments reinforced the key messages from Hyola® 575CL Victory® V3002 year one: varietal selection is the major driver of high yielding irrigated canola production, but other Plant population 2 agronomic management such as plant population The target population treatments were 25 plants/m 2 and time of sowing also affect yield and grain quality. (low density) and 50 plants/m (high density). Time of sowing Site details The two sowing dates evaluated were 3 April Location Leeton Field Station, Leeton NSW 2015 (TOS 1) and 27 April 2015 (TOS 2). Experiment Winter crop growing season 2015 period Results Soil type Self-mulching medium clay There was a significant difference between the yields Previous crop Barley of varieties evaluated with a 1.55 t/ha difference Sowing dates 3 April and 27 April 2015 between the highest and lowest yielding varieties. Harvest date 13 November and 16 Nuseed® Diamond (4.59 t/ha) yielded significantly November 2015 higher than all other varieties and 34% higher than Irrigation One pre-sowing and two spring the lowest yielding variety Pioneer® 44Y84 (CL) irrigations (total irrigation (3.04 t/ha). The next five varieties (Hyola 50®, Nuseed® water applied 3.8 ML/ha). GT-50, Pioneer® 45Y88 (CL), AV Garnet, Hyola® 575CL) Nitrogen Total 318 kg N/ha (68 kg N/ha did not have significantly different yields (Figure 1). budget starting soil level; 100 kg N/ha pre- sowing; 100 kg N/ha topdressed; approximately 50 kg N/ha mineralised during growing season)

214 | NSW Department of Primary Industries Table 1.Grainyield,grainqualityandcropgrowthmeasurementsforcanolavarietiesranking. correlation betweenHIandgrainyield. to 0.30forATRBonito.Again,therewasno The HIrangedfrom0.20forPioneer®44Y84 (45.2%), whichyieldedseventhhighest(Table1). which yieldedsecondhighestandHyola®559TT highest grainyieldfollowedbyHyola®50(45.5%), the highestoilcontent(45.5%)andwassixth oil contentandgrainyield.Hyola®575CLhad contents howevertherewasnocorrelationbetween The varietiesproducedsignificantlydifferentoil Figure 1.Grainyieldandoilcontentof14canolavarieties,Leeton2015. A l.s.d.(P <0.05) Nuseed Diamond Nuseed GT-50 AV Garnet Hyola 559TT Hyola 577CL Pioneer 44Y84(CL) Experiment mean Hyola 50 Hyola 575CL Hyola 600RR Pioneer 45Y88(CL) Hyola 750TT ATR Gem Victory V3002 ATR Bonito lodgingscore: Grain yield (t/ha) 2.5 3.5 4.5 2 3 4 5 Pioneer 44Y84 (CL) Variety

750TT Hyola 0=no lodging;9=completelodging l.s.d. =0.31t/ha l.s.d. (P <0.05) Victory V3002 Grain yield Grain Bonito ATR Grain yield(t/ha) 600RR Hyola 4.59 4.14 4.00 3.85 3.74 3.04 3.80 4.24 3.93 3.65 4.00 3.33 3.72 3.38 3.62 0.31 1 2 3 4 5

T e Hyola Gem ATR

(CL) l.s.d. (P <0.05) 1.12% l.s.d. = (P <0.05) Grain oil content Grain 577CL Oil content(%) Variety 43.1 44.9 45.5 44.6 44.3 45.2 45.1 43.1 44.4 45.5 44.9 43.0 43.6 44.0 44.8 559TT Hyola probably affectedyieldinthesetwovarieties. respectively). Itwasobservedatharvestthatlodging and thelowestyields(3.04t/ha3.33 highest lodgingscoresof3.7and2.8respectively Pioneer® 44Y84(CL)andHyola®750TThadthe were 4th,8thand6threspectively.Thevarieties Hyola® 575CL(0.3).Thesevarietyyieldrankings score (0.1)followedbyHyola®577CL(0.2)and variety Pioneer®45Y88(CL)hadthelowestlodging have anoverallcorrelationwithgrainyield.The between thevarietiesevaluated,butthisdidnot There wasasignificantdifferenceinlodging 1.1 5 2 1 3 4 575CL Hyola SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | Garnet AV Harvest index Pioneer 45Y88 (CL) 0.26 0.29 0.26 0.24 0.28 0.23 0.27 0.26 0.20 0.25 0.21 0.23 0.29 0.24 0.30 0.01 2 5 4 2 1 Nuseed GT-50 yl 0Nuseed 50 Hyola Lodging score Diamond 0.1 1.7 1.4 1.6 0.8 2.3 0.5 0.3 0.2 1.5 3.7 1.4 1.6 2.8 1.5 0.8 4 1 3 2 5 42.5 43 43.5 44 44.5 45 45.5 46 A 215 Grain oil content (%)

irrigation & climate Plant population did not affect grain yield or oil Of the 14 varieties evaluated, eight yielded higher content. High plant density resulted in a higher at the first time of sowing and six at the second lodging score (2.0) than low plant density (0.8), but time of sowing. The general trend was for the both were relatively low lodging scores. There was longer-maturing varieties to have a higher grain also a significant difference between varieties and yield from the first time of sowing (3 April) and the plant populations on lodging and HI (Table 2). shorter-maturing varieties to have a higher grain Time of sowing, when averaged over all yield from the second time of sowing (27 April). treatments, did not affect grain yield, grain quality Despite having no overall effect, only four or crop growth. However, the varieties differed varieties had a higher lodging score at the later significantly in their response to the time of time of sowing (Pioneer® 44Y84 (CL), ATR Bonito, sowing (variety × time of sowing interaction) Nuseed® Diamond and Hyola® 750TT) and only on grain yield, lodging score and HI (Table 3). two varieties had a higher HI at the early time of sowing (Hyola® 575CL and Hyola® 577CL).

Table 2. The effect of the variety and plant population interaction on lodging and harvest index. Variety Lodging score A Harvest index Low plant density High plant density Low plant density High plant density Pioneer 44Y84 (CL) 2.9 4.5 0.21 0.20 Pioneer 45Y88 (CL) 0.2 0.0 0.26 0.25 ATR Bonito 1.1 3.4 0.31 0.28 Nuseed Diamond 0.8 2.6 0.30 0.29 AV Garnet 0.7 2.2 0.27 0.26 ATR Gem 0.5 1.2 0.30 0.27 Nuseed GT-50 1.1 1.7 0.28 0.27 Hyola 50 0.1 0.9 0.25 0.27 Hyola 575CL 0.1 0.5 0.23 0.25 Hyola 600 RR 0.7 2.4 0.21 0.21 Hyola 750TT 0.6 5.0 0.25 0.21 Hyola 559TT 1.5 1.7 0.28 0.28 Hyola 577CL 0.3 0.2 0.23 0.22 Victory V3002 1.4 1.5 0.24 0.24 Experiment mean 0.8 2.0 0.26 0.25 l.s.d.(P <0.05) 1.1 0.02 A Lodging score: 0 = no lodging; 9 = complete lodging

Table 3. The effect of the variety and time of sowing interaction on grain yield and crop growth. Variety Grain yield (t/ha) Lodging score A Harvest index TOS 1 TOS 2 TOS 1 TOS 2 TOS 1 TOS 2 Pioneer 44Y84 (CL) 2.94 3.14 2.9 4.5 0.20 0.20 Pioneer 45Y88 (CL) 3.92 4.07 0.2 0.0 0.25 0.27 ATR Bonito 3.68 3.56 1.6 2.9 0.28 0.31 Nuseed Diamond 4.67 4.51 1.2 2.2 0.29 0.30 AV Garnet 4.05 3.87 1.6 1.3 0.26 0.27 ATR Gem 4.00 3.43 0.9 0.8 0.28 0.30 Nuseed GT-50 4.04 4.23 1.8 1.1 0.27 0.28 Hyola 50 4.11 4.38 0.7 0.2 0.26 0.26 Hyola 575 CL 4.23 3.62 0.3 0.3 0.26 0.23 Hyola 600 RR 3.42 3.87 1.9 1.2 0.19 0.23 Hyola 750TT 3.31 3.35 1.8 3.9 0.23 0.24 Hyola 559TT 3.68 4.02 1.7 1.6 0.28 0.29 Hyola 577 4.01 3.46 0.6 0.0 0.24 0.22 Victory 3002 3.23 3.54 1.8 1.1 0.22 0.25 Experiment mean 3.81 3.79 1.3 1.5 0.25 0.26 l.s.d. (P <0.05) 0.45 1.23 0.02 A 0 = no lodging; 9 = complete lodging

216 | NSW Department of Primary Industries and datacollectionisgratefullyacknowledged. with experimentmanagement,fieldassessments Gabby NapierandMichaelHatelyforassistance The supportofDanielJohnston,GlennMorris, yields project’,DAN00198,2014–17. cereal andcanolavarietiesachievingtarget which ispartofthe‘Southernirrigated GRDC andNSWDPIjointlyfundedthisresearch Acknowledgements will beconductedin2016. The thirdandfinalyearofexperiments the timeofsowingtwo(1214varieties). one (11of14varieties)andahigherHIfrom a higherlodgingscorefromthetimeofsowing were varietaldifferences.Also,mostvarietieshad yield, grainqualityorcropgrowth,butthere The timeofsowingdidnotaffectaveragegrain for mostvarieties(11ofthe14varieties). in increasedlodgingoverallandalowerHI However, thehigherplantpopulationresulted Plant populationdidnotaffectgrainyield. overall experimentmeanyieldwas3.8t/ha. 4 t/haandnineyieldedover3.5t/ha.The Five ofthe14varietiesevaluatedyieldedover practice agronomicmanagementapplied. the correctvarietiesareselectedandbest irrigated canolayieldscanbeachievedif This experimentdemonstratedthathigh Summary SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | 217

irrigation & climate Time of sowing soybeans – southern NSW 2014–15

Mark Richards and Luke Gaynor NSW DPI, Wagga Wagga; Mathew Dunn and Alan Boulton NSW DPI, Yanco

Key findings »» The ideal sowing time for soybeans in southern NSW is from mid-November to early December. »» Delaying sowing until late December can result in reduced grain yield.

Introduction Results This soybean experiment was conducted at the Grain yield was significantly affected by both NSW DPI Leeton Field Station to test the response sowing time (P <0.01) and variety (P <0.01). of three commercial varieties and five unreleased The interaction between sowing time and lines to three sowing times. The three sowing times variety was not significant (P = 0.31). represent an early (20 November), mid (5 December) Averaged across varieties, grain yield and and late (22 December) sowing time for this region. plant dry matter results were higher for the Site details 20 November and 5 December sowing times than the 22 December sowing time (Figure 1). Soil type Self-mulching, medium clay Previous crop Chemical fallow All varieties individually achieved higher grain Sowing date 5 December 2014 yields at the 20 November and 5 December Establishment Pre-watered sowing times than the 22 December sowing irrigation date. The highest yielding varieties were Djakal Irrigation layout 1.83 m raised beds with and the unreleased line P176-2 (Figure 2). furrow irrigation 5.00 Row spacing 2 rows/bed (91.5 cm) l.s.d. (P = 0.05) = 0.43 t/ha Sowing density 35 plants/m2 4.50 Inoculation Water injected peat slurry Group H Fertiliser 125 kg/ha legume starter 4.00 Herbicides pre- Glyphosate (450 g/L) at emergent 2 L/ha plus pendimethalin 3.50 (330 g/L) at 2.5 L/ha Grainyield (t/ha) Insecticides Abamectin at 300 mL/ha on 3.00 30 December 2014 Lamdacyhalothrin at 2.50 80 mL/ha on 11 March 2015 In-crop rainfall 84 mm 2.00 Irrigations 8 ML/ha (approximately) 20 November 5 December 22 December Harvest date 16 April 2015 Sowing date Figure 1: Soybean grain yield by sowing date averaged Treatments across varieties. Varieties (8) BidgeeA N116C-3 Summary Djakal P176-1 SnowyA P176-14 The evaluation of eight soybean varieties at three N005A-80 P176-2 sowing times in this experiment found that:the Sowing 20 November 2014 ideal sowing time for soybeans in Southern NSW dates (3) 5 December 2014 is from mid-November to early December 22 December 2014 »» delaying sowing until late December can result in reduced grain yield.

218 | NSW Department of Primary Industries the biometricaltasksassociatedwiththisproject. Dr NeilCoombesfromNSWDPIforundertaking assistance inmanagingthesite.Alsothankyouto DPI farmstaffattheLeetonFieldStationfortheir Thank youtoJohnDando,PaulMorrisandtheNSW which isjointlyfundedbyGRDCandNSWDPI. NSW soybeanagronomy’,DAN00192,2014–18, This experimentispartoftheproject‘Southern Acknowledgements varieties meanwithinsowingdates. Figure 2:Soybeangrainyieldforvarietyandsowingdateinteraction.Statisticalsignificancedetectedwhencomparing Grain yield (t/ha) 0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 Nov 20 igeDaa 05-0SoyN1C3P7- 161 P176-2 P176-14 P176-1 N116C-3 Snowy N005A-80 Djakal Bidgee Dec 5 Dec 22 Nov 20 Dec 5 Dec 22 Nov 20 Dec 5 Dec 22 Nov 20 Dec Variety x sowing date sowing x Variety 5 Dec 22 Nov 20 Dec 5 SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | Dec 22 Nov 20 Dec 5 Dec 22 Nov l.s.d. (P = 0.05) l.s.d. 0.05) = (P 0.43 = t/ha 20 Dec 5 Dec 22 Nov 20 Dec 5 Dec 22 219

irrigation & climate Advanced soybean breeding line evaluations across time of sowing – southern NSW 2014–15

Mark Richards and Luke Gaynor NSW DPI, Wagga Wagga; Mathew Dunn and Alan Boulton NSW DPI, Yanco

Key points »» Average grain yields are maximised by sowing mid- November to early December in southern NSW. »» In northern Victoria, sowing should begin earlier from 1 November until late November.

Introduction Results This soybean experiment, conducted at the NSW The 2014–15 season was favourable for growing DPI Leeton Field Station, tested the response of soybeans with no environmental extremes. 26 advanced-stage lines and four commercial Warmer than average temperatures were varieties at two sowing times. The first time of recorded, with a total of 2,172 growing degree sowing (TOS) was 26 November followed by days [(max. temp. + min. temp.)/2) - 5 °C] the second TOS (26 days later) on 22 December. compared with the long-term average of 1,983. These two sowing times represented the ideal In Figure 1, grain yield of the 26 advanced-stage sowing period (26 November) and a later than breeding lines sown in mid-November (TOS 1) ideal sowing time for this region (22 December). can be seen with the commercial checks of The experiment discussed is part of the National Djakal, BidgeeA, SnowyA and Bowyer varieties. Soybean Breeding Program funded by GRDC, NSW The standout breeding lines included P176-2, P126-37, DPI and CSIRO. The breeding objectives of that P213-41, P168-11 and P176-23. These lines will be program are to produce soybean varieties for human evaluated further for potential release in the future. consumption markets that are high yielding, early maturing, and have high disease tolerance. Recent The dashed lines in Figure 1 indicate a significant varietal releases include Bidgee, Snowy and Djakal. yield difference from the benchmark variety Djakal, with a least significant difference (l.s.d.) of 0.3 t/ha. Site details N005A-80 is currently under commercial seed Soil type Self-mulching medium clay increase and evaluation for commercial release. Previous crop Chemical fallow In comparison, the later than ideal sowing date Establishment Pre-watered (TOS 2: 22 December) grain yield results are in line irrigation with what we would expect from this TOS (Figure 2). Irrigation layout 1.83 m raised beds with Across all varieties, grain yield from the later sowing furrow irrigation date were 0.8 t/ha lower than TOS 1 (26 November). Row spacing 2 rows/bed (91.5 cm) Sowing density 35 plants/m2 At the later sowing date, several of the standout Inoculation Water injected peat slurry Group H breeding lines included P176-30, N005A-80, Fertiliser 125 kg/ha legume starter P176-2, P168-11, P167-14 and P176-23. Herbicides glyphosate 450 g/L at 2 L/ha Further seed quality analyses showed that pre-emergent Pendimethalin 330 g/L at 2.5 L/ha all lines met the minimum requirements of Insecticides Abamectin at 300 mL/ha on protein content on a dry matter basis. Djakal 30 December 2014, has the lowest acceptable level of protein to lamdacyhalothrin at 80 mL/ha meet human consumption standards. on 11 March 2015 In-crop rainfall 113 mm (TOS 1), 104 mm (TOS 2) Irrigations 8 ML/ha (approximately) Harvest date TOS 1: 16/04/2015 TOS 2: 23/04/2015

220 | NSW Department of Primary Industries Figure 1:GrainyieldofsoybeanvarietiesinthecorevarietytrialatYanco2014–15,TOS1sownon26November2014. Q015A - 11 Q015A Q009B - - 44 Q009B - 32 Q009B NOO5A-80 Q015A - 6 Q015A MO95-32 MO95-66 P176 - 23 P176 - 11 P168 - 41 P213 - 37 P176 P176 - 30 P176 - 10 P168 - 29 P176 P213 - 44 P213 N116C-3 N116C-6 N116C-5 P176-14 P213-21 P213-28 P168 - 9 P168 P172 - 4 P172 P168 - 5 P168 Bowyer P176-2 P176-1 Bidgee Snowy Djakal 2.00 2.50 3.00 Yield (t/ha) Yield SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | 3.50 4.00 4.50 221

irrigation & climate P176 - 30 NOO5A-80 P176-2 Djakal MO95-66 P168 - 11 P176-14 N116C-3 P176 - 23 P168 - 9 MO95-32 P213-21 P172 - 4 N116C-6 N116C-5 P168 - 10 P213-28 P176 - 37 Bidgee Q015A - 11 Q009B - 44 P213 - 41 P176-1 Bowyer P176 - 29 Q009B - 32 Q015A - 6 P213 - 44 P168 - 5 Snowy

2.00 2.20 2.40 2.60 2.80 3.00 3.20 3.40 3.60 Yield (t/ha)

Figure 2: Grain yield of soybean varieties in the core variety trial at Yanco 2014–15, TOS 2 sown on 22 December 2014. Summary Acknowledgements This year’s results, combined with long-term The experiment is part of the project ‘Southern experiments, clearly show that sowing in mid- NSW soybean agronomy’, DAN00192, 2014–18, November to early December maximises average which is jointly funded by GRDC and NSW DPI. grain yield in southern NSW. Further south into Thank you to John Dando, Paul Morris and the NSW northern Victoria, sowing should begin earlier DPI farm staff at the Leeton Field Station for their from 1 November until late November. assistance in managing the site. Also thank you to Grain yields from the late December sowing Dr Neil Coombes from NSW DPI for undertaking date were still acceptable, which indicates the biometrical tasks associated with this project. that current varieties can effectively fit into double-cropping systems where a later sowing window is often required. A number of breeding lines are showing potential with many standout characteristics. These lines will be evaluated and tested into the future for potential release.

222 | NSW Department of Primary Industries Treatments Site details to fourtargetedsowingdensities. varieties andanunreleasedline(N005A-80) and lodgingresponseofthreecommercial DPI LeetonFieldStationtotestthegrainyield This experimentwasconductedattheNSW Introduction » » Alan Boulton DPI, Wagga Wagga;NSW RichardsandLuke Mark Gaynor NSW2014–15 – southern Plant soybeans population density » » Key findings Harvest date Irrigations In-crop rainfall densities (4) Targeted plant Varieties (4) Insecticides pre-emergent Herbicides Fertiliser Inoculation Row spacing Irrigation layout irrigation Establishment Sowing date Previous crop Soil type » » » » Snowy the 60plants/m Severe lodgingoccurredinallvarietiesat N005A-80 andSnowy Bidgee exacerbated athighersowingdensities. A A haspoorresistancetolodging,whichwas andDjakalperformedbestat45plants/m NSW 23 April 8 ML/ha(approximately) 104 mm on 11March2015 lamdacyhalothrin @80mL/ha 30 Snowy Djakal 15, 30,45,60plants/m N005A-80 Bidgee Abamectin @300mL/haon Pendimethalin 330g/Lat2.5L/ha Glyphosate 450g/Lat2L/ha 125 kg/halegumestarter Water injectedpeatslurryGroupH 2 rows/bed(91.5cm) furrow irrigation 1.83 mraisedbedswith Pre-watered 12 December2014 Chemical fallow Self-mulching mediumclay 2 sowingdensity.

December 2014,

DPI, Yanco

A A A performedbestat30plants/m

2 . the 60plants/m with allfourvarietiesexhibitingseverelodgingat plant densitiesresultedinincreasedlodging problems withharvest.Inthisexperiment,higher Lodging insoybeanscancausereducedyieldand Lodging Results » this experimentfoundthat: varieties atfourtargetedsowing densities, Through theevaluationoffour soybean Summary plants/m Grain yieldswerereducedatboththe15 variety wasnotsignificant(P=0.46). The interactionbetweenplantdensityand plant density(P<0.01)andvariety<0.01). Grain yieldwassignificantlyaffectedbyboth Grain yield 45 60 3.6 t/haand3.2respectively. than BidgeeandSnowyat4.2t/ha,4.1 and N005A-80yieldedsignificantlyhigher Averaged acrossallsowingdensities,Djakal highest yieldatthe30plants/m sowing density.N005A-80andSnowyachievedtheir with severelodgingoccurringatthe30,45and poor lodgingresistanceofSnowywasevident, little lodgingoccurringupto45plants/m lower heightandbiomassrespondedwellwith achieved theirhighestyieldatthe45plants/m for allfourvarieties(Figure2).BidgeeandDjakal 2 » . Bidgee andDjakalperformed bestat45plants/m

plants/m plants/m 2 and60plants/m SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | 2 2 sowingdensities.Bidgee,withits , Bidgeewasalsopronetolodging. and Dunn Mathew 2 sowingdensity(Figure1).The 2 sowingdensities 2 sowingdensity. 2 . Above 2

223 2

irrigation & climate 6 l.s.d.(P=0.05) = 0.67 5

2 Lodging score (1–5) score Lodging

0 15 30 45 60 15 30 45 60 15 30 45 60 15 30 45 60 Bidgee Djakal N005A-80 Snowy Variety x targeted sowing density (plants/m2)

Figure 1. Soybean lodging score for variety and targeted sowing density interaction. (1 = minimal lodging, 5 = severe lodging).

5 l.s.d. (P = 0.05) = 0.31 t/ha

4.5

3.5 Grain Grain (t/ha) yield

2.5

2 15 30 45 60 15 30 45 60 15 30 45 60 15 30 45 60 Bidgee Djakal N005A-80 Snowy Variety x targeted sowing density (plants/m2)

Figure 2. Soybean grain yield for variety and targeted sowing density interaction. »» N005A-80 and Snowy performed Acknowledgements 2 best at 30 plants/m The experiment is part of the project ‘Southern »» all varieties suffered severe lodging at NSW soybean agronomy’, DAN00192, 2014–18, the 60 plants/m2 sowing density which is jointly funded by GRDC and NSW DPI. »» Snowy has poor resistance to lodging, which Thank you to John Dando, Paul Morris and the NSW is exacerbated at higher sowing densities. DPI farm staff at the Leeton Field Station for their assistance in managing the site. Also thankyou to Dr Neil Coombes from NSW DPI for undertaking the biometrical tasks associated with this project.

224 | NSW Department of Primary Industries Site details the long-termaverageof1,983daydegreeunits. [(max. temp.+min.temp.)/2)-5°C]comparedwith growing-degree days during the2014–15seasonwithatotalof2,172 Warmer thanaveragetemperatureswererecorded harvest index,grainyieldandprotein. of thesetreatmentsondrymatterproduction, and twoplantdensitiestoexaminetheeffect varieties ofsoybeansatthreerowspacings of onenewbreedinglineandtwocommercial purpose oftheexperimentwastotestresponse flat siteintheFinleyareaofsouthernNSW.The season withoverheadirrigationonarelatively This experimentwasconductedoverthe2014–15 ground istouseoverheadirrigation. irrigation. Analternativeforflattoundulating grown onraised-bedlayoutswithfurrow Soybeans insouthernNSWarepreferably Introduction » » » » Key findings Alan Boulton DPI Wagga Wagga;NSW RichardsandLuke Mark Gaynor NSW2014–15 – southern ofsoybeans irrigation Overhead Inoculation Sowing date method Irrigation irrigation Establishment Previous crop Soil type period Experiment Location » » » » At targetedplantdensitiesof40plants/m The 40plants/m across alldensitiesandrowspacings. Djakal andN005A-80varietiesyieldedthehighest flat layoutunderoverheadirrigation. High soybeangrainyieldscanbeachievedona yields wereachievedwith30cmrowspacing. highest acrossallvarietiesandrowspacings. NSW Water injectedpeatslurryGroup H 20 November2014 Overhead irrigation Rainfall andpost-sowingirrigation Wheat (stubblebaled) clay loamoverlight Red-brown, fine,sandy- Summer growingseason2014–15 ‘Cooinda’ ClosesRd,Finley,NSW 2 targetedplantdensityyieldedthe

DPI, Yanco 2 , thehighest at 40plants/m yielding varietytreatmentswereDjakalandN005A-80 was significantlyhigherthanBidgee.Thehighest plant densities,theDjakalandN005A-80grainyield When averagedacrossallrowspacingsandtargeted Variety Results Treatments between 30and60cmindry matterproduction spacing; however,therewas no statisticaldifference their highestdrymatteryield atthe60cmrow (Figure 2).BothDjakalandN005A-80 achieved and rowspacingforpeakdry matterproduction There wasasignificantinteractionbetweenvariety plant density Targeted Row spacing Harvest date Irrigations In-crop rainfall Insecticides pre-emergent Herbicides Fertiliser Varieties SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | and Dunn Mathew 2 on30cmrowspacings(Figure1). 25 plants/m 6 rows/plot(30cm) 3 rows/plot(60cm) 2 rows/plot(90cm) breeding line) N005A-80 (unreleased 15–16 April2015 7.83 ML/ha 179 mmplusirrigationasrequired 400 mL/habyair Indoxacarb 150g/L@ + [email protected]/ha Roundup [email protected]/ha 125 kg/halegumestarter Bidgee Djakal 40 plants/m

2 2

225

irrigation & climate for these varieties. Bidgee dry matter declined There was a significant interaction between targeted linearly as row spacing widened, with dry matter plant density and row spacing (Figure 3). At the yield at the 90 cm row spacing significantly lower higher plant density (40 plants/m2), the narrower than at the 30 and 60 cm row spacing (Figure 2). row spacing (30 cm) yielded higher than the wider row spacings (60 and 90 cm) for all three varieties. Row spacing However, at the lower plant density (25 plants/m2) When averaged across all varieties and targeted there was no statistical effect of row spacing on grain plant densities, the grain yield from the 30 cm yield for Bidgee or Djakal, with the only exception row spacing was significantly higher than either being N005A-80 at the 90 cm row spacing. From the 60 and 90 cm row spacings, which yielded this data, it is apparent that plant density has a 4.1 t/ha, 3.6 t/ha and 3.3 t/ha respectively. greater influence on grain yield than row spacing. Total dry matter averaged across all varieties and targeted plant densities was significantly higher for Summary the 30 and 60 cm row spacings than the 90 cm row This experiment demonstrated that under spacing, producing 10.0 t/ha, 10.4 t/ha and 8.5 t/ha overhead irrigation on a relatively flat layout, respectively. This higher dry matter in part explains soybean grain yield above 4.5 t/ha is achievable. how the narrower row spacing was higher yielding Variety selection, row spacing and plant density than the 90 cm row spacing. In general terms, grain are all key agronomic factors for achieving high yield is correlated with total dry matter production. yields under this irrigation method and paddock layout. In summary, in this experiment: Targeted plant density »» Djakal and N005A-80 varieties The actual plant densities achieved for yielded higher than Bidgee the 25 plants/m2 and 40 plants/m2 density »» under overhead irrigation, 30 cm row targets were an average of 21 plants/m2 and spacing was found to be the optimum, 31 plants/m2 respectively. Across all varieties and especially at higher plant densities row spacings, the 40 plants/m2 plant density was »» the optimum plant density, especially at significantly higher yielding than 25 plants/m2, narrow row spacings was 31 plants/m2 yielding 3.9 t/ha and 3.4 t/ha respectively. »» maintaining a population at or above this level is critical to maximising yield potential.

5.00 l.s.d. (P = 0.05) = 0.44 t/ha

4.50

4.00

3.50 4.79 4.64 Yield(t/ha)

3.00 3.99 3.97 3.81 3.79 3.66 3.45

2.50 2.97

2.00 30 60 90 30 60 90 30 60 90 Bidgee Djakal N005A-80 Variety x row spacing (cm)

Figure 1. Soybean grain yield for variety and row spacing at the 40 plants/m2 plant density.

226 | NSW Department of Primary Industries provided byJohnDandoand PaulMorris. and NSWDPI.Technicalassistance was 2014–18, whichisjointlyfunded byGRDC NSW soybeanagronomy’,DAN00192, This experimentispartoftheproject‘Southern Acknowledgements Figure 3.Soybeangrainyieldforrowspacingandplantdensity averaged acrossvarieties. Figure 2.Soybeandrymatterforvarietyandrowspacinginteractionatthe40plants/m Yield (t/ha) Dry matter (t/ha) 10.0 12.0 14.0 0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.00 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.2 06 03 09 06 90 60 30 90 60 30 90 60 30 3.63 25 Bidgee 8.8 30 4.47 40 7.6 Row spacing (cm) x sowing density (plants/m density (cm) sowingx spacing Row 10.3 Variety x row spacing (cm) spacing rowx Variety 3.51 25 Djakal 12.0 60 3.74 40 SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | 9.0 2 plantdensity. 2 ) 9.6 3.09 25 N005A-80 l.s.d. (P=0.05)0.44t/ha l.s.d. (P=0.05)1.88t/ha 10.5 90 3.48 40 8.9 227

irrigation & climate Using remote sensing to predict PI nitrogen uptake in rice

Brian Dunn and Tina Dunn NSW DPI, Yanco; Dr Iain Hume and Beverly Orchard NSW DPI, Wagga Wagga; Dr Remy Dehaan Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga; Dr Andrew Robson University of New England, Armidale

Key findings »» Remote sensing can confidently be used to map a rice crop’s panicle initiation (PI) nitrogen (N) uptake. »» A remotely sensed image of nitrogen uptake at PI can identify variability in the uptake and enable variable rate nitrogen topdressing to maximise grain yield with reduced risk. »» Remotely sensed data has been collected using field spectroradiometer (SVC HR1024), multispectral cameras including the MicaSense RedEdge, Tetracam MCA and Headwall Hyperspectral Imager, and Worldview 3 satellite data.

Introduction the remotely sensed data and the physically Applying nitrogen to a rice crop at panicle initiation measured rice crop PIN uptake were investigated. to increase yield is efficient and reliable. The NIR Over the four years of the project, 885 plots were (Near Infra-red Reflectance) tissue test has been the imaged and PIN uptake physically measured. industry standard for measuring crop growth and In the first three years of the project, plots were nitrogen at panicle initiation since the mid 1980s. measured with a field portable hyperspectral However, many growers and agronomists do not radiometer (SVC 1024) mounted on a four-wheel take advantage of this technology and instead rely motor bike (Figure 1). This instrument uses on estimating the rice crop’s nitrogen requirements. the same wavelengths (400–2400 nm) as the One of the main reasons growers do not use the test laboratory NIR instrument, which is very accurate is difficulty in sampling the rice crop in the water. at determining rice tissue nitrogen content at PI. Researchers have been investigating using remote We were then able to determine how accurately sensing to predict PI nitrogen uptake with very PIN uptake could be measured using the best encouraging results. Remote sensing derived PIN possible instrument and conditions, and also (panicle initiation nitrogen) uptake maps would determine the optimal wavelengths to achieve reduce the need to physically sample the crop the greatest correlation with PIN uptake. This and would also provide a greater understanding information has provided confidence that remote of within-crop spatial variability. Four years of sensing can determine rice PIN uptake (Figure 2). research have been conducted to determine if rice PIN uptake can be predicted using remote sensing from drones, aircraft and satellites as part of an ongoing Rural Industries Research & Development Corporation (RIRDC) research project. Method Each year a series of experiments were set up using several commercial rice varieties. Across the varieties, a range of nitrogen rates were applied to create plots with a large range in PIN uptake levels. These plots were measured at PI using several Figure 1. Collecting rice canopy spectra using a remote sensing instruments, physical samples hyperspectral scanner mounted on a four-wheel motor were also collected. The relationship between bike.

228 | NSW Department of Primary Industries Table 1.Therangeofinstrumentsusedtocollectremotelysensed datafromthericevarietyandnitrogenexperiments. 100 kgN/ha)NDVIshowedareasonablerelationship NDVI andPINuptake.Atlowuptakelevels(below measured andproducedsimilarcorrelationsbetween vegetation index(NDVI)fromthecanopyreflectance All instrumentscancreateanormaliseddifference Results and hyperspectralsystems(Table1). crop PINuptakeforseveralmultispectral developed betweenthedataandmeasured is possible.Multi-seasoncorrelationshavebeen before arealisticevaluationofeachinstrument seasons andseveralricevarieties)arerequired Data fromaminimumof100plots(includingtwo scanner mountedonafour-wheelmotorbike. Figure 2.MeasuredvspredictedPINuptake(kgN/ha)from677plotsscannedoverthreeseasonswithahyperspectral Worldview 3 HyVista Hymap micaSense Aerial NDVI Greenseeker SVC 1024 Remote sensinginstrument

Satellite Aerial Aerial Aerial Ground Ground Collection method

8 bands(400–1040nm) Hyperspectral (430–2450nm) 4 bandswithrededge 6 bands(490–900nm) NDVI Hyperspectral (330–2500nm) Bands

decisions toindustryandgrowerscouldbeanoption. that couldgeneratenearreal-timemanagement with automatedprocessinganddeliverysystems determined. Asatellite-basedremotesensingsystem a betterunderstandingofitspotentialcanbe second season’sdata(currentseason)isanalysed, has shownconsiderablepotentialandwhenthe The firstseasonoftheWorldview3satellitedata might provetobeanaccurateandaffordableoption. Alternatively, veryhighresolutionsatelliteimagery and thereforepredict,changesinPINuptake. uptake plateaued,withtheNDVIunabletodetect, the relationshipbetweenNDVIandplantnitrogen with PINuptake.Athigherlevels(above100kgN/ha) SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 |

3 seasons Data collected 2 seasons 1 season 1 season 3 seasons 2 seasons

229

irrigation & climate The three years of hyperspectral and multispectral data have identified the wavelengths that best predict PIN uptake. This provides an opportunity to develop a relatively inexpensive camera with filters to measure those wavelengths that predict PIN uptake. This camera could be mounted in an aircraft to measure rice fields across the industry. This option has the added benefit of making data collection timing more flexible, thus reducing the risk of clouds interrupting the process. Summary Data analysis from the current season will enable identification of sensing technology that predicts PIN uptake most accurately and affordably. The project team will then start to develop a semi-commercial system for determining rice PIN uptake. It is expected that this will be trialled in the 2016–17 rice season. It might be a few years before growers can obtain a PIN uptake map of their rice fields using this method, but it appears to be a reality in the near future. Acknowledgements This research was jointly funded by NSW DPI and RIRDC. Technical support from Chris Dawe and Craig Hodges has contributed significantly to this project and is gratefully acknowledged.

230 | NSW Department of Primary Industries reportedly reducedevaporation by8%–37%. bodies withasurfaceareagreater than1km effective andpractical.Monolayers appliedtowater vapour transferintotheair,are potentiallycost thickness ofonemolecule)that lowerswater a thinlayer(oftencalledmonolayerduetoits self-spread acrossthewatersurfacetoprovide storages ispromising.Theseproducts,which in spiteoftheirvariableperformance,forlarger mono- andmicro-layersofcertainchemicals, capital investmentandmaintenancecosts.Using sized storages(>10ha)duetothehighinitial are deemedunsuitableforcommercialorlarge as floatingcoversandsuspendedshadecloths Relatively expensivemechanicalstructuressuch storage capacity)and1,320GL/yearfromfarmdams. of 22,123GL/yearfromlargerstorages(>1000ML used inAustralia(18,767GL/year).Thisiscomprised of morethan23,000GL/year,or120%allwater problem currentlycausingpotentialreduciblelosses through storedwaterevaporation.Thisisanational investigations intomethodsofsavingwaterlost for domesticandagriculturaluseshaveledto increased pricesofdwindlingwatersupplies The impactsoffrequentdroughtandrelated inevitable inthenaturalhydrologiccycle. due scientificattentionasithasbeenconsidered however, evaporativelosshasnotbeengiven now, seepagehadbeenconsideredimportant; reduce theefficiencyofwaterstoragesystems.Until Evaporation andseepageareknowntosignificantly of Australianagricultureandtheenvironment. On- andoff-farmstoragesareanintegralpart Introduction » » » Key findings GillNSWDPI, Dr Harnam Yanco reduce evaporation from water storages Systems to control theair–water to interface » » » probably causethisreducedeffectiveness. longevity onthewatersurfaceunderfieldsituations Windy conditionsand/oradecreaseinthepolymer’s inconsistent resultswithevaporationsavingsoflessthan10%. Under fieldsituationsitsefficacyissignificantlyreducedandproduces small scale,controlledenvironmentalconditions. ether polymerreducedevaporationby50%–60%under Applying amonolayerofethyleneglycolmonooctadecyl 2 have systems undervariousenvironmentalscales. evaluated polymer-basedevaporationcontrol results fromaseriesofexperimentsthat capabilities. Researchreportedherehighlights biodegradable productswithmonitoring including newenvironmentallybenignand need todevelopnewchemical-filmtechnology, uncovered anduntreated.Thereisanurgent More than95%ofwaterstoragesarecurrently (iv) two20mlonglinedchannelstorageswith110 (iii) linedshallowconcretetanks (ii) exteriorfly-screenhouse (i) temperature-controlledglasschambers and 2): the followingcontrolledenvironments(figures1 two polymer-basedproducts(E10andE100)under (hexadeconol) andstearyl(octadecanol)alcohols, used apolymethylsiliconesolution,mixtureofcetyl Agricultural ResearchInstitute.Earlyexperiments products startedseveralyearsagoattheYanco Evaluating commonevaporationmitigation(EM) Site details water surfaceareawhenfilledtomaximumcapacity.

SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 |

231 2

irrigation & climate Figure 1. Set-up for evaporation experiments conducted in temperature-controlled glass house (left); exterior fly-screen house (centre); and lined, shallow, concrete tanks (right). In all experiments, available untreated irrigation application rates, forms (solutions, suspensions water was used. A series of experiments were and solid powders) and application frequencies. conducted for evaluating EM products for their Available water from the irrigation canal used in application rates and frequency of application these experiments was analysed for pH, electrical on reducing evaporation. A field experiment was conductivity (EC), dissolved oxygen, turbidity and also undertaken to evaluate polymethyl silicone ionic chemistry before and after each experiment. solution, and a mixture of the two alcohols. Evaporation was measured using pressure sensors A commercial irrigation channel was used to prepare linked to an automated data logger and a weather five lined channel storages in 2010 for the field station. Odyssey capacitance meters were also scale evaluations of polymer based evaporation used to measure water levels in the lined channel mitigation products. Each of the five storage storages for measuring evaporative water losses. channels had a water surface area 42 m long and Results 5 m wide when full. Researchers from the University of Melbourne and Cooperative Research Centre Glass house for Polymers collaborated in the experiment. This Experimental results showed significant site is maintained for conducting experiments reduction and variation in evaporation due to during the summer season, including pre-season different temperatures, application rates and re- testing and post-season care. Since then trials of application frequencies of the alcohol mixture, 3–5 weeks duration have been conducted annually polymethyl silicone, and the two experimental to evaluate different polymer formulations, their polymers. Comparison of water savings indicate superiority of polymers X and Y (Table 1).

Table 1. Impact of applying evaporation mitigation products on reducing evaporative losses of water. Product and Application Evaporation Evaporation Evaporation application rate frequency reduction (%) reduction (%) reduction (%) at 20 °C at 30 °C at 40 °C Polymer X @12 monolayer 2-day intervals 40–61 39–47 36–43 concentration Polymer Y @12 monolayer 2-day intervals 42–58 38–48 35–45 concentration Polymethyl silicone 10-day intervals 28–34 24–29 18–26 solution at 12–18 L/ha Cetyl and stearyl alcohols Alternate days 18–26 14–21 12–18 mixture applied at 1500–3000 g/ha

232 | NSW Department of Primary Industries by changingfrom amonolayertoduo-layer working toimprovepolymer compoundeffectiveness Polymer scientistsatMelbourne Universityare irrigation channel. Figure 2.Fieldsetupoflinedstorages onacommercial monolayer totheendofstoragechannels. of morethan6–8km/hourpushestheapplied Visual observationsindicatethatawindvelocity under controlledenvironmentalconditions. far, notwithstandingtheirsatisfactoryefficacy especially wind.Resultshavebeenvariableso the significantroleclimaticvariabilityplays, lined storagesunderfieldsituationsindicated Results fromexperimentsconductedinthe Field evaluation wind inreducingtheeffectivenessofEMproducts. highlight theprobableroleofsolarradiationand/or Relatively lowersavingsintheopenenvironment mixture, polymethylsilicone,polymersE10andE100. three-fold increaseinapplicationratesofthealcohol to increase12.5%,20.5%,30.3%and27.2%witha and 10.3%respectively.Watersavingswerefound four-day intervalsreducedevaporationby12.1% E10 andE100ata12monolayerconcentration intervals) savedjust7.1%.Applicationofpolymer whereas polymethylsilicon(6.0L/haat10-day the alcoholmixture(1000g/haonalternatedays) Results indicatedwatersavingsof3.1%byapplying Shallow concrete tanksintheopen better thanapplicationatseven-dayintervals. four-day intervalsweremostlyonpar,butsignificantly concentration. Applicationfrequenciesoftwo-or was significantlysuperiortothe12monolayer a 36monolayerconcentrationattwo-dayintervals 40%–60%. Resultsalsoshowedthatapplicationat at two-orfour-dayintervalsreducedevaporationby Polymer applicationof12monolayerconcentration efficacy byalmosthalvingevaporativelosses. Using polymersshowedsignificantlyimproved fly-screenExterior house applications arealsobeingreviewedandevaluated. this, appropriatelytimingpolymercompound to theconvectiveflowofenergy.Considering to pickupitsflowvelocityatnoon,probablydue by wind.Ithasalsobeennotedthatwindtends for increasedresistancetomovementofmonolayer approach toenhancebondingatthewatersurface evaporation fromwaterstorages'CRC-PProject2.2. controlling theair-waterinterfaceandreducing and motivationinthisresearchproject,'Systemfor Polymers CEODrIanDaglyforfinancialassistance Thanks totheCooperativeResearchCentrefor Acknowledgments its desiredeffectivenessunderfieldsituations. However, researchisstillinprogresstoimprove by 50%–60%undercontrolledconditions. been developed.Itreducesevaporationconsistently ethylene glycolmonooctadecylether(C18E1)has agricultural industry.Amonolayerpolymercalled polymers) isofsignificantinteresttotheAustralian Research intouseofEMproducts(especially Summary SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | 233

irrigation & climate Informing investment in irrigated grains R&D in southern NSW

Sam North and Don Griffin NSW DPI, Deniliquin; Peta Neale Precision Agriculture, Toowoomba; Dr John Hornbuckle Deakin University, Griffith; Rob Fisher Irrigated Cropping Council, Kerang

Key findings »» Analysis of wheat crops sown after rice harvest in the Murray Irrigation Ltd districts (MIL) found that increasing yields required different management depending on soil type and irrigation layout. »» Four management factors that limit winter crop yields were identified: waterlogging, late season water stress, under-fertilisation and low soil pH. »» In the MIL districts alone, increasing wheat yields after rice from the current median to the 80th percentile would result in an additional 20,000–30,000 tonnes per annum ($4–6 million at $200/t). »» If all rice areas were sown to wheat after harvest every year and 80th percentile yields achieved, an additional 128,000–138,000 tonnes of wheat would be produced ($26–$28 million at $200/t).

Introduction production and profitability from surface irrigated Toohey and Chaffey (2006) examined the potential soils in the GRDC Southern Region by improving the of irrigated grain production in the southern Murray– understanding of the interaction between crops, soils, Darling Basin. The study had three key findings: and irrigation and their effects on crop production’. 1. There is a need to lift irrigated grain The first question that will be answered is ‘What productivity and profitability and to achieve increase in grain production can we realistically higher efficiencies from using irrigation water expect from irrigated grains in the GRDC Southern because of cut-backs in water entitlements. Region if major constraints can be overcome?‘ 2. Irrigated wheat water use efficiency is low. Grower survey of yield expectations In 2006, average wheat yields of 3.0 t/ha achieved 10 kg/mm/ha. There is the potential An online survey (2014) of irrigation areas in northern for improvement to 22 kg/mm/ha with Victoria and southern NSW asked irrigated growers yields of 10.4 t/ha – a figure being achieved what their average and expected yields, and best in variety trials and by some growers. ever yields were. The rationale behind this was if a best yield can be achieved once, then it should be 3. Farm gate value for all crops studied was possible to achieve it again. Our goal is to establish $176 million in 2006. If yields rose to best why it isn’t achieved regularly and see if we can trial levels, farm gate value would nearly overcome the barriers. One hundred responses double to $347.7 million (at 2006 values). to the survey were received from irrigators with a Despite efforts since 2006 (e.g. the identification wide range of farming systems. The results (Table 1) and development of cereal varieties for irrigation support the contention that there is significant in the ‘High yielding genotypes of winter cereals potential to increase yields in all crops across the for irrigated regions of south east Australia region: 2.0 t/ha for cereals and 0.8 t/ha for oilseeds. project’), this situation is largely unchanged. A new project being conducted by the Irrigated Cropping Council, NSW DPI, Deakin University, Murray Local Land Service and Precision Agriculture, with financial support from GRDC, started in July 2014. The long-term objective is to ‘increase grain

234 | NSW Department of Primary Industries 1. These canbesummarisedasfollows: be achievablethroughbettercropmanagement. the 80thpercentileyieldsthatwereassumedto yields ineachdrainagecategory.Table2shows from thefrequencydistributionsofestimated Median and80thpercentileyieldswereobtained according tosurfacedrainageandsoiltype. sown afterriceacrosstheMILdistrictscategorised of potential(non-waterlimited)yieldwheat water-stressed inspring.Thisenabledanestimate header grainyieldfrompaddocksthathadnotbeen and 2014comparedtheNDVIreadingswith of wheatsownafterriceintheselayouts2013 September weestimatedthemid-seasonbiomass index (NDVI)imagerytakeninlateAugust–early Using Landsatnormaliseddifferencevegetation based onsurfacedrainageandinternalsoildrainage. systems intheMILdistricts.Theareawascategorised There are145,500haofbasin(contour)irrigation include theMIAinthisanalysisiscurrentlyunderway). maps oftheMIAarenotcurrentlyavailable(workto the MILdistrictswereexaminedbecausedigitisedsoil and toidentifypriorityareasforR&Dinvestment.Only to examinefactorsbehindlowerthanexpectedyields, determine ifyieldincreasesarerealisticallyachievable, Big datafromGISandsatelliteimagerywereusedto and prioritiseR&Dinvestment Using to GISandsatellite inform imagery areas ofthesouthernMurray–DarlingBasinbasedonagrowersurvey. Table 1.Expectedandbesteveryieldsofarangecropsgrownintheirrigation the MurrayIrrigationLtdareaplantedtowheatinricelayouts2013and2014. Table 2.Potentialyield(medianand80thpercentile)gapforestimatedareasof Year Expected yield(t/ha) 2013 Best everyield(t/ha) Yield gap(t/ha) Total no.responses 2014

• brown earthsandself-mulching clays): (i.e. red–brownearths,transitional red– On soilswithbetterinternaldrainage will liftwheatyieldsbyaround 1.2t/ha landforming toimprovesurface drainage Surface drainage Internal soildrainage Median yield 80th percentileyield Yield gap Median yield 80th percentileyield Yield gap (t/ha) Rice 10.1 12.1 2.0 46

(bales/ha) Cotton 10.1 12.8 2.6 9 Bay Fair 3.5 5.8 2.2 3.6 7.0 3.4

(t/ha) Soy 3.1 3.9 0.9 16

Poor Bay 3.5 5.5 1.9 3.6 7.0 3.4 production hasbeenestimated acrossanirrigation Valley. Despitethis,itisthefirst timethatwheatcrop areas ofnorthernVictoriaand theMurrumbidgee systems anddoesn’tinclude the irrigatedcropping a fallow.Italsoomitsborder check andsprinkler take intoaccountthericeareasowntowheatafter potential yieldsestimatedfromNDVIanddonot Caution isneededasthesefiguresarebasedon produced ($26–28millionp.a.at$200/t). 128,000–138,000 tonnesofwheatwouldbe percentile yieldswereachieved,thenanadditional sown towheatimmediatelyafterrice,and80th If alltheareaunderriceinMILdistrictswas per annum($4–6millionp.a.at$200/t). in theMILdistrictsby20,000–30,000tonnes the potentialtoincreasewheatproduction to the80thpercentile(Table2),thenthereis rice canbeliftedfromthecurrentmedian If yieldsfromwheatsownimmediatelyafter 2. Wheat (t/ha)

• • • • 4.7 6.6 1.9 78 (i.e. nonself-mulchingclays): On soilswithverypoorinternaldrainage the greatestyieldincreases(3–5t/ha). combination withlandformingproduces improving cropmanagementin yields by2–3t/hainlandformedbays better cropmanagementcanincreasewheat 1.0 t/hain2013whentheautumnwasdry). when theautumnwaswetcomparedwith subjected towaterlogging(e.g.0.5t/hain2014 significantly betteryieldsifpaddocksarenot better cropmanagementonlyresultsin will liftwheatyieldsbyonly0.4t/ha landforming toimprovesurfacedrainage Very poor

Bay 3.2 4.2 1.1 2.4 3.2 0.9 SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | Barley (t/ha) 4.0 5.9 1.8 47

Contour Fair 2.9 4.1 1.1 2.3 2.9 0.6 Canola (t/ha) 2.3 3.1 0.7 53

Contour Faba bean Poor 2.3 3.1 0.8 2.1 2.5 0.4 (t/ha) 3.9 4.6 0.8 14

Very poor Contour Chickpea (t/ha) 2.8 3.8 1.1 2.2 2.8 0.6 2.5 3.4 0.9 3 235

irrigation & climate district using objective data. This has allowed RD&E areas to be identified and prioritised, potential returns from that investment to be estimated, and provided a method by which we might monitor our progress. Acknowledgements This research was jointly funded by NSW DPI, GRDC and Murray LLS. Assistance and data was also received from Murray Irrigation Limited and staff. Reference Toohey, D & Chaffey, S (eds) 2006, Irrigated Cropping FORUM: Main Report, Irrigated Grain Crops – A Scoping Study of Southern Murry – Darling Basin, Albury. NSW: Irrigated Cropping Forum (formally published on the Irrigated Cropping Forum website).

236 | NSW Department of Primary Industries investigating theinteractionbetween Nandirrigationmanagement. Figure 1.PlantingtheupfrontN treatments forthecottonfieldexperimentatIRECstation, Whitton,whichis from theproject’sagronomycomponent. flexible managementtomatchrecommendations such asbanklesschannelsystems,allowing application ofwaterinbasinirrigationlayouts, irrigation designcriteriathatwillallowprecise and ahydrologycomponentthatwilldevelop use efficiencyandoverallsystemprofitability; and frequency)onnitrogenuseefficiency,water surface irrigationmanagementstrategies(scheduling component thatwillassesstheimpactofvarying The projecthastwocomponents:anagronomy and flexibilityoffarmingsystemsintheregion. irrigation systemsthatincreasetheprofitability overall objectiveistodevelopsustainablebroadacre optimising productionwithlesswater.Theproject’s irrigators toplacemuchgreateremphasison Murray–Darling Basinofaround30%havecaused Reductions inwateravailabilitythesouthern project titled‘Smarterirrigationforprofit’. Research andDevelopmentCorporation(RIRDC) project isacomponentofjointRuralIndustries in thegroundduring2015–16summer.The project thathaditsfirstseasonoffieldexperiments ‘Maximising on-farmirrigationprofitability’isanew Introduction » » » Key findings John SmithNSWDPI, Yanco; Peter NSWDPI,Orange Regan profitability project irrigation on-farm Maximising » » » Experiments arelocatedinWhitton,KerangandFinley. The projecthasanagronomycomponentandahydrologycomponent. optimise productionwiththeamountofwateravailable. Significant waterallocationcutshaveforcedirrigatorsto Land Services,CottonInfoandRiceExtension. well aswithadvisoryorganisationssuchLocal sites forsharingprojectfindingsbetweenas field experimentsitesfortheproject.Thesearekey groups acrosstheregion.Eachgrowergrouphosts established inconjunctionwiththreegrower both NSWDPIandDeakinUniversityhasbeen The projectusestheresearchexperiencefrom Site details received twoirrigationfrequencytreatments. All treatmentswereappliedpre-plantingand five Nrates(0,80,100,150and250kgN/ha). In the2015–16summerseasontherewere and irrigationmanagementincotton(Figure1). the interactionbetweennitrogenuseefficiency for thisrelativelynewcrop.Thissitefocuseson between nitrogen(N)andirrigationmanagement to gainfurtherunderstandingontherelationship southern NSW,IRECmembersconsidereditimportant Given therecentrapidgrowthofcottonproductionin – Whitton (IREC) Committee Research and Extension Irrigation SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | 237

irrigation & climate Southern Growers (SG) – Finley A particular interest for SG is improving profitability in the rice farming system. This research is investigating if it is possible to continuously double crop (producing two grain crops within a 12-month period) using a short-season rice variety and a short- season barley variety. Beds were incorporated into the bay layouts to determine what role they could have in reducing the turnaround time between crops and if they have any effect on the soil chemistry which often provides unfavourable conditions for winter crops that immediately follow rice. The site’s focus is to improve the performance of the winter crop component of the rice farming system as a means of improving the overall system profitability. To do this, an emphasis Figure 2. Establishing the short-season rice variety YRM70 on beds at Rice Research Australia Pty Ltd. is being placed on further understanding the soil chemistry that could limit winter crop Hydrology component production immediately after the rice crop. There are no criteria currently available to design The rice was established using a standard drill basin irrigation systems, including bankless channels. sowing technique and the winter crop will The hydrology component of the project will focus not be irrigated, forcing it to use the residual on developing design criteria to ensure that new moisture from the rice crop (Figure 2). layouts are able to achieve suitable watering times (target of water on and off in 10 hours) given the Irrigated Cropping Council (ICC) – Kerang intended design characteristics and infrastructure. Growers within the ICC growing region were This is intended to deliver irrigation layouts that are interested in investigating the interaction between more water productive, flexible and profitable. N management and irrigation management as technologies such as automated delivery Acknowledgements increase the flexibility of their systems. The project is supported by funding from the The site was established at Numurkah with fully Australian Government Department of Agriculture automated border check surface irrigation with maize and Water Resources as part of its Rural R&D for Profit as the crop sown. The budgeted N requirement Program, the Cotton Research and Development (218 kg N/ha) for the target yield of the crop was Corporation (CRDC) and the Rural Industries varied through differing N strategies: 75% upfront Research and Development Corporation (RIRDC). and 25% in-crop; and 40% upfront and 60% in-crop. NSW DPI and Deakin University’s Centre for There were also two irrigation frequency treatments Rural and Regional Futures (CeRRF) are also using approximately five- and seven-day intervals. significant funding contributors to the project. An additional area was also sown as an initial Stott Farming, Rice Research Australia Pty Ltd and investigation into the role that enhanced efficiency the Irrigated Cropping Council managed each field fertilisers might have in the system. This work is site. The Irrigated Cropping Council’s technical expected to increase throughout the project assistance is also gratefully acknowledged. (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Inspection of the Irrigated Cropping Council maize N and irrigation management field experiment by the research team and members of the project Steering Committee in February 2016 (Carlos Ballester Lurbe).

238 | NSW Department of Primary Industries urea, “=30kgN/ha asurea,^=60kgN/haurea andMAP,‘=40kgN/haasurea andMAP. NSW andwheat–wheat,canola–wheat andfieldpea–wheatinsouth-easternNSW.Labelsfollowed by*=40kgN/haas Figure 1.GHGemissionsprofile of shortfallowwheat–wheat,canola–wheatandchickpea–wheat rotationsinnorth-eastern in thesouth-easterngrainsregionofAustralia. and fieldpea;forcanolapeaproduced wheat) orinsequencewiththebreakcropscanola for rain-fedwheatgrowninmonoculture(wheat– to determinethecradle-to-farmgateGHGemissions Life cycleassessment(LCA)methodologywasused » » » » gas emissionsfrom: The analysisconsideredgreenhouse Treatments Wagga andHardeninthesouthernregion. gross marginsandvalidatedatgrowerforumsin of NSW.DatausedforanalysiswasbasedonDPI from grainproductionsystemsfordifferentregions This workestimatesgreenhousegas(GHG)emissions Introduction Prof. David Herridge , Muir Dr Sally Application oflife assessment ofgrain cycle cropping » » Key findings » » » » » » chemical anddieselmanufacturetransport. crop residuesandfarmoperations on-farm lime,MAPandureause agricultural production yields, previouscropandregion. Emissions varydependingonfertilisertype, Nitrogen fertiliserssignificantlycontributetoon-farmemissions. Dr Pip Brock andDrAaron SimmonsNSWDPI,Orange; PIIC University of New England, ofNew PIIC University Armidale crops (Bartonetal.2014;WangandDalal2015). contributions totheoverallcarbonfootprintof that nitrogenfertilisersmakeconsiderable Other researchsupportsthekeyfinding » fertiliser useincludedirectlossesof: On-farm emissionsassociatedwithnitrogen also makesaconsiderablecontribution. footprint insouth-easternNSW(Figure1).Lime the primarycontributiontowheatcarbon from producingandusingnitrogenfertilisersare Results showedthatgreenhousegasemissions Results » » » » » nitrous oxide(N CO carbon dioxide(CO and denitrificationprocesses of ureawhenused 2 fromthedissolutionoflimewhereused. SOUTHERN NSW RESEARCH RESULTS 2015 | 2 O) throughnitrification 2 ) fromhydrolysis 239

irrigation & climate Figure 1 shows how the wheat emissions profile can differ due to fertiliser type, yield, previous crop and region, noting that these four variables are dependent. Summary »» Nitrogen fertilisers make considerable contributions to a crop’s overall carbon footprint. »» Lime also makes a considerable contribution. »» The wheat emissions profile can differ according to fertiliser type, yield, previous crop and region. References Barton, L, Thamo T, Engelbrecht, D & Biswas, WK 2014, ‘Does growing grain legumes or applying lime cost effectively lower greenhouse gas emissions from wheat production in a semi-arid climate?’ Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 83, pp. 194–203. Wang, W & Dalal, R 2015, ‘Nitrogen management is the key for low-emission wheat production in Australia: A life cycle perspective’, European Journal of Agronomy, vol. 66, pp. 74–82. Acknowledgements This experiment was jointly funded by GRDC and NSW DPI under the Life Cycle Assessment for farming systems in NSW project (DAN00160, 2012–16). Thanks to Bob Thompson, Lisa Castleman, Greg Brooke (all former NSW DPI District Agronomists); Fiona Scott for economic data; and Peter Orchard for system verification.

240 | NSW Department of Primary Industries Southern NSW research results 2015

RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT – INDEPENDENT RESEARCH FOR INDUSTRY