International Journal of Research and Innovation In Social Science (IJRISS) |Volume IV, Issue X, October 2020|ISSN 2454-6186

COVID-19, Climate Change and Challenges: Perspective to Fight against the Pandemic Condition

Abu Taher Muhammad Abdullah1, Israt Jahan2 1Additonal Superintendent of Police, District Police, Thakurgaon, Bangladesh, Studied MA Criminology, School of Sociology and Social Policy, University of Nottingham, UK 2MA Digital Media, School of Computing and Digital Media, London Metropolitan University, UK

Abstract: This study investigated the impacts of COVID-19 and societies to a great extent (Mende and Misra, 2020). Global climate change, and the challenges of these events from responses to fight COVID-19 have ameliorated climate Bangladesh’s perspective with the qualitative method of change parameters-emissions, air, or water quality. But global research. Thematic analysis followed for synthesizing data climate change expedites the effects of COVID-19 in a way collected from secondary sources. The total number of deaths where public and environmental health are intertwined, and found in Bangladesh 4,881 (1.4%), whereas 943,433 (4%) deaths found globally from COVID-19 disease. The highest number of this connects from the vulnerable to the wealthy. As this deaths in a day was 64 in Bangladesh on 30th June 2020. The infectious disease is zoonotic-spread from animal to human- maximum rate of confirmed cases from COVID-19 infection was COVID-19 demonstrates its severity (Jones et al., 2020). 26.7% in people between 31-40 years of age group. Whether male However, this pandemic creates an opportunity to learn and to represented more confirmed cases (M=72%, F=28%) and deaths mitigate future calamities by recognizing the correlation (M=78%, F=22%) than female. Death tolled highest at between COVID-19 and global climate change (Mende and City in Bangladesh, estimating 1547 persons. There are 7,155 Misra, 2020). beds and 370 ICU beds for COVID-19 patients. Due to climate change effect the air of Dhaka city become unbreathable, hence, Bangladesh, a South Asian country with an emerging COVID-19 patients require fresh air with healthy lungs to economy, has encountered a demographic and survive. Cyclone Amphan took the lives of 31 people, affecting epidemiological transition with its rapid urbanization and an approximately Tk 1,100 crore damages amid the COVID-19 increase in life expectancy gradually (Mohiuddin, 2020). It outbreak. Floods affected a total of 2,246,472 people in 18 estimated 160 million people, securing the seventh most districts and heavy rainfall rampaged Rohingya camps in Cox’s populous country in the world, expecting to be doubled by Bazar. Predominantly, challenges encountered from COVID-19 2050 (Islam and Kibria, 2020). Bangladesh has identified the and climate change are more population; lack of ‘testing, tracing th and isolating’, ‘Health Care Services’, coordination and first coronavirus disease case on 8 March 2020. It has awareness; difficulty in policing and management of Rohingyas, followed the guidelines of the World Health Organization natural calamities, and transport bans. However, this research is (WHO), including handwashing, sanitation, physical not beyond the limitation of empirical observation which will be distancing, and home quarantine. While it was challenging to a future endeavor in the field. prevent the spread of this pandemic due to ‘congestion, Keywords: COVID-19, climate change, challenges, inadequate water supply, poor sanitation facilities, poverty Bangladesh, social distancing and lack of awareness’ (Islam and Kibria, 2020). Besides, Bangladesh is not beyond the global threats of climate change, I. INTRODUCTION which is the consequence of global warming, connecting with tropical cyclones (Pawlowski, 2020). Amid worldwide OVID-19 pandemic outbreak is a pressing concern for quarantine in this COVID-19 pandemic, super cyclone every government in the world which turns it into a C Amphan struck Bangladesh on 20th May 2020. This cyclone global crisis. This coronavirus disease caused huge confirmed was the most devastating while millions of people need help cases and deaths, resulting in 213 countries affected (WHO, since the Covid-19 pandemic has still existed in the country 2020a). It has triggered unprecedented behavioral changes as (ibid:11). Whereas the country has just 127,000 hospital beds global norms which confined people and induced them to of which 91,000 of them in government-run hospitals maintain social distancing (Manzanedo and Manning, 2020). (Mohiuddin, 2020). Its economy is losing BDT 33 billion While this crisis has affected all spheres of life and work and every day from its service and agriculture sectors during the impacted the global economy tremendously. Also, this crisis nationwide lockdown. However, there are very little offers insights on the global climate crisis, as there are many researches regarding COVID-19, climate change, and parallels between the COVID-19 crisis and the imminent challenges from COVID-19 and climate change in global climate emergency. COVID-19 and global climate Bangladesh. The current research will have an insight into the change are interlinked, and proper understanding of these linkages would be crucial for consumers, companies, and

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International Journal of Research and Innovation In Social Science (IJRISS) |Volume IV, Issue X, October 2020|ISSN 2454-6186

impacts of COVID-19 and climate change and the challenges Humidity, temperature, and air pollution are effective in from these events on Bangladesh’s perspectives. spreading the virus other than ‘the contact and respiratory transmission of the COVID-19 virus’ (Coşkun et al., 2020). In II. LITERATURE REVIEW the propagation of COVID-19, population density and wind The current global health threat is the ongoing pandemic of have been accounted for 94% of the variance, in contrast, the respiratory disease that was recently given the name climate variables-temperature, rain, number of sunny days, air coronavirus disease 2019 (Covid-19) (Fauci et al., 2020). pollution, and altitude-are not inter-related with COVID-19 Covid-19 was recognized in December 2019, showing to be (Lai et al., 2020; Şahin, 2020). Besides, the number of caused by a novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2), relating to the COVID-19 cases has been impacted by population density virus that causes severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS). upon the influence of wind speed (9%). As such, the air is a Importantly, ‘the Covid-19 outbreak has posed critical threatening factor for humans along with wind speed that challenges for the public health, research, and medical increases air circulation (Coşkun et al., 2020:1-6). The weekly communities’ other than SARS (2002-2003) and the Middle occurrence of Cyprus Lows and clinical seasonal Influenza in East respiratory syndrome (MERS) from 2012 till to date. Israel are correlated in recent years significantly ‘concerning While COVID-19 was reported in Wuhan, Hubei Province, individual climate variables like precipitation, temperature, China (Zu et al., 2020). Subsequently, infections spread specific humidity, and relative humidity’ (Hochman et al., across China and other countries around the world. Then, the 2020). However, the typical cold weather affects directly or Chinese public health, clinical, and scientific communities indirectly Influenza through the epidemiological triangle recognized ‘the new virus and shared the viral gene sequence (Fuhrmann, 2010). For instance, the host susceptibility to to the world’. Notably, WHO declared the outbreak a Public infection in Cyprus Low days increased for seasonal hormonal Health Emergency of International Concern on January 30, changes, relating to a reduction in exposure to sunlight. Low 2020. Later on, WHO named the disease caused by the novel levels of Vitamin D underscore the immune response (Cannell coronavirus “coronavirus disease 2019” (COVID-19) on et al., 2006), on the other hand, high levels reduce the risk of February 12, 2020 (Zu et al., 2020: E15). Influenza and COVID-19 infections and death simultaneously (Merzon et al., 2020). There is a relation between fluctuations Complete viral genome analysis revealed that the virus caused in the duration of social contacts and weather conditions the current pandemic ‘shared 88% sequence identity to two (Willem et al., 2012). bat-derived SARS-like coronaviruses’, but differ from SARS coronavirus (Zu et al., 2020). Coronavirus evolved as ‘an The current pandemic of COVID-19 is a trajectory of causing enveloped and single-stranded ribonucleic acid named for its catastrophic global upheaval, altering geopolitical and socio- solar corona-like appearance due to 9–12-nm-long surface economic norms (Rowan and Galanakis, 2020). While various spikes’ (Wei et al., 2020). While four major structural governments are responding to this disease frantically with proteins are encoded around the coronaviral genome on the ‘staggering financial stimulus recovery’ measures. As such, envelope, where spike protein (S) binds to angiotensin- ‘enhanced innovation’ to create new technologies in the agri- converting enzyme 2 receptor that intermingles ‘subsequent food sector will introduce new products and services to fusion between the envelope and host cell membranes to aid address challenges and opportunities for the sustainability of viral entry into the host cell’ (Kirchdoerfer et al., 2016; Xu et the industry. For example, “Paludiculture-the development of al., 2020). Also, SARS coronavirus 2 hosted in bats initially wet peatland innovation”-can blend agri-food and green and transmitted to humans through pangolin (Lam et al., innovations to support the COVID-19 pandemic in the 2020) or other wild animals (Lu et al., 2020; Zhang et al., transition period (Naughton et al., 2020). With the new 2020), which have been sold at the Huanan Seafood Market, technologies, the growing demand for the production on safer spreading with a mechanism of human-to-human and more nutritious foods has to be focused for alternative transmission, subsequently (Zu et al., 2020). For example, protein sources and change attitudes towards climate change ‘markets and bush-meat trade across Africa’, linked to and digitization (Robroek et al., 2017; Rowan and Galanakis, poverty, and ensuring a nutrient diet for billions of people 2020:14). Furthermore, India has encountered two major (Lorentzen et al., 2020:2). Lorentzen et al. (2020) argue that challenges for many years at the advent of growing the destruction of the natural habitat of bats like caves, urbanization-air pollution and a decrease in the supply of bridges, is crucial to the spread of current COVID-19 disease clean water from the river Ganga (Goel et al., 2020). as this destruction pressed these bats species to live in small Conversely, ‘COVID-19 has rejuvenated the Ganga’ and other areas or forced to find ‘new semi-natural habitats’ close to rivers in the world, making the water cleaner to be potable humans’ habitat. Hence, coronavirus is transmitted from (Hallema et al., 2020). Societal challenges like COVID-19 animal to human that causes the current outbreak of a could be addressed by future considerations on climate pandemic. Furthermore, bats are the vector of the first change, outsourced versus indigenous manufacturing, spillover and outbreak of infectious diseases. However, there automation, and antimicrobial resistance (Goel et al., 2020:1). is a complex connection between virology, biodiversity, In contrast to HIV, COVI-19 has an adequate immune climate changes, poverty, food safety, and population growth response in the human body, while creating a vaccine is a (ibid.4). challenge to fight ‘SARS CoV-2’ (Sang et al., 2020; Xia et al., 2020). Hence, the majority of people recovered from this

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International Journal of Research and Innovation In Social Science (IJRISS) |Volume IV, Issue X, October 2020|ISSN 2454-6186

disease, showing no symptoms or with minimal symptoms various pandemic diseases like the Nipah virus (NiV)-a bat- like fever and body ache, challenging to combat this borne pathogen. For instance, infected patients consumed raw pandemic, emphasizing the development of a vaccine (Goel et palm sap about 30 days before the disease onset in al., 2020:16). Bangladesh, causing ‘the contamination of palm sap with secretions of NiV-infected bats’ (Luby et al., 2006). While Bangladesh is not beyond the attack of present worldwide the zoonotic outbreaks of this virus caused due to ecological, pandemic outbreak of COVID-19 disease, while it has environmental, and anthropogenic factors (Belay et al., 2017). 341,056 confirmed cases with 4,802 deaths on 15th September Besides, demographic, socioeconomic, and environmental 2020 (DGHS, 2020) after the detection of the first three cases heterogeneity of urban areas, climate variability has in the country on 8th March 2020 (Chowdhury et al., 2020a). influenced the population dynamics of infectious diseases like Although the Bangladesh government lifts the shutdown and cholera in Bangladesh (Reiner et al., 2012). There is a strong re-open the economic activities, the government imposes association between population density and the risk of a lockdown, social distancing measures, and closure of the pandemic, with growing trends of population, and the risk of educational institutions. Besides, the government prohibited human-made disasters-climactic and disease-especially in the political, religious, social, and cultural gatherings, and Global South like Bangladesh (Gholipour, 2013). The current canceled all state public programs, at the very beginning of COVID-19 pandemic is a disaster that produces immense the pandemic. Moreover, this pandemic condition has been wastage that is a burden on the environment, for example, bound to make a paradigm shift in ‘the healthcare delivery ‘piles of cardboard packaging waste outside on the margins of system’, where physicians have adopted ‘digital health a refugee camp in Bangladesh’ (Kalina and Tilley, 2020). solutions’, putting telemedicine at center stage, making an Together with these, climate-induced disasters and infectious essential service from the optional one (Chowdhury et al., diseases like dengue during or after the COVID-19 condition 2020b). To this end, the Bangladesh government-supported will ‘create severe food insecurity and healthcare crisis’, and the lower-income people, providing online education flood, cyclone, or drought may occur simultaneously, facilities, arranging medical staff within a short period. doubling the burden to the country (Bodrud-Doza et al., While Bangladesh is one of the most vulnerable countries in 2020). Therefore, poor people will suffer from food and the world for climate change (Chowdhury et al., 2018). There nutritional deficiency and consequently, the country will is an ‘association of temperature, humidity, and rainfall with envisage severe economic loss (ibid.10). climate-sensitive infectious diseases in adults’ (ibid.1). For III. METHODS example, six diseases like malaria, diarrhea, fever, encephalitis, pneumonia, and bacterial meningitis are The current study was conducted based on the qualitative influenced by the climatic condition in northeastern research methodology to find the extent of climate change, Bangladesh. In this context, weather and climate extremes COVID-19, and challenges from these in Bangladesh affect health, economy, and development sectors (Chowdhury (Kuckertz et al., 2020; Liu et al., 2020). While qualitative et al., 2018:13). Also, heavy summer rainfall and high studies elucidate ‘ambiguous phenomena, generate rich summer temperature with extra humidity are observed in the evidence from the everyday experience, and focus on context’ subtropical monsoon climate in Bangladesh regularly (Alam (Birchall, 2014). But qualitative research is accused of lacking et al., 2020). But the average temperature in summer is 36°C– rigor and failing to measure up to the “cannons of positivist 40°C, in contrast to, 8°C–15°C average winter temperature in research”, due to its holistic and interpretive nature. However, this country (Huda et al., 2014). For these climatic situations, it allows the researcher to explore meaning, interpretations, it was expected to confirmed cases and fatality of COVID-19 and individual experiences. Also, ‘qualitative methods will be very low in Bangladesh during the summer season in transposed to a context is not yet known’ (Whitmarsh, 2009). particular (Wang et al., 2020). Although the influence of high Thus, this research tried to explore the impacts of climate temperature and high humidity on the transmission of change and coronavirus disease with the challenges of these in COVID-19 is not clear from Bangladesh’s perspective, two the Bangladesh context. mechanisms of coronavirus transmission have been identified. Underpinning on the secondary data taken from multiple One is that in ‘cold temperatures’ influenza virus is more published and unpublished sources, this study adopted two stable while ‘respiratory droplets remain airborne longer in inter-linked components, such as documentary analysis and dry air’ (Lowen and Steel, 2020). On the other hand, ‘cold and personal observations (Bakhshi and Chaudhary, 2020). In the dry weather impairs mucociliary clearance, innate antiviral documentary analysis, reports, articles, periodicals, health immunity, and tissue repair and makes them more susceptible policy, and websites of the Ministry of Health and Family to the virus’ (Eccles, 2020). Hence, these mechanisms are Welfare, DGHS, IEDCR, , Ministry of applicable for the transmission of COVID-19 (Alam et al., Public Administration, Ministry of Industries, Ministry of 2020:202). Home Affairs, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Ministry of Furthermore, the outbreaks of viral diseases are interlinked Disaster and Relief, Ministry of Forest, Environment and with climate changes, resource depletion, deforestation, Climate Change, WHO, and others organizations analyzed to changes in nature, farming, and industrialization (Pillai et al., have insights on the extent and nature of climate change, 2020). Due to climate change, Bangladesh encountered COVID-19 and challenges from these phenomena in

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Bangladesh (Pierce et al., 2018). While in personal and 4,881 respectively. On the other hand, 22,257,376 persons observations, the data that are already available on age, sex, recovered from the COVID-19 disease in the globe, and underlying morbidity, place of residence, area clustering, 252,335 persons recovered in Bangladesh. Still, as a new case sociodemographic factors, laboratory measures, and burden of of death 6,037 persons were found in the last 24 hours in undiagnosed disease on COVID-19 were observed for this comparison to 22 persons in Bangladesh. Thus, 4% of research (Khunti et al., 2020). Subsequently, the higher infected persons died in the world (Worldometer, 2020) while observed incidence ‘associated with socioeconomic, cultural, only 1.4% of the infected persons died in Bangladesh (WHO, or lifestyle factors, genetic predisposition, or 2020b). pathophysiological differences in susceptibility or response to infection’ has been taken for this research. As such, the Table 1: COVID-19 scenario of Bangladesh in comparison to the world observation has been done on ‘risk of admission for acute Situation Global Bangladesh Cases-newly reported 315,919 respiratory tract infections’ (Simpson et al., 2015), ‘increased 1541 prevalence of Vitamin D deficiency’ (Martineau et al., 2017), in last 24 hours 30,055,710 Confirmed Cases 345,805 ‘vaccination policies in their country of birth and immune effects’ (Miller et al., 2017), ‘increased inflammatory burden, 943,433 Deaths 4,881 and higher prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors such as insulin resistance and obesity than white populations’ (Tillin Recovered 22,257,376 252,335 et al., 2012). Hence, ‘some of these are also risk factors for Deaths-newly increased disease severity in covid-19’ (Li et al., 2020). reported in last 24 6,037 22 Besides, real-life scenario has been observed on social hours distancing, using of face mask, sanitizers, PPE (personal Death Ratio 4% 1.4% protective equipment), and protective behaviors of the people, *Source: Authors computation, Data collected from DGHS, 2020; WHO, while they are on the cue with policing, and relief distribution 2020b; Worldometer `, 2020 activities (Mantzari et al., 2020). Climate change phenomena In Bangladesh 1st death from coronavirus disease was reported have also been observed like impacts of rains in low-lying on 21st March 2020 while globally it reported on 11th January areas, ravages of cyclone Amphan, and flood-prone areas 2020 (Figure 1). The highest number of death (64) reported in (Whitmarsh, 2009). Bangladesh on the 30th June 2020 (DGHS, 2020) and in the th Thematic analysis method has been done, after carefully world on the 17 April 2020 reported 12,430 (WHO, 2020b). reviewing sources, to assess the relationship between climate It observed some fluctuations in death count from the very change and COVID-19, and the challenges of these two beginning of the COVID-19 till to date for both the situations. Lastly, it found 22 deaths in Bangladesh in opposition to the phenomena in Bangladesh (Castleberry and Nolen, 2018; Son th et al., 2020). For analyzing articles thematically, six steps world condition with 6,038 deaths on 18 September 2020. were followed like 'familiarizing with documents' from the (a) secondary sources, 'data generating initial codes, searching for themes, reviewing themes, defining and naming themes and producing the report' (Dowling et al., 2016; Lawless and Chen, 2018). Finally, report production has been done after reviewing of themes, defining, naming, and subsub-themes creation to initiate the write up of this study (Thorne, 2000:69; Bryan et al., 2020). Few findings were produced in graphs and tabular format to show the richness of the findings (Verhoeven et al., 2020). Besides some sorts of findings were discussed elaborately to have in-depth insight of the logics that provided impacts of climate change and COVID-19 and challenges of these in Bangladesh. (b) IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION COVID-19 scenario in Bangladesh The comparison of the current COVID-19 scenario between Bangladesh and the World has been shown in Table 1 below as of the 18th September 2020. Globally, 315,919 cases were newly reported in the last 24 hours, while 1541 cases were reported in Bangladesh (WHO, 2020b; DGHS, 2020). Figure 1: Comparison of death cases from COVID-19 between Bangladesh Bangladesh has observed 345,805 confirmed cases in contrast and global situation (Source: a. DGHS, 2020; b. WHO, 2020b, as of 18th to 30,055,710 cases in the world. The total number of deaths September 2020) found from coronavirus in the world and Bangladesh 943,433

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Figure 2 depicts a comparison of confirmed cases from COVID-19 between Bangladesh and the globe. Though COVID-19 confirmed case first identified on 8th March 2020 but recognized that confirmed coronavirus cases were maximum in the last six months. But globally it confirmed the COVID-19 case on the 4th January 2020. While the highest number of confirmed COVID-19 cases (316,961) found globally on the 18th September 2020 (WHO, 2020b), but the maximum case rate was 32% in Bangladesh on August 03, 2020 (DGHS, 2020). Most of the confirmed cases were found in the last three months (July-September, 2020) throughout the world. And maximum lab test was done during June-July, 2020 in Bangladesh which is around 17,500 per day. Figure 3: Age-sex distribution of the COVID-19 confirmed cases and deaths in Bangladesh, as of 14th September 2020 (Source: Situation report - 29. (a) WHO, 2020c) Based on the geographical distribution of confirmed COVID- 19 177993 cases of Dhaka City of the Dhaka Division among whom deaths were 1547 in persons, positioning highest in Bangladesh up to the 14th September 2020 (WHO, 2020c; Figure 4). While the least deaths were 4 persons in two districts namely Bandarban and Khagrachhari of Chattagram Division. Most of the deaths were prominent in Chattagram District (308), Cumilla district (253), Narayanganj District (181), Bogura District (179), Sylhet District (153), Noakhali (112), and Chandpur District (106). Regarding confirmed (b) cases, the least number were 441 in Sherpur District of Mymensingh Division. Besides, COVID-19 confirmed cases were prevalent in Chattagram District (17925), Bogura District (7212), Cumilla District (7169), Faridpur (6689), Narayanganj (6573), and Sylhet District (6217). Hence, the overall attack rate is 1,993 per 1 million in 100% (64/64) of districts.

Figure 2: Comparison of confirmed cases from COVID-19 between Bangladesh and global situation (Source: a. DGHS, 2020 & b. WHO, 2020b, as of 18th September 2020)

The maximum rate of confirmed cases from COVID-19 infection was 26.7% in people between 31 and 40 years old while the minimum confirmed cases were 0.9% among older people above 80 years of age as of 14th September 2020 (WHO, 2020c; Figure 3). Other prevalent age groups of COVID-19 confirmed cases were 21 to 30 years (20.0%), 41

to 50 years (18.9%), and 51 and 60 years old (15.2%). The highest death rate was reported in the age group of 61 to 70 Figure 4: Geographical distribution of confirmed COVID-19 cases, deaths and attack rate, 8th March to 14th September 2020 in Bangladesh (Source: years old (31.2%) whereas the lowest was reported at 0.3% in Situation report - 29. WHO, 2020c) the age group of 0-10 years old. The older age group of 71 and above with 27.4% and the age group between 51 and 60 Regarding the scenario of COVID-19 response in Bangladesh, years with 23.4% were the other dominant groups of death it observed that there are 7,155 general beds with 2,102 from the current coronavirus pandemic. Basically, ‘male admitted patients in the hospitals, as shown in Figure 5 represented 72% and 78% of the total reported confirmed (DGHS, 2020). While there are 370 ICU beds with 216 COVID-19 cases and deaths respectively’, in contrast to, 28% admitted patients occupying these beds. Also, most of the confirmed cases and 22% deaths were among the female isolation beds are in Chattagram Division (1,366) and the least (WHO, 2020c). number of isolation beds are in Barishal Division (5). Other mostly occupying isolation bed observed Divisions are Dhaka (1,243), Sylhet (986), and Khulna (938). In terms of district-

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wise isolation bed, Sylhet District secured the highest position isolation on the 25th March 2020 in the early stage of COVID- with 481 beds, whereas the lowest position obtained by 19 infections in Bangladesh (DGHS, 2020). While as of 18th Jhalokathi District with no isolation bed. September 2020, 277 persons kept in isolation as a part of the treatment process (http://103.247.238.92/webportal/pages/ covid19.php). In the middle stage of infection (as of 29th March 2020), it recognized that the total number of isolations was 1028 persons which were the highest over the COVID-19 infection. Also, it was recognized from the daily bulletin of DGHS that number of patients in quarantine and released was 7,112 and 2,713 respectively on the 19th March 2020. Total number of quarantined and released patients is decreasing at a decreasing rate which are 1366 patients quarantine and 1413 (a) patients in released on the 18th September 2020. But the quarantined and released people number were peaked at 31,079 (on 20th April 2020) and 28,548 (on 4th May 2020) respectively. Apart from these, the government prepared 588 hospitals in response to coronavirus disease with various settings like the control room (535), the medical team (565), isolation unit (493), and separate OPD (Out Patient Department) for RTI (Respiratory Tract Infection) patient (443). In the epidemiological week 37, the number of international flights increased by 12.5%, in contrast to the previous week (b) (week 37=99 and week 36=88), hence, the number of passengers increased by 15.5% (week 37=21,508 and week 36=18,629), as shown in Figure 7. While in the 37th week of COVID-19, 843 individuals sent to Institutional Quarantine after passenger screening at the Hazrat Shahjalal International Airport (HSIA) (WHO, 2020c). The number of passengers is increasing with some fluctuations after the lifting of lockdown. Figure 8 depicts instruction for all arriving passengers in Bangladesh in the airports (IEDCR, 2020). There are several steps in the entry checkup flow chart for arriving passengers in the airports in Bangladesh. First of all, onboard, ‘Health Declaration Forms & Passenger Locator Forms’ are usually distributed for filling up. The passengers must fill these forms duly and return to the designated person (c) or immigration desk. On arrival, all passengers are scanned by a thermal scanner to identify if there is any of the passengers has any fever, he or she will be isolated to any designated hospital. Then, the ‘process for confirm diagnosis and management’ for the fever identified patient will be performed to recognize and for proper treatment. If any passenger does not have a fever, he or she will have to maintain certain instructions for the next 14 days- “Home Quarantine”, “DO NOT go outside, especially public gatherings”, “wear mask for essential outing”, and “keep hands clean”. During this period, if any passenger develops fever/cough/sore throat/breathlessness, he or she will have to ‘contact through IEDCR hotlines’ and ‘go to nearby government hospital wearing a mask’. For passengers who traveled abroad a (d) “Health Information Card” has been designed by IEDCR for getting information on coronavirus disease infection as Figure 5: Number of general bed (a), ICU bed (b), isolation bed (c), and described in Figure 5 (IEDCR, 2020). district wise isolation bed (d) for fighting coronavirus disease in Bangladesh (Source: DGHS, 2020) It is evident from Figure 6 below that 47 persons were in

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(a)

Figure 8: Instructions for all Arriving Passengers in Bangladesh (Source: IEDCR, 2020)

(b)

(c) Figure 6: Number of isolation unit (a), number of total quarantine (b), and preparedness in different hospitals (c) in response to COVID-19 in Figure 9: Health Information Card for information on coronavirus disease Bangladesh (Source: DGHS, 2020) infection (Source: IEDCR, 2020) The World Health Organization declared the COVID-19 as a pandemic on March 11, 2020, after it was first diagnosed in Wuhan, China in December 2019 (Ross et al., 2020). While the current COVID-19 outbreak is causing a paradigm shift for our globalized world in the economic, social, cultural sector and even a religious impact. Bangladesh-a country with inadequate health care facilities-has experienced a community-level transmission at the early phase, it primarily introduced by Bangladeshi citizens, returning from Europe and the Middle East (Masrur et al., 2020). While effective associations prevail between the violation of non- pharmaceutical intervention (NPI) and the emergence of new higher-risk clusters over the post-incubation periods around

Bangladesh. Whether the National Rapid Response Team of Figure 7: International flights, a number arrived of passengers, and quarantine IEDCR found 26 incidents of disease outbreak in 2017. In facility, 27 April–14 September 2020 in Bangladesh (Source: WHO, 2020c). other joint surveys of the Power and Participation Research

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Centre and BRAC Institute of Governance and Development paradoxical that extreme breathing complexities are found in reveals that per capita daily income drops by 80% in urban COVID-19 patients, hence, doctors are emphasizing an intact slum and rural poor for the countrywide shutdown imposed by pair of lungs to survive against SARS-CoV-2. Thus, the the government to contain the spread of Covid-19. weather in Dhaka, Bangladesh is worsening the COVID-19 Unfortunately, 40%-50% of these populations meet daily woes as lungs, brains, kidneys and hearts of the citizens are in expenses, taking loans from various sources (Mohiuddin, peril for the pollution. However, air quality in Dhaka 2020). In other words, an economic slowdown would push a remarkably improved during this COVID-19 period, feeling large population back into poverty. But there are four not sweltering in the summer afternoon like other years vulnerabilities concerning COVID-19 impacts- ‘the garment (Kanya, 2020). Also, sound pollution has been reduced industry, urban slums, social exclusion, and pre-existing overwhelmingly as a large number of public buses, trucks, health conditions’ (Sakamoto et al., 2020). If some trains, and motorbikes are suspended in the lockdown in Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) have been partly Dhaka city (Roy, 2020). These environmental cleansing is not attained, people will not fear and worry about the pandemic, only evident in Bangladesh but also all over the world. It is unemployment, and hunger. supported by other findings that lockdown which has imposed on 26th March 2020 to restrict anthropogenic activities at the Furthermore, ‘the WHO has given on the importance of time of COVID-19 diminished reduced air pollution in diagnostic testing in tracking and managing COVID-19, Bangladesh, resulting from reduced vehicular and industrial hence, high-income economies have adopted wide-spread emissions. Add to this, Dhaka, Gazipur, Chattogram, and population testing schemes’ (Monjur and Hassan, 2020). Narayanganj amongst the major cities were found to be more However, Bangladesh has adopted a contrarian strategy, influenced to emit fewer pollutants in the air through the masking the true national spread of the virus. While the restrictions. It also found ‘NO2 concentrations are highly IEDCR was the only institute in Bangladesh for COVID-19 correlated with the regional COVID-19 cases’ (Islam et al., testing, but a second facility was given testing rights on 2020a; Salam, 2020; Masum and Pal, 2020).). Moreover, a March 26, 2020. For a large number of populations, a total of strong association between climate variables and the total 1,169 ICU beds were devastated Bangladesh’s health system number of COVID-19 morbidity and mortality providing a with multiple outbreaks. The situation worsened as the breeding ground for the coronavirus in Dhaka city (Salam, government declaring a 10-day holiday without travel 2020:14). Arora et al. (2020:1) argue that suddenly shut off restrictions from March 26 to April 5, which encouraged city ‘social, economic, industrial and urbanization activity’ dwellers to leave Dhaka to rural communities. Moreover, co- influence nature to improve air quality, clean rivers, reduce morbidity has found more than half (52.4%) patients, having noise pollution, undisturbed and calm wildlife. However, hypertension (34%), diabetes (21.4%), and heart disease these changes of the environment are, for the time being, if we (9.7%) (Morshed et al., 2020). Along these, fever (78.6%), do not have a contingency plan to improve climate as well as weakness (68%), and cough (44.7%) were the most common COVID-19 condition, it will bounce back to the pre-COVID- clinical traits. Other common symptoms included loss of 19 state. appetite, difficulty breathing, an altered sensation of taste or smell, headache, and body ache. Remarkably, fever (78.6%), Natural calamities come hand-in-hand, while cyclone fatigue (68%), and cough (44.7%) were the most prevalent Amphan and successive floods with heavy rains struck over symptoms of non-critical COVID-19 patients in Bangladesh. Bangladesh amid the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic (Table 2). Alternately, however, China included both critical and non- Cyclone Amphan is bound to move more than 2.4 million critical patients. Actions including social distancing, home people from their dwelling places (Hasina, 2020). It took the quarantine, school closures, and case isolation would save life of 31 people that are a tremendous blow during the ‘approximately 40.76 trillion USD globally, with social coronavirus disease outbreaks (Dhaka Tribune, 2020a). About distancing accounting for 55% of the benefits’ (Yoo and 10 million people have gone through the dark due to cut off Managi, 2020). To this end, amid the COVID-19 crisis, ‘the power for this super cyclonic storm (Dhaka Tribune, 2020b). Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh are in the most vulnerable It affected 26 districts badly, tolling Tk1,100 crore damages situation’ (Banik et al., 2020). As they encountered a lack of (Dhaka Tribune, 2020b). Besides, this cyclone destroyed food, drinkable water, and shelter, together with limited access 55,667 houses completely, and around 162,000 partially to health services, turning a major human disaster. (IFRC, 2020a). It damaged around 149,000 hectares of agricultural lands and fish farms, estimating roughly about Impacts of climate change and COVID-19 in Bangladesh BDT 3.25 billion property destruction (IFRC, 2020a). As The investigation regarding the impacts of climate change and such, this cyclone uprooted millions of trees and washed away COVID-19 in Bangladesh revealed that Dhaka-the capital city 150kms of protection embankments at 84 points in 13 districts of Bangladesh-is observing air pollution which becomes (IFRC, 2020a). Particularly, 200 bridges and culverts, and unbreathable in winter in particular. While people inhale thick 100km of roads were damaged by this powerful storm in the dust and smoke in “every puff” that destroys their lungs century (IFRC, 2020a). It ravaged to Sundarbans mangrove (Kanya, 2020). This climate-changing condition is caused by forest (Aljazeera, 2020). The frequent cyclones originated in emissions of carbon from brick kilns, factories and the Bay of Bengal which is causing a huge loss for construction works, making the air toxic. In this regard, it is Bangladesh, which is the ultimate impact of climate change.

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Recent floods in Bangladesh due to monsoon rains during intertwining the causes and impact of which only a few of COVID-19 disease have aggravated the woes of the people as them are predictable (Goss et al., 2020). shown in Table 2. Fresh floods affected a total of 2,246,472 However, successively the worst floods of the decade affected people in 18 districts (IFRC, 2020b). While roads were cut off a third of Bangladesh and at least 1.5 million people after and hundreds of thousands of people were stranded, losing cyclone Amhpan ravage (Price, 2020). As climate change is houses by 548,816 families (UNRC, 2020). Accordingly, increasing, floods and resulting landslides related to seasonal floods endangered life resulting in over 220 deaths, displacing monsoon rains in the Indian subcontinent have become over 167,000 families, affecting over 170,000 hectares of frequently prominent (Ebrahim et al., 2020). Irrespectively, agricultural land with riverbanks erosion (UNOCHA, 2020). natural disasters cause ‘displacement, food crises, and Furthermore, heavy rainfall in the monsoon caused damage in diseases for people and livestock’. Farmland value has been Rohingya camps in Cox’s Bazar that worsen the misery to determined by seasonal precipitation and temperature 109,312 people, while 8,911 were displaced, 41 injured and variability, while floods are responsible for reducing land 14 persons died (ECHO, 2020). Floods affected 1,500 square value, especially in low land area. Also, ‘the socioeconomic kilometers (600 square miles) of farmland across the country variables, farm size, soil types, access of extension services, (Patel, 2020). This climatic phenomenon escalated the and availability of irrigation facilities are positively associated COVID-19 pandemic in a various way like damaging of with farmland value’ (Hossain et al., 2020). Particularly, shelters; disrupting health care services, increasing the risk of ‘farmland value is elastic to climate change’, reducing the rate mortality, morbidity, lack of nutrition; bringing the risk of to be minor and limited. Whereas, amid the COVID-19 water-borne disease, infection; and distressing on vulnerable pandemic, the most low-income and fragile countries will be and marginalized groups and their safety and security, Sexual compounded the loss from disasters. While the COVID-19 and Reproductive Health (SRH), Gender-Based Violence lockdowns in this region resulted in mass gatherings of (GBV) and Child Protection (CARE, 2020). It evident that stranded workers, causing starvation and transmission of one-third of the country was underwater due to torrential rains COVID-19 (Ebrahim et al., 2020). Conversely, outmigration, causing floods (Hasina, 2020; The Guardian, 2020). Hence, and the persistence of poverty are expected under all scenarios more than 1.5 million were displaced coupled of disasters (Lázár, et al., 2020). While good management with tens of thousands of hectares of paddy fields have been approaches, the coastal zone, in particular, can remain washed away (Hasina, 2020). habitable and agriculturally productive until 2100 at least, During both pre-and post-monsoon seasons, one or more mitigating flood risk to achieve a long-term goal of reducing cyclonic storms strike, along the Bay of Bengal coast which is poverty and ensuring sustainable livelihoods (Lázár, et al., shared between India and Bangladesh, every year (De and 2020; Adnan et al., 2020; Sultana et al., 2020). Bandyopadhyay, 2020; Roman-Stork and Subrahmanyam, Table 2: Impacts of cyclone Amphan and flood amid COVID-19 in 2020). Although people of this region are mentally prepared Bangladesh for this devastation, they are undone due to the financial Climatic Cyclone Amphan Flood inability to fight against these sorts of natural events. In the Phenomenon current pandemic condition this year, super cyclone Amphan -More than 2.4 million -A total of 2,246,472 people people had already been in 18 districts are affected by caused immense destructions to ‘live and livelihoods in the moved. (Hasina, 2020). fresh floods (IFRC, 2020b). Sundarbans and along with the coastal areas of Odisha’. -31 people were killed by - roads are cut off and While over 3 million people evacuated from the Sundarbans, cyclone Amphan (Dhaka hundreds of thousands of hence, this storm-damaged ‘1.5 million dwelling units, Tribune, 2020a). people are stranded, 548,816 -10 million without power families lost their houses thousands of acres of fertile agricultural lands, crops, village (Dhaka Tribune, 2020b). (UNRC, 2020). and urban roads, and took lives of 80 people’ (The Business -Badly affected 26 districts, - Floods resulted in over 220

causing damage to the tune deaths; over 167,000 Standard, 2020; Shultz et al., 2020). Cyclone Amphan was of Tk1,100 crore (Dhaka families remain displaced; not able to create a major upheaval as it struck only a few Tribune, 2020b). over 170,000 hectares of

coastal areas in both the countries. However, it will affect -55,667 houses were agricultural land has been

over 14 million people over the coming years (BBC News, completely damaged, and affected; riverbanks continue

around 162,000 partially to erode (UNOCHA, 2020). 2020; United Nations, 2020). Importantly, both countries were damaged (IFRC, 2020a). - The total number of people strictly enforcing COVID-19 lockdowns at the time of -Approximately 149,000 affected in Rohingya camps

cyclone Amphan, 2.2 million citizens in Bangladesh and 4.3 hectares of agriculture in Cox’s Bazar has risen to

million in the West Bengal and Odisha states of India were lands and fish farms worth 109,312, while 8,911 are

about BDT 3.25 billion displaced, 41 injured and 14 evacuated, and distributed these people to more than15 000 Impacts shelters in the region, allowing shelter residents for physical were damaged (IFRC, have died (ECHO, 2020). 2020a) -1,500 square kilometers distancing (Shultz et al., 2020). However, the mass -Millions of trees were (600 square miles) of evacuation process has spiked in new COVID-19 cases in the uprooted (IFRC, 2020a) farmland were damaged storm-affected regions, undermining of neutralizing both the -150kms of protection across the country (Patel, COVID-19 pandemic and natural hazard risks (Mitra and embankments were washed 2020). away at 84 points in 13 -Escalated COVID-19 Yengkhom, 2020). Hence, ‘the frequency of geophysical, districts (IFRC, 2020a) pandemic due to damage of meteorological, and biological hazards is increasing, -200 bridges and culverts, shelters; disrupted health

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and 100km of roads were care services, increasing risk worsens. damaged (IFRC, 2020a) of mortality, morbidity, lack -Damage to Sundarbans of nutrition; risk of water- Furthermore, policing was difficult by the various law mangrove forest (Aljazeera, borne disease, infection; enforcement agents for maintaining physical distance, keeping 2020) distress on vulnerable and marginalized groups and people inside the home, banning transportation, and their safety and security, preventing mass gatherings. Consequently, although Sexual and Reproductive Bangladesh Police performed a tremendous job in burring Health (SRH), Gender-Based abandoned COVID-19 infected dead body with ‘Janaza-rituals Violence (GBV) and Child Protection (CARE, 2020). for the dead body of a Muslim’ and rituals for other religious -One-third of the country people, distributing relief, maintaining social distancing and was underwater (Hasina, home quarantine and helping destitute people, but they lost 2020; The Guardian, 2020). about 77 colleagues among 17,419 affected (collected from -More than 1.5 million Bangladeshis are displaced. Corona Control Room, Police Head Quarters, Bangladesh -Tens of thousands of Police). Accordingly, natural calamities like super cyclone hectares of paddy fields have Amphan, floods, and heavy rains amid COVID-19 pandemic, been washed away (Hasina, the grief of the people aggravated, indicating the impacts of 2020). climate change. These climatic conditions during the coronavirus disease challenge the controlling of the COVID- 19 crisis, move people to shelters that worsen the social Challenges of climate change and COVID-19 in Bangladesh distancing, ravages agricultural products to lessen the income The people of Bangladesh are facing impacts of climate of the farmers to take nutritious food to grow immune and change and coronavirus pandemic, acting as a double edge hinder availing medical facilities. Next, Rohingyas-who sword in their lives and economy with various challenges displaced from Myanmar in Bangladesh-are big challenge for (Figure 10). While the population is the main challenge for fighting COVID-19 as there are a large number of people fighting against the effects of climate change and COVID-19. living in a small area, where it is very difficult to maintain Then, lack of proper coordination among the different physical distancing, sanitation, pure drinking water, and departments, institutions, and ministries related to climate medical support. Along these, cyclone Amphan and heavy change and COVID-19 fighting like DGHS, IEDCR, torrential rains rampaged the Rohingya camps, which deepen Bangladesh Police, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, the sore of the COVID-19 situation. Besides, travel bans were Ministry of Public Administration, Ministry of Industries, a great challenge for the farmers to transport their products to Ministry of Home Affairs, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the cities from the rural villages, affecting the country’s Ministry of Disaster and Relief, Ministry of Forest, economy in this pandemic time. Finally, lack of awareness Environment and Climate Change, and others organizations about the gravity of the disease, the importance of social was another important challenge for containing the spread of distancing, wearing masks, using sanitizers, staying at home, COVID-19 outbreak with the subsequent climate change and testing for COVID-19 infection, was the vital challenge impacts in the preliminary stage. As there was no previous for reining the current pandemic in Bangladesh. knowledge about the coronavirus disease, this happened at the However, findings of other research supported that early stage of the infection, but after taking some pragmatic Bangladesh has a population estimated at 160 million with a decisions by the government improved the situations. After growing economy, securing the 7th populated country position that, ‘testing, tracing and isolating’ were the major stumbling (Islam and Kibria, 2020). Most of the people are living in the block of controlling the dissemination of COVID-19, while urban areas of which 55% living in the slums. Although WHO there were limited labs, expertise, and materials for mass recommended handwashing, sanitation, physical distancing, testing and tracing to prevent the social transmission of the and home quarantine at the very beginning of COVID-19 virus along with the unwillingness of the people for outbreaks, but preventing the spread of this disease is maintaining isolation. Next, shortage of Health Care Services unfeasible in slums due to challenges of congestion, was the key challenge for curbing the COVID-19 disease inadequate water supply, poor sanitation facilities. In other infection and for the treatment of patients, particularly the words, the Government of Bangladesh has adopted strict number of doctors, sanitizers, ventilators, masks, dedicated measures for stopping the entry of passengers from Europe, COVID-19 hospitals, and medical equipment were the stopping on-arrival visas and self-quarantine for all passen- impediment of coronavirus treatment in Bangladesh. Besides, gers return from abroad in response to the current pandemic corruption in the case of testing the COVID-19 patient’s (Alam et al., 2020). While ‘many loopholes exist at the entry samples was the major drawback of combating this disease. points of Bangladesh’. Also, few measures were observed at For instance, ‘Jobeda Khatun Shastha Seba (JKG) Health the Shah Jalal International Airport like ‘the setting of some Care, commonly known as JKG Health Care, and Regent thermal scanners to check the real-time body temperature of Hospital that were providing fake Covid-19 test reports at a the passengers and filling up a health declaration form’ (ibid. high price’ (Habib, 2020), tarnishing the reputation of the 204-205). However, no disinfection activities and no health sector in Bangladesh, impending the COVID-19 crisis confirmation tests have been performed. Together with these,

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other challenges found lack of laboratory facilities, scarcity of coronavirus outbreak quickly worldwide, many countries are medical supplies-surgical masks and goggles, lack of personal adopting ‘non-therapeutic preventive measures’ like travel protective equipment (PPE) for healthcare personnel, lack of bans, remote office activities, country lockdown, and quarantine facilities at the hospitals, not maintaining good especially social distancing (Anwar et al., 2020). However, hygiene and sanitation practices by the people, and no specific these measures face challenges in Bangladesh. As social drugs or vaccines have been proven effective against COVID- distancing is difficult in many areas of the country for the 19 till to date (ibid.205). Khan et al. (2020) argue that minimal resources the country, mobile sanitization facilities, ‘government administration officials increased many efforts temporary quarantine sites, and healthcare facilities could like prevention and containing the spread, raising the mitigate the impact of the pandemic. Therefore, Government, quarantine stations and increasing the laboratory capacity, citizens, and health experts, along with international strengthening surveillance, and contact tracing using artificial assistance, should take a prompt, supportive, and empathic intelligence via technology apps’ (S 88). collaboration to minimize the impact of the pandemic and climate change (ibid.1-8). Furthermore, the flood emergency and recovery responses are constraining due to COVID-19 spread (Htoon et al., 2020). For example, different places in India and Bangladesh flood

risks reduction measures like embankment maintenance and Policing repair works have been affected by COVID -19 lockdown, exacerbating the onset of monsoon rainfall. As such, Health Care Awareness maintaining physical distancing and health safety measures in Services cyclone shelters during Cyclone Amphan has been very challenging in Bangladesh. While social distancing will stop the spread of the virus, but will hamper to flood impacts mitigation measures. Besides, hundreds of Rohingya recently Testing, tracing and rescued from stranded boats are in COVID-19 quarantine on isolating Rohingyas Bhasan Char, where the Bangladesh government tried to relocate , coming under renewed pressure Challenges because of an outbreak of COVID-19 among refugees there and the influence of cyclone Amphan and rains (Oxford Analytica, 2020). Add to these, Bangladesh and India are Transport observing cyclones, floods, and other natural disasters, Population bans especially in the Sundarbans. Whether the two countries were hit by Cyclone Amphan in May 2020, which made landfall in Bangladesh and Western India, dealing with the double strike Natural of a natural disaster and a pandemic. Another challenge Coordination identified by other research as the closure of market and Clamities transport bans is a different set of challenges for farmers in Bangladesh, facing a loss of income due to the lockdown (Hossain and Jahan, 2020). Whereas novel coronavirus Figure 10: Challenges encountered by climate change and coronavirus disease in Bangladesh (COVID-19) pandemic poses a significant public health threat worldwide, predominantly in densely populated countries like V. CONCLUSIONS Bangladesh, having inadequate health care facilities. poor education, less public awareness, and massive unemployment COVID-19 and climate change are impacting throughout the (Masrur et al., 2020). Enough testing was not conducted at the globe, Bangladesh is not beyond the devastation of these two very beginning of the outbreak in Bangladesh, while tests only much-talked events in the contemporary world, tolling the conducted at the Institute of Epidemiology, Disease Control lives of many people. In Bangladesh, coronavirus disease has and Research (IEDCR) in the capital Dhaka, reporting huge already taken away about five thousand lives along with patients all around the country (Chowdhury et al., 2020a). 345,805 confirmed cases, in contrast to, globally about 1 Therefore, a deep relationship found among human stress, million death and 30,055,710 confirmed cases. While males economic hardship, and food crisis associated with the stress are mostly victimized rather than female by this virus of mass people, hence hampering formal education and plan, infection. As such, COVID-19 impacted Bangladeshi people creating stress for career seekers to exert challenges of climate through stagnation of the economic activities with their and COVID-19 together (Islam et al., 2020b). routine works. Consequently, the recent climatic phenomena like cyclone Amphan, heavy rains, and floods have also The awareness rate of Bangladeshi people was only 25%, aggravated the woes of people amid the COVID-19 outbreak. although 96.9% knowing the COVID-19 epidemic, 33.5% These natural calamities took the lives of many people as maintain lockdown and 40.0% of people maintain social well, displacing from their homes. Furthermore, Bangladesh is distance (Rana et al., 2020). With the advent of the facing various challenges for fighting COVID-19 and climate

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change, from these challenges, marinating social distancing, [17] Chowdhury, S. R., Sunna, T. C., and Sanjoy, S. (2020a). Response testing the disease, supplying protective equipment, to COVID-19 in Bangladesh: Strategies to Resist the Growing Trend of COVID-19 in a Less Restricted Situation. Asia Pacific Rohingyas in the refugee camps, and lack of awareness Journal of Public Health, 1010539520951689. among people are the most prominent. But the concerted [18] Chowdhury, S. R., Sunna, T. C., and Ahmed, S. (2020b). effort from government, citizens, NGOs, with the assistance Telemedicine is an important aspect of healthcare services amid of international organizations this pandemic could be COVID‐19 outbreak: Its barriers in Bangladesh and strategies to mitigated. However, this research is not free from limitations, overcome. 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