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Knowledge Generation in Ayurveda

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Knowledge Generation in Ayurveda Indian Journal of History of Science, 51.1 (2016) 48-55 DOI: 10.16943/ijhs/2016/v51i1/48377 Knowledge Generation in Āyurveda: Methodological Aspects S N Venugopalan Nair* and Darshan Shankar** (Received 30 April 2015; revised 30 November 2015) Abstract The wise consider the entire universe as their preceptor (Caraka Sahitā CS.Vi.14). Knowledge generation in Āyurveda has followed mainly four types of siddhānta (theory) viz. 1. śarvatantra siddhānta (the theory which is accepted by all śāstrā-s), 2. pratitantra siddhānta (the theories not in any other śāstrā-s:), 3. adhikaraa siddhānta (from the related topics and theories) and 4. abhyupagama siddhānta (unproven and not fully tested theories). These siddhānta-s were debated among groups of scientists and students of various schools of thought. The methods of such discourses are guided by 44 rules of logic, ‘vādamārga’ (CS. Vi.8.26) to justify propositions. The Āyurvedic texts are formulated based on the 32 criteria (Suśruta Sahita; SS.Utta.65) and 36 criteria by Caraka (CS.Si.43) known as tantra-yukti in order to ensure rigour. Āyurveda considers knowledge of whole cannot be obtained by knowing its parts. Key words: Āyurveda, Darśana, Knowledge, Logic, Tantrayukti, Vādamārga. 1. INTRODUCTION 2. GENERATION OF AYURVEDIC KNOWLEDGE Āyurvedic knowledge has a long history Caraka says that the entire world is the in the country, most part of which is lost due to its teacher to the intelligent and foe to the being part of old oral tradition. Some of the oral unintelligent. Knowing this well, with proper traditions of ancient times, the Vedic brāhmaic attention, one should listen even to an unfriendly and the heterodox, have survived, thanks to their person. ‘Purucōyam lōkasammita’: ‘Human being is a microcosm of the physical and biological sacred nature. What we know as the history of world’ (CS. Vi.8.14). All entities in the universe yurveda is mainly based on sahitā-s mainly of Ā are there in the person and vice versa. Intuitive Suśruta and Caraka, generally dated to the period knowledge is distinct from the methodologically th nd between 6 century BC and 2 century AD. realised knowledge that overcomes the distinction Ācarya Ātreya is the first known author of an between the knower and the known. It is the Āyurvedic medical treatise, the Ātreya sahitā. perfect knowledge, while all other knowledge is It is believed that Caraka made his Sahitā largely incomplete and imperfect in so far as it does not based on Ātreya’s work. What emerges as striking bring about identification between the subject and is the methodological rigour that his Sahitā the object. exhibits. We seek to discuss generation of This knowledge was preserved as in the Āyurvedic knowledge, its logical structure, case of any other, initially in the form of oral dialectical procedure. compositions like sūtra-s (aphorisms) in which * Associate Professor, Trans Disciplinary University, Institute of Trans Disciplinary Health Sciences and Technology, FRLHT, 74/2, Jarakabande Kaval, Post Attur, via Yelahanka, Bangalore 64; Email: [email protected] **Vice Chancellor, Trans Disciplinary University, Institute of Trans Disciplinary Health Sciences and Technology, FRLHT. KNOWLEDGE GENERATION IN ĀYURVEDA: METHODOLOGICAL ASPECTS 49 sets of information are strung out as if along a In Āyurveda the basic knowledge is the thread. This is like a thread which holds together knowledge about the knowable object, padārtha beads or flowers in a garland. The knowledge thus vijñāna. The knowledge of the material, its preserved is in a condensed form, very precise and practical context and the observation of results are free of repetitions, enabling its remembrance and fundamental to the generation of Āyurvedic retrieval on demand relatively easy. Subsequently knowledge. In Āyurveda, padārtha vijñāna is all this was codified and systematised in the form extended into a holistic understanding with of written texts, namely sahitā-s (the theoretical foundations and logical arguments compendia). Both the modes had followed the emphasizing practical relevance. Sahitā-s of poetic genre for the organisation of knowledge. Āyurveda hold this knowledge as eternal (śāśvata) Āyurvedic texts start with a chapter known as and without beginning (anādi) because it deals sūtra-sthāna which explains the fundamental with properties of entities of a universal nature features and principles of the knowledge they (svabhāva sasiddha lakcaatvāt ) which has embody by way of the philosophy, logic and permanent (bhāva svabhāva nityatvāt ) characters concepts. The systematised texts of the sahitā (CS. 30: 27). tradition also followed the same style of precision. – – Naturally at a later stage this necessitated 3. DIALECTICAL PROCEDURE (VADAMARGA) commentaries involving explanations (bhāya), As in the case of any other stream of annotations (vārtika) and redactions (prati- knowledge in traditional India, Āyurveda also had samskaraa). The compilation of pre-existing followed Vādamārga (dialectical procedures) orally transmitted knowledge had led to generation based on Nyāya siddhānta for improving and of new knowledge through empirical observation entrenching and its knowledge (CS. Vi.8: 26). Vāda and theoretical deduction. Caraka mentions about mārga-s are procedures and focal points of the acquisition of empirical knowledge about debate used in intellectual discussions of any medicinal plants, from the tribal people subjects of importance. Its focal points are given (CS.1:120). The codification and systematisation below in table 1. of inherited knowledge had the pressure of pedagogic needs on them. It appears that sahitā-s were the works of ācārya-s who were practitioners Table 1. Procedures and Focal Points of Debates used in Intellectual Discussion and teachers of the gurukūla tradition of education under which the pupils stayed with the teacher’s Vāda Debate with reference texts (1. jalpa, family. This tradition of knowledge transmission 2. vitaa) had given birth to several lineages of teachers and Dravya About Substances pupils, namely the guru-śiya parampara-s in Gua Physical and biological properties Karma Action different domains of knowledge such as Veda, Sāmānya Generality Yoga, yurveda etc. In certain regions this Ā Viśēa Specificity tradition has survived to the present times among Samavāya Inseparability eg. property and action certain communities of hereditary association with Pratijha Proposition, it is a statement which is such domains of knowledge. Caraka underlines to be proved at the end of argument the primacy of practical knowledge. Vāgbhaa (e.g. man is eternal): A deductive logic mentions three phases viz., adhīti (learning), Sthāpana Proof bodha (understanding), ācaraa (practising) and Pratisthāpana Counter proof pracāraa (propagating) of the knowledge (ASM. Hētu Cause: (pratyaka, anumāna, aitīhya, upam na) 1:28). ā 50 INDIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY OF SCIENCE Dānta Example In the process of defining the concept of Upanaya Leading towards truth health, the siddhānta (theory) about the svastha Nigamana Inference (healthy individual) the parameters (3 doa-s, 7 Uttara Rejoinder, asserts disparity between body tissues, mind and ātma etc.) are discussed cause and effect: in detail on the basis of Vādamārgā-s by the group Siddhānta Theoretical conclusion: (universal as of scientists on the basis of theoretical and well as specific generalisation) practical understanding of the subject. The health Śabda Dristārtha (observable meaning), is defined by Suśruta as follows: Adristārtha (unobservable meaning), Satya (truth), Anruta (false) “samadōa samāgniśca samadhātu- Pratyaka Direct perception : (Mind, sensory malakriyā| experience) prasannātmēndriya manā svastha Anumāna Inference: Logical conclusion based ityabhidhīyatē|| on reason [SS.15/10] Aitīhya Verbal Testimony: Āptopadēsa, Veda Human being is considered to be (Pure reason) completely healthy only when the body Aoupamya Analogy constituents namely tridoa-s (vāta, pitta, kapha), Samśaya Doubt dhātu-s (seven body tissues), effluents like three Prayojana Purpose mala-s (essential waste products), pañcendriya (5 Savyabhicāra Exceptional statements Jijñāsā Enquiry sense organs), manas (mind) and ātma (soul) are Vyavasāya Determination all in equilibrium / contentment stage. Arthāpatti Implied meaning – Sambhava Origin or source 4. LOGIC OF AYURVEDIC KNOWLEDGE Anuyojya Imperfect statement (TANTRA-YUKTI) Ananuyojya Perfect statement It appears that the codification and Anuyoga Question systematisation of Āyurvedic knowledge into Pratyanuyoga Further question sahitā-s were influenced by the a-darśana-s, Vākyadoa Flaws of speech: (insufficient, the six schools of thought (Nyāya, Vaiśeika, superfluous, meaningless, wrong and Sānghya, Yoga, Pūrvamīmāmsā, and contradictory) Uttaramīmāmsā), the exact chronology of which Vākyapraśamsā Excellence of speech is not known. There is a preponderance of the Chhalam Quibbling methods of the Nyāya school in the constitution Ahetu Fallacy (no reason): (of common cause, of doubt, of analogy) of Āyurvedic knowledge. Its structure and the Atītakālam Delayed in time pattern of the organisation of knowledge is based Upālambha Adjoining factors: on the logical constructs of the Nyāya thought. Parihāra Amendment Gautama’s influence is explicit in the logical Pratijñāhāni Abandonment of proposition procedures adopted in the sahitā-s by Suśruta Abhanunjā Acceptance and Caraka. Hetvantaram Fallacy of reason – Arthāntaram Differential meaning, Confusion 5. LOGICAL REASONING OF NYAYA
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