Agenda Item 3 EIHA 08/3/10-E English only OSPAR Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic Meeting of the Working Group on the Environmental Impact of Human Activities (EIHA) Lowestoft (United Kingdom): 4–7 November 2008

The Value of our Oceans – The Economic Benefits of Marine Biodiversity and Healthy Ecosystems

Presented by WWF

This document provides a global perspective with regard to economic benefits of marine biodiversity. Background 1. Reference is made to EIHA 08/3/9-E addressing the socio-economic assessment of the marine environment. 2. On the occasion of the Conference of Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD COP) held in Bonn, Germany in May 2008, WWF presented the global study at Annex 1 including case studies and personal witnesses of the socio-economic importance of our oceans. Action requested 3. EIHA is invited to take note of the report presented by WWF and make use of the approach and information included as appropriate.

1 of 1 OSPAR Commission EIHA 08/3/10-E

The Value of our Oceans

The Economic Benefi ts of Marine Biodiversity and Healthy Ecosystems

WWF Deutschland 1 Introduction

People love the oceans. Millions of such as bottom trawling and dyna- With this report we want to take an tourists flock to the world’s beach- mite fishing destroy the very cor- economic angle in shedding light es, and whale and turtle watching, al reefs that are home to the fish. on the values we receive from the snorkelling and diving leave peo- Coastal development claims beach- oceans and the life therein, but ple in amazement of the beauties of es where turtles were born and to which we usually take for granted. marine life. Zoos and public aquar- which they can no longer return to The marine environment, its habi- ia, TV documentaries and even big lay their eggs. Mangrove forests tats and species have shaped and screen cinema conveniently bring are cleared to make way for shrimp are still shaping our world, our cul- the experience of the marine world farms. ture and many people’s daily lives. to our homes. And there, we enjoy We want to show what the loss of the variety, fine taste and healthi- And climate change and ocean healthy oceans will mean to our ness of seafood. The oceans give acidification may prove to be the economies and individual people’s a lot – but we have not been very hardest challenges for our oceans’ incomes and livelihoods. We want thankful. species, habitats and long estab- to show what we loose if we don’t lished food webs. And although the change. The marine environment is in a dire problems are known, solutions have state. Fish stocks, particularly those been found and promoted exten- of greater economic value, are un- sively, the world is still a far cry der heavy pressure from overfish- from halting the loss of bio di- A school of sprat fish in a Red Mangrove shallow reef in Carrie Bow Cay, Belize © Michel GUNTHER / WWF-Canon ing. Destructive fishing practices versity.

Content

Some facts about healthy oceans 4 A fisherman and his son in Madasgascar © WWF / Ralf Maro Valuating marine biodiversity 5

Tourism, recreation and leisure 6

Living oceans feed the world 12

Healthy oceans - healthy people 18

Industrial resources from the sea 22

Save our coasts – marine life defends the shorelines 24

Climate regulation 27

Eternal circles of life 28

The ocean shows us how to solve problems 30

How should a parasite value its host? 34

Bibliography 36

Impressum: Published by: WWF Germany, Frankfurt am Main. June 2008 Authors: Manfred Walser, Christian Neumann (WWF) Editor: Heike Mühldorfer (WWF) Proof Reading: Sue Watson (WWF) Design: Caroline Franz, Mannheim Production: Natascha Schuck (WWF) - Print: ?? Printed on ?? (C) All rights reserved by WWF Germany 2008

2 WWF Deutschland WWF Deutschland 3 Some facts about healthy oceans Valuating marine biodiversity

Healthy oceans provide a wide To improve scientific knowledge, As a result species are caught selec- Our study attempts to estimate the mates the value of a special loca- timate. Global gross national prod- range of goods and services es- the ‘Census of Marine Life’ started tively depending on the sampling economic value of marine biodiver- tion by valuing time and travel uct total is around US$ 18 trillion sential for human life. Provision of in 2000. A global network of re- method used – but never the whole sity, well knowing that an economic cost expenses that people incur to per year.” The study also shows that food and medicines or the detoxi- searchers in more than 80 nations is spectrum of species at a place. Fur- valuation cannot show the overall visit a particular site. 63 percent of the estimated value of fication of pollutants and the recy- engaged in a 10-year scientific ini- thermore, marine fisheries research value of biodiversity. Unfortunately ● The Production Function Ap- the entire biosphere is contributed cling of nutrients are functions of tiative to assess and explain the di- is largely concentrating on eco- ecosystems are poorly understood, proach estimates how the eco- by marine systems (US$ 20.9 tril- the ocean which create value for versity, distribution and abundance nomically important species.4 The scarcely monitored, and (in many logical input into economic lion per year), most of this originat- human users. Such essentials are of life in the oceans. Since the major diversity anyway resides in cases) undergoing rapid degrada- production will change if the en- ing from coastal systems (US$ 10.6 called ‘ecosystem goods and servic- project started more than 1,000 new the microbial life that can be found tion and depletion. Often the im- vironment changes. trillion per year). And these “are all es’. These goods and services are species have been found already, in- in marine waters, on the surfaces of portance of ecosystem services is ● The Net Factor Income Approach only static snapshots of a biosphere ‘for free’ but require intact marine cluding over 100 new fish species, plants and animals, and in the deep- widely appreciated only upon their goes the other way round and that is a complex, dynamic sys- ecosystems: Coral reefs, kelp for- and the scientists involved aim to sea sediments.5 loss8 and only in some cases – like states the economic surplus of tem.”11 Despite profound methodo- ests, mangroves, salt marshes, mud add many thousands more by 2010. bioprospecting access agreements ecosystem goods and services as logical critique for the simplified flats, estuaries, rocky shores, sandy The overall number of marine spe- In spite of the ocean’s vastness it is or direct payments for habitat con- the remaining value when other calculation the scientific communi- beaches, sea mounts, abyssal plains cies – if ever fully explored – may not one big habitat. Micro-endemic servation – capture demand for bio- inputs in production has been ty certified the authors a most valu- and open oceans – each of these be in the range of 10 million – com- life-forms can be restricted to small diversity directly. subtracted from the total revenue. able thought-provoking momentum habitats contributes to the oceans’ pared to 1.5 million described ter- geographical features like isolated ● The Total Revenue Approach es- initiating a huge amount of follow- ability to serve essential goods and restrial plants and animals.6 island platforms or coastal lagoons The overall value of marine biodi- timates the value given by the di- up research and public discussion.12 services.1 or the cadaver of a whale in the versity can be outlined as below:9 rect sale of ecosystem goods and „About the ocean we know less deep sea (which is also a unique services. Many studies have looked at the Figure: Categories of economic values The sea accommodates 32 of the 33 than about the moon” is a frequent- habitat called ‘whale trap’). A study valuation of biodiversity, mainly animal phyla known in biological ly quoted slogan when oceanogra- of the Food and Agriculture Organi- with a limited scope, focusing on Total economic value of marine biodiversity taxonomy; 15 phyla thereof can be phers talk about animals and plants zation of the United Nations (FAO) single habitats or aspects or taking a found exclusively in marine habi- in the oceans. Only the coastal zone on marine resources in the Western specific nation’s or regions point of tats. Today’s biodiversity – the di- and the upper light-flooded layers Central Atlantic lists 23 percent of Personal use values Non- use values view. Defra, the UK’s Department versity of habitats, species, genes of the ocean are somewhat investi- the 987 fish species treated in de- for Environment, Food and Rural and structural design - is the result gated but 80 percent of the ocean, tail as rare or endemic to the study affairs has, however, in 2006 com- of 3,500 millions of years of on- which means 62 percent of the en- area. The study summarizes: “Such Direct use Indirect use Option values Bequest Existence missioned an estimation of mon- going evolution and still largely tire earth’s surface, are deeper than a high level of endemism stands in values values output values value etary values of marine ecosystem unknown to us. Currently, over 1,000 meters. Here it is difficult to contrast to the widespread view that output can be functioal possibly can value of value from services of Great Britain’s waters. 200,000 marine animal species observe the life directly and scien- marine species characteristically consumed benefits be used leaving use know-ledge 13, 14 Eight of thirteen goods and alone have been described and re- tists depend on tools like nets, weirs have large geographic ranges and directly (flood control, directly and/ for future of continued services could be valued in mon- side in collections. and grabbers or remotely operated that they might therefore be buff- (fishery, raw storm protec- or indirectly generations existence etary terms, with varying degrees vehicles. ered against extinction.“2 material, tion, mitiga- (ethical, of confidence, from food provision agents, recre- tion of climate spiritual value) over nutrient cycling to cognitive Crustaceans and mussels on a ‘black smoker’, a hydrothermal vent in the deep sea. ation facility) change) and bequest & existence values. Scientists reckon that life on earth may have originated in this habitat © Marum Bremen In the following sections of this Partly the ecosystem goods and About ten years ago a scientific study we will shed some more light services of marine biodiversity are study caused quite some commo- on the economic valuation of ma- traded in the market and market tion, when a team of researchers led rine biodiversity and healthy marine prices can be used as indicators by Robert Costanza attempted to ecosystems by highlighting some for economic values. But a broad calculate the value of nature. Valu- figures, examples and also people range of goods and services have ating a variety of ecosystem servic- who benefit from the sea’s riches. no market price and shadow pricing es they arrived at the following con- techniques are necessary to deter- clusion: “For the entire biosphere, mine their economic values, for the value (most of which is outside example: 8, 10 the market) is estimated to be in ● The Contingent Valuation Meth- the range of US$ 16-54 trillion per od asks people directly what they year, with an average of US$ 33 are willing to pay (or to accept) if trillion per year (or US$ 33, 000, a specific change in the environ- 000,000, 000 per year). Because of mental quality can be reached. the nature of the uncertainties, this ● The Travel Cost Method esti- must be considered a minimum es-

4 WWF Deutschland WWF Deutschland 5 Tourism, recreation and leisure

The value of marine biodiversity economic impact of tourism in the for recreation and leisure purposes How tourists can add value to Caribbean was greater than in any is an economically important factor their destination: other region in the world. Tourism is a fast-growing economic sector accounted for roughly 17 per cent with 898 million arrivals in 2007 The study ‘Tourism for Protec- of total Caribbean GDP and was es- and an annual growth of about 5 ted Area Financing: Under- timated to generate 2.5 million jobs percent worldwide.1 standing tourism revenues for in the region.7 In some cases the relation between effective management plans’ tourism activities and marine bio- presents a number of examples Other recreational activities can diversity is obvious: coral reefs ac- on how an MPA’s income can also create valuable economic ben- count for about 40 percent of the be generated:4 efits. In California whale watching world’s known marine fishes2 and ■ Entrance fees to be paid for and other types of marine wildlife are therefore a paradise for div- visiting a protected area. viewing are estimated to gener- ing and snorkelling. As Bishop and ■ Fees for using park facilities ate over US$ 25 million per year colleagues stated: “The business and tourist infrastructure. in gross revenues. Annual expen- Turtle watching provides three times more income than a consumptive use © Michel GUNTHER / WWF-Canon case for biodiversity conservation ■ Concessions like anchoring ditures associated with recreational is most easily made when the busi- points for commercial boat fishing in California reached the lion, the median was US$ 975,044, The Bunaken National Marine Park ist industry provided new occupa- ness in question depends directly owners. enormous amount of US$ 545 mil- over three times higher than in the tions to local villagers, and those on biodiversity to operate and sur- ■ Taxes for all travellers entering lion in the year 2000.8 consumptive-use sites. The Bunaken National Marine Park who switch ed to a new occupation vive. Conservation based tourism is or leaving certain regions. in Indonesia presents a striking ex- earned more than twice as much as a good example where the income ■ Voluntary donation schemes The example of In the most established site in Tor- ample of the economic influence of fishermen (US$ 114 versus US$ 44 stream to private enterprise depends to support protected areas Sea Turtle Tourism tuguero National Park in Costa Rica nature-oriented tourism activities. a month). directly on the health of the sur- and the work of local NGOs. the average annual revenue was Located near the centre of Indone- rounding ecosystem.” 3 In this way ■ Direct operation of commer- A study undertaken by WWF In- US$ 1.6 million9. At the same time, sia, it was established in 1991. Ap- We asked three of them to share tourism is one of the few economic cial activities like souvenirs, ternational reached the conclusion relatively simple conservation strat- proximately 30,000 people live in their experiences with us: activities which captures demand brochures, local products, that people working with wild sea egies can have a profound effect the 22 villages inside the national for biodiversity directly. sets for filming etc. turtles can earn three times as much on the recovery of once seriously park. Fishing and farming are the in tourism activities as they can depleted turtle stocks.10 traditional livelihoods in the area, Yunus describes Saba Marine Park (Netherlands An- through the taking of the tortoise- but tourism has recently become a benefi ts from tilles) shows how a protected area year (Friend) to US$ 5,000 per shell, meat and eggs for trade.9 driving force in the local economy.11 entrance fees: can be completely financed by tour- year (Patron). In the Bunaken MPA, the tour- ist revenues. The park was estab- ● The park sells a variety of souve- The study analysed nine case stud- “My name lished in 1987 with grants totalling nirs and allocates the park logo ies of consumptive use, which in- is Yunus, but I US$ 270,000 from the island gov- for sponsoring activities, thus clude examples of use for meat, also used to be ernment, the Dutch Development covering around 18 percent of its shell, eggs, bone and leather in called Pak Unu. A few years ago, I Corporation and private founda- budget.4 countries bordering the Atlan- used to work as a farmer and fish- tions. The management of the park tic, Indian and Pacific Oceans. erman, but now I work as the Visi- has been delegated to an NGO, the Diving is the activity which has the Gross average revenue from these tor Centre’s Manager, located at Saba Conservation Foundation. highest value among all recreation- sites was US$ 581,815 per year, Liang Beach. The Foundation has a threefold al activities. A meta-analysis of 52 and the highest revenue was US$ The tourism activity brings relief strategy to generate revenues:4 coral reef valuation studies showed 1,701,328. for the locals. The opening of the ● User fees for divers and snor- an average value of US$ 184 per national marine park caused inves- kellers collected by commercial visit with considerable differences Against these findings another nine tors to come and it means a new operators, and yacht mooring/ between locations, depending on case study sites of non-consumptive working field opened for locals. 20 anchorage fees brought in 70 image, tourist infrastructure, and marine turtle use have been ana- years ago, this Alung Banua vil- percent of the park’s revenue in recreational activity.5 In 2000, net lysed. The revenue from these sites, lage was quite old fashioned, and 2003. annual benefits from dive tourism where turtles are a major tourist at- people were a bit left over. In the ● Saba Marine Park runs a success- in the Caribbean totalled just over traction, included all expenditure old days, people had to work on the ful ‘Friends of Saba Conservation US$ 2 billion with US$ 625 million (food, accommodation, souvenirs, mainland, or up in the mountains Foundation’. Promotion activities spent directly on diving on reefs.6 transport and other costs) incurred as coconut climbers. Now, they can encourage park visitors to regis- The 2001 Travel and Tourism Sat- by tourists during their time at the work here in tourism, and it means ter, give donations, and receive ellite Accounts (TSA) developed turtle watching location. While the Tourism can provide a wide range of job information via a newsletter. by the World Travel and Tourism lowest annual revenue was US$ opportunities to the local community Subscriptions start at US$ 25 per Council estimated that by 2001 the 41,000 and the highest US$ 6.7 mil- © Birgit Weerts / WWF

6 WWF Deutschland WWF Deutschland 7 no more unemployment. They now Alung Banua villagers in the old them to improve their livelihoods also work as patrol officers. That’s days couldn’t sell the fish at a good by producing and selling goods and all because of the benefits from Bu- price, but now whenever fisherman through new jobs as grounds keep- naken National Marine Park. catch fishes, they can sell it on the ers, waitresses, etc.11,12 Overall, The inhabitants used to com- tourist cottages at a good price.” 1,063 jobs have been created in Bu- plain about the park’s entrance fee. naken’s tourism sector since 1998, They felt the national park was be- a substantial part of the regional longing to them, and why should Kores Ojuraw labour market which has a work tourists visiting have to pay? But owns a new force of about 15,000; so the whole through a long process of socializa- motor bike: tourism sector now employed more tion, people became aware that by than 30 percent of the villagers on the entrance fee the national park “My name is Bunaken Island in 2005.11 area could be protected. And that if Kores Ojuriaw. it was not protected there would be I used to work The multi-stakeholder Bunaken damage, and guests would no long- as fisherman, and now I work as Management Advisory Board in- er visit this place. patrol officer. troduced a system of entrance fees There are many benefits from the It is different between now and simple enough not to inconven- entrance fee; roads and infrastruc- the old days. In the old days, there ience visitors, which does not force ture are developed and there is also were so few jobs here, but now, daily queuing at a single entrance school education in the village paid with the MPA established and the gate. Tourists have the possibility from the entrance fee.” tourism, 90 percent of the people to pay at three different windows can now work in the island. What within the park, and local tour op- happens here in Bunaken can be a erators can also sell tickets. A ro- Desmond Julian model for other regions. bust control system via a boat and The entrance fees to the Bunaken National Marine Park are also used for works as patrol I now have more money, we have land based patrol system with spot infrastructure improvement and education © Birgit Weerts / WWF officer: a better life. I have built our own checks by park rangers ensures that freshwater reservoir for my fam- all visitors are charged and opportu- During 2001-2003 over US$ by people to arrive at and enter the cause of the National Park gener- “My name is ily which is good for our health. We nities for corruption are minimised. 250,000 were raised for conserva- Park, donations to NGOs and the ate a regional added value of about Desmond Ju- have a fridge and I am happy about The tickets to use the park’s facili- tion programs including enforce- National Park administration, tour- US$ 5,050,000, corresponding to lian. I was a my new motorbike which increases ties are US$ 6 per day or US$ 17 ment, conservation education, trash ism activities within the National 280 full time jobs. The much big- farmer and fisherman. Since four my mobility on the island.” for one year for foreign visitors. management and environmentally- Park area, the maintenance of the ger group of tourists for which the years, I work as patrol officer for Local people pay less than 10 per- friendly village development. The salt marshes by pasturing sheep, national park plays an important the national park. From 2001 to 2004, the number of cent of the fees for foreigners. 80 remaining 20 percent is split be- and the National Park fishery. As role in their choice of destination, Well, at first, people didn’t under- visitors in Bunaken increased by percent of the funds collected from tween local, provincial, and nation- the economic value generated with- generated an added value of US$ stand the patrol’s duty, but we ex- 152 percent. Diving tourism also the entrance fee system are used al governments and provides an in- in the National Park must be offset 131,000,000 or about 5.900 full plained that we are here together created more high-income job op- specifically for conservation pro- centive for governments to continue with the US$ 18.8 million actual time jobs.15 with the society to protect the Na- portunities for women, enabling grams in the park. to support the scheme. In 2003 costs to maintain and manage it, the tional Park. It does not belong to Bunaken won the British Airways resulting annual benefit of the Wad- The natural biodiversity within the the patrol but to the society. Now Tourism for Tomorrow award.13 den Sea National Park is US$ 12.4 National Park is a famous tourist at- we have the support of almost all million. traction. In 2006 official guides of- people, and violations have signifi- The Wadden Sea National Park fered 4,600 walking-tours over the cantly decreased after the estab- Not only entrance fees create value tidelands and showed more than lished of the patrol. Closer to home we can take the from tourism: added value is also 100,000 guests the wealth of the Years ago, people were free to Wadden Sea National Park as an created through the expenditures marine nature. The visitors’ centres take the fishes from any area. Now example of a tourist-based econ- tourists incur for all kind of goods within the National Park are also en we have different zones to regulate omy. The National Park located and services they demand during vogue: the most important magnets our fishing and so, and by the pres- on the Dutch, German and Dan- their holidays or day trips. If tour- in 2006 were the newly built Mul- ervation we’ve done, such as corals ish North Sea coast is one of the ists visit a special place because timar Wattforum (169,000 visitors), planting, fishes grow significantly world’s largest and most important of its natural quality and biodiver- the Seal Center (143,000 visitors) more. That is because now people intertidal wetland ecosystems and is sity, their entire expenditures must and the interactive museum on the here are aware of the MPA. visited by over 10 million tourists be seen as an ecologically moti- elements (172,000 visitors).16 per year. The economic value of the vated surplus for the region. In this protection and use only of the Ger- way tourism produces most of the man part of the Wadden Sea Na- added value in the Wadden Sea Na- tional Park area has been assessed tional Park and more than half of Diving and snorkelling are directly de- 14 pendent on the health of the marine en- as US$ 31.2 million. This assess- the added value of the whole re- vrironment © Birgit Weerts / WWF ment includes expenses incurred gion. Tourists visiting the site be-

8 WWF Deutschland WWF Deutschland 9 Constanze research institutions and in looking In many case studies we find aston- Hans Janssen, Höfinghoff at current analyses we see nature ishing figures of added value from the responsible markets the and environment are important for recreational and leisure activities, mayor of the is- North Sea Coast over 80 percent of all tourists. And but it is difficult to determine to land Langeoog: for tourist use: the share of nature holidays among which degree marine biodiversity all types of holidays grew up to 25 contributes to people’s decision to “My name “My name percent in 2007 with an unbroken prefer a specific place and manner is Hans Jans- is Constanze Höffinghoff and I’m upward trend.17 of taking holidays or short trips. sen and I’m the mayor of the island the CEO of the North Sea Tourism Coastal nature really is an event. The figures on ecologically moti- Langeoog which is located at the Service GmbH. Our aim is to im- Walking with a guide through the vated tourism refered to by Con- border of the Wadden Sea to the prove and develop tourism on the tidelands and learning about the stance Höffinghof are, however, North Sea. For us islanders life on Western coast of Schleswig Holstein enormous performance of such a validated by an actual study of the the island would be unimaginable which includes parts of the Wadden small rock worm cleaning all the NGO Europarc, which questioned without the sea. Sea National Park. Our aim is to beaches is a really interesting thing more than 1,000 German tourists Langeoog lives nearly complete- win new customers and – generally for young and old. And this creates about tourist use and financing of ly on tourism. For this we need a speaking – to strengthen the image the win – win situation we need. natural protected areas. They ob- sound environment and rich biodi- and ‘brand’ of North Sea tourism. Tourism brings up to 2 million tained the following results:18 versity. The worst case would be an Tourism is one of the most impor- guests and 14 million excursion- oil spill polluting our beaches. The tant economic factors along the ists a year which will be informed guests would just stay away. In this shore. If we have a market collapse and sensitised for nature’s con- “Would it meet your approval if visitors of case not only our lovely surround- national parks contribute to the fi nancing in this sector because we don’t care cerns. And in return nature gives us of such areas, for instance by visitor’s tax ing would be destroyed but also the for our natural resources and can- unique experiences which attract or entrance fees?” entire economic basis of the island. not serve further our customers’ the tourists. But as I said – this would be the motivations – this would strike a Beyond this professional view- worst case. Actually we can be An oil spill would leave the beaches in the North Sea empty © Hans-Ulrich Rösner/ WWF heavy blow to our whole economy. point I personally enjoy the high proud of our sound marine environ- We know our most important quality of life at the coast and ment and the wealth of plants and ● Harmful algal blooms (HABs) ● In November 2002 the oil tanker commodity and why people want would never want to live anywhere animals. I myself like these beach occur when large quantities of ‘Prestige’ sank off the Northwest to visit us. else than in the ‘Land between the promenades when the kids can play algae produce toxic or harm- coast of Spain and caused one of We cooperate a lot with market Seas’.” hide-and-seek or examine stranded ful effects on people, fish, shell- the biggest ecological disasters goods. And of course the clean air - fish, marine mammals and birds. in Europeans’ seafaring. Tourism when I go upcountry and leave the HABs have been reported in flows in Galicia after the ‘Pres- train I instantly feel the difference. coastal states around the world, tige’ oil spill experienced a de- My message is that we only bor- and their occurrence may be on crease of 4.89 million overnight “Would you prefer to make holidays in a site where it is decided to protect nature rowed this island and the whole the rise. HABs can adversely af- stayings in 2003 and a consider- by establishing a national park?” world from our children and grand- fect not only the health of people able decrease in domestic excur- children and therefore we have to and marine organisms, but also sions. Overall the oil spill caused take care of it. When I throw away the „health“ of local and regional an economic loss of US$ 86.4 a slice of bread or waste or when I economies. Estimates of the eco- million for the Galician tourism needlessly drive my car– I only nomic impacts of HABs on rec- industry.21 have to look at my kids and I know reation and tourism in the United what I have to do. And also as a ma- States from 1987-92 range up to Recreational opportunities are one yor I have to ask myself: “is it only US$ 29 million with an annual of the most valuable ecosystem for my self-adulation or is there average of about US$ 7 million.32 goods and services in terms of eco- long-term sense in what I do? ” An unusually large and persist- nomic valuation. They are especial- ent bloom in 2005 of the Florida ly important for poorer and more Economic valuation refers not only HAB ‘red tide’ resulted in mas- peripheral regions which cannot to the positive impacts of marine sive fish kills, unusual mortalities participate in the booming econo- biodiversity on tourism but can also of protected species and reports mies of the economic centres. “The be seen from the reverse perspec- of human respiratory irritation in marine protected area is like a bank tive: deterioration of marine nature, residents and beach-goers. The to the people,” noted a Fijian com- i.e. a decrease in natural capital, re- entire range of impacts has not munity leader.22 sults in a decrease in the economic yet been documented but based benefit from recreation and leisure on theorized tourism losses, the activities: Convention and Visitors Bureau has cited potential losses of up Guided tours are a major tourist attraction in the unique Wadden Sea to US$ 240 million in the Tampa © Hans-Ulrich Rösner/ WWF Bay area alone.19

10 WWF Deutschland WWF Deutschland 11 Living oceans feed the world

The marine resource which most readily comes to mind is fish. Here Overexploiting a resource an economic valuation is more straightforward than for other ma- “Overall, more than 75 percent levels such as invertebrates and rine goods and services. In 2005 a of world fish stocks for which as- planktivorous pelagic fish) leads total of 93.3 million tons of fish, sessment information is available in the short term to increasing mollusks and crustaceans were are fully exploited or overexploited catches but eventually to stagnat- caught, 90 percent from marine (or depleted and recovering from ing or declining catches. The re- capture fisheries.1 In addition to depletion), reinforcing earlier ob- sults indicate that present exploi- this catch, many million tons of servations that the maximum wild tation patterns are unsustainable.7 marine life are discarded globally, capture fisheries potential from i.e. are caught and thrown away or the world’s oceans has probably Overfishing is an important eco- dumped at sea. Additionally, un- been reached”, summarizes a re- nomic problem. Cod fishing in known amounts from small scale cent FAO report.3 The number of the Baltic, for example, lost US$ professional and subsistence fisher- the most commercially impor- 128,600,000 in 2002 when com- ies must be added to this tonnage. tant stocks that are overfished or pared with the fishing quota Furthermore, aquaculture yielded fished to the limit has been grow- which could have been harvested 47.8 million tons, 18.9 million tons ing steadily for open ocean and by fishing sustainably. Similarly, (39.5 percent) of which came from coastal fish, and most recently the North Sea cod fishery lost marine systems. even for deep water species.4 The US$ 195,300,000.6 Overfishing is process of overfishing has long also the activity most economical- Alerting state of stocks been masked by systematical ly detrimental to reefs in Indonesia over-reporting of some countries and the Philippines. In Indonesia Subsistence fisheries like here in Cayar, Senegal, can be crucial for food security © WWF-Canon / Olivier VAN BOGAERT Global capture fisheries production and the targeting of deep water more than 32,000 km2 of reefs peaked at 95 million tons in 2004, stocks.5 are overfished, resulting in mas- with an estimated first-sale value sive societal losses estimated at Fishing from a different angle on a healthy diet. Fish contributes of US$ 84.9 billion .3 China is the Pauly and colleagues observed US$ 1.9 billion over twenty years. to, or exceeds, 50 percent of total Generally, fisheries can be top producing country. World cap- additional indicators of general In the Philippines financial dam- Millions of people around the world animal protein intake in some small divided into three types: ture fisheries production has grown overexploitation: The mean trophic age from overfishing of more than depend on fisheries and aquacul- island developing states, as well as five-fold since 19494 and has been level of the species groups re- 21,000 km2 of reefs is estimated ture, directly or indirectly, for their in Bangladesh, Equatorial Guinea, ■ Industrial fisheries, which relatively stable in the past decade.3 ported by the FAO declined during at US$ 1.2 billion.17 livelihoods. Over the past three dec- the Gambia, Guinea, Indonesia, are conducted by few peo- Due to growing food demands ris- 1950 to 1994. Fishing down food ades, the increase in the number of Myanmar, Senegal, Sierra Leone ple on large boats with on- ing prices will continue to increase webs (i.e. towards lower trophic fishers and aquaculturists was faster and Sri Lanka. Globally, fish pro- board processing facilities. fisheries gains even with stagnant than the rate of the world’s popula- vides more than 2.8 billion people The ships often belong to catches. tion growth. with almost 20 percent of their av- developed countries and ex- rine fish account for only 2 percent erage per capita intake of animal ploit coastal, open ocean and To counter stagnant or declining of the total yield in terms of weight Human fish consumption is distrib- protein. The contribution of fish deep sea stocks. catches in times of growing fish de- and 7 percent in terms of value.3 uted unevenly around the globe, proteins to total world animal pro- ■ Small scale commercial fish- mand, aquaculture has grown more with marked continental, regional tein supplies was 15.5 percent in eries, which can be broadly rapidly than all other animal food- World capture and aquaculture production1 and national differences as well as 2003.3 subdivided into those pro- producing sectors, with an average income related variations. Fish con- For some countries in the Pacific ducing export commodities, annual growth rate for the world of sumption can vary from less than 1 Islands region (e.g. Tuvalu, Kiri- and those supplying domestic 8.8 percent since 1970, compared kg per capita annually to more than bati, Tokelau) dependence on fish markets; and with only 1.2 percent for capture 100 kg. Global per capita fish con- from the coastal zone as a food ■ Subsistence fisheries, pre- fisheries and 2.8 percent for terres- sumption has increased over the source is among the highest in the dominantly found in develop- trial farmed meat production sys- past four decades, rising from 9.0 world. In some outer island areas, ing countries where they sup- tems.3 Aquaculture production in kg annually in 1961 to an estimated per capita fish consumption is esti- port rural economies and are 2004 was reported to be 45.5 mil- 16.5 kg in 2003. mated to be more than 200 kg per extremely important to the lion tons with a value of US$ 63.3 year. According to FAO data, fish region‘s nutrition and food se- billion or, if aquatic plants are in- In many countries, especially devel- (of which the vast majority is from curity. They concentrate on cluded, 59.4 million tons with a oping countries, average per capita coastal areas) represents 38.7 per- coastal catches. value of US$ 70.3 billion. Aquac- fish consumption may be low, but cent of the total animal protein in- ulture is, however, carried out pre- even in small quantities, fish can take in the Pacific Islands region.3 dominantly in freshwater, and ma- have a significant positive impact

12 WWF Deutschland WWF Deutschland 13 Fishing for livelihood duction and in processing, packag- was nephrops at US$ 123.2 million, Norbert think. And of course it also has eco- A report of the UNEP World Con- ing and transport. Statistics are not followed by mackerel (US$ 76.4 Krümpelmann nomic impacts for us because of the servation Monitoring Centre esti- In 2004, an estimated 41 million available for the total number of million) and cod and haddock (US$ cultivates his lower catches and smaller fish. mates that reef fisheries are worth people worked (part time or full individuals providing inputs to fish- 62.65 million each).12 resource base: We have to prepare for such de- between US$ 15,000 and US$ time) as fishers and fish farmers, eries and aquaculture through these velopments and to intervene cor- 150,000 per km2 per year. This is the great majority in developing activities. Further revenue and employ- “My name is rectively. This needs a kind of gov- often in areas of the world where countries, mainly in Asia where ment were created through the fish Norbert Krüm- ernance where we have to get all many people live on less than one four fifths of world fishers and fish In temperate regions the fishing processing industry, retail sales, and pelmann. I’m the managing direc- actors on board. And we must com- to two dollars a day. Overall, reef farmers dwell. Significant increases industry is also an important busi- exports. The 2002 UK fish process- tor of the Gottfried Friedrichs KG. municate to consumers that they fish may account for a quarter of over recent decades, in particular in ness. In the EU 25 about 230,000 ing industry was assessed as having Our company processes fish – es- increasingly will be able to choose the global fish catch, providing Asia, reflect the strong expansion employees are employed directly around 530 businesses which em- pecially wild salmon – into premi- seafood products that are from sus- food for one billion people.18,19 of aquaculture activities. In 2004, in the fishery sector. The value of ploy some 22,500 people. At the re- um products. We see our company tainable and well-managed fish- The links between poverty and the number of fish farmers account- fishery products produced by the tail level there were approximately as part of a chain of economic add- eries. For this, the MSC label is reefs have been explored in a ma- ed for one quarter of the total num- processing industry was about US$ 1,400 fishmongers.12 The value of ed value, which means that we also helpful because it provides us with jor study by the UK Department ber of fish workers.3 14,327,430 in 2003 accounting for fisheries products produced by the feel responsible for the quality and criteria and at the same time allows for International Development: the an additional 132,000 jobs.9 processing industry was estimated environmental care of our suppli- this kind of communication. ” self-reliance and economic basis The fisheries sector, including at US$ 2,176,754 in 2003.9 ers and therefore we offer more and as well as the nutrition of 300,000 aquaculture, is an important source In the UK in 2004, 654 000 tonnes In Germany 4,500 jobs depends di- more products labelled by the Ma- Coral reefs and mangroves are coastal inhabitants in East Africa of employment and income. Em- of sea fish were landed, with a to- rectly on the fishery in the North rine Stewardship Council (MSC). valuable fi sh habitats and 20 million coastal inhabitants ployment in fishing and fish farm- tal value of US$ 1,027 million at Sea and Baltic Sea and further This way of management matches in South Asia depends on healthy ing cannot, however, be taken as first point of sale. Seventy per- 45,000 are connected with indus- our belief. Coral reefs account for almost reefs.20 the sole indication of the impor- cent of all landings by the UK fleet trial processing of fish, trade and A sound marine ecosystem is the 100,000 marine species, despite tance of fisheries to a national were caught in three areas: the West gastronomy.13 foundation of our business, and it their combined area being just 0.2 Mangroves are also important for economy. The fishing industry also coast of Scotland, the northern is where we experience important percent of the ocean surface. There fisheries. The global mangrove generates considerable employment North Sea, and the central North changes. One example is a project are between four to five thousand area currently equals about 15.2 in shipbuilding and shipyard opera- Sea. The UK fleet was composed in Kamchatka we are undertaking species of fish on coral reefs, about million hectares, with the larg- tions, in the fishing gear industry, of 11,559 fishermen, with 84 per- with the WWF. The project deals 40 percent of the world’s known est areas found in Asia and Africa, in the production of technological cent of these being full time fisher- with wild salmon that spend their marine fishes.14 Of the estimated 30 followed by North and Central equipment, in aquaculture feed pro- man.10,11 The most valuable species growth phase in the Bering Sea million small scale fishers in the de- America.21 and then migrate to their spawning veloping world, most are somehow grounds. Part of the stock is now, dependent on coral reefs. 25 per- Mangrove forstes are of particular im- With dwindling near-shore fish stock, industrial trawlers now target vulnerable however, migrating towards Ja- cent of the total fishery in develop- portance as nursery grounds for fish and deep-water fish such as Orange Roughy © Australian Fisheries Management Authority crustaceans © Anthony B. RATH / WWF-Canon pan, as they are irritated by the in- ing countries relies on coral reefs. creased water temperatures of their Fifteen tons of fish and aquatic ani- normal migration route. This exam- mals can be yielded annually per ple shows how marine ecosystems km2 of coral reef.15 change latterly and have a direct Some figures may clarify the value: economic impact on our business. ● In Indonesia, sustainable reef use Bill from Seattle told me another enables a net gain of US$ 70,400 example. Friedrichs buys Salmon per km2 and year over a 25 from Alaska since 1908 and our year time horizon, and employs purchase director Eckard Kämmler 10,000 fishermen.16 built up the contact with this expert ● In the Philippines more than one in Salmon fishing in 1981 during million small scale fishers depend his regular visits of the fisheries directly on coral reefs for their in Alaska. Bill is one of our most livelihoods.17 important suppliers with Alaskan ● In the Caribbean, reef fisheries Salmon. Each year he makes one or generate about US$ 310 million a two trips to Germany to maintain year and in Southeast Asia almost the personal contact. For two years US$ 2.5 billion annually18,19 he has been regularly reporting how the ice is melting and the ice- bergs are decreasing dramatically. In Germany we hardly perceive cli- mate change in this way. But when such a person narrates his experi- ences it really hurts and makes me

14 WWF Deutschland WWF Deutschland 15 In Queensland, Australia, an esti- Marine Protected Areas support “My name David Kaimowitz and Douglas Biodiversity and destructive fi shery practices mated 75 percent of commercially sustainable fi shing is Aly Ndiaye Sheil argue that since for hundreds caught prawns depend on man- Seck. I am a of millions of people biodiversity groves. In Malaysia the UNEP Fish stocks are strongly influenced dolphins, whales, turtles, and oth- It has been shown repaeatedly that fisherman and is about eating, staying healthy, states that a 400 km2 managed by the entire food web and vice er creatures for no reason.30 Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) president of the and finding shelter, meeting these mangrove forest in Matang sup- versa. Fisheries in many areas Aside from ghost fishing, these help to maintain biodiversity of tar- fishing commu- people’s basic needs should receive ports a fishery worth US$ 100 mil- harvest a considerable amount of practices may bring a short-term geted and not targeted organisms nity of Cayar. greater priority in the conservation lion a year.20 Other estimations of the biomass of higher trophic lev- economic benefit, but they simul- and have a positive spillover effect I want to describe my benefit agenda. “In many areas wild and the economic value of the fisheries els of the food web, influencing taneously destroy any economic on adjacent fisheries:27, 28,31 from the marine resources manage- semi-wild plants and animals con- function of mangrove vary great- the whole ecosystem. Ecosystem long-term benefits. Blast fishing ● In Navakavu MPA in Fiji, aver- ment model of Cayar and how it has tribute significantly to nutrition, ly: annual market value of capture modelling for the Adriatic Sea, for in Indonesia, for example, brings age monthly household income changed my day-to-day life. health care, income, and culture in fisheries supported by mangroves example, identified various key earnings of about US$ 15,000 / (US$ 251) in January 2007 was Cayar is a very rich fishing developing countries, and the poor- ranged from US$ 66 to almost US$ factors for the stability of the food km2 over a 20-year period but more than double that of a non- ground and in the past, we caught est and most vulnerable people of- 16,750 per ha.22,23 web. Among them the research- generates losses to society rang- MPA household (US$ 118). some 30 boxes of fish, at a price ten rely most on these resources. ers identified simplification of the ing from US$ 91,000 /km2 to US$ ● Since its establishment in 1995, of around US$ 1.5. Today, we limit Depleting these or making them The FAO has issued a considerable food web and an increase in dis- 700,000 /km2.17 the Apo Island MPA in the Phil- the catch to 3 boxes only. That has inaccessible can impoverish these warning: “An alarming 20 percent, cards (30 percent of total catches) ippines facilitated a tenfold in- created a certain form of shortage, people even further.”29 or 3.6 million hectares of man- pointing to an overexploitation of As done in a New Zealand risk crease in fish catch in surround- and we didn’t have to wait long for groves have been lost since 1980. fish stocks beyond sustainable analysis,26 impacts on the follow- ing areas. the result: the price of fish skyrock- WWF works through a global net- More recently, the rate of net loss levels.24 ing have to be considered in any ● In Fiji, a locally managed MPA eted! Today, with 3 boxes per day work of experts for healthy and appears to have slowed down, al- fisheries management: network has tripled fish catches we negotiate prices between US$ 6 well-managed fisheries, as well as though it is still disturbingly high. Many fishing practices are ex- ■ non-target species, i.e. species and increased local income by 35 and US$ 8, and that’s just great! We for fishing practices that no longer About 185,000 ha were lost ev- tremely destructive to delicate of commercial value captured, percent over three years. could hardly believe it. negatively impact marine habitats ery year in the 1980s; this figure habitats - particularly vital fish which are not target species; ● After 13 years of protection the In the beginning, the traders and other marine species, just like dropped to some 118,500 ha per breeding grounds like coral reefs ■ biodiversity, i.e. all species of densities of 11 fish species were were somewhat unhappy with re- many within the fishing industry, year in the 1990s and to 102,000 ha and seagrass meadows. Industrial non-commercial value captured five times higher in the Scandola ceiving “less fish for more money” like Norbert Krümpelmann and Aly per year (minus 66 percent) during bottom trawling uses large rubber but not protected or habitat- Nature Reserve (Corsica) than in but quite soon, they realized they Ndiaye Seck, so that marine eco- 2000–2005, reflecting an increased tires or rollers that allow the net forming; surrounding fished sites. could charge more for the fish as systems can provide a future for awareness of the value of man- to pass easily over any rough sur- ■ habitat, i.e. habitats that influ- ● In the Mafia Islands Reserve in it is larger and therefore of higher their livelihoods. We promote the grove ecosystems.”21 face thereby destroying the whole ence fisheries or are impacted Tasmania the largeness of fishes quality. establishment of Marine Protected ecological structure; cyanide fish- by fisheries; increased significantly and large In the course of time, we have im- Areas all around the planet, from A developing and very profitable ing to stun fish without killing them ■ trophic interactions, i.e. indirect fishes became more than three proved the management measures, global to local level, as they provide trade is in aquarium fish. Most also destroys coral reef fish habi- impacts of fishing attributable times more common after six but this time more in respect of a a key element in the protection and aquarium species are relatively tat; dynamite fishing destroys the to flow-on effects on the food years of protection. limitation of days at sea and the long-term use of a healthy marine small, have bright coloration, and underwater environment, and in chain; improvement of the security of the environment. good survival in captivity. Collec- so-called “ghost fishing” which ■ protected species, i.e. species The following testimonial is from fishermen. For example, it is now tion operations have been estab- occurs when fishing gear is lost protected under legislation, small-scale fisheries within the mandatory to carry safety vests and lished in most Pacific Island coun- or abandoned at sea, nets drift specifically coral species, ma- West Africa Marine Ecoregion it is prohibited to leave the port af- Marine Protected Areas protect fi sh tries over the past 20 years. These around and continue to catch fish, rine mammals, and seabirds. WAMER. In Cayar, approx 60 km ter 5 p.m. stocks and biodiversity, but can also fish are rarely taken for food in the This has really changed my per- support the participation of the local south of Dakar (Senegal) WWF community © WWF / Papa Samba-Diouf Pacific Islands and therefore this supports a singular model of sus- sonal life. I fish less, I spend less fishery does not interfere with sub- Dynamite fishing is not only harmful to marine habitats and ecosystems, but also very tainable fishery management, which time at sea. When I leave at dawn, sistence activities. The nominal re- dangerous for the fishermen themselves © WWF-Canon / Jürgen Freund combines economic tools with eco- I’m back in the harbor at 10 a.m. In ported export value of aquarium logical goals.8 that amount of time, I can catch fish fish from selected countries in 1999 at greater value and I make more is: Fiji US$ 178,000, Marshall Is- money than before. My children can lands US$ 473,000, Vanuatu US$ now go to school, either French or 16,500, Cook Islands US$ 73,500, Arabian. and Kiribati US$ 1,160,000. The But there are also changes in the relatively recently-established community. Today in Cayar, there aquarium fish businesses in the are people who switched entirely Kiribati and the Marshall Islands to agriculture thanks to the money now account for 78 percent and 95 they made with fishing, and with the percent of all fishery exports from money they had been able to save those countries respectively.4 and the credit scheme that WWF had put in place. ”

16 WWF Deutschland WWF Deutschland 17 Healthy oceans - healthy people Marine Source Agent and function Notes and organism The value of such global “hot The “marine pharmacology review manufactured under the trademark Sponge Contignasterol Starting point for semisynthetic chemicals derivative ® spots” of biodiversity like coral 2003 – 2004” shows initial phar- Retrovir and was the first drug li- (Petrosia anti-asthma agent, activity as histamine blockers IPL576,092 shows promise as an oral asthma medica- reefs is estimated to be over US$ macological results of 166 marine censed for the treatment of HIV in- contignata) tion. Licensed by Aventis Pharma, in clinical trials (various 6.000 per hectare - with respect chemicals with: fection. 7, 8, 11 Pseudodopterosin, an phases) 18 only to the development of drugs.1 ● 67 marine organisms showing an- anti-inflammatory agent isolated Bryozoan Bryostatin 1 Licensed from Arizona State University for commercial Up to now, thousands of new bio- tibacterial, antifungal, antimalar- from a marine gorgonian has a mar- (Bugula neritina) demonstrated promising anti-cancer, anti-tumor, development by German pharmaceutical company GPC chemicals have been discovered in ial, antituberculosis or antiviral ket value of US$ 3-4 million per and immunostimulant activities Biotech. In Phase I/II clinical trials in U.S./Europe; U.S. marine organisms such as sponges, activities, year.13 Prialt®, the synthetic form National Cancer Institute (NCI) sponsored trials, price US$ 88 per 10 µg9, 18, 20, 21 soft corals, molluscs, bacteria and ● 45 marine compounds reported of a compound extracted from a

algae, but only a small fraction of to have significant effects on cone snail and approved as a treat- Sea hare Dolastatin 10, 15 Phase II clinical have been completed. Synthetic analogs the marine organisms have even the cardiovascular, immune and ment of chronic pain received US (Dolabella auricu- peptides are promising anti-cancer drugs show- have been successfully synthesized, some are in pre- been documented.2 nervous system as well as pos- market application in 2005.5 The laria) ing potency against breast and liver cancers, clinical/clinical pipeline. NCI sponsored trials. Price US$ sessing anti-inflammatory effects, conotoxine from the various spe- solid tumors and some leukemias 125 per mg 15, 18, 20, 21 Medicine from the sea is a compa- ● and 54 marine compounds which cies of cone snails alone represents Tunicate Aplidine First reported in a 1991 patent application. In Phase II rably new chapter in pharmacology. act on a variety of molecular more than 100 patents and patent (Aplidium albicans) anti-cancer agent with low toxicity and a high clinical trials; licensed to PharmaMar S.A, under the trade The first agents from the Carribean targets with a potential contribu- applications.9 specifi city for tumor cells name Aplidin® 4, 18, 20 sponge Tethya crypta were dis- tion to several pharmacological covered in the fifties, and became classes. 6 Gastropod Kahalalide F Completed Phase I human clinical trials in patients, and (Elysia rufescens) gene inhibitor shows promise in treating a broad entered into Phase II trials for non-small cell lung cancer the base of the antiviral substance range of tumors (NSCLC) and in melanoma in July 2004; licensed to Phar- ARA-A today used in five medi- Marine bioprospecting is promis- During the last decades a broad maMar S.A. 9, 18,20 cations to fight herpes.3 Between ing research: today, in fact, all new range of ‚drugs from the sea’ 1960 and 1982 about 16,000 chemi- compounds from pharmacological has been researched. The Coral Eleutherobin Currently synthetic production methods are being ex- (Eleutherobia sp.) tubulin interactive agent, similar to the anti- plored, under preclinical investigation 18 cals from marine plants and animals research activities originate from following is an overview of the cancer drug taxol all around the oceans4 were ana- the oceans - this sheds light on the broad variety of marine sources lysed for anti-cancer effects. About potential of marine biotechnol- and he agents they promise: Actinomycete Thiocoraline Licensed to PharmaMar S.A.; is still undergoing ad- 30 years ago the first systematic ogy.5 Due to the long time span it (Micromonospora shows activity against several standard drug vanced preclinical evaluation 18, 20 screenings started to discover new takes to commercialise a success- marina) screens, including breast cancer, colon cancer, renal cancer and melanoma pharmaceutical lead compounds5 , ful product (see page 20), only four those chemical compounds in drug marine-based drugs are thus far on Cone snail Ziconotide Received approval in Dec. 2004 by the United States discovery with pharmacological or the market: Vidarabine® (ARA-A) (Conus magus) analgesic, as member of a newly described Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of biological activity whose chemical and Cytarabine® (ARA-C) are two chemical family (conopeptides), very interesting intractable pain associated with cancer, AIDS and as a pain management drug neuropathies. A synthetic version of the drug, SNX-111, structure is used as a starting point of the first ever discovered ma- is manufactured by licensee Elan Corporation under the for chemical modifications. rine drugs based on a compound trade name Prialt® 15, 17, 18 extracted from the marine sponge Tethya crypta, now representing an Nemertine Worm Anabaseine A synthetic analog, DMXBA (GTS-21) is currently under (Paranemertes pe- potential as a treatment of cognitive function license by the Japanese pharmaceutical company Taiho annual market of more than US$ 7, 18 regrina, Amphipo- loss, anti-Alzheimer agent, schizophrenia and is in Phase I trials for treating Alzheimer‘s disease 50 million. AZT (Zidovudine) is rus lactifl oreus)

Bivalve shellfi sh Spisulosine (ES-285) Natural product fi rst reported 1999 from the commercially (Spisula polynyma) antiproliferative (anti-tumor) agent harvested Arctic surf clam Spisula. PharmaMar is pres- ently directing Phase I clinical trials in Europe 18

Sea squirt Didemnin B The fi rst metabolite from an ascidian to enter phase III (Trididemnum inhibit Herpes simplex viruses I and II, Rift Valley clinical trials 16, 17 solidum) Fever virus, Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus, and yellow fever virus

Alga Halomon Component is in advanced pre-clinical studies, rapid de- (Portieria horne- anti-cancer activity stated for all of the 60 cell velopment is confronted with scarcity and differences in mannii) lines of the National Cancer Institute quality of the resource; ongoing experiments in develop- ing synthetic methods in the laboratory 17, 19

Shark Squalamin Lactat Discovered in 1992 as a new pharmaceutical lead, cur- Kahalalide F, a promising anti-tumor (Squalus acan- cytostatic drug, showing antibiotic, antiviral and rently in phase II clinical trials for treating ovarial and lung agent, was isolated from this sea slug, thias) anti-cancer activities cancer, assignee is the Children’s Hospital of Pennsylva- Elysia rufescens, collected from Hawaii nia.15, 16, 17, 20, 21 © Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution at Florida Atlantic University

18 WWF Deutschland WWF Deutschland 19 Commercially available are also tery of cell lines and efficacy and with an impressive repertoire of Amy Wright molecular probes (for example a toxic side effects will be analysed. chemical weapons to fight preda- and her team phosphatase inhibitor from a dino- The next step usually requires an tors, competitors, bio-fouling, or discovered one flagellate and a bioluminescent cal- industrial partner for further financ- prevent being overgrown. “Con- of the most cium indicator from a jellyfish), or- ing because several years of hu- sistent with the concept of marine promising com- thopedic and cosmetic surgical man clinical trials lay ahead: four chemical defence, all of the new pounds dis- implants from corals, molluscs and phases of research on human vol- cancer drug candidates discovered codermolide echinoderm skeletons, a diagnostic unteers are necessary to answer are from soft bodied and vulnera- which was isolated from a Carribean compound from a horseshoe crab, specific health questions. After suc- ble marine invertebrates.”3,23 At the sponge: enzymes from deep-sea hydrother- cessfully completing the studies same time the organisms have to mal vent bacteria and others.10 An the new drug application can be an- retain their potency despite the dilu- “My name is Amy Wright and anti-inflammatory and analgesic nounced and will be proofed by the tion in the surrounding seawater. 18 I’m a natural products chemist and compound from a soft coral is now Federal Ministry before bringing head of the Harbor Branch Ocea- used for Estee Lauder skin care and it to the market. This is accompa- Often it is not the sponges and in- nographic Institution in Florida cosmetics and is currently worth nied by post-clinical studies for the vertebrates being the ‘real’ pro- My life is very much linked to the Squalamin, a substance isolated from stomach and liver of piked dogfish Squalus US$ 3-4 million per year.11 Others first few years to monitor for unan- ducers of the newly discovered ocean, I have been living close to acanthia, shows a broad range of activities. Piked dogfish is a species consid- drugs are on the cusp of commer- ticipated risks or side effects. The components, but cohabitating mi- the sea all my life. I started my in- ered threatened to extinction due to overfishing © Andy Murch Elasmodiver cialisation. Yondelis®, a marine whole process will last on average croorganisms like bacteria, cyano- terest in marine live by tidepool- compound isolated from a tunicate more than a decade and for every bacteria and fungi living in the ex- ing as a kid close to my Califor- mental changes should be pictured restrial counterparts, are amazing and now produced synthetically, new approved therapy thousands tra- or intracellular tissue. Sponges nia home, and was volunteering in with respect to what would change living chemical factories, produc- will likely be finishing clinical tests of compounds have to be tested.7 in particular feature an immune sys- whale watching while at school. I in one’s own life, that’s more con- ing a collection of metabolic com- in 2008/2009 and has been granted The direct yield from marine drugs tem similar in some respects to the analyse the chemical nature of com- vincing than an ice melt in some re- pounds ranging from the mundane Orphan Drug designation from the has thus until now been relative- human one, and they often cohabi- pounds produced by marine organ- mote place. ” to the miraculous”7 and there is rea- European Commission and the US ly marginal compared to the huge tate with microorganisms. Research isms and try to discover new drugs. son to hope that marine biodiversity Food & Drug Administration for potential.5 is focussing more and more on mi- My team consists of scientists from There is further potential of marine will provide us with effective drugs soft tissue sarcomas and ovarian croorganisms due to their immense fields as different as biochemistry, diversity to contribute to medical to fight some of the most threaten- cancer.12 What are the causes of this rich va- biodiversity and also because of the microbiology and cell biology to science:25 ing diseases such as HIV, leukaemia riety of pharmaceutical agents in possibility of mass-producing them optimise drug discovery and testing. ● The biomimicry of marine sur- and cancer. But it’s a long way from a newly the marine world? One is the de- under laboratory conditions.5,24 Our focus is on finding potential faces may help to develop micro- discovered marine compound to an manding living conditions con- new therapeutics for cancer and in- and nano-structured implants for approved pharmaceutical ready for nected with darkness, temperature, fectious diseases, mainly from deep- tissue regeneration. commerzialisation. When a ‘New pressure, etc. Another reason is the water marine invertebrates and the ● Underwater adhesion of some Chemical Entity’ is discovered, immobile nature of many marine microbes that live in association species may support the develop- pre-clinical research starts. The species. With limited or no possi- with them. ment of new fixation techniques. compound will be screened for its bilities to escape or defend them- On 200 plus dives by submarine ● Coral structures and urchin bioactivity against a defined bat- selves, evolution provided them collecting sponges and other aquat- spines are used in vascular graft ic animals, I have been amazed by construction and orthopedic sur- The substance this worm, Paranemertes peregrina, This coral produces an anti-cancer drug the diversity and beauty of deep gical repairs because of their uses to paralyze its prey can also serve as a treatment of currently under preclinical investigation sea organisms and the fantastic geometric and material proper- Alzeimer’s disease © Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution at © Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution at seascapes. Being a SCUBA diver I ties, and coral growth and healing Florida Atlantic University Florida Atlantic University have also enjoyed colourful tropi- may improve the understanding cal coral reefs. I hope all this will of bone development and healing. still be there for future generations. ● Underwater self-cleaning, self- In deeper and deep waters we luck- lubricating plant and animal ily do not observe drastic changes. surfaces may improve our un- However, crossing sites were there derstanding of how to help peo- was dredging, everything is de- ple suffering from dry eyes and stroyed; this is a very sad sight; the mouths or people with lubricant- very slow growing deep coral reefs depleted human tissues. that took centuries to grow are re- duced to rubble. In summary, the economic value Scientists need to communicate of marine biotechnology can be as- their knowledge better to the public. sessed as extremely high but still If people know that sponges pro- in the starting blocks. As the re- duce chemicals that may safe their searchers from the Harbor Branch lives, who would object to protect Oceanographic Institution put it, them? Consequences of environ- “Marine organisms, like their ter-

20 WWF Deutschland WWF Deutschland 21 Industrial resources from the sea

Marine biodiversity offers many duction of 41,700 metric tons, how- ● Wild capture seafood bone meal raw materials for use in industrial ever, constitutes less than 1 percent also is used for livestock feed. production processes: of the entire world’s supply.5 ● Fish waste may be converted to ● Limestone predominantly origi- fish fuel comparable to diesel, nates from corals, molluscs, echi- The fish oil and fish meal industry with the first promising results noderms and protozoa. Today was launched in the 19th century being tested. these relics are used, among other and still represents a significant ● Fish waste like salmon heads can applications, as a raw material in proportion of the world catch (20 be used as bait (the longline and cement. Such species are also re- percent, a portion of it being caught pot fisheries consuming large sponsible for maintaining the glo- specifically for fish meal and oil).6 volumes). bal circular flow of lime.1 While the unsustainable production ● There are a few manufacturers ● Reef carbonates contain an es- and utilisation of fish oil and fish of fertilizer, made from Alaskan timated 40 percent of the glo- meal can have serious negative con- fish waste, a growing market bal stock of petroleum, which sequences for the environment and segment. also originates from marine the oceans’ food webs, it must be ● Fish oil, fish meal and certain or- organisms.1 considered an economically impor- gans can be used as human food, ● Diatomaceous earth (also known tant industry. meeting dietary needs in markets as diatomite, kieselgur, and throughout the world. celite) is a relic of fossilized dia- The following are actual and poten- ● The increase in pet ownership The cultivation of micro-algae, mainly for health food, is a multi-billion US$ business © Yvonne GUEVARA / WWF-Canon toms, a type of hard-shelled al- tial applications of fish meal and provides options for a fast grow- gae. It is used principally as a oil:5 ing market. filter aid but has many other ap- ● Fish oil has long been used near- ● A number of seafood products Micro-algae or phytoplankton, e.g. rising awareness on climate change. Agriculture Organization of the plications: as an absorbent for ly exclusively for human con- like Omega 3 oils are touted for Spirulina spp., are used as food Active pharmaceutical compounds, United Nations FAO.9 This inte- industrial spills, for pet litter, as sumption, but due to the growth their healthy attributes; cod liver (health food and food supplements) colorants, new materials, and addi- grated marine farming has further a filler in a variety of products of aquacultural production most oil is in particular a product long and as animal and fish feed (addi- tional polymers are also being ex- proven to be highly environmental- from paints to dry chemicals, of the resource now is used for sought after in the markets. tives and surrogates, for example ploited or are under development. ly friendly. It helps to clean the wa- in insulation material, as a mild salmon farming. in aquaculture). Some are also used ter in the coastal zone and mitigates abrasive in polishes and in vari- ● Fish meal is currently used al- The utilization of marine algae for fuel production, cosmetics and Seaweed aquaculture presents a nutrient buildup in the environment. ous other compounds. Alfred No- most exclusively for livestock as therapeutic supplements. Among special opportunity. Seaweed has bel used its specific characteris- and aquaculture feeds (mainly Apart from animals, aquatic plants these micro-algae, diatoms are the been traditionally farmed in places There are many other examples tics to invent dynamite. In 2007, in aquaculture and the pork and are being used. The use of kelp and predominant form of phytoplank- like China, Japan, and Korea. For with possible economic importance: the US production of diatomite poultry industries). other macro-algae has recently in- ton and probably represent the larg- some countries, such as the United chitin and the derived chitosan from was estimated at 830,000 tons creased. Macro-algae (brown, red est group of biomass producers on Republic of Tanzania, Madagascar shrimps and antarctic Krill (Eu- with an estimated processed val- and green seaweeds) are mainly uti- earth. The market size for products and Mozambique, the export of dry phausia superba), for example, are ue of US$ 183 million. 2,3 Fish meat and oil made into pellets for lized for food production. Commer- made from micro-algae is esti- seaweed lately has also become a traded as a raw material for cosmet- salmon farming © Jo BENN / WWF-Canon cial harvesting and farming of sea- mated to be about US$ 5 billion to source of additional income. This ics, food development, and biotech- Fish meal and oil weed was about 8 million tons in US$ 6 billion with nearly half be- aquaculture is supplemental to ar- nological processes. Provided that 2003, mostly in Asia. All in all, 200 ing earned by the health food sec- tisanal fisheries. Seaweed farms the use of marine resources is con- Also contemporary marine biodi- species of seaweed are in use, 10 of tor. Food supplements from marine in these countries are usually fam- ducted sustainably, marine biodi- versity represents an industrial re- them intensively. The world market resources include primary fatty ac- ily owned businesses, with more versity provides many resources to source. Not all fish caught is for of products from marine macro-al- ids, pre- and probiotics, rare and than 80 percent being owned and/ global industry. food: in 2004, about 75 percent gae has been estimated at US$ 5.5 dietetic saccharides, primary and or managed by women. In Mozam- (105.6 million tons) of the esti- billion to US$ 6 billion per year, rare amino acids, dietary fibres, en- bique, these farms provide some mated world fish production was with the food industry as the most zymes and vitamins. 7 2,000 jobs and in the United Re- used for direct human consumption important sector. Algae are used for public of Tanzania this kind of in- while the majority of the remain- hydrocolloids (like carrageenan, al- The huge diversity of micro-algae, dustry employs 3,000 people. Sea- ing 34.8 million tons was destined ginate and agar, used as a gelatine with tens of thousands of species weed farmers are reported to earn for other products, in particular the for cooking), and for different pur- of which only a few hundred have around US$ 60 per month, greatly manufacture of fish meal and oil.4 poses like feed, fertilizer, chemi- been analysed, shows enormous above the national average income.9 In Alaska in 2001, for example, cals, cosmetics and pharmaceutical potential for new metabolites and fish oil production was worth about products.7,8 Most valuable is Nori, represents enormous markets in the Mixed culture of fish, molluscs and US$ 2.6 million and the wholesale the thin dark seaweed wrapped future.7 Products currently under re- seaweeds practised in the coastal value of fish meal production was around a rice ball in sushi, costing search are biomethane and biofuel, bays of China has been reported as over US$ 28 million. Alaska’s pro- about US$ 16,000 per dry tonne.8 which may gain importance with a a good example by the Food and

22 WWF Deutschland WWF Deutschland 23 The value of coral reefs for shore titative surveys estimates the eco- ries, the study arrived at a total Save our coasts – marine life defends the shorelines protection system services to be worth US$ value of US$ 750 million to US$ 23,100 to US$ 270,000 per km2 and 2.2 billion for the whole region.11 Living marine flora and fauna play The value of coral reefs is mani- year.8 For example: an important role in the defence of fold; their contribution to coastal ● The valuation of coral reefs in As with other biogenic shore pro- coastal regions. In many countries, protection is valued far less than the Commonwealth of the North- tecting structures, the functionality especially in arid areas, the majority for e.g. tourism. A safe shoreline, ern Mariana Islands shows a to- of coral reefs largely depends on an of people live at or in close vicin- however, is an important prerequi- tal economic value of the reefs’ intact ecological community. Fol- ity to the coast. In Australia for ex- site for tourism or fisheries and thus shore protection of US$ 7.95 mil- lowing a massive coral bleaching ample, the most densely populated cannot be considered independent- lion per year.9 event at the central granitic islands percent of the continent hosts 85 ly. Nevertheless, several attempts ● The coral reefs of American Sa- of the Seychelles in 1998, Turner percent of the population.1 have been made to estimate the re- moa provide benefits for coastal and colleagues found dead standing gional value of coral reefs. protection in the order of US$ corals only remaining in sheltered Mangroves, lowland forests, barrier 0.44 million per year.10 places, while exposed reefs had islands and coral reefs contribute The ability of coral reefs to buffer ● In Guam, the total economic val- been reduced to rubble within two to coastal protection. These eco- the coast from waves and storms ue for shoreline protection from years after the bleaching.12 systems’ ability to dissipate wave varies from location to location Guam’s reefs was estimated at energy protects property and lives. and depends on the reef’s physi- US$ 84 million per year.10 In temperate regions many types of The presence of biogenic structures cal shape and size. The UNEP’s “in ● A very sophisticated study car- flora and fauna also contribute to a on or close to the shore can reduce the Front Line”- report7 estimates ried out by Lauretta Burke and reduction in wave energy and to the coastal erosion, the impact of po- that a typical coral reef can absorb colleagues estimates the eco- stabilisation of coastal zones. tentially dangerous events such as up to 90 percent of a wave’s force, nomic value of shoreline protec- tidal waves or the damage caused thus protecting the shore and infra- tion services provided along the The value of salt marshes in Ger- by storms and floods. The mitigat- structure from erosion and damage. coastline of the Carribean islands many and the United Kingdom ing effects are a result of a diverse Studies from Sri Lanka indicate (about 18,000 km in length). The range of species binding and sta- Natural forest provide coastal protection for free, and they even regrow after a major that one square kilometre of coral figures range from about US$ Sea grass and salt tolerant reeds oc- bilizing sediments, thus helping to event © Roger LeGUEN / WWF-Canon reef prevents 2,000 cubic metres of 50,000 to over US$ 800,000 for curring in shallow coastal waters create a natural coastal defence. coastal erosion annually.7 each kilometre of coastline pro- dissipate wave energy and stabilize Even after a major event, these nat- ests. Mangrove forests near the wa- tion resulted in damage to a coastal tected by coral reefs. The value sediments.13, 14 They also shelter ural structures have the ability to re- ter’s edge absorbed all the energy road. Here the total coastal protec- A large number of studies exist varies with the level of develop- marine meiofauna (the small inver- cover and to regain their full func- and were partly damaged, but the tion value of mangroves was esti- which valuate the coral reef ecosys- ment along the shoreline, popu- tebrates living on the sea bottom) tionality at no cost. rhizomatous stem of these plants al- mated at US$ 3.55 million in net tem’s goods and services. A com- lation density, and presence of a from being washed ashore. In the lowed new young leaves to emerge present value terms, which trans- pilation of a coral cover database tourism industry. Systemizing the UK, the major contribution to dis- On the morning of the 26th Decem- less than a month after the Tsuna- lates into nearly US$ 400,000 per including more than 6,000 quan- shoreline into different catego- turbance prevention comes from ber, 2004, an earthquake - the larg- mi impact. Other mangroves even year. 3,4 est in 40 years - shook the Indian stood firm against the ocean surge. The ability of reefs to protect a shoreline is reduced when coral bleaching hits a reef © Monja Lelli / WWF-Canon Ocean west of Sumatra and resulted Forests dominated by vegetative as- The value of Malaysian mangroves in a Tsunami wave that affected the sociates not typical of natural man- for storm protection and flood con- coasts of India, Sri Lanka, Indone- grove forests were, however, se- trol only has been estimated at US$ sia, the Maldives and other coun- verely damaged.5 300,000 per of coastline, based on tries. Some 170,000 people lost the cost of replacing the mangroves their lives and more than 1,000,000 The research team of F. Dahdouh- with rock walls.6 (Rock walls of people were left homeless. The es- Guebas et al. summarized, “the course are unlikely to support the timated economic losses associated conversion of mangrove land into same amount of fish and crusta- with the catastrophe exceeded US$ shrimp farms, tourist resorts, agri- ceans.) Protected mangrove areas 10 billion.2 In the time following cultural or urban land over the past in Indonesia annually contribute the Tsunami, observations and later decades, as well as destruction of US$ 600 per household in terms studies showed that villages with coral reefs off the coast, have likely of erosion control. Protected coral healthy mangroves, coral reefs or contributed significantly to the cat- reef ecosystems around the world lowland forests suffered less from astrophic loss of human lives and are valued at US$ 9 billion per year the tsunami than those that did not settlements during the recent Tsu- for their coastal protection. These – or no longer do – enjoy protec- nami event.” 5 aspects are of great importance to tion by natural defences.3,4 A study economically less developed coun- analysing 24 coastal regions in Sri The monetary value of healthy eco- tries, in particular islands. Lanka affected by the Tsunami systems for shore protection has showed a significant protection by also been assessed: in Jamaica’s ecologically sound mangrove for- Portland Bight, mangrove destruc-

24 WWF Deutschland WWF Deutschland 25 saltmarshes, which cover approxi- or US$ 464 per hectare and year.22 ral coastline, with its high degree mately 45,500 ha, mainly seaward The economic value of the Dutch of specialized plants and animals, Climate regulation of dikes. Salt marshes and wetlands Wadden Sea with respect to flood is to be replaced with human made not only dissipate wave and tidal prevention is assessed as US$ 189 structures. Renaturalisation and Marine systems play an important There are two general biogenic se- which means that lower damage energy by 79 to 99 percent,15, 16 they million per year,22 compared with extensive pasturing of salt mead- role in climate regulation, as the questering mechanisms: costs can be valued as an economic also retain vast amounts of water US$ 23.7 million Germany annu- ows can help to restore the natural balance and maintenance of the ● Plants, including the phytoplank- benefit. The carbon storage service

when inundated and slowly release ally spent for maintaining the dikes shoreline protection at considerably chemical composition of the atmos- ton of the sea, convert CO2 to or- of UK ocean waters would thus be it afterwards, like a giant sponge, and protecting the people living in lower costs. Katja Korff analysed phere and oceans are strongly influ- ganic matter in a process called valued at a minimum of US$ 0.85 thus preventing flooding. 17 Salt- the coastal area.23 the turnover of pasturing the salt enced by marine living organisms. primary production. Ocean phy- billion to US$ 17.19 billion, tak- marshes are comprised of a diverse meadows of the Wadden Sea Na- Of major importance here is their toplankton is responsible for ing into account primary production range of species necessary to enable Hans Janssen, mayor of Langeoog, tional Park and found annual rev- capacity to sequester carbon diox- about half the global biospher- only. Global annual oceanic pri- 18 3 their flood defence function. describes the problem as follows: enues of US$ 1.1 million, which ide (CO2), a potent greenhouse gas. ic net primary production. All mary production can be estimated when offset by annual maintenance standing stock biomass of the to be 55 Gt, thus the global carbon King and Lester5 estimated that the “As a mayor I have to consider costs of US$ 0.8 million in 2004, world’s oceans are temporary storage service is equal to at least 80m wide saltmarsh stretch (be- together with the federal office for left a surplus of US$ 300,000.24 carbon sinks, which means they US$ 0.66 trillion to US$13.475 tril- tween shore and dike land) could coastal defence whether we should There is multiple evidence that di- can temporarily remove carbon lion per year (current global Gross provide savings on costs for sea de- heighten the dikes or take other verse and intact communities can from the atmosphere. Part of this Domestic Product is, by compari- fence of US$ 0.76 million to US$ measures. We observe the rising cope with higher levels of distur- biomass is consumed by larger son, US$ 60 trillion to US$ 65 tril- 1.42 million per hectare in capital sea level and the rising levels dur- bance and maintain or regain their organisms, part is remineralised lion per year). costs, and US$ 14,182 per hectare ing storms. During stormy weather functionality better than communi- by microorganisms, while the re- in annual maintenance costs. From it is a topic of conversation on our ties with reduced biodiversity.25, 26, 27 mainder sinks down to the deep … and what it means for these figures Beaumont and col- island. And people ask me: “May- The value of coastal protective struc- sea sediments and is stored there. the future leagues calculated cost savings of or, what will you do to secure our tures can be measured in two ways: ● The second mechanism is bio- between US$ 34 million and US$ island?” ● By considering the values they genic calcification. The formation Such an incredible sum may just be 64 million for capital costs, and We have our own water supply in are protecting: Microscopic diatoms use the oceans car- of heavy calcareous skeletons is a a gimmick with numbers. Such a US$ 0.6 billion annual maintenance the centre of the island in the Pirola - the total property value of the Eu- bon during primary production and to widespread phenomenon in vari- sum could never be paid; moreover, costs for the UK alone.17, 19 The lat- Valley. But the dunes protecting the ropean coastal zones was estimat- produce their skeletons © NOAA ous groups of marine planktonic the service of fixing carbon in the ter figure might well be doubled, valley are substantially attacked by ed at US$ 400 billion to US$ 800 organisms. Their production and marine ecosystem is an existential since results from other studies the sea and the beach has also be- billion in 2004.28 Oceanic carbon sequestration – because they are weightier than challenge for human life which by show considerably higher values.20 come smaller. We always build up - The average annual damage from water – their subsequent sinking far transcends the economic mecha- new dunes but they are far less du- floods in the United States is US$ Changes in the stratification of po- generates a continuous rain of nisms of supply and demand. But Brouwer and colleagues conduct- rable. Natural dunes could grow 5.942 billion per year.29 lar and sub-polar marine waters, calcium carbonate (one compo- what does this service mean for the ● ed a meta-analysis of contingent over a long time und become set- By calculating the costs of alter- which are caused by changes in wa- nent of which is CO2) to the deep future? We live in a relatively small valuation studies on wetlands from tled by plants. We can roll and step native protection: ter temperature and salinity, result ocean and sediments. Recent ‘window of opportunity’ which around the world. This meta-anal- as much as we want – if a big wave - installing artificial breakwaters in fluctuations of biological activ- models assume a rate of 0.121 means that the comfortable living ysis found that the function of wet- comes the dune will be washed made of concrete tetrapods af- ity and eventually to fluctuations Gt per year for the deep sea car- conditions of the human species are

lands valued most is flood control. away. ” ter the degradation of the natural in the CO2 concentration in the at- bonate sink. A similarly high rate – among other factors – bound to a

Wetlands’ ability to protect from coral reef around the Male, Mal- mosphere. The stratification of the is predicted for CO2 sequestra- specific composition of the global

storm and flood alone is valued as This may provide an impression dives, cost US$ 10 million per ocean waters acts like a ‘communi- tion in shallow waters, mainly in atmosphere. Past atmospheric CO2 US$ 211.5 per household per year21 of the economic loss if the natu- kilometre. cating pipe’ between ocean and at- the form of carbonate reefs and concentration fluctuated between - in Indonesia, a hotel in West mosphere, and this can strongly in- banks.4 180 μatm in glacial and 280 μatm The 2004 Tsunami in Asia showed the importance of natural shoreline protection in the Lombok has spent almost US$ fluence climate change.1 in interglacial periods.6 Today’s at- most tragic way © Yoshi SHIMIZU / WWF-Canon 900,000 to restore its 250 metre- Conclusion: the value of ocean mospheric CO2 level has already long beach following erosion as a It is estimated that oceans store climatic regulation increased to 370 μatm due to the result of offshore coral mining.25 globally around 40,000 gigatonnes burning of fossil fuels.7 And without (Gt) (i.e. 40,000,000,000,000 A recent study on the economic val- any biological activity in the ocean,

Depending on the structure of the tonnes) of carbon of which 1,800 ues of UK ocean ecosystem serv- atmospheric CO2 would be 50 per- coast and the use of the hinter- Gt are dissolved. 2 Living organisms ices determined the primary pro- cent higher than it is today.9 NASA

land, these values can vary greatly. in the ocean take up dissolved CO2, duction of UK waters (i.e. carbon satellite data combined with surface Building physical barriers against removing it from the water, storing sequestered by phytoplankton) to observations of marine plants show the rising sea is technically difficult it in particulate matter and thereby be at least .07 Gt per year, which that the rate at which marine plant

and expensive, especially for coun- enabling the water to further take is slightly over 0.1 percent of glo- cells take up CO2 during photosyn- 5 tries with large, low-lying coastal up CO2 from the atmosphere. bal production. To evaluate this thesis from sunlight has already de- regions. When it comes to protect- huge amount of carbon fixing, the clined more than 6 percent globally ing people’s lives, functioning bio- study takes the savings from dam- over the last two decades.8 genic protective structures are liter- age avoidance to calculate the “so- ally invaluable. cial value” of sequestered carbon,

26 WWF Deutschland WWF Deutschland 27 Eternal circles of life

All chemical elements utilizable cultural plains, deforestation and trient cycling using a replacement by marine organisms are continu- sewage production in human set- cost method for the valuation of the ously recycled. This is the basis for tlements lead to nutrient enrich- environment in its nutrient cycling all new life and thus invaluable. ment in aquatic systems. Beyond a capacity.12 The values which they While plants and bacteria take up certain limit of eutrophication the propose, adjusted to 2004 prices, dissolved substrates, animals need biodiversity will decline, creating are US$ 0.2 to US$ 0.6 per m3. Just all elements in solid form. Particu- conditions unfavorable for higher for the UK marine water this would late substances are re-mineralized animals and leading to drastic sim- equate to a replacement cost for nu- by bacteria. There is virtually no plification of food webs.5 For ex- trient cycling of between £ 800 bil- substance on earth that cannot be ample strong blooms of toxic algae lion and £ 2320 billion, to treat the degraded by bacteria. Each chemi- are mostly attributed to eutrophica- entire UK waters once.4 To replace cal element has its own biochemical tion.6, 7 this service, this treatment process cycle in marine systems and these would need to be continually re- cycles can vary spatially, which Sound ecosystems have the abil- peated, so the true value would be leads some authors to talk about ity to buffer eutrophication ef- greater. different “biogeochemical provinc- fects within certain limits. A large 1 Bacteria degrade oil and thus support es of the ocean”. number of studies have found that Biodiversity is a key to ecosystem the cleanup of oil spills © Raúl GARCÍA / increasing biodiversity tends to in- functions WWF-Canon Nutrient cycles crease biomass production8-11 and A sea cucumber engaged that systems with higher biodiversi- In most natural systems niches of in cycling nutrients There is considerable element flux ty retain their functions better after organisms overlap and multiple or- © Cat HOLLOWAY / WWF-Canon between land, air and sea. Nutrients eutrophication than systems with ganisms fulfil similar functions.13 from land can be transported into lower biodiversity. Human influence can lead to drastic A decline in biodiversity is pre- the oceans by rivers in particular changes in the environment. Addi- dicted to reduce the environment’s or dissolved form or by air as dust Valuating the invaluable tion of nutrients or toxic substances capacity to respond to changing or volatiles. Oceans are generally will alter the composition of the bi- environmental conditions and to poorer in nutrients than most terres- Without re-mineralization nutrients otic communities at all levels.14-16 maintain ecosystem functions such trial ecosystems2, and nutrients are would be locked in high trophic The bacterial community changes as waste degradation, resulting in the limiting factors for primary pro- levels, thus no further primary pro- in response to available substrates17, a decline in marine health and wa- duction in most marine ecosystems. duction would be possible and thus algal composition will respond to ter quality. Microcosm experiments no further aquatic life at all. In this differences in nutrient concentra- showed e.g. that a mixture of bacte-

Plants convert CO2 into organic respect, re-mineralization and nutri- tions, which will alter the species rial strains remineralized more oil matter using solar energy. For this ent cycling are indispensable for all composition of herbivore zooplank- faster than individual strains.17 nutrients are utilized in certain pro- other ecosystem services and thus ton and so on through the entire portions and different species have invaluable. Constanza et al. never- food web.3 Nature’s detoxification services different nutrient demands and dif- theless estimated the value of nu- ferent uptake abilities. Much of The re-mineralization ability of most damaging examples are ma- in the region of US$ 2.5 billion and the nutrients are thus stored in liv- Too many nutrients are harmful for the environment. Algae profit from them and over- microorganisms such as fungi and jor oil spills from ship wreckages, total costs (including fines, penal- grow corals, often reducing biodiversity © Jürgen FREUND / WWF-Canon ing organisms. Ecosystem func- bacteria is indispensable also for which are comparatively rare but ties and claims settlements) have, at tioning with regard to nutrients the degradation of toxic or harmful have discharge the largest amount times been estimated at as much as involves several processes which substances, both, of anthropogenic and are thus most detrimental to the US$ 7 billion. The court cases con- can be summarized as production, or natural origin. environment.18 tinue, however, so the final costs consumption and transfer to higher are not yet known.19 trophic levels, organic matter de- The most prominent anthropogenic The most important marine service composition and nutrient regenera- marine pollutions affecting biodi- with respect to oil spills is the mi- But beyond all these exercise of tion.3 The nutrient cycling function versity and entire marine biosys- crobial re-mineralization and thus valuation and compensation the of marine systems is categorized as tems are oil spills. Oil is constantly degradation of oil. Although bacte- functional capability of these mech- a supporting ecosystem service.4 released as ‘produced water’ and ria can only degrade a certain por- anisms is responsible for the pos- frequently leaked from offshore tion of the oil depending on various sibility to economically use fish Even though the productivity of oil drilling installations, as well as factors, they contribute to the clean- stocks, tourists attractions, pharma- marine systems is mostly nutrient unintended leaking from pipelines up procedures, which cost enor- ceutical compounds and other all limited the addition of nutrients – a and intentional but illegal “clean- mous sums. The most expensive oil ecosystem goods and services of process called eutrophication - is ing” of vessels. Of course, the spill in history is the Exxon Valdez the marine biodiversity. problematic. Fertilization of agri- most prominent and ecologically (Alaska, 1989). Cleanup alone cost

28 WWF Deutschland WWF Deutschland 29 The ocean shows us how to solve problems

Bionics – a made-up word com- The automobile and the sea six-cylinder motor they achieve a posed from biology and technics net weight benefit of about 10 kilo- - helps us to improve our toolbox In automobile construction, ‘bionics grams. There has been an increas- to solve problems using innovative from the ocean’ has provided valu- ing number of special symposia materials, technologies and proc- able inspiration for innovations in dealing with ‘bionic principles in esses. Marine life provides a huge research and development. Automo- automotive construction’. variety of examples and prototypes tive lightweight constructions, flu- we can learn from. The attributes idic optimisation, the development The Mercedes-Benz bionic car13 of natural materials like adaptive of particular wheel rims and tire The boxfish has inspired developers shaping a Mercedes… © Daimler AG efficiency, multiple functions and tread patterns as well as functional In June 2005 the Daimler AG economical use of resources are profiles for bearing structures1,9 are presented the first ‘Mercedes-Benz very valuable for the development all technologies deriving inspiration bionic car’ at its Innovation Sym- of new materials. Nature shows us from the ocean. Car producers, e.g. posium in Washington. The car is a Another attribute is the firm but Wheel rims like diatoms ● A family of unusual proteins acts how composition and function can BMW, Opel or DaimlerChrysler use unique research project by engi- lightweight construction concept as reflectors for a biolumines cent act together and how materials can computer simulation programmes neers and has been modelled on the of the boxfish’s outer skin made of Skeletons of diatoms imparted new light the squid uses as a spot- emerge, transform and restore.1 to learn from the growth of trees boxfish. Boxfish live in structured bony, hexagonal plates and its inter- insights into the lightweight con- light. These squid proteins are and bones how to reduce material habitats like tropical coral reefs, nal bone structures that are reflect- struction principles of rotating com- thought to be unique among ani- input without losing stability.10 The lagoons and seaweed and thus need ed in the bodywork of the car. ponents.14 Here, nature offers a rich mals, report Wendy Crookes and Why is marine ecology and bio- concept car “G90” of the Adam attributes like a modern car: body The Mercedes-Benz bionic car is variety of filigree designed yet very colleagues. 18 Squids use these diversity so extremely helpful Opel AG is geared to the profile of protection and a good manoeuvra- the very first example of a complete stable forms. The ‘Friedrich Hus- proteins to perfect their camou- in this sense? A lot of charac- a penguin to minimize air resist- bility combined with power and transfer from nature to technology: tedt Study Centre for Diatoms’ at flage.19 These reflector proteins teristics of the marine environ- ance.11 And engineers of the BMW streamline. the researchers and engineers at the the Alfred Wegener Institute provi- are the first optical nanostruc- ment like pressure, resistance, AG developed a new material mix Mercedes-Benz Technology Center des a database of complex, species- tures based in protein, and they darkness, temperature, chemi- composed of aluminum and mag- The living model contributed vari- (MTC) looked for an example in specific patterns of the silica struc- offer hope for use in optical fi- cal composition etc. have stim- nesium which is up to 33 percent ous features to the Mercedes-Benz nature with a combined shape and tures supporting the cell-walls . bres or processes of human-made ulated evolutionary processes lighter than aluminum. The two bionic car. One is the exceptional structure approximating their ideas They can serve as models and chal- photosynthesis. and lead to highly creative so- substances are combined using the aerodynamics efficiency with a Cd for an energy efficient (aerodynam- lenges for architects and product ● The eye of an octopus is able to lutions to this adversity. Some anchor principle of venomous cells value of 0.19 which has been trans- ic, lightweight), manoeuvrable, safe designers. The working group of bundle the light five times better examples: of jellyfishes and sea anemones.12 lated into a form which should re- and spacious car. Christian Hamm at the Alfred We- than the human eye. Researchers By using the material mix in a new flect the typical Mercedes criteria. gener Institute designed very light- dealing with material used con- weight but stable wheel rims using struction principles of the octo- diatom models.3 pus eye to develop an extremely Prototype in nature … and how it is used sharp-sighted lens which is con- Squids and octopuses demon- siderably lighter, cheaper and less strate how to use the light damageable than the usual lens The form of the snout of a dolphin … inspired a similar bulbous bow for oil-tankers which helps made from glass. Eric Baer and to save fuel by up to 10 percent. 2 Diving down into the sea darkness colleagues piled up hundreds of The wavy newel form of a penguin … will be used as a benchmark for the design of submarines.3 soon grows, and marine biodiver- thousands of super-thin synthetic The extremely hard and break-proof … gave the impulse for an innovative way to develop tough sity has invented tools and adapta- sheets having different indices of nacre as well as the teeth of sea urchins ceramics as foils, membranes, scaffolding structures and tions to work here with the scarcity refraction. With this kind of ma- high-textured coatings.1 of daylight. Squids and octopuses rine-inspired nanotechnology he The stable and sophisticated forms … have been copied to design lampshades and computer especially present some promising has been able to develop an artifi- of diatoms cases3 examples for human technology: cial eye showing very promising properties for different fields of … has successfully been used as a prototype for architectural The configuration of the fibres within application including construc- constructions.5 the sponge Euplectella tion of new eyeglasses.20,21 The lateral line (organ) of fishes … can also improve the manoeuvrability of submarine vehicles and has been copied with capillary hairs made from silicon.6 The communication strategies of … have been copied to create a pattern of sound waves able dolphins to bridge wide distances.6

The navigation of lobsters … has been copied to develop a ‘robolobster’ which shall be … while these wheel rims were able to locate mines or leakages in pipelines.7 designed adapting the structure of a diatom skeleton © Alfred Wegener Institut

30 WWF Deutschland WWF Deutschland 31 The researcher the children, I took household ar- whole range of potential applica- Ingo Grun- ticles from the cottage and tested tions of the mussel glue. After our wald from the their adhesive power. The mussels experiments we tried to clean all Fraunhofer adhered everywhere – to knives, the dishes but not even the dish- Institute for forks and spoons, to oil-daubed washer with its power program was Manufacturing pots, to new ceramic plates, to CDs, able to remove the glue dots. We Technology and and even to a Teflon-coated pan. had to scrape the mussels’ secretion Applied Materials Research (IFAM) Currently, no existing glue is able off by hand. After the mussels had in Bremen was asked to observe the to do this. made their contribution to scien- phenomenon during holidays in Den- The mussel adhesive protein is tific progress, we decolonised them mark.3 He reports: a miraculous material. It is soft again. In the meantime we now and hard at the same time and is have an aquarium in our lab where “The focus of our work at the able to connect the flexible tissue all our visitors can marvel at the IFAM is the use and further devel- of the mussel with the hard stone mussels gluing around. opment of technologies that under- of a wave-breaker, and this bond- Potential areas of application water life has evolved – things like ing buffers the power of the waves. of the mussel glue are the dress- antifreeze mechanisms by arctic It has all the features we want to ing of wounds, fixing of broken The very low friction of shark skin’s fishes or mussels’ glue. obtain. bones, serving as a fixative aid for rough surface gives high performance During my last family holiday in These characteristics are known ligaments or dental prostheses or swim suits a critical advantage © Cat HOL- Denmark I had a chance to com- and the adhesive protein of the repairs of the retina. The mussel LOWAY / WWF-Canon, © adidas AG bine my vacation with my work. The mussels is already in use in micro- adhesive is well tolerated by the weather had been rather bad so we scopy to fix tissue preparations on body. Until now, it has had to be started some experiments with mus- microscope slides. But one milli- extracted naturally which means it sels we had collected at the beach gram of mussels’ glue costs about is very expensive. Researchers are and stored in a small basin in front US$ 316, – while one milligram currently reproducing a synthetic of our cottage. of gold only costs 32 cents – and version of the secretion to pave the We watched them stick to the ba- about 10,000 mussels are needed to way for its industrial production.4 ” sin edge and observed how they produce one gram of the material. moved their foot and started to During this holiday research Mussel glue for medical treatments A gold medal for shark skin which degree the bodysuit measur- full body swimsuit for top athletes. climb the wall. Then together with with my family, I began to see a ably assists the swimmer because Biodiversity and nature protec- Marine species such as barnacles The rough-textured skin of the the improvement depends on body tion not only secure our living or common mussels show a very shark is the prototype for different and style and is difficult to meas- space but also maintain the often Mussel’s can stick to almost every surface like this CD. The mussel glue may be im- strong adhesive power. They can inventions. It has provided insight ure. But the results are impressive: under-explored treasure of data and portant in medice, as it is well tolerated by the human body © Ingo Grunwald be used to help to develop a bio- into how to protect a ship’s hull Ian Thorpe, the first swimmer to ideas of the earth.” mimetic glue which can harden from adherent organisms like bar- ever wear this suit, won two gold underwater.1,2 nacles (which reduce the speed of medals, one silver medal and one Some of these examples are proto- ships and increase fuel consump- bronze medal at the FINA World types for new materials, often con- “The common mussel is a true tion) and thus prevent the use of Swimming Championships in Bar- nected with nanotechnological de- master of adhesive bonding. Mus- toxic protective coatings.3 In the celona and praised the revolution- velopment. Others represent new sels stick fast not only to iron, wood same way it has modelled how to ary swim suit.23,24 designs adapted for special living and stone, but also to panes of diminish the aerodynamic drag on conditions. All of them - and many glass, painted surfaces and Teflon moving bodies. The Airbus A320 Marcus Kürner, Senior Environ- more in future – illustrate the in- coatings”, Fraunhofer scientists not- / A340, for example, is laminated mental Manager with the adidas AG, spiring nature of a highly diverse ed. “Neither brute force nor wind with a so-called ‘Riblet Foil’ which comments: marine biodiversity. and weather can break this bond. reduces air friction losses by up to These molluscs can hold onto walls 8 percent and can save 2.4 tons of “The ecosystem Earth is not only and posts by their adhesive threads fuel per long-distance flight.15,22 the world in which we live: its bio- for years, even when pounded by With the JetConcept body suits diversity is a source of highly crea- mighty salt-water waves and surf.”4 from adidas or Speedo,1 the surface tive ideas, solutions and transfor- Even in a damp environment, where friction is reduced by microscopic mations from which humans have other adhesives fail, the mussel se- teeth which cause a suppression much to learn. cretion can be relied on to stay put. of eddy formations. Thanks to the Inspired by nature’s example of That is why it is ideal for medical small integrated riblets, inspired by the lotus effect, and by new ma- and technical applications. rough textured shark’s skin, the Jet- rine studies on the structure of the Concept reduces the drag a swim- shark’s skin with its flow-enhancing mer faces in the water. From the design, the creative inventors of the available research it is unclear to adidas AG developed a synthetic

32 WWF Deutschland WWF Deutschland 33 How should a parasite value its host?

… that is the subtitle of a publi- Economic valuation demonstrates tives presented to questioned people cation from the scientist William the relative importance of econom- and also to the scientific methodol- Rees, one of the originators of the ic activities and how they depend ogy used for the analysis influences ‘ecological footprint’- concept.0 on the marine biodiversity, and significantly the figures resulting With this study we try to highlight therefore we hope to clarify fur- from the analysis. the quantification of goods and ther the importance of conservation services of marine biodiversity and activities.1,2 Valuation studies of ecological ecosystems, a process that is called goods and services also cannot fully economic valuation. As shown at We accept conceptual and methodo- take into account the problem of the beginning there are a lot of re- logical problems of ‘spotlighting’ public goods which partly are not strictions in doing so and the ques- a very complex topic which in fact tradable and can be used by every- tion arises why such an exercise is currently the subject of vigorous one8 - this is especially an impor- should be done. debates between experts discussing tant problem for the marine envi- proper methodologies and the sense ronment which often is confronted As ecosystem services cannot be of such valuation as a whole.3,4 In with unclear property rights and po- fully ‚captured’ in commercial practice, the valuation of marine litical responsibilities: markets or adequately quantified biodiversity and ecosystems’ goods So a lot of studies valuating the in economic terms, they are often and services includes some of the non-market environmental goods given too little weight in political oldest problems in economics: re- and services exist for specific ana- decisions making. Hence we try to vealing and aggregating prefer- lytic or policy purposes and are re- at least show the magnitude and va- ences (“which state is favourable lated to specific countries – which riety of economic values connected for me?”) and addressing uncer- also means that the marine biodi- with marine ecosystems, to make tainty (“what development can and versity often is not included be- In one of the most famous marine symbioses, a sea anenome provides this clownfish with the basic, valuable services of food and the range of potential values more should be reached?”).6,7 Results of cause it is not seen as part of a shelter. © Cat HOLLOWAY / WWF-Canon apparent and to demonstrate the im- valuation studies can differ widely specific country.9 Additional com- portance of healthy oceans to man- according to e.g. the local income plications are caused by the ex- But in spite of all these restriction Currently only 0.6 percent of the than are maintained by all fishing kind, for a wide spectrum of even situation, the cultural context, the treme complexity resulting from we attach importance to this type world’s oceans have been desig- subsidies worldwide.”16 Comparing economic reasons. degree of information or alterna- significant limitations in current of valuation studies. As Daily and nated as Marine Protected Areas this figure with Constanza’s esti- scientific knowledge of the effects colleagues argue,6 “valuation is a (MPAs) - compared to almost 13 mated value of global marine sys- of marine biodiversity on ecosys- way of organizing information to percent of our planet’s land area - tems of US$ 20.9 trillion – as con- Global map (A) of cumulative human impact across 20 ocean ecosystem types. tem functioning.10 help guide decisions, but not a so- and the vast majority suffer from tended as it may be – and moreover Highly impacted regions in the Eastern Caribbean (B), the North Sea (C), and the 15 Japanese waters (D) and one of the least impacted regions, in northern Australia lution or end in itself. It is one tool little or no management at all. having in mind the oceans’ further and the Torres Strait (E).14 And last but not least the utilitar- in the much larger politic of deci- The situation is even worse for values as addressed above, par- ian value reflecting the “implicit sion-making. Wielded together with marine waters beyond national ju- ticularly their importance as a food metaphor of earth as a welfare- pro- financial instruments and institu- risdiction, where hardly any MPA source, we strongly believe that an ducing machine”11 has to be coun- tional arrangements that allow indi- exists to protect fish stocks or con- acceleration of global efforts to re- terbalanced by non-utilitarian val- viduals to capture the value of eco- serve marine biodiversity and the verse the trend of ongoing degrada- ues derived from a broad variety system assets, however, the process ‘global marine commons’.13 tion of the marine environment will of ethical, cultural, religious and of valuation can lead to profoundly pay off greatly for mankind. philosophical bases.4,12 Spiritual and favourable effects.” Balmford and colleagues made a cultural values are the intangible survey on 83 running MPAs world- benefits of protected areas but they With this study we can show the wide questioning the actual and are difficult to quantify in economic importance of marine biodiversity needed annual expenditure and as- terms.13 even from an economic point of sessed the economic value. They view. But in spite of these facts the came to the result that a „global status of protection of the marine system of marine protected areas... biodiversity is still alarmingly low. meeting the World Parks Congress All marine areas have been shown target of conserving 20-30 percent to be affected by human influence of the world’s seas might cost be- and a large fraction (41 percent) tween US$ 5 billion and US$ 19 is strongly affected by multiple billion annually to run (…) and drivers.14 could itself directly provide around one million fulltime jobs in MPA protection, almost certainly more

34 WWF Deutschland WWF Deutschland 35 Bibliography

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