Caribbean Marine Biodiversity Program

Cooperative Agreement No. AID-OAA-A14-00064

Rapid Fishery Sector Assessment of the Jamaican Seascape

Submitted by Kimberly Baldwin and Robert Mahon, November 2015 This report is made possible by the generous support of the American people through the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). The contents are the responsibility of The Nature Conservancy and its partners (CaribSave, CEBSE, FOPROBIM, CCAM, and SusGren) and do not necessarily reflect the views of USAID or the United States Government. Baldwin, K. and R. Mahon. 2015. Rapid Fishery Sector Assessment of the Jamaican Seascape

Contents Summary ...... v Introduction ...... v Ecosystems and resources ...... v Fishing industry ...... vii Fisheries ecosystem management ...... viii Next steps ...... x 1 Introduction ...... 1 1.1 Background of CMBP ...... 1 1.2 Purpose and scope of this report ...... 1 2 Fisheries and ecosystems ...... 2 2.1 Fishery ecosystems ...... 3 2.1.1 Inshore fishery ecosystems: South Shelf ...... 4 2.1.2 Offshore ecosystems: Pedro Bank ...... 7 2.1.3 Sensitive marine ecosystems ...... 9 2.2 Resource types and status ...... 10 2.2.1 Reef fishes ...... 10 2.2.2 Lobster ...... 14 2.2.3 Conch ...... 16 2.2.4 Small coastal pelagics ...... 18 2.2.5 Large pelagics ...... 19 2.2.6 Shrimp ...... 20 2.2.7 Sea cucumbers ...... 21 2.2.8 Sharks and rays ...... 21 2.3 Biodiversity issues ...... 22 2.3.1 Lionfish ...... 22 2.3.2 Sea turtles ...... 22 2.3.3 Manatees ...... 23 2.3.4 Cetaceans (whales and dolphins) ...... 24 2.3.5 Seabirds ...... 24 2.4 Pedro Bank social and environmental issues ...... 26 3 Harvest sector (including recreational) ...... 28 3.1 Fishing fleet and gear ...... 28 3.2 Fishers ...... 30 3.3 Landing sites and infrastructure ...... 33

ii Baldwin, K. and R. Mahon. 2015. Rapid Fishery Sector Assessment of the Jamaican Seascape

4 Post-harvest sector ...... 36 4.1 Distribution of fishery products ...... 37 4.2 Processing ...... 38 4.3 Exports ...... 38 4.4 Support services ...... 39 4.4.1 Boat building ...... 39 4.4.2 Gear, fuel, and equipment suppliers ...... 39 5 Institutional and policy support of fisheries and fisheries ecosystems ...... 39 5.1 Fisheries legal and policy framework ...... 39 5.1.1 Fisheries policy and legislation ...... 39 5.1.2 Other key legislation ...... 41 5.1.3 Legal basis for place-based protection of natural resources ...... 41 5.2 Fisheries and conservation regulations and enforcement ...... 42 5.2.1 Regulations ...... 42 5.2.2 Enforcement...... 44 5.3 Related national policy and legislation ...... 45 5.3.1 Vision 2030 Jamaica ...... 45 5.3.2 National Policy on Ocean and Coastal Zone Management ...... 45 5.3.3 National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) ...... 46 5.3.4 Protected Areas System Master Plan (PASMP) ...... 47 5.3.5 Tourism Master Plan ...... 48 5.3.6 Climate Change Policy Framework and Action Plan ...... 49 5.3.7 Dolphin policy ...... 49 5.4 Intersectoral linkages at the national level ...... 50 5.4.1 The National Council for Oceans and Coastal Zone Management (NCOCZM) ...... 50 5.4.2 The Protected Areas Committee (PAC) ...... 52 5.4.3 The Fisheries Advisory Council (FAC) ...... 52 5.4.4 Interministerial Committee for the Pedro Cays ...... 53 5.4.5 Jamaica Fish Sanctuary Network (JFSN) ...... 53 5.4.6 South West Friendly Fisheries Alliance (SWFFA) ...... 53 5.4.7 PASMP ...... 53 5.4.8 National Environmental Societies Trust (NEST) ...... 53 5.5 Overarching plan and coordination of an ecosystem approach to fisheries (especially artisanal) and involvement of civil society ...... 54 5.6 Political support for fisheries and the need to understand fisheries’ value ...... 55

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5.7 International policy and agreements relevant to the Jamaica Seascape ...... 56 5.8 Institutional capacity for fisheries ecosystem management ...... 57 5.8.1 Fisheries Division capacity ...... 57 5.8.2 Fisher folk organizations ...... 59 5.8.3 Conservation organizations ...... 61 5.9 Coastal and Marine Protected Areas ...... 63 5.9.1 Special Fishery Conservation Areas ...... 64 5.9.2 Other specially designated areas ...... 69 6 Development opportunities and alternatives to fishing ...... 72 6.1 Alternative fisheries ...... 72 6.2 Mariculture ...... 72 6.3 Marine-based tourism and heritage ...... 73 6.4 Other livelihoods ...... 74 7 Concluding remarks ...... 75 8 References ...... 76 9 Appendices ...... 93

Citation

Baldwin, K. and R. Mahon. 2015. Rapid Fisheries Sector Assessment of the Jamaican Seascape. For the Nature Conservancy, Caribbean Marine Biodiversity Project. USAID, Kingston, Jamaica. 106 p.

iv Baldwin, K. and R. Mahon. 2015. Rapid Fishery Sector Assessment of the Jamaican Seascape

Summary

Introduction The USAID Caribbean Marine Biodiversity Program (CMBP) seeks to reduce threats to marine–coastal biodiversity in priority areas in the Caribbean to achieve sustained biodiversity conservation, maintain critical ecosystem services, and realize tangible improvements in human well-being for communities adjacent to marine protected areas. This five-year program targets four Caribbean Seascapes, of which the Pedro Bank and Southwest Coast of Jamaica Seascape is one. This report documents the Rapid Fishery Sector Assessment (RFSA) that will be used as a basis for a fisheries strategic planning process with the Caribbean Marine Biodiversity Project (CMBP) seascape team and key stakeholders to complete the Fisheries Sector Action Plan (FSAP) for the Jamaican Seascape. The report is based on a literature review and key informant interviews.

The Jamaican Seascape extends along the southwest coast of Jamaica, from (and including) Portland Bight in the east to Savanna-la-Mar in the west. It includes the entire island shelf off this area as well as the Pedro Bank and Pedro Cays to the south. This report covers the small-scale and industrial fisheries found within this area, their fishery ecosystems, and the social and economic aspects of fishing and postharvest activities. The approach is Ecosystem-Based Management (EBM) or Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries (EAF). The report covers the natural resources of the area, as well as the work of government departments and civil society organizations concerned with marine habitats and biodiversity conservation.

Ecosystems and resources The Jamaica Seascape encompasses a large area of diverse coastal and marine ecosystems, in which most tropical marine habitats are represented (Zans 1958, Goreau 1959, Nicholson and Hartsuijker 1982, Edwards 2001, Kramer 2006, Hardt 2009, NEPA 2014b). The distribution of habitats on both the South Shelf and Pedro Bank is heterogeneous and complex. There are several particularly sensitive areas that should be given priority for protection. These are primarily areas with well-established coral reefs. However, care should be taken to protect representative areas of other habitats, particularly mangroves and seagrasses, which are important nursery areas for commercial fish species.

Fisheries are important throughout the Jamaica Seascape area. They include artisanal fisheries, which use traditional small-scale vessels and gear, and industrial fisheries, which use large vessels and operate primarily on offshore banks. Multispecies coral reef fisheries are the main fishery resources on the South Shelf. Conch and lobster are also important species, and there are several other fisheries of lesser importance. On Pedro Bank, the multispecies coral reef fish fisheries are important, but in the past two decades, industrial fisheries for conch and lobster have become most prominent. The value of the industrial fishery is primarily export for foreign exchange, while that of the artisanal fishery is livelihoods and food security.

The sustainability of fishery resources is a primary concern. Reef fish stocks on the South Shelf have been severely overexploited for at least four decades. Those on the Pedro Bank have been declining for

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at least the past two (possibly three) decades with some areas heavily overexploited and other, more remote areas of the Bank fully exploited.

The lack of clarity regarding industrial landings and exports for the lobster fishery, and the apparent absence of data for the artisanal fishery, do not auger well for sustainability of this resource, either on Pedro Bank or the South Shelf. Increasing industrial fishing effort, foreign illegal fishing, continued domestic harvesting of substantial quantities of juvenile lobster, and domestic practices of scrubbing berried lobsters and fishing for lobster out of season all suggest that there is cause for deep concern about this fishery. Recent attempts to limit traps fished by industrial vessels are not confidence- inspiring, given the difficulty of enforcing this measure and the failure to enforce other existing measures.

The export-oriented Pedro Bank industrial fishery for conch appears to be well managed and follows a known plan that allocates a quota among fishing enterprises and artisanal fishers. However, the artisanal fishery, which receives about 20% of the quota and harvests primarily for domestic consumption, appears to be largely unmanaged and unmonitored, particularly on the South Shelf.

Small pelagic resources supported small but locally important fisheries according to a 1998 survey, and likely continue to do so, but there is no more recent information about them.

Fishing for large pelagics probably continues to provide a small but valuable proportion of the landings in the Jamaica Seascape. Efforts to promote targeted harvesting of large pelagics should be evaluated and, if feasible, further promoted, particularly to the west of the area where there are offshore banks and the shelf edge is closer to the mainland. Tourism accommodation in the area has increased, indicating that sport fishing enterprises might be worth developing.

Shrimp fisheries probably continue to provide a small but significant basis for fishing livelihoods at select localities in the Jamaica Seascape. Mariculture activities planned for inshore areas, such as mangrove lagoons, should be sited so that they do not conflict with shrimp fisheries.

The sea cucumber fishery in Jamaica is unregulated and has probably overexploited the resource (as have most sea cucumber fisheries globally). Although a ban on fishing was implemented, it is not clear that fishing has ceased altogether. A project to assess the resource and develop management plans, including aquaculture potential, has been proposed. The outcome of this project will determine future directions for sea cucumber exploitation.

The protection of biodiversity is an important aspect of EBM. The invasive lionfish is present throughout the Jamaica Seascape and has attracted a great deal of attention nationwide. It is fished commercially and some processors are buying it, perhaps thanks to a national program to promote fishing and consumption. Lionfish culling and derbies could have potential as tourism activities.

Sea turtles are depleted in Jamaica, as they are elsewhere in the Caribbean. There is a great deal of awareness regarding sea turtle conservation, and sanctuaries are taking measures to conserve nesting beaches. Broader awareness and initiatives to reverse depletion and rebuild stocks are needed,

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following the Sea Turtle Recovery Action Plan for Jamaica. This plan was developed years ago but implementation has been slow.

There is too little information on manatees to draw any conclusions about their status. Although there is also very little information on dolphins in Jamaican waters, there are plans to put dolphin conservation on a firm footing by implementing a national dolphin policy. Dolphin interference with fish traps may cause fishers to have a negative view of them, and this situation may need to be handled carefully.

Seabirds are a critical component of the marine ecosystem. Their nesting areas on offshore rocks and cays are threatened by human settlements and activities. Little is known regarding their status on the Southwest Shelf and coast. They need increased attention and protection throughout the Jamaica Seascape.

A settlement on the Pedro Cays has been the subject of much national discussion and controversy in Jamaica. It is likely to be too large a problem for the CMBP to handle in any comprehensive way. Nonetheless, it is important for the CMBP Jamaica Seascape initiative to be fully aware of the situation on the Pedro Cays and the measures that are being considered to address it. CMBP activities may be oriented toward addressing specific EBM-related aspects of the Pedro Cays, such as waste management and management of the South West Cay Special Fisheries and Conservation Area (SFCA).

Fishing industry A significant shift from traps to hookah diving for fishes and lobster on Pedro Bank has almost certainly increased effective effort. The continued use of traps with small mesh and tangle nets, which are a destructive (though legal) fishing gear, does not bode well for the sustainability of the fisheries. Spearfishing is another major factor to consider in managing fisheries in the Jamaica Seascape area.

There are about 9,000 registered fishers in the Jamaica Seascape area, just under half the number in Jamaica. Fishers reside on and fish from the Pedro Cays, fish on Pedro Bank from the mainland, and fish on the South Shelf. Individual fishers may engage in any of these modes in each year. The actual number of fishers is not known, as fishers are not deleted from the registration system when they stop fishing, and as there have not been enough censuses of fishers to accurately track changes in their numbers and distribution over time. The number of fishers on the Pedro Cays has reportedly declined over the past 20 years.

Infrastructure improvements have been made at the larger landing sites (Old Harbour Bay, Rocky Point, Great Bay, Calabash Bay, and Whitehouse) over the past 15 years. However, many of these are dysfunctional due to poor design, lack of maintenance, no sustainability planning, or low capacity for management, and they require operation and maintenance upgrades. Small landing sites appear to be much the same as when they were surveyed in 1998, and likely have the same problems with flooding, facilities, and sanitary conditions that were observed at that time.

Vendors distribute fish to local markets and to markets in other parts of the island. There is very little information about these distribution patterns and processes, but understanding them will be key to fully capturing the value of fisheries in the Jamaica Seascape.

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Fisheries ecosystem management Effective management of fisheries has been severely hampered by the lack of modern fisheries policy and up-to-date legislation, which has been in preparation for more than 15 years. Stakeholders are frustrated by the government’s failure to bring the new policy and legislation into effect.

The industrial fishery appears to have adequate regulatory measures that could potentially ensure sustainability of the fishery. However, there appears to be a severe lack of controls on the artisanal fishery. The reason for the lack of political will to manage these fisheries is not clear. Insufficient enforcement of fishery regulations, especially the limited number of regulations for artisanal fisheries, is a major barrier to sustainable fisheries.

Jamaica has ample policies and plans that address both social and environmental aspects of EBM of coastal and marine areas, including fisheries. These policies specifically address environmental protection and capture the importance of community-based management. NGOs and community-based organizations (CBOs) have an important role in ensuring the sustainable use of coastal and marine resources. These organizations appear to be mutually supportive.

There is a need to mainstream climate change adaptation into all aspects of fisheries management and development and to build resilience to climate change into communities and ecosystems.

Jamaica is a party to most regional and international conventions that have relevance to ecosystem- based management in the Jamaica Seascape. It is not clear how well it has been able to fulfill its obligations under these conventions. Signing them does, however, indicate an intention to meet these obligations, which can provide a basis for lobbying and/or supporting actions by stakeholders.

Intersectoral integration mechanisms are prominent in the coastal and marine environment in Jamaica. They range from the overarching National Council for Oceans and Coastal Zone Management (NCOCZM) to sectoral attempts to engage other government, NGO, and private-sector stakeholders through a variety of committees. These mechanisms are critical for EBM of fisheries in the Jamaica Seascape area. The overarching role of the NCOCZM should be promoted and oriented toward networking integration and policy guidance for the full range of stakeholders.

The unified planning and coordination of an ecosystem approach to fisheries (especially artisanal) and the involvement of civil society appear to be weak. There are many and diverse local activities to improve the marine environment and fisheries, but they are disconnected from one another. It is critical to develop a framework that will provide a point of reference for NGOs, CBOs, private sector, and other agencies involved. Ideally, this framework should be provided by government as a logical follow-on from the fisheries policy, which states that management of artisanal fisheries should be pursued through a community-based approach.

Stakeholders appear to agree that the community-based approach to management of artisanal fisheries in the Jamaica Seascape (and indeed all of Jamaica), which has been discussed for decades and is supported by most policy documents, is still a viable way forward, if not the only way. They recognize the huge challenges involved in taking this direction, including community capacity alternatives to

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fishing and enforcement. They pointed to the strides made in the Treasure Beach and Bluefields communities when fishers, conservation NGOs, and the private sector came together, and indicated that the best practices from these examples should be transferred to other sites, where applicable. A key component of moving forward is a strategic plan for community-based coastal and marine management in the Jamaica Seascape that clarifies the supporting role that must be played by government agencies.

A lack of understanding of the full value of artisanal fisheries appears to underlie inadequate government support and action for artisanal fisheries. Small-scale fishers’ value includes:

• The value added (and livelihoods supported) by vendors cleaning and selling fish in markets, vendors transporting fish within the country, processors preparing fish for sale in shops and supermarkets, and restaurant employees cooking and selling fish in restaurants of all sizes and types; • Livelihoods sustained by supporting services in boat and gear construction and maintenance; • Foreign exchange earned through the supply of local seafood in the tourism industry; and • The role of fish in domestic nutrition and health (food security). It is vital to document these value-added and livelihood contributions and to estimate potential gains from improved management.

The Fisheries Division still lacks the capacity to interact widely with the small-scale components of the fishing industry. This capacity is fundamental to successful ecosystem-based management of offshore and especially inshore fisheries. The Jamaica Fisheries Policy recognizes this deficiency and takes the position that successful management of small-scale fisheries will require participatory, community- based co-management. Therefore, the Fisheries Division should pursue delegated co-management for artisanal fisheries and focus its attention on proper management (through assessment, regulations, and monitoring) of industrial fisheries. Taking this approach will require capacity development in terms of community development, group facilitation, community institution building, conflict resolution, etc.

Some fishing cooperatives appear to be struggling and to have relatively low membership. They are experiencing competition in their main area of operation, gear and equipment sales. Most do not see themselves as having a significant role in fisheries management. A few fisher cooperatives (e.g., Bluefields, Galleon Beach) are interested in fisher advocacy and might be more inclined to engage in management-related initiatives. More of the fisher organizations may need to become advocacy- oriented.

Diverse NGOs are active in the Jamaica Seascape. They are primarily focused on the establishment and operation of MPAs, associated conservation activities, and the development of alternatives to the current set of artisanal fishing activities.

The Jamaica Fish Sanctuaries Network has a clear role to play in sharing experience and expertise, as well as in lobbying for support from diverse sources. Since the first fish sanctuaries were declared in 2009, a considerable amount of effort has been invested in this program. All the sanctuaries have co-management arrangements, staff, and some level of support for surveillance. However, the program remains vulnerable and requires support for its activities. The Marine Protected Areas need to expand dramatically from the

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current area of 0.52% of the Jamaica Seascape, to contribute to meeting the national target of 20% coverage.

There are many possible alternative livelihoods for fishers and their families. These include fishing for other resources, primarily large pelagics; mariculture; ecotourism; land-based activities such as farming, etc. Several of these options have been tried, often with some success. Mariculture may have potential, but its feasibility must be evaluated, and matters relating to sea space tenure must be resolved.

Next steps Many issues relating to coastal and marine EBM in the Jamaica Seascape are not covered by this review, including land-based sources of marine pollution and matters of cohesion, well-being, and support in the many fishing communities on the southwest coast. There may be some CBOs that are not concerned with fishing issues but that still have relevance for a community-based approach to fisheries EBM. Several organizations and benevolent societies in the few communities the consultants visited could be important stakeholders. Based on the key informant interviews and recent literature, it appears that management of artisanal fisheries has slipped off the agenda for most organizations, including the Fisheries Division. Instead of efforts to improve fish stocks (and thence catches), there is a focus on protected areas and livelihood enhancement. On prompting, key informants acknowledged that protected areas and livelihood alternatives were necessary for a sustainable fishery but not sufficient on their own.

Ecosystem degradation and fishery resource overexploitation on the Pedro Bank and Southwest Shelf cause an unacceptable loss of revenue, livelihoods, and well-being to the people living in the Seascape area (and Jamaica as whole). The CMBP may be able to contribute to refocusing attention on the broader goals of artisanal fisheries management and rehabilitation.

Potential efforts include: • Developing an overall framework within which community-based management of the artisanal fisheries can be understood and pursued by stakeholders; • Building the capacity of the Fisheries Division to facilitate the framework; • Supporting specific community-based initiatives that are seeking to promote fisheries management; • Supporting engagement of fishers in management, perhaps using the FAO Code of Conduct and “Voluntary Guidelines for Securing Sustainable Small-Scale Fisheries in the Context of Food Security and Poverty Eradication”; and • Supporting the expansion of fish sanctuary areas to improve coverage and representativeness of key habitats.

x 1 Introduction

1.1 Background of CMBP The USAID CMBP 1 seeks to reduce threats to marine–coastal biodiversity in priority areas in the Caribbean—including high-biodiversity ecosystems such as coral reefs, mangroves, and seagrass beds— to achieve sustained biodiversity conservation, maintain critical ecosystem services, and realize tangible improvements in human well-being for communities adjacent to MPAs. This five-year program targets four Caribbean Seascapes, of which the Pedro Bank and Southwest Coast of Jamaica is one (hereafter referred to as the Jamaica Seascape).

1.2 The purpose and scope of this report This report is the first output of the Jamaica Rapid Fisheries Sector Assessment (RFSA) and Action Planning component of the CMBP.2 The RFSA will be used as a basis for a fisheries strategic planning process with the CMBP seascape team and key stakeholders to complete the Fisheries Sector Action Plan (FSAP) for the Jamaican Seascape.

The geographical area covered by this report is the Jamaican Seascape, which extends along the southwest coast of Jamaica from (and including) Portland Bight in the east to Savanna-la-Mar in the west (Figure 1). It includes the entire island shelf off this area, as well as the Pedro Bank and Pedro Cays to the south. The scope of the report is the small-scale and industrial fisheries found within this area, their fishery ecosystems, and the social and economic aspects of fishing and postharvest activities.

The report is based on a review of the literature on fisheries and fisheries ecosystems for the Jamaican Seascape area, as well as interviews with key informants (KIs) (Appendix 1). We start with the fisheries and marine ecosystems review for the southwest coast of Jamaica carried out by Halcrow (1998) as part of the Southwest Coast Sustainable Development Study. Next, we build on that review by (1) expanding the area covered to include Pedro Bank, which was only peripherally covered by Halcrow (1998), and (2) adding all available literature published since Halcrow’s report.

From consideration of fisheries and fishery ecosystems, we move on to cover marine conservation and ecosystem-based management (EBM) or the ecosystem approach to fisheries (EAF). The report will

1 Supported through Cooperative Agreement No. AID-OAA-A14-00064, between The Nature Conservancy (TNC) and the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). Initially called the Caribbean Marine Biodiversity Activity (CMBA), this project is now called the Caribbean Marine Biodiversity Project (CMBP).

2 This is component 3.1 of the first-year workplan of the CMBP. Baldwin, K. and R. Mahon. 2015. Rapid Fishery Sector Assessment of the Jamaican Seascape

consider the work of government departments and civil society organizations that have responsibility for marine habitats and biodiversity conservation.

Figure 1. Map of the extent of the Jamaican Seascape reviewed in this Rapid Fisheries Sector Assessment

2 Fisheries and ecosystems Fisheries contributed an average 0.4% of the GDP in Jamaica between 1998 and 2007.3 Yet when this figure is adjusted for value-added components, it increases to 3%; fishing is also relatively important in terms of the employment opportunities afforded to coastal communities (ECOST 2007). However, these figures do not adequately reflect the social and economic value of fisheries, particularly in rural areas, that was shown by a survey of small-scale fisheries in 1988 (Espeut and Grant 1990). Much of the value of fisheries in rural areas for livelihoods and food security is not reflected in formal markets (van Reil 2005).

Fishery activities are thought to indirectly contribute to the livelihoods of around 240,000 Jamaicans, of whom around 40,000 are directly employed and another 200,000 are indirectly employed (van Reil 2005).

3 http://moa.gov.jm/Fisheries/

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An estimated 8,000–10,000 vendors are associated with fisheries, with a significant multiplier effect through the large but diffuse distributor network near larger towns (Fisheries Division 2007).

An overview of the fishing industry of Jamaica is provided in Figure 2. The marine fisheries of Jamaica include artisanal and industrial components. The artisanal fisheries are carried out from open canoes powered by outboard engines or oars and using a diversity of gears (Espeut and Grant 1990, Aiken 1993). Their primary fishing grounds are the island shelf and the offshore banks, particularly the Pedro Bank. Industrial fisheries use larger vessels and focus on offshore banks, mainly Morant Bank and Pedro Bank. Both types of fisheries that take place on these banks are considered offshore fisheries, while those on the island shelf are inshore fisheries.

From the earliest records of fisheries in Jamaica (Thompson 1945), studies and surveys have shown that marine fisheries are important throughout the Jamaica Seascape (Chuck 1962, Nembhard 1969, Vidaeus 1971, Ministry of Agriculture 1975, Anon 1979, Sahney 1983, Espeut 1992, Clemenson 1994, Grant et al. 2001, 2003). Fishing takes place from virtually all coastal communities in the study area; and some of the communities are the largest fishing sites in the island (e.g., Old Harbour Bay, Rocky Point, Whitehouse) (Halcrow 1998, CFRAMP 2000).

Figure 2. An overview of the fishing industry of Jamaica (Jamaica National Marine Fisheries Atlas 2000)

2.1 Fishery ecosystems

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Fishery ecosystems in Jamaica are considered inshore (on the island’s shelf) and offshore (on the offshore banks or pelagic areas of the exclusive economic zone).

2.1.1 Inshore fishery ecosystems: South Shelf The inshore fisheries in the study area occur on the South Shelf of Jamaica (less than 40 m in depth) and comprise a total area of 3,208 km2 (Figure 3). The South Shelf is wide (maximum of 24 km). The coastal and marine habitats found in the South Coast study area include mangrove, coral reefs (hard and soft corals), dead elkhorn reef, seagrass, mud, sand, clay silt, limestone bedrock, and limestone platform (Table 1). These habitats support many commercially important marine resources, such as conch, lobster, and finfish (Clemenson 1994), as well as providing several other ecosystem goods and services for the coastal communities (CARICOM 2000, Waite et al. 2011).

Figure 3. Marine habitats on the south shelf of the Jamaican Seascape (Nicholson 1983, Halcrow 1998)

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Table 1. Total area (km2) of habitats mapped on the South Shelf and Pedro Bank (Nicholson 1982, Halcrow 1998, Baldwin 2014)

South Shelf Pedro Bank Source Halcrow Nicholson Schill Habitat Area (km2) Area (km2) Coral Reef 7.58 253.05 1,388.28 Old Coral Reef 122.55 Soft Corals/Sand - 431.29 - Dead Elkhorn Reef 7.67 - - Macroalgae - - 3,138.79 Seagrass 1,219.30 - 474.15 Sand 131.26 233.49 2,590.35 Sand Silt - 163.73 - Clay Silt - 109.04 - Mud 79.58 - - Limestone Platform 48.35 - - Total mapped area (km2) 1,493.73 1,313.16 7,591.57 10,398.46 2,806.89 7,591.57

Mangroves are rich in terrestrial and marine biodiversity, as they provide complex and important habitat for a variety of birds, as well as nursery habitat for juvenile fishes and other harvested species. Mangroves also protect coastal areas and human settlements from storm surges and flooding, especially during hurricanes and tsunamis (Palmer 2014). Ecosystem services provided by mangroves include the slowing of water flow, the trapping and recycling of sediments and organic matter, and biological filtration of heavy metals and nutrients. Four species of mangrove fringe substantial lengths of the south coast of Jamaica: white mangrove (Laguncularia racemosa), buttonwood mangrove (Conocarpus erectus), red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle), and black mangrove (Avicennia germinans). Significant mangrove stands are found in Savanna-la-Mar, Bluff Point, Malcolm Bay, Black River, and west of Rocky Point to Farquar’s Beach (Halcrow 1998). Mangroves also grow on muddy substrates along various parts of the coastline, particularly in Portland Bight, from Jackson’s Bay to Alligator Hole in Black River Bay, Luana and all along the western end of the study area between Bluefields and St John’s Point (Halcrow 1998). The Portland Bight Protected Area has the longest contiguous mangrove stand in Jamaica and is part of the Portland Bight Wetlands and a Ramsar site (C-CAM 2013). Mangroves and nearshore seagrass habitats in Portland Bight are important for carbon sequestration (Cesar and Chong 2004) and serve as nurseries for exploited species (Aiken et al. 2002) and globally threatened birds (BirdLife International 2013).

The stability of the mud banks is essential for the continued growth of mangroves. Intertidal mud forms narrow banks at the foot of coastal vegetation and mangroves at several locations along the south coast, including inside Black River Bay, Malcolm Bay, between Savanna-la-Mar and Bluff Point, and Portland Bight. Mixed sand beaches fringe Alligator Bay and Great Pedro Bay. White sand beaches fringe the Portland Cays and are particularly important as nesting sites for endangered sea turtles (Palmer et al. 2014).

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Seagrass habitats have important synergistic interactions with onshore mangroves and offshore coral reefs and are valuable fish nurseries and feeding areas for fishes, conch, turtles, sea birds, and manatees. Seagrass beds also serve an important function in terms of beach sand replenishment and stabilization. Seagrass beds cover around 60% of the seabed (down to the 20-m depth contour) of the southern shelf study area (Halcrow 1998) (Figure 3). Turtle grass (Thalassia testudinum) dominates this habitat. Manatee grass (Syringodium filiforme) and midrib seagrass (Halophila sp.) are also present. Seagrass growing from mud covers much of the inshore area in Portland Bight, a long stretch of coast between Portland Ridge and Long Bay, Black River Bay, Alligator Pond, and particularly Savanna-la-Mar (Halcrow 1998). Large numbers of juvenile fish shelter in the beds of Portland Bight and form an important food source for seabirds and larger predatory fish, such as barracuda and jacks (CEPF 2011, C-CAM 2013, Palmer et al. 2014, Palmer and Lang 2015). Areas that are likely key nursery and recruitment grounds exist shoreward of the Portland Cays, around Port Royal Cays, fringing the coast and islands of Portland Bight, offshore of Savanna-la-Mar, and in Black River Bay (Halcrow 1998).

Macroalgae are present in relatively small quantities on the southern shelf. Common species include Halimeda sp., Y-branched algae (Dictyota sp.), and flat-top bottle brush algae (Penicillus pyriformis). Bristle ball brush algae (Penicillus dumetosus), pinecone algae (Rhipocephalus phoenix), and saucer blade algae (Avrainvillea asarifolia and Avrainvillea longicaulis) are also present (Halcrow 1998). Typical animals associated with this habitat include sea cucumbers (Holothuria mexicana and Astichopus multifidus), cushion star (Oreaster reticulatus), variegated urchin (Lytechinus variegatus), and heart urchin (Meoma ventricosa). Small sponges, finger coral (Porites porites), and rose coral (Manicina areolata) were also seen in seagrass immediately shoreward of the reefs (Halcrow 1998).

Limestone bedrock habitat is located at the foot of Pedro Bluff and along the low cliffs of Lovers Leap, extending from the low water mark to approximately 4–10 m in depth (Figure 3). The habitat consists of smooth limestone rock sparsely colonized by a mixed assemblage of sponges, algae, and a small number of hard corals. The substrate seems to have been formed from wave action and sediment scour, which are also the likely principal physical factors limiting the diversity of organisms. Halcrow (1998) recorded that typical inhabitants of the limestone bedrock were variable boring sponge (Siphonodictyon coralliphagum), row pore rope sponge (Aplysina cauliformis), brown variable sponge (Anthosigmella varians), and pink and red encrusting sponge (Spirastrella coccinea) and a small number of soft corals (Pseudoplexaura sp.). The hard-coral species included knobby brain coral (Diploria clivosa), smooth brain coral (Diploria strigosa), mustard hill coral (Porites astreoides), mountainous star coral (Montastraea annularis), and massive starlet coral (Siderastrea siderea).

The coral reef habitats of the South Shelf are of particular importance, as they support artisanal fisheries (Goreau 1959, Munro 1983, Harvey 1987, Haughton 1988, C-CAM 1998), offer coastal protection from storms, and provide sediment for beaches and seagrass beds (Simpson et al. 2012, World Bank 2014). Coral reefs are present in several areas of the South Shelf, including offshore of Savanna-la-Mar, Belmont, Crab Pond Point to Whitehouse, Black River Bay, Alligator Reef, and the many reefs and cays in Portland Bight (Figure 3). Wells and Lang (1973) identified 64 coral species, of which 48 were reef-building species. Halcrow (1998) found substantial amounts of live coral in several locations, in the form of coral heads in areas of turtle grass and carbonate sand and on the landward side of the larger reefs at Savanna-la-Mar,

6 Baldwin, K. and R. Mahon. 2015. Rapid Fishery Sector Assessment of the Jamaican Seascape

Belmont Point, Alligator Reef, and Portland Cays. The coral heads represent a relatively diverse habitat due to the presence of both seagrass and hard coral communities and are likely to be an important nursery and recruitment area for fishes and juvenile lobster (Aiken 2002). Common hard coral species found on the South Shelf include mountainous star coral (M. annularis), massive starlet coral (Siderastrea siderea), lettuce coral (Agaricia agaricites), and mustard hill coral (Porites astreoides).

Dead elkhorn reefs are the most diverse subtidal marine habitat on the South Shelf and thus are very important for maintaining biodiversity (Halcrow 1998, C-CAM 2013) (Figure 3). Extensive areas of dead elkhorn coral (Acropora palmata) can be found at Savanna-la-Mar, Parottee Point and Luana, Alligator Reef and to a lesser extent on the reefs in Portland Bight. The dead elkhorn reef habitat includes the reef flat (where the waves break), composed of dense stands of dead elkhorn coral, as well as the forereef (seaward slope of the reef), where the dead elkhorn-dominated area gives way to a more mixed hard coral assemblage, particularly on the reefs of Savanna-la-Mar, Belmont, and from Crab Pond Point to Whitehouse (Halcrow 1998).

Limestone platform habitat is characterized by flat limestone rock with little or no vertical relief and found on the seaward side of all the reefs (Figure 3). The surface of the platform is covered with turf algae and a fine layer of mobile sand dominated by a relatively diverse assemblage of soft corals. The depth of the limestone platform ranges from 3–15 m, although the exact depth varies from area to area. Limestone platform habitat is found in most of the study area, except areas offshore of Belmont and from Crab Pond Point to Whitehouse, where a mixed coral zone occurred below the zone of dead elkhorn coral (Halcrow 1998).

The marine ecosystem of the South Shelf has dramatically declined over the years because of overfishing, land-based sources of marine pollution, poor coastal development practices, and, more recently, climate change (Porter 1981, Wade 1987, Clemetson 1994, Haughton 1998, Munro 1999, Aiken and Kong 2000, van Reil 2005, CCRA 2012, GoJ 2012). Coral cover, coral recruitment, herbivorous fish, commercially important fish, and Diadema sp. are all declining as macroalgal cover increases (NEPA 2014b).

2.1.2 Offshore ecosystems: Pedro Bank The Pedro Bank is one of the Caribbean’s largest submarine plateaus and is located approximately 80 km southwest of Jamaica and separated from the southern shelf of Jamaica by a deep channel (exceeding 1000 m in depth) (Figure 1). Pedro Bank (up to 600 m depth contour) covers an area of over 10,000 km2, has a mean depth of 25 m, is shallowest on the south and southeastern edges, and gradually deepens in a northwesterly direction (Tewfik and Appeldoorn 1998).

Pedro Bank is Jamaica’s most significant reef ecosystem. It represents one of the largest and most productive fishing grounds in the Caribbean and is of substantial importance for marine biodiversity (Appeldoorn 1975, Munro 1976, Anon 1979, Aiken 1999, Kramer 2006, Bruckner 2012). Pedro Bank sustains Jamaica’s artisanal and industrial conch, lobster, and finfish fisheries, and the Pedro Cays and Portland Rock are actively used as fishing bases by Jamaican fishers (Baldwin et al. 2014). The Pedro Cays are internationally recognized as an Important Bird and Biodiversity Area (IBA), as they provide critical

7 Baldwin, K. and R. Mahon. 2015. Rapid Fishery Sector Assessment of the Jamaican Seascape

habitat for nesting sea turtles and some of the largest seabird breeding colonies in Jamaica (Hay 2006, Haynes-Sutton 2011, 2012, BirdLife International 2015).

Whereas the coral reefs of the Jamaican mainland are some of the best and most studied of reefs in the world, very little is known about the Pedro Bank coral reefs (Tewfik and Appeldoorn 1998, TNC 2012). Dolan (1972) made an extensive survey of the distribution of sediments on Pedro Bank and identified three distinct habitat types: shallow reefs, deeper isolated patch reefs in sand, and sand blanket made of carbonate, biogenic, and sand sediments). In 2005, as part of the Pedro Bank Management Project (Zenny 2006), the first coral reef assessment of the reefs surrounding the Pedro Cays was conducted to determine the status and condition of coral reefs (Kramer 2006). In 2012, the Khaled bin Sultan Living Oceans Foundation, in partnership with the Nature Conservancy, conducted a second coral reef assessment across the wider Pedro Bank to characterize the structure and health of the ecosystem (Bruckner 2012).

Remote sensing techniques and data collected from the Living Oceans Foundation reef assessment were applied in 2014 to create the first comprehensive habitat map of Pedro Bank (Baldwin 2014; Figure 4). The coastal and marine habitats found on the Pedro Bank include mangrove, seagrass beds, coral reefs, macroalgae, and sand. Macroalgae and sand habitat form the majority (75%) of the Pedro Bank, while less than 20% is characterized as coral reefs and 6% is seagrass bed habitat (Table 1). Small stands of red and white mangrove are found on Middle Cay, and salt ponds are found on all three cays (Baldwin personal observation 2014).

Figure 4. Map of marine habitats (less than 30 m depth) on the Pedro Bank offshore region of the Jamaican Seascape

8 Baldwin, K. and R. Mahon. 2015. Rapid Fishery Sector Assessment of the Jamaican Seascape

The primary disturbances affecting the Pedro Bank’s coral reef are overfishing and wave energy from large storms and hurricanes (Kramer 2006). Localized impacts to the coral reefs surrounding the cays (e.g., cyanobacterial algal blooms and macroalgal overgrowth on nearshore corals) were due to human activities on the Cays (e.g., unregulated waste disposal, sewage). However, Kramer noted that farther away from the Cays, macroalgal overgrowth was low, despite the absence of the long-spined black urchin (Diadema antillarum), which reduces macroalgal cover.

The Pedro Bank has a well-developed shallow reef system with high structural complexity, providing critical habitat for fishes and other reef organisms in an otherwise barren bank system. Live coral cover on reefs surrounding the Pedro Cays was 16%, lower than the regional Caribbean average (20%) but higher than cover reported for Jamaica's north coast (11%) (Kramer 2006). Bruckner (2012) found the reef ecosystem of the Pedro Bank to be in relatively good condition, exhibiting low levels of partial mortality, few diseases, and low to moderate macroalgae cover. Diversity of coral communities was relatively low (a maximum of 21 species in a single location) (Bruckner 2012).

The reefs surrounding the Pedro Cays and in the shallow shoal areas contained regionally important metapopulations of elkhorn coral (A. palmata) and staghorn coral (Acropora cervicornis) (Kramer 2006). Although most large colonies were dead, many were still upright in a growth position with small colony fragments showing recovery (Bruckner 2012). A. cervicornis was rare; one large stand was identified seaward of South West Cay, and as few isolated colonies were observed on shelf edges. Some of the highest densities of herbivorous fishes were found on these Acropora shoals, followed by patch reefs and fore reefs (Kramer 2006). Unlike the reefs of the South Shelf, M. annularis and Montastraea faveolata populations are abundant on forereefs and include many larger (2–3 m diameter) colonies. Macroalgal cover was generally found to be low to moderate, dominated by small turfs with moderate cover of crustose coralline algae and erect coralline algae (Halimeda) with very little Lobophora or Dictyota species (Bruckner 2012).

2.1.3 Sensitive marine ecosystems Based on the distribution of the most important habitats, Halcrow (1998) identified five sensitive areas on the Southern Shelf, of which one (Alligator Reef) is now reported to be destroyed. These areas are listed below in order of sensitivity, followed by the Pedro Bank and Pedro Cays, which have been added in this study.

Portland Bight: Contains several areas of diverse healthy coral and some patches of dead elkhorn coral showing signs of recovery. Includes large expanses of limestone platform and white sand suitable for the creation of artificial reefs. Fringed with some of the richest areas of mangrove in the study area and contains large expanses of intertidal and subtidal mud and seagrass. One of the key fish nurseries of the south coast and contains several cays that are nesting sites for seabirds. Described in detail in the Portland Bight Sustainable Development Area Management Plan 1998–2003 (C-CAM/NRCA 1998). It is a Ramsar site. There are two bauxite/alumina ports at Rocky Point and Old Harbour Bay, a power station, and other industries in the catchment.

9 Baldwin, K. and R. Mahon. 2015. Rapid Fishery Sector Assessment of the Jamaican Seascape

Whitehouse Bay: Contains a substantial area of coral heads off Belmont Point, several patches of dead elkhorn reef to the south, and large areas of limestone platform. The coast includes long stretches of sandy beach, which are potential turtle nesting sites, and mangroves to the north and south. Deep water (>20 m) is closer to the shore here than anywhere else in the study area, adding to the habitat and species diversity (Murray 2006).

Savanna-la-Mar: Contains a small area (0.3 km2) of healthy coral heads and larger areas of dead elkhorn reef and limestone platform. Large areas of seagrass and mangrove along the coast serve as important fish nursery habitat.

Black River Bay: Contains several areas of dead elkhorn reef showing signs of recovery, in a largely muddy seabed. Mixed sand beaches along the coast are turtle nesting sites and may also be used by crocodiles. There are mangroves to the north near the mouth of the Black River, which are a fish nursery (Bjork 1984).

Pedro Bank: Jamaica’s most significant reef ecosystem, composed of a well-developed shallow reef system with high structural complexity that provides critical habitat for fishes and other reef organisms in an otherwise barren bank system (Nicholson 1983). The largest amount of live coral cover is found in the reef ecosystem of the Pedro Bank and is in relatively good condition, exhibiting low levels of partial mortality, few diseases, and low to moderate macroalgae cover (Bruckner 2012). The eastern half of Pedro Bank, particularly the area surrounding the Pedro Cays, contains regionally important metapopulations of elkhorn coral (A. palmata) and staghorn coral (A. cervicornis) (Kramer 2006), in addition to being designated an Important Biodiversity and Fishing Area in the Pedro Bank Marine Spatial Plan (Baldwin 2015).

Conclusion: The Jamaica Seascape encompasses a large area of diverse coastal and marine ecosystems with in which most tropical marine habitats are represented. The distribution of habitats on both the shelf and Pedro Bank is heterogeneous and complex. Several particularly sensitive areas should be given priority for protection. These are primarily areas with well-established coral reefs. However, care should be taken to protect representative areas of other habitats, particularly mangroves and seagrasses, which are important nursery areas for commercial species.

2.2 Resource types and status Multispecies coral reef fisheries are the main fishery resources on the South Shelf (Munro 1983, Aiken and Haughton 1987, Koslow et al. 1988, Aiken 1993, Clemenson 1994, Halcrow 1998, Aiken and Kong 2000, CFRAMP 2000, Venema 2004). Conch and lobster are also important, and several other fisheries of lesser importance will be reviewed below. On Pedro Bank, the multispecies coral reef fish fisheries are also important (Anon 1979, FAO 1981, Hartsuiker and Nicholson 1981, Hartsuiker 1982, 1984, Munro 1983, Koslow et al. 1988), but in the past two decades, industrial fisheries for conch and lobster have become more prominent (Mahon 1992, Appeldoorn 1995, Kelly 2002, Aiken et al. 2006, CRFM 2008, Morris 2010, Aiken 2014). The value of the industrial fishery is primarily export for foreign exchange, while that of the artisanal fishery is livelihoods and food security (Gustavson 2002).

2.2.1 Reef fishes

10 Baldwin, K. and R. Mahon. 2015. Rapid Fishery Sector Assessment of the Jamaican Seascape

The species composition and biology of the reef fishes and reef fish catch in the Jamaica Seascape have been covered in many reports and will not be repeated here (e.g., Munro 1983, Nicholson and Hartsuijker 1983, Clemenson 1994, Haughton 1998, Kramer 2006, Murray and Aiken 2006, Bruckner 2013).

There have been several observations and assessments of the potential yield and status of reef fishes from the South Shelf and Pedro Bank from 1945 to 2013. The earliest of these, by Thompson (1945), observed that the South Shelf artisanal fishery was a case of “…too many men trying to catch too few fish.” Subsequent assessments, summarized in Table 2, used a variety of field and analytical methods, making it difficult to compare trends over time, except by comparing catch and community species composition. Estimates of potential yield have varied by a factor of two and are not very useful in the absence of reliable estimates of annual catches from the Pedro Bank and South Shelf. Such estimates are fraught with several difficulties, including an inadequate data collection system for the artisanal fisheries, inability to separate landings from the Bank and the South Shelf, and unknown levels of illegal fishing by foreign vessels (although this type of fishing is predominantly of conch and lobster). Many of the reports refer to the entire island shelf or the entire South Shelf of Jamaica, which makes it difficult to know what exactly the situation is for the Southwest Shelf. Some studies refer to Pedro Bank explicitly, but many have focused primarily on the Pedro Cays area, where Pedro Cays–based artisanal fishers are most active.

Table 2. Summary of reef fish assessment studies relevant to the South Shelf and Pedro Bank

Area/year Method Conclusion Source Pedro Bank FAO/UNDP Fishery Training Catches of large snappers, jacks, and groupers are increasingly rare Hartsuijker 1982 1966–1969 Programme Experimental Fishing Entire shelf Production model based on • Maximum sustainable yield (MSY) of the Jamaica shelf fisheries was Munro 1983 1968 number of canoes and total 4.1 mt/km2 catch per parish and for the • South Shelf was lightly exploited (about 0.38 canoes/km2), with effort South Shelf being only 15% of that required to obtain MSY (3.2 canoes/km2) South Shelf Yield-per-recruit and • Effective effort on the South Shelf was higher than estimated by the Munro 1983 1968 yield/effort analysis production model, with MSY achieved at 1.5 canoes/km2 • Potential harvest from the South Shelf was 1.235–1.660 mt/km2/yr • Potential yield for the South Shelf is 3,400–4,600 mt/yr • Mesh size of 2.5" would optimize yield Pedro Cays area Extrapolation of yield per unit • Potential yield of 1,500 mt/yr for the area of the Pedro Cays accessible Munro 1983 area to canoe fishers Pedro Bank Extrapolation of yield per unit • Yields of at least 6,200 mt/yr are possible using fish traps in depths of Munro 1983 (excluding Pedro area to area of the bank 10–45 m Cays) within 20 m isobath or within • Additional 500 mt/yr could be obtained using lines in deep water 9.3 km of edge (excluding • Mesh size of 2.5" would optimize yield unproductive center) Entire Pedro Re-estimation of the Potential yield is 6,200 mt/yr Munro 1983 Bank 1972 productive area Entire island Production model based on • Catch per unit effort (CPUE) declined from 4.1 mt/canoe/yr in 1968 to Aiken and shelf number of canoes and total 3.5 in 1973 to 2.5 in 1981 Haughton 1987 1981 catch for 1968, 1973, and • Proportion of “quality” fish in the catch declined from 42% in 1968 to 1981 30% in 1973 to 29% in 1981, while proportions of “common” and “trash” fish increased • Inshore fishery was overexploited and reached its MSY around 1975 Entire island Production model based on • Total boats increased by only 21% between 1968 and 1981; effective Haughton 1988 shelf 1981 number of canoes and total effort increased 100% due to mechanization catch for 1968, 1973, 1981,

11 Baldwin, K. and R. Mahon. 2015. Rapid Fishery Sector Assessment of the Jamaican Seascape

treating North and South • MSY per unit area for the Jamaica shelf is 2.2 mt/km2/yr at 1.1 shelves separately canoes/km2 • MSY for the South Shelf would be 7,836 mt/yr Port Royal Cays Repeat of 1969–73 surveys • Exploitation had increased from heavy to very heavy Koslow et al. 1988 1986 using Port Royal Cays as an • Catch rates had decreased by 33% on-shelf site • The proportion of larger and preferred species in the catch had declined Pedro Bank Resurvey of Pedro Bank from • A potential yield of 2,500 mt/yr; much reduced from Munro’s Hartsuijker and 1981 1969–73 surveys using traps estimate. Reef area estimated to be only 32% of bank rather than 60% Nicholson 1981, estimated by Munro. Breakout by area as follows: Hartsuijker 1982 • Pedro Cays 750 mt/yr • Eastern Pedro Bank 540 mt/yr • Southwest Pedro Bank (west of Banner Reef) 850 mt/yr • Northwest, Midwest and Northern edge 410 mt/yr SE Pedro Bank Repeat of 1969–73 surveys in • Exploitation had increased from moderate to heavy Koslow et al. 1988 1986 an area that was moderately • Catch rates had decreased by 82% unexploited in 1969–73 • The proportion of larger and preferred species in the catch had declined SW Pedro Bank Repeat of 1969–73 surveys in • Exploitation had increased from unexploited to lightly/moderately Koslow et al. 1988 1986 an area that was unexploited exploited in this area in 1969–73 • Catch rates had not changed • No change in species composition of the catch South Shelf Trawl surveys in non-reef Composition and abundance compared for three zones: silty Nicholson and 1979–1981 areas. USSR/Jamaica trawl sand/clayed silt, old coral flat, coral sand Hartsuijker 1983 survey program Black River to Portland Bight

South Shelf Study of South Shelf fishery • Fishing effort on the South Shelf had decreased from 2137 vessels in Clemetson 1994 1989–1991 1981 to 963 in 1991 Koslow et al. 1994 • Catch declined from 4225 mt in 1981 to 994 in 1991 • Catch/canoe/yr decreased from 1.98 in 1981 to 1.03 in 1991 Predominantly Composition and size of Dominant families were “trash fish” Scaridae (parrotfish), 41%, Murray and Aiken NW Pedro Bank, landings from the two areas Mullidae (goatfishes), 18%, and the Holocentridae (squirrelfishes), 9% 2006 partly SW shelf off Whitehouse

Pedro Cays area SCUBA survey using AGGRA • No large-bodied (> 30 cm) groupers or snappers and only three large- Kramer 2006 2005 methodology bodied (> 30 cm) parrotfishes were observed during approximately 150 underwater hours of observation • Most reef fish species are overfished at present Pedro Bank SCUBA surveys on 2 m x 30 m • A moderate diversity of reef fish, 116 species recorded Bruckner 2012 2012 transects predominantly in • Fish predominantly small in size (< 20 cm total length), with very few Pedro cays area, but also individuals over 30 cm other southeast and east • Herbivores uncommon and dominated by small juveniles and sub bank sites adults • Parrotfish populations consisted predominantly of juveniles and initial phase females < 20 cm total length Portland Bight SCUBA survey using AGGRA • Predators and large parrotfish absent, most fish small and juvenile Waite/UWI 2014 2014 methodology

Despite the shortcomings in the studies, the various assessments all point to the same major conclusions: (1) reef fishes on the South Shelf have been severely overexploited for at least four decades, and (2) those on the Pedro Bank have been declining for at least the past two (possibly three) decades, with some areas heavily overexploited and other more remote areas of the Bank fully exploited (Koslow et al. 1988, 1994). Some of the key evidence for these conclusions is recounted below, but all stakeholders agree with this

12 Baldwin, K. and R. Mahon. 2015. Rapid Fishery Sector Assessment of the Jamaican Seascape

assessment, which is clearly stated in the Jamaica Fisheries and Aquaculture Policy (GoJ 2015). Good overall accounts of the history of use and depletion of reef resources in Jamaica are provided by Hardt (2009) and Waite et al. (2011).

Haughton (1988) noted that while the total annual catch and number of boats operating on the Shelf had not changed much from 1968–1981, changes in mechanization resulted in a doubling of fishing effort and a 41% decrease in CPUE. He noted a decrease in highly valued species. Cuban research cruises in 1977– 1978 found the highest catch rates on the northwest shelf of the Pedro Bank and the lowest on the southwest shelf, underlining the geographical variability in biomass across the Bank (Aiken 1980).

In 2006, Pedro Bank was heavily overfished. No large-bodied (> 30 cm) groupers or snappers and only three large-bodied (> 30 cm) parrotfishes were observed during approximately 150 underwater hours of observation (Kramer 2006). Surgeonfish were the most abundant fish family observed (40% of the total). Parrotfishes (25%) and grunts (23%) were also abundant. The most abundant species were blue tang, Caesar grunt, redband parrotfish, stoplight parrotfish, doctorfish, striped parrotfish, and yellowtail damsel. Few snapper and seabass were observed (< 1%). The only seabasses observed were the graysby, coney, rock hind, and red hind. The only snappers observed were yellowtail, mahogany, and mutton snapper.

In 2012, Bruckner found the Pedro Bank reef environment to be in relatively good condition. However, as noted by Kramer (2006), fish were predominantly small in size (less than 20 cm total length), with very few individuals over 30 cm in length. Herbivores were uncommon and were dominated by small juveniles and sub-adults. Parrotfish populations consisted predominantly of juveniles and initial phase females and were dominated by red band parrotfish. Snappers, groupers, and grunts were all rare or absent, except for a few small schools of French grunts. The dominant sea bass present were coneys and graysbys. An unnatural abundance of nurse sharks was reported (Brucker 2012, Baldwin 2014 personal observation). The Bank appears to be under considerable pressure from spear fishers, who used compressors to target primarily herbivores (parrotfish). Fish traps were also widely used and primarily captured surgeonfish.

Another key aspect of the overexploitation of reef fishes on Pedro Bank and the South Shelf is the economic viability of fishing (Kong 2006, van Reil 2005). As early as 1982, there were concerns about the economic viability of artisanal fishing on Pedro Bank, as the fishery was at or beyond the optimum economic yield (Hartsuijker 1982). Hartsuijker (1982) pointed out that given the long distance from fishing communities to the Bank and the inefficiency of small outboard-powered craft, fishing at the maximum sustainable yield (MSY) might not be economically viable. KIs for the present assessment indicated that it was now very difficult to make any profit on a trip from the mainland to Pedro Bank (E. Cameron, D. Abrahams, H. Honeyghan 2015 personal communication). For this reason, many fishers in the Treasure Beach area have stopped fishing and turned to other livelihoods; but in Rocky Point there are few alternatives to fishing.i

Conclusions: (1) reef fish stocks on the South Shelf have been severely overexploited for at least four decades, and (2) reef fish stocks on the Pedro Bank have been declining for at least the past two

13 Baldwin, K. and R. Mahon. 2015. Rapid Fishery Sector Assessment of the Jamaican Seascape

(possibly three) decades, with some areas heavily overexploited and other more remote areas of the Bank fully exploited.

2.2.2 Lobster The Caribbean spiny lobster (Panulirus argus) is widely distributed in the coastal waters and on the offshore banks around Jamaica (Monnereau 2007). Six species of lobsters are found in Jamaica, but only two, Panulirus guttatus and P. argus, mainly the latter, are commercially valuable (Aiken 1984).

Fishing for lobster takes place on the island shelf and offshore banks (Pedro Bank, Morant Bank, and Formigas Bank) (Murray 2007). The spiny lobster fishery includes mainland artisanal, offshore artisanal, and offshore industrial efforts. It is carried out using traps, hookah diving, and nets. Kelly (2003) provides a breakdown of catch by gear in 2001 (Table 4). The industrial lobster fishery in Jamaica dates to 1975 and is mainly export oriented (Martin-Murray 2009). The spiny lobster (P. argus) fishery is the second highest in terms of economic importance (estimated at US$ 4–6 million/yr) with the United States as the main importer (Fisheries Division 2004). Lobster catches from the Pedro Bank accounted for about 60% of the total Table 4. Landings of spiny lobsters in Jamaica landings in the industrial fishery (Halcrow 1998). The by gear (Kelly 2002) Caribbean spiny lobster fishery is the second most Gear type Landings % of lucrative export fishery in Jamaica (CRFM 2011). The (mt) landings export of lobsters increased significantly, from 0.68% of Antillean Z-trap 103 38 total fish exports in 1962 to 69% in 1995 (Kelly 2002). Scuba 45 17 There have been several descriptions of the lobster Free dive 88 32 fisheries over the years, but most available data are for Gill net 8 3 the industrial fishery, and there is little information for Hookah 18 7 Wooden traps 8 3 the artisanal fishery either on Pedro Bank or the island Total 271 100 shelf (Grant et al. 1996, Kelly 2003, Murray 2007, Martin-Murray 2009, Morris 2010, CRFM 2011, Aiken et al. 2013). There have also been several studies of lobster biology, population dynamics, and fishery status in Jamaica (Aiken 1983, Munro 1983, Haughton and King 1989). Several authors warned that if the effort on Pedro Bank increased, the fishery was likely to become overexploited (Munro 1983, Aiken 1984, Haughton 1988).

An assessment of the Pedro Bank industrial fishery for lobster based on population analyses concluded that the resource was overfished (Martin-Murray 2009). A bioeconomic analysis of the Pedro Bank industrial fishery also indicated that in 2007, there was biological and economic overexploitation of this fishery. From 2000–2007, average landings of lobster in Jamaica were 394 mt, whereas MSY was estimated at 170 mt (Morris 2010). The biomass level far below the optimal level (Morris 2010). These analyses did not include the harvest of the artisanal fishers or the illegal harvesting by foreign vessels, which is substantial (Kong 2006). A recent review of lobster fisheries in Caribbean Community and Common Market (CARICOM) countries also concluded that lobster fisheries in Jamaica were overexploited (CRFM 2011). KIs interviewed for this report indicated that lobsters were overfished on the South Shelf and were well on the way to becoming overexploited on Pedro Bank. Several KIs were concerned about the lack of measures to manage the artisanal fisheries for lobster. One person stated that the artisanal

14 Baldwin, K. and R. Mahon. 2015. Rapid Fishery Sector Assessment of the Jamaican Seascape

fishers were probably harvesting more than the industrial fishery, which could threaten sustainability if the harvests were not controlled. Artisanal fishers on the Pedro Cays reported decreasing catches, having to spend longer at sea, and having to fish deeper (Baldwin 2014). Consistent with the above observations, Bruckner (2012) observed that lobsters (P. argus, P. guttatus) were rare on the Pedro Bank and were identified primarily at shelf edge sites in deeper water. However, Aiken et al. (2013) concluded that the industrial lobster fishery in Jamaica was “in relatively good condition and does not, now, show indicators of overfishing.”

Spiny lobster exports from Jamaica increased steadily from less than 50 mt/yr in 1978 to a maximum of 450 mt/yr in 2004 (CRFM 2011). Notably, these exports appear to fluctuate dramatically after 1995. The industrial landings from 1997 to 2007 (Martin-Murray 2009) also fluctuate considerably. These interannual fluctuations are typical of a depleted resource in which the catches each year are recruitment driven, based on the abundance of the incoming cohort (Ehrhardt et al. 2011).

The amount of effort by the industrial fishery has also changed over time, both in terms of the number of vessels and the effort exerted by each vessel. In 2001, there were four industrial vessels fishing on Pedro Bank with about 1,000 traps, 500 of which were in the water at any given time with an average soak time of about 3 days (Kelly 2003). More recently, the number of vessels has been 10 to 12, and in 2015 it was 16. KIs expressed concern that at one point 10 industrial boats was thought to be an appropriate number and questioned the justification for this increase. Recently, a limit of 2,000 traps per vessel was set. KIs felt that this was a good measure but were concerned about its enforceability. They added that the vessel could easily have double or more that number of traps in the water at any given time, since at no time did a vessel have all its traps out of the water where they could be counted. One KI suggested that vessels may have up to 5,000 traps.

In addition to excessive fishing effort, the harvesting of undersize lobsters and berried females are two prevalent practices. As early as 1975, 75% of the lobsters landed from Pedro Bank were immature (Kelly 2002). Gittens (2001) reported that 30% of lobsters landed from the Pedro Bank were below the size of 50% maturity and that spawning stock biomass was low. The Fishing Industry Act of 1975 recommends a minimum carapace length (CL) for P. argus of 76.2 mm (3 in.) (Morris 2010). Aiken (1977) recommended a gradual increase to 85 mm CL, while Haughton et al. (1986) called for an increase in the minimum size limit to 89 mm CL, based on their observations that about 55% of the females were mature at this size. Undersized lobsters were openly on display in the market at Old Harbour Bay (personal observation). KIs also reported that they were being exported. It is illegal to land berried lobsters, yet they are also reportedly being harvested, scrubbed, and sold both locally and as exports. Both undersized and berried lobsters were seen being landed on the Pedro Cays on several occasions in 2014–2015 for “home use” or the local mainland market (Baldwin personal observation).

The number of lobster processors in Jamaica is unclear (Monnereau and Helmsing 2011, Monnereau and McConney 2015). Although officially there are only two processing plants, there may be as many as 20 smaller processors which lack official permits in operation in the country. The smaller exporters process the lobster themselves and sell both to the national market and internationally. Fishers sell either directly

15 Baldwin, K. and R. Mahon. 2015. Rapid Fishery Sector Assessment of the Jamaican Seascape

to them or through an intermediary. Jamaican processors suffered from several salmonella cases in recent years, and their product received a 20% lower price than that from Belize and Nicaragua.

It is difficult to know what to make of these assessments. None of them is based on complete data. It is difficult to understand how the lobster resource harvest can be assessed without including the data from the artisanal fishery on Pedro Bank, as well as the quantities of lobster that are either harvested illegally by foreign vessels or sold to them over the side at sea and landed in another country. According to Aiken et al. (2013), these quantities are likely to be substantial related to reported catch. Considering these glaring gaps in information, it is wise to take a precautionary approach to the lobster fishery.

The status of lobster in Jamaica must be considered along with lobster population dynamics in the western Caribbean. There has been a vast amount of research on P. argus throughout the Western Central Atlantic (e.g., FAO 1993, CFRAMP 1996, Cochrane et al. 2007, Ehrhardt et al. 2011). Knowledge of recruitment mechanisms for lobster is by no means comprehensive, but dispersal is thought to be long-range due to the longevity of larvae, which drift with the ocean currents. There are four major proposed larval retention areas in the western Caribbean: two in the Bahamas area, one in south or western Cuba, and one off southern Central America (Costa Rica/Panama) (Ehrhardt et al. 2011). These sites may concentrate larvae and provide recruits to nearby fishing grounds. Pedro Bank is likely supplied with recruits from stocks in other parts of the western Caribbean, which may come from the two southernmost retention areas. If so, this phenomenon could contribute to interannual variability in recruitment, as ocean currents shift in relation to the retention areas.

Conclusion: The lack of clarity regarding industrial landings and exports for the valuable lobster fishery and the apparent absence of data for the artisanal fishery do not bode well for sustainability of this resource either on Pedro Bank or the South Shelf. Increasing industrial fishing effort, foreign illegal fishing, continued domestic harvesting of substantial quantities of juvenile lobster, and domestic practices of scrubbing berried lobsters and fishing for lobster out of season are cause for deep concern about this fishery. Recent attempts at enforcement of regulations found it difficult to limit traps fished by industrial vessels, and other existing measures were not enforced either.

2.2.3 Conch Queen conch have been fished for decades on the South Shelf of Jamaica by free divers from canoes. By the 1990s, they were overexploited (Aiken et al. 1999). The details of fishing practices and landing on the South Shelf are not well known (Smikle 1997). Following the establishment of fishing camps on Pedro Bank in the 1960s, small-scale, free-diving fishing for conch developed in the shallow waters adjacent to the Pedro Cays. In the late 1980s, the fishing industry became aware of an abundance of conch in the expansive central plains of Pedro Bank. These conch were at greater depths than could be accessed by free diving. Jamaican entrepreneurs collaborated with large commercial diving vessels and experienced divers from other parts of the Caribbean to exploit this resource. Exploitation was primarily by SCUBA and hookah and most of the conch was exported (Grant et al. 1996). By 1992, Jamaica had become the largest queen conch producer in the Caribbean (Aiken and Kong 2000). This rapid expansion of effort quickly

16 Baldwin, K. and R. Mahon. 2015. Rapid Fishery Sector Assessment of the Jamaican Seascape

threatened the conch resource on Pedro Bank with the same fate as conch resources elsewhere in the Caribbean (Aiken et al. 1999).

In response to this threat, urgent efforts were made to keep the highly valuable conch fishery on Pedro Bank sustainable. A review of the conch stocks on Pedro Bank based on existing published data was conducted in 1991 and provided a preliminary estimate of MSY of 800 mt per year (Mahon et al. 1992). This formed the basis of a preliminary management plan (Aiken et al. 1993). In 1994, an accurate survey- based estimate of MSY for Pedro Bank conch produced an MSY estimate of 1,818 mt per year (Appeldoorn 1996).

Conch are highly vulnerable to overfishing (Appeldoorn 1994). They have been overfished throughout the Caribbean, to the extent that they were listed on CITES Appendix II in 1992 (Smith et al. 2008). This listing had significant implications for management of conch fisheries of Pedro Bank (Aiken et al. 2006). In order to meet the criteria for CITES export permits, a conch management plan was developed (Kong 2007, Aiken 2014). Aiken (2013) provides a brief, readable summary of current management of the industrial conch fishery. KIs indicated that two consultants, R. Appeldoorn and M. Prada, were being engaged to revise and upgrade the management plan for conch, but no information was available on what new measures, if any, might be proposed.

The current plan is based on an overall national total allowable catch (NTAC) calculated from surveys of conch abundance (Appeldoorn 1995, Tewfik and Appeldoorn 1998a, Smikle and Appeldoorn 2003, Smikle 2009, Fisheries Division 2014) and other fishery assessment analyses based on catch and effort data in relation to spatial distribution (Smikle 2010, Murray 2011b, Morris 2014). This NTAC was then distributed among fishing enterprises with a portion reserved for artisanal fishers. The plan was developed and administered by the Fisheries Division. However, since conch is listed on CITES Appendix II, the annual National Export Quota is recommended by the CITES Scientific Authority for Jamaica and permits are issued by the National Environmental Protection Authority (NEPA). Significant Trade Reviews by CITES in 2003 and 2006 found that conch fisheries on Pedro Bank were sufficiently well managed and were “not of concern” (CITES 2003, 2006).

Initial total allowable catches (TACs) were ultimately found to be too high for sustainability of the fishery, so there was a managed decrease of the TAC from initial levels to sustainable levels from 1994 to 2011 (Fisheries Division 2014). The most recent survey found that conch abundance and biomass has increased from early levels, indicating a recovery of the resource (Fisheries Division 2014).

KIs that were familiar with the industrial conch fishery on Pedro Bank believed management had been successful in limiting the harvest to sustainable levels. However, they were concerned about the artisanal fisheries on both Pedro Bank and the South Shelf and suggested that these fisheries were harvesting considerably more than their quota (possibly even as much as the industrial quota). There are no measures, other than a minimum shell length (220 mm), a closed season (July 31 to February 1) and export controls, to limit the artisanal harvest of conch. Excessive harvesting by the artisanal fishers can undermine the sustainability that is apparently being achieved by controls on the industrial fishery. Conch was reportedly available for domestic consumption throughout the closed season. It seems incongruous

17 Baldwin, K. and R. Mahon. 2015. Rapid Fishery Sector Assessment of the Jamaican Seascape

that the export-oriented Pedro Bank industrial fishery should be so well managed but that the fishery for domestic consumption should be unmanaged and unmonitored.

Poaching by foreign vessels remains a problem for conch on Pedro Bank (Aiken et al. 2006, Aiken 2014, Baldwin et al. 2014). KIs criticized the quota allocation process due to its lack of transparency. One individual with a long-term interest and license was reportedly denied a license, while a new entrant received a quota.

Conclusion: The export-oriented Pedro Bank industrial fishery appears to be well managed, according to a known plan that allocates a quota among fishing enterprises and artisanal fishers. However, the artisanal fishery, which receives a part of the quota and harvests mainly for domestic consumption, appears to be largely unmanaged and unmonitored, particularly on the South Shelf.

2.2.4 Small coastal pelagics The information presented here on small coastal pelagics comes from Halcrow (1998). Several species of small coastal pelagics are found on the South Shelf in association with reefs, seagrasses, mangrove lagoons, and muddy bays near river outflows (Aiken and Kong 2000). These species are fished using gill nets, which capture principally clupeoid fishes (sprats, herrings, and anchovies) (Munro 1983, Goodbody 1986a, b, Harvey 1986a, b, c), reef fishes, and schooling jacks (carangids) (Cooper 1986a, b, Oakley 1986).

The artisanal gillnet fishery depends largely on three species of clupeids, mainly the Atlantic thread herring (Opisthonema oglinum), but also Harengula jaguana and Harengula humeralis. Much of the information about these species comes from studies in the Kingston Harbour fishery (Harvey 1986). Fishing locations within the study area were Old Harbour Bay, Alligator Reef, off Alligator Pond, and off Great Bay, and the catch was used mainly for bait on Pedro Bank (Harvey 1986). Halcrow (1998) also reported a few gill nets at Long Acre, Black River, and Parottee, and the catch was landed in Black River. Also, from Negril to Bluefields, large thread herring were fished for human consumption and the main landing sites were Cave, Belmont, Auchindown, and Whitehouse. People have suffered clupeid poisoning from these species.

Anchovies caught are Cetengraulis edentulus and Anchovia clupeoides. The former species is used for bait, and the latter species is scarce, as the area is at the edge of its range. Watson (1986) studied C. edentulus. Goggle-eye scad (Selar crumenophthalmus) are caught incidentally at night on handlines on the South Shelf (Cooper 1986). Unpredictable large schools are taken opportunistically, usually by seine, where there is deep water close to shore. This species was studied on the eastern South Shelf, mainly Cow Bay. Halcrow (1998) reported that this species was caught commonly at Savanna-la-Mar but rarely or seldom at Farquhars Beach and Old Harbour.

The major halfbeak fishing area on the south coast is Farquhars Beach (Halcrow 1998). The catch is composed mainly of piper (Hemiramphus brasiliensis), as well as about 20% each of Hemiramphus balao and Hyporhamphus unifasciatus (Cooper 1986). At Farquhars Beach, halfbeaks were caught mainly by beach seines where the Milk River enters the sea. They move offshore when the sea is rough and return when the silt has settled. Large catches were usually landed at Rocky Point.

18 Baldwin, K. and R. Mahon. 2015. Rapid Fishery Sector Assessment of the Jamaican Seascape

Conclusion: These resources likely continue to support small but locally important fisheries as they did in 1998, but no further information was available to update the 1998 statistics.

2.2.5 Large pelagics Fisheries for large pelagics in Jamaica were reviewed by Aiken (1985a) and Mahon (1995). In 1996, they comprised 2.6% of landings in Jamaica (Aiken and Kong 2000). These species are targeted by canoes on single-day trips trolling up to four lines from bamboo outriggers. In 2004, there were reportedly 254 such vessels operating in Jamaica at 79 fishing beaches, mostly on the north and east coasts where there is deep water close to shore (Mahon and McConney 2004). Large pelagics are also an incidental but important catch on reef fishing trips, when lines are trolled to and from the fishing grounds. Catches are generally highest between November and May. The best catches are taken along the shelf edge or on the edges of the offshore banks, and only barracuda, kingfish, and cero mackerel are caught on the shelf.

Cero mackerel surveys have been conducted at south coast beaches, including Old Harbour, Rocky Point, and Farquhars Beach in the study area (Cooper 1986a, b). Juveniles are inshore in June and are taken in lift, cast, and beach seine nets. Young adults are caught year-round on the shelf but are not targeted. Adults spawn on the shelf edge and offshore banks from April to June and are caught there by trolling.

Large pelagics also support recreational fishing throughout Jamaica (Harvey 1988, Harvey et al. 1989, Harvey 1990, Harvey and Graves 1994, Mahon 1995). The fleet includes both private recreational and charter boats, of which the private vessels are mainly cabin cruisers with inboard engines, 8–15 m in length. Some canoes have also been fitted out for recreational fishing. However, most these are operating from Kingston, Port Antonio, and Montego Bay, and relatively few are based in or fish in the waters of the south coast (Meggs 2014). The species known to be taken are listed by Mahon (1995).

Halcrow (1998) reported that there was little recreational fishing in the Jamaica Seascape area. Fishers from the Monymusk Club were known to travel east out of Portland Bight to California and Mackerel Banks, or south to the shelf edge. These banks and the Morant bank are also the favored fishing areas for vessels from Kingston, as the prevailing seas are from the east. If a vessel traveled to the west and encountered rough weather or engine trouble, the return journey would be against the sea. Therefore, Kingston recreational fishers seldom travel west, unless they are en route to Montego Bay.

According to Halcrow (1998), a recreational fisher stated that fishing for large pelagics was excellent on the shelf edge and around the nearby banks off the western end of the south coast. He observed that it differed from sport fishing on the north coast, in that fewer large tuna and marlin were caught, but that this was compensated for by good catches of dolphinfish, kingfish, mackerel, and blackfin tuna. He considered this to be a better area for casual sport fishers, as fish were caught on virtually every trip. However, there was a lack of business in the area, as at the time there were few hotels nearby.

The prime fishing areas for large pelagics in the Jamaica Seascape are the closer banks, Blossom and New Banks (Halcrow 1998). There was also reportedly good fishing for large pelagic fishes around Walton, Sunbury, and Kingston Banks, but these are less frequently visited due to their distance from shore. Fish

19 Baldwin, K. and R. Mahon. 2015. Rapid Fishery Sector Assessment of the Jamaican Seascape

are caught by trolling around the edges of these banks, particularly the up current areas. The closer banks are also fished for large pelagics by mechanized canoes (Meggs 2014).

Most large pelagic species, especially offshore species, are transboundary, so their assessment and management require collaboration at regional and ocean-wide levels (Mahon 1996). All tunas and tuna- like species fall under the mandate of the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT). ICCAT focuses on the tuna stocks supporting large commercial fisheries, swordfish, and billfishes. Most of the smaller species supporting fisheries in the Caribbean region are not assessed or managed. The need for regional-level management and the appropriate institutional arrangements for such management have been discussed extensively (Singh-Renton et al. 2003, Mahon and McConney 2004). Jamaica should proceed to develop pelagic fisheries while implementing management initiatives for these species.

In 1996, an analysis of the potential to expand fisheries for large pelagic species in Jamaica recommended trying small-scale longlining (Mahon 1996a, 1996b, 1996c). KIs indicated that the Food for the Poor Programme provided canoes and engines at several landing sites along the south coast, expressly for fishing for large pelagics. This program is organized by a Jamaican who is based in Miami. It raises money in the United States and then donates it for various activities in Jamaica. It is not known whether this initiative was successful. CaribSave is also supporting a current initiative to promote fishing for large pelagics (Meggs 2014). A proposed World Bank project “Promoting community-based climate resilience in the fishery sector of Jamaica” also aimed to support diversification of fishing in Jamaica through use of longlines to target offshore pelagics (World Bank 2014). This project was expected to begin in 2016.

Conclusion: Fishing for large pelagics probably continues to provide a small but valuable component of landings in the Jamaica Seascape. Efforts to promote targeted harvesting of large pelagics should be should be evaluated and, if feasible, continued, particularly to the west of the area where there are offshore banks and the shelf edge is closer to the mainland. As tourism accommodation in the area has increased, sport fishing enterprises may be more feasible.

2.2.6 Shrimp From the earliest survey (Chuck 1962), marine shrimp (Penaeidae) have supported small but valuable fisheries at several locations around Jamaica. Most of these shrimp fishing areas are in the study area. There were a few early studies on shrimp distribution and habitat on the south coast (Iverson and Munro 1969, Munro 1969, Chin 1991). Galbraith (1997) provided an excellent review of the biological and fishery information for shrimp in Jamaica up to 1996, but there were no subsequent reviews. Shrimp are taken by trawl nets over muddy substrates off major rivers (e.g., at Farquhars Beach, Black River, and Savanna- la-Mar) and by other artisanal gears (e.g., shove nets, gill “china” nets) in mangrove lagoons, including Old Harbour Bay (Grant et al. 1996, Galbraith 1997). The number of shrimp fishers on the south coast is unknown (Grant et al. 1996). Aiken and Kong (2000) reported that although shrimp and crabs only composed 0.5% of the catch, this fishery supported 2,000 fishers.

20 Baldwin, K. and R. Mahon. 2015. Rapid Fishery Sector Assessment of the Jamaican Seascape

Conclusion: Shrimp fisheries probably continue to provide a small but significant basis for fishing livelihoods at select localities in the Jamaica Seascape. Mariculture activities planned for inshore areas such as mangrove lagoons should take care not to conflict with shrimp fisheries.

2.2.7 Sea cucumbers In recent years, significant numbers of sea cucumbers have been harvested from the South Shelf and exported. A moratorium was placed on sea cucumber harvesting in 2015, but it was reported that some harvesting continues. An assessment to determine whether the sea cucumber population could support further harvesting and to explore the feasibility of sea cucumber mariculture, carried out under an FAO Technical Cooperation Programme project, was scheduled to begin in late 2015 but was delayed (FAO 2015c). The project included the design and implementation of a stock assessment and monitoring program and the development and piloting of a participatory management plan.

Reports from 2006 and 2008 indicated that there was no known sea cucumber fishery in Jamaica (Aiken 2006, Toral-Granda 2008). However, the most recent investigations indicate that sea cucumbers have indeed been fished and exported since at least 2000 (Aiken 2015).

Very little is known about Jamaica’s sea cucumbers (Aiken 2006). Anecdotal information and preliminary assessments of sea cucumber stocks suggests that the nearshore population is in a very poor state and unsustainable levels of harvesting are taking place (Aiken 2014, Aiken 2015). As of September 2013, the fishing of sea cucumbers was prohibited until further notice and the relevant Exit Point Agencies (Jamaica Customs and airport and port authorities) were notified to enforce export bans of this resource (Aiken 2014). Sea cucumbers may be placed on CITES Appendix III to assist the government of Jamaica with managing exports (Aiken 2015).

Conclusion: The sea cucumber fishery in Jamaica is unregulated and has probably overexploited the resource (as have most sea cucumber fisheries globally). The ban on fishing was timely, but it is not clear that fishing has ceased altogether. A project to assess the resource and develop management plans, including aquaculture potential, will determine the future direction for sea cucumber exploitation.

2.2.8 Sharks and rays Halcrow (1998) reported there are no directed shark fisheries in Jamaica, although sharks are an incidental catch taken during trolling. Munro and Thompson (1973), Bruckner (2012), and Baldwin (2014) reported many nurse sharks and rays on Pedro Bank, and although they are frequently reported to destroy fish traps, there was no capture fishery. Many traps have a stick placed across the funnel to prevent sharks from forcing the funnel open (personal observation 2015).

21 Baldwin, K. and R. Mahon. 2015. Rapid Fishery Sector Assessment of the Jamaican Seascape

2.3 Biodiversity issues

2.3.1 Lionfish Considerable effort has focused on studying and responding to the invasive Indo-Pacific lionfish, Pterois volitans. Moonsammy et al. (2012) concluded that the species had caused significant economic costs. Efforts to address the problem include population tracking island‐wide, analyses of prey consumed by the lionfish, specially designed traps for lionfish, analyses of the genetics of the population, and formulation of management plans, as well as studies of the biology and ecology of lionfish larvae, impacts of the lionfish on artificial reefs, and impacts on local pot fishing (Buddo 2011). There have been several public education programs to encourage consumption of lionfish (Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, no date).

Anecdotes and press reports indicate that the programs have succeeded in reducing lionfish numbers in Jamaican waters.4 However, no firm survey information could be found to support this claim. Bruckner (2012) noted that populations of lionfish on Pedro Bank were small (a maximum of 10 fish seen on one reef) in 2012. However, Baldwin (2014) observed lionfish to be abundant, particularly at deeper shelf- edge sites within or near the South West Cay SFCA.

The topic of the invasive lionfish was discussed with several KIs; however, no observations were made regarding the impact of lionfish on reef fish resources. Instead, KIs described the extent to which lionfish were being exploited and were accepted by people for consumption. It appears that most people are willing to eat lionfish and that there is a ready market for them (e.g., there are reports that lionfish are purchased by Rainforest Seafoods), despite stated reluctance of a few people to try them. This is attributed to the success of the “Eat It to Beat It” program. However, it was said that lionfish are not presently being purchased on the Pedro Cays. KIs associated with sanctuaries observed that lionfish culling in sanctuaries and lionfish tournaments might have potential as tourist activities.

Conclusion: The invasive lionfish is present throughout the Seascape and has attracted a great deal of attention nationwide. It is fished commercially and some processors are buying it. The program to promote fishing and consumption of lionfish has generated results. Lionfish culling and derbies may have potential as tourism activities.

2.3.2 Sea turtles The situation of sea turtles in Jamaica is well summarized in the Sea Turtle Recovery Action Plan for Jamaica (Haynes-Sutton et al. 2011). Four species of sea turtles breed in Jamaican waters: the hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata), green turtle (Chelonia mydas), leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea), and loggerhead (Caretta caretta) (Hayes-Sutton et al. 2011). Sea turtles are found throughout the study area and have been protected by the Wildlife Protection Act since 1981, but fishers still frequently caught them whenever they encountered them. There is some unintentional and unquantified catch by gill nets in

4 http://www.businessinsider.com/jamaica-reports-big-drops-in-lionfish-sightings-2014-4 http://www.mnn.com/earth-matters/animals/stories/jamaica-beats-back-lionfish-with-knife-and-fork http://www.techtimes.com/articles/5592/20140415/invasive-lionfish-in-jamaica-becoming-rarer-theyre- delicious.htm

22 Baldwin, K. and R. Mahon. 2015. Rapid Fishery Sector Assessment of the Jamaican Seascape

coastal waters, especially at night. All species are taken, but hawksbills are by far the most commonly seen and therefore the most commonly caught (CFRAMP 2000). The most significant change since 1982 is the virtual extinction of nesting by green and loggerhead turtles (Fairbairn 1983).

Historically, the Pedro and Morant Cays were the primary source for sea turtles exported from Jamaica (Lewis 1940). Although there are no systematic surveys of sea turtle nesting on the Pedro Cays, ad hoc observations on harvest or nesting activity are made during field visits, but these data have not been collated or published (L. Meggs 2014 personal communication). Nesting on the Pedro Cays appears to be concentrated on the uninhabited South West (Bird) Cay along the beaches of the northern half of the Cay, where the soil is sandy enough for the females to excavate their nests. Only a few turtles still nest on Middle and North East Cays (Hay 2006), and fishers have observed sea turtles nesting on a small sandy beach under Portland Rock (Baldwin 2014).

On the South Shelf, hawksbill turtles are reported to nest in Portland Bight (Little Portland and Big Portland Cays), Billy’s Bay, Frenchmans Cove, Great Bay, Merrimans Point, Thatchfield, Galleon Harbour, Alligator Pond Cay, Alligator Pond (east of Port Kaiser), White Horses (west of Little Pedro Bay), Parottee, Black River, Paradise, and Bluefields Bay (Hayes-Sutton et al. 2011).

Sea turtles were discussed primarily with KIs from fish sanctuaries and continue to be a topic of conservation interest. The Whitehouse SFCA is particularly active in promoting turtle conservation. Nesting within the sanctuary is monitored and hotel guests have the opportunity to observe nesting and hatching, with support from the Bluefields Bay Fishermen’s Friendly Society (BBFFS). This has been a very popular activity and has attracted some conservation funding (Sandals Foundation 2014). In addition, hawksbill sea turtles nest in Galleon Sanctuary, which has been conducting sea turtle walks with visitors and is collaborating with BBFFS to advance a monitoring program.

Conclusion: Sea turtles are depleted in Jamaica, as they are elsewhere in the Caribbean. There is a great deal of awareness regarding sea turtle conservation among sanctuaries, which appear to be taking measures to conserve nesting beaches. Broader awareness and initiatives are needed to reverse depletion and rebuild stocks, following the Sea Turtle Recovery Action Plan for Jamaica.

2.3.3 Manatees The West Indian manatee (Trichechus manatus) is an herbivorous aquatic mammal that is found mainly from Portland Bight to St. Elizabeth (CFRAMP 2000). Halcrow (1998) reported that its population was dwindling in Jamaican coastal waters (Crombie 1975, Powell 1976, Fairbairn and Haynes 1983, Donaldson 1997). Estimated numbers according to aerial surveys fell from 13 in 1981 to eight in 1993 (UNEP 1995) and then rose to 12 in 1998 (NRCA). Poaching for food and incidental capture by fishing devices constitute the major threats to manatees in Jamaica, and an estimated three animals per year are killed (Shaul and Haynes 1986).

Manatees are considered endangered and vulnerable (Hurst 1987) and have been protected since 1971 by the Wildlife Protection Act. A management plan for manatees was created (Brown 1993), and in 1991 an island-wide public education program was conducted in conjunction with UNEP. Environmental NGOs

23 Baldwin, K. and R. Mahon. 2015. Rapid Fishery Sector Assessment of the Jamaican Seascape

conducted talks with fishers and other groups about manatees and other environmental issues (Donaldson 1995). Alligator Hole River, also known as Canoe Valley in Clarendon, was a major conservation site where three manatees were placed between 1981 and 1986 after having been rescued from fishers. By 2015, only one female manatee remained (K. Aiken personal communication). Manatees have also been reported on Pedro Bank (Hay 2006). Manatees are likely extinct in Jamaica (C-CAM 2013), yet the Galleon Bay Fish Sanctuary wardens (T. Walters 2015 personal communication) reported four manatees (two large and two small) in Galleon Bay, St. Elizabeth, in 2015.

Conclusion: There is too little information on manatees to draw any conclusions about their status in Jamaica.

2.3.4 Cetaceans (whales and dolphins) Halcrow (1998) reported that bottlenose and spotted dolphin are occasionally seen off the south coast but are not caught. Various surveys on the South Shelf all reported relatively low abundance of dolphins (Fairbairn and Haynes 1983, Kenney et al. 2004, Aiken 2007). Whales and dolphins are known to frequent the waters of the Pedro Bank (Hay 2006). Tullow Oil (2015) conducted bathymetric surveys off the south coast and Pedro Bank and recorded marine mammal sightings over a 6-week period.

The bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) and the pantropical spotted dolphin (Stenella attenuata) in Jamaican waters are listed in the Third Schedule of the Wildlife Protection Act as protected species. The draft document “Dolphin Policy for Jamaica” (NEPA 2014a) lays out the strategy for dolphin conservation in Jamaica: collect and analyze basic background information on the population size and stock structure, biology, and ecology of dolphins in Jamaica’s territorial waters; develop regulations for declared protected areas that are dolphin habitat; promote the recovery of endangered dolphin species; determine the impact of existing coastal developments (including dolphinaria) on seagrass beds and coral reefs; ensure that fishing practices do not endanger marine mammal populations; and establish rescue centers for marine mammals governed by regulations.

Several KIs (at Rocky Point and Whitehouse) reported that there were problems with dolphins overturning and damaging fish traps, as deep as 240 m. This problem seems to have emerged within the past 10 years and is now quite prevalent. Aiken and Pal (2007) conducted surveys of fishers at landing sites and at sea and found that trap interference was quite widespread on the south coast. Dolphins were also reported to interfere with other fishing gear. Bottlenose dolphins seem to be the main species exhibiting this behavior.

Conclusion: Although information on dolphins in Jamaican waters is limited, there are plans to improve this situation and implement a national dolphin conservation policy. Dolphin interference with fish traps may need further investigation and interaction with fishers to prevent them from retaliating.

2.3.5 Seabirds Regionally important seabird colonies are found in Portland Bight and the Pedro Cays (Smithsonian 2014, BirdLife International 2015). Caribbean seabird species at risk include masked booby, brown booby,

24 Baldwin, K. and R. Mahon. 2015. Rapid Fishery Sector Assessment of the Jamaican Seascape

magnificent frigatebird, laughing gull, sooty tern, bridled tern, roseate tern, and royal tern (Bradley and Norton 2009).

Avifauna is a major component of biodiversity found on the Pedro Bank and the Pedro Cays. The Cays afford a critical rest stop for migrating birds and provide suitable habitat for large breeding seabird colonies, resulting in the most diverse seabird nesting colonies in Jamaican waters (Jodice et al. 2013). Breeding seabirds include the masked booby (Sula dactylatra), brown booby (Sula leucogaster), magnificent frigatebird (Fregata magnificens), sooty tern (Sterna fuscata), brown noddy (Anous stolidus), bridled tern (Onychoprion anaethetus), roseate tern (Sterna dougallii), sandwich tern (Sterna sandvicensis), and laughing gull (Larus atricilla) (Haynes-Sutton 2012). There are 10 species of seabirds breeding on South West Cay, whereas only the masked booby breeds on Middle Cay and no seabirds breed on North East (Top) Cay. The masked booby colony on Middle Cay is probably the largest in the insular Caribbean and one of only four colonies in this region with more than 25 nesting pairs (wicbirds.org). In addition, a wide variety of migratory birds have been observed on the Pedro Cays, including several species that are rarely observed on mainland Jamaica (A. Haynes personal communication 2011). Shallow pools in the centers of the cays are also important to migratory water birds, including ducks and shorebirds. Many migratory land birds, including swallows, cuckoos, kingbirds, warblers, and peregrine falcons also periodically inhabit the cays (Haynes-Sutton 2012).

The Pedro Bank was designated as an Important Bird and Biodiversity Area (IBA) in 2009 (BirdLife International 2015), and in 2012 a Pedro Cays and Pedro Bank seabird management plan (2012–2017) was developed. The masked booby colony on Middle Cay is under severe stress from human activities (e.g., human settlement with inadequate provisions for sanitation, an expanding garbage dump in the middle of the colony, and alien rat and cat invasive species). In contrast, South West Cay (aka Bird Cay) has historically been protected by an informal agreement that bans settlement, and more recently in 2012 has been designated an SFCA. Nesting seabirds have been extirpated from North East (Top) Cay and almost extirpated from Portland Rock (Haynes-Sutton 2013).

Information on seabirds on the South West Shelf is limited (Haynes 1987, Haynes-Sutton 1987, Bradley and Norton 2009). Portland Bight was designated an IBA in 2009 and is home to internationally significant populations of the West Indian whistling duck (Dendrocygna arborea), plain pigeon (Patagioenas inornata), and white-crowned pigeon (Patagioenas leucocephala), as well as the restricted range (and endemic subspecies) Bahama mockingbird (Mimus gundlachii hillii) (Levy and Koeing 2008). Other species include the three Myiarchus flycatchers and the Jamaican lizard cuckoo (Coccyzus vetula). The Portland Bight cays are the only nearshore area that host nesting colonies of a variety of seabirds, such as brown noddy (A. stolidus) and the magnificent frigatebird (F. magnificens) as well as columbids and other species. Migrant shorebirds are numerous and include the last reported sighting of the piping plover (Charadrius melodus) in Portland Bight (BirdLife International 2013). Bluefields Bay and more recently the Galleon SFCA are developing a focus on birds and birding. Several resident ospreys, blue and white herons, pelicans, frigate birds, many shorebirds, and land birds shelter in the coastal vegetation (T. Walters 2015 personal communication).

25 Baldwin, K. and R. Mahon. 2015. Rapid Fishery Sector Assessment of the Jamaican Seascape

Conclusion: Seabirds are a critical component of the marine ecosystem. Their nesting areas on offshore rocks and cays are threatened by human settlements and activities. Little is known regarding their status on the South Shelf and coast. They need increased attention and protection throughout the seascape.

2.4 Pedro Bank social and environmental issues The waters surrounding the Pedro Cays support the livelihoods of 500–1,000 fishers and their households (Espeut 2006). In addition to the implications of fishery activities for ecosystems and biodiversity on Pedro Bank and the Pedro Cays, there are concerns related to the human settlements on South East and Middle Cays (Appropriate Technologies 2007, GoJ MoH 2007, Rhiney 2014, Otuokon 2015). Fishermen have been living on and fishing from these Cays for decades (Zans 1958). They sell their catch to carrier vessels that take it back to various points on the mainland. About 20 years ago, the number of fishers living on the Cays increased to a point that health, crime, and other social considerations became important. In addition to fishers, several other people live there and provide a variety of supporting services (e.g., Coast Guard/police station, shops, bars). This situation has been widely documented and requires an integrated, intersectoral response (Espeut 2006, Appropriate Technologies 2007, GoJ MoH 2007, Rhiney 2014).

Accordingly, a management plan for the Pedro Cays (including the South West Cay SFA) (2015–2020) and surrounding coastal marine ecosystem was developed (Otuokon 2015). This plan includes management of the fish sanctuary that surrounds South West Cay (designated in 2012). Furthermore, a Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) process was undertaken in 2014–15 to plan for the sustainable management of the entire Pedro Bank, including the Pedro Cays, with several additional recommended no-take conservation and limited-take fisheries management areas (Figure 5) (Baldwin 2015).

Governance arrangements for the Pedro Bank were assessed to determine the intersectoral and interissue integration required for effective EBM (Mahon 2013). Governance of the Pedro Cays and Pedro Bank is complex in that it involves the full range of supporting government services that would be required for a mainland community, but there is limited government presence on the Cays to provide these services. The only services are a combined Coast Guard/police station. The community-level issues have been assigned to the Kingston and St. Andrew Corporation, which has little capacity to service this offshore area.

Although conditions in the settlement on the Cays are separate from the problems of fishery ecosystem management on the Pedro Bank, the settlement has certain environmental impacts that do affect fishery ecosystems, including biodiversity (Appropriate Technologies 2007).

26 Baldwin, K. and R. Mahon. 2015. Rapid Fishery Sector Assessment of the Jamaican Seascape

Figure 5. Marine multi-use zoning design for the Pedro Bank

Problems regarding the social conditions on the Pedro Cays were discussed with several KIs. Since these matters have been the subject of much recent study, little new information emerged. The KIs shared their concerns about the feasibility of the developed Pedro Cays management plan with regard to developing a community on the cays. There were reports of initiatives to address the garbage disposal issue on the cays by compacting and baling plastics for recycling, but lack of clear management responsibility for the Pedro Cays blocked the project from being implemented. One insightful comment was: “to fix the Pedro Cays, you first have to fix Rocky Point and Old Harbour Bay.”

NEPA indicated that Pedro Bank should not be designated a protected area under the NRCA Act but as a Fisheries Management Area as provided for under the proposed new fisheries legislation. This was thought to be a necessary precursor to implementation of the MSP recently completed under the National Protected Areas System (NPAS) Project (Baldwin 2015).

Conclusion: The settlement on the Pedro Cays has been the subject of much national discussion and is likely to be too large a problem for the CMBP to solve. Nonetheless, it is important for the CMBP Jamaica Seascape initiative to be fully aware of the situation on the Pedro Cays and the measures that are being considered to address it. CMBP activities may address specific EBM-related aspects of the Pedro Bank MSP and Pedro Cays situation, such as waste management and management of the South West Cay SFCA.

27 Baldwin, K. and R. Mahon. 2015. Rapid Fishery Sector Assessment of the Jamaican Seascape

3 Harvesting sector (including recreational) Halcrow (1998) noted that the fishing industry in the study area was primarily artisanal and small-scale, yet it was highly diverse and complex. At that time, there were at least 3,800 fishers and 1,200 fishing vessels operating from 46 landing sites in the study area. Most the fishing vessels were open canoes. They ranged widely in size, from 3 m nonmechanized dugouts that fish close inshore, to > 18-m large canoes that fish on Pedro Bank and have 40–60 hp outboard engines. There are also large vessels, 12–20 m long, with inboard diesel engines, that fish on the banks. Fewer than 10 recreational cabin cruisers were found in the study area.

3.1 The fishing fleet and gear There are numerous descriptions of the types of vessels and gears used in the Jamaican fishery (Chuck 1963, Vidaeus 1971, Munro 1983, Espeut and Grant 1990, Grant et al. 1996, Fisheries Division 1998, Aiken and Kong 2000, CFRAMP 2000, Espeut 2006). Therefore, only a summary will be provided here. The number of registered vessels of various types at landing sites in the Jamaica Seascape was obtained from the Fisheries Division (Table 5).

Inshore fishers utilize either small nonmechanized wood canoes (3–5 m long) rowed for fishing near to shore or, more commonly, slightly larger mechanized wood canoes (4–7 m long) powered by a single outboard motor. These inshore vessels fish the full range of gears on the South Shelf and occasionally the closer banks. Offshore fishers typically utilize three types of mechanised vessels. The most common vessels used offshore are fiberglass wood canoes (8–12 m long) powered by outboard motors (occasionally two) and slightly larger (12–18 m in length) mechanized plywood fiberglass canoes (aka “ply boats”) which are broader, typically equipped with an ice-hold for storing fish at sea, and more seaworthy. Virtually all the ply boats are built and based at Whitehouse beaches and fish almost exclusively on Pedro Bank (H. Honeyghan personal communication 2014). These two types of mechanised canoes fish the full range of gears on the island shelf and on the offshore banks, including Pedro Bank.

The largest offshore vessels, forming approximately 5% of the fleet, are steel hulled and decked (25–35 m in length) with inboard engines and are used primarily for the industrial conch and lobster fisheries (FAO 2005). Often industrial vessels belong to horizontally integrated companies that also own and operate processing plants where the catch is processed and packaged (Morris 2010). The industrial conch fishery uses each steel-hulled decked vessel as a “mother” vessel accompanied by several small (3 m in length) dinghies or dories with teams of 2–3 hookah divers (Grant 2003). Each industrial conch mother vessel can have up to 20 divers (Aiken et al. 1999) who may fish up to 8 hours a day (E. Banks 2014 personal communication) on trips that last an average of two weeks (Aiken et al. 2006). Most of these “mother” vessels land their catch in Kingston, although there is a small-scale processing plant in Whitehouse (A. Kong personal communication) and another plant was recently constructed in Black River (D. Forester 2015 personal communication). During the seasonal conch fishery, extra boats with crew are leased from other countries, mainly Honduras (FAO 2005).

The industrial lobster fishery uses the same steel-hulled decked vessels to carry wooden “Bermuda” traps with an average crew of eight on large vessels. Some of the smaller fiberglass vessels (12–18 m in length)

28 Baldwin, K. and R. Mahon. 2015. Rapid Fishery Sector Assessment of the Jamaican Seascape

have three crew members (Aiken et al. 2013). Since 2014, industrial lobster vessels have been allowed to fish a maximum of 2,000 traps per license (S. Francis 2015 personal communication). Despite this limit, KIs estimated that each vessel may set up to 5,000 traps, and monitoring the total number of traps in-situ is challenging (Aiken et al. 2013, H. Honeyghan personal communication 2014). Industrial lobster vessels typically go out fishing twice per month with trips lasting roughly 14 days and catches averaging around 6,000 kg of lobster per trip (Morris 2010).

Carrier (or Packer) vessels use larger canoes or steel-decked vessels and provide both a market for fish and a supply of fuel and provisions for offshore artisanal fishers based on the Pedro Cays. These carrier vessels transport fish purchased offshore and land the catch on the mainland (primarily in Kingston, Rocky Point, Black River, and Whitehouse) for both the domestic and export markets (Grant 2003).

Halcrow (1998) found few recreational vessels in the study area, as described in the previous section on large pelagics. About five canoes operated from the PWD Club at Barnswell Dale, some in the Salt River and a few in Black River and at Bluefields. Charter vessels operate mainly on the north coast and in Negril. Only two were noted in the study area, at Bluefields. Frequently fishing vessels (e.g., Treasure Beach and Parottee, St. Elizabeth and Bluefields Bay, Westmoreland) are offered for charter to offset costs. A survey by Mahon and McConney (2004) did not reveal any significant increase in the number of recreational vessels in the Seascape area since 1998, nor did the present survey.

Both offshore and inshore artisanal fishers utilize the same fishing gear: Antillean (Z-shaped) fish traps, beach seine nets, gill (“Chinese”) nets, handlines, spear guns (using hookah compressor, SCUBA, or free dive), and explosives in a few areas along the south coast (Grant 2003). The Antillean fish traps (or fish pot) are used to target both reef fish and lobster and are retrieved by hand by a crew of 2–3 persons (Sary et al. 1997). Coastal pelagics are targeted in the inshore fisheries by beach seine nets and gill nets that are set in bays, near mangroves and seagrass bed areas (Mahon 1995). Gill nets are also used in the offshore reef fishery and are typically set near reefs around the eastern edge of Pedro Bank (Baldwin 2014). Large pelagics are taken mainly by trolling lines behind canoes, during the season from October to March. Although they are commercially valuable, there is no directed commercial fishery for large pelagics in Jamaica, due to highly seasonal small catches (Meggs 2014). There is a sport fishing association in Jamaica and several recreational fishing tournaments that specifically target large pelagic species (Harvey 1990).

Historically, Antillean Z-traps have been the dominant gear, while various nets (e.g., tangle ‘Chinese,’ cast, and seine), hand lines, and spear guns were used to a lesser extent (Kong 2003). Yet in the late 1980s Jamaica fishers began to increasingly use SCUBA and hookah gear to harvest conch, lobster, and finfish. Over the past 20 years, spearfishing has increased considerably (Passeley et al. 2009, Aiken and Enniss 2014, Baldwin 2014). Spear fishers often fish without boats or “hitch a ride” on a boat that is going pot fishing. Some information on spear fishing is collected by the Fisheries Division, but not landings by spear fishers who operate without boats (Grant 1996). Halcrow (1998) indicated that spear fishing was a common practice throughout the study area, and it was likely that there were many other places along the coast where spear fishers operated that were not considered to be landing sites.

29 Baldwin, K. and R. Mahon. 2015. Rapid Fishery Sector Assessment of the Jamaican Seascape

Passley et al. (2009) found that there were many more spear fishers than previously estimated. The preliminary estimate of landings from spear fishers indicated that it might be as high as 30% of total shelf landings. A subsequent survey estimated that approximately 2,000 spear fishers (10% of all fishers) were in operation, with 65% of them using the spear gun as their sole fishing gear (Ennis and Aiken 2014). Of all spear fishers based on the south coast, 82% primarily used the Southern Shelf and 18% used Pedro Bank to fish (Ennis and Aiken 2014). Furthermore, 58% of inshore spear fishers were free lung divers, 25% were hookah divers, and 15% were SCUBA divers. Baldwin (2014) noted that spear fishers based on the Pedro Cays (310 fishers) and operating in the offshore fishery were predominantly (96%) hookah divers, and many were from Rocky Point. Spearfishing effort may be considerably higher than effort with other types of fishing gear, and KIs in fishing communities confirmed that there has been a significant shift toward compressors and spearfishing, especially on Pedro Bank, in recent years. Meanwhile, fish traps have declined in prominence on Pedro Bank and the South Shelf (but are still common).

In recent years, spear fishers have increasingly been practicing night fishing to target sleeping parrotfish. Not surprisingly, the composition of the reef fish catch has started to indicate overfishing. Clemenson (1994) found that snapper dominated spearfishing landings, whereas later surveys by Kramer (2006), Bruckner (2012), and Eniss and Aiken (2014) found that small-bodied (less than 20 cm) parrotfish dominated the catch, followed by grunts, triggerfish, doctorfish, and snappers. The rapid expansion of this practice triggered an amendment to the fisheries regulations in 2009 that banned spearfishing at night.

Conclusion: There has been a significant shift from traps to hookah diving as the means for harvesting fishes and lobster on Pedro Bank, which has almost certainly increased effective effort. The continued use of traps with small mesh and tangle nets does not bode well for sustainability of the fisheries, as these are destructive (though legal) gear. Spearfishing and particularly night fishing are major factors to consider in managing fisheries in the Seascape area.

3.2 Fishers The artisanal small-scale fishery in Jamaica is an open-access multi-species fishery. There are an estimated 20,000 fishers, 9,000 vessels, and 184 landing sites in Jamaica (van Reil 2005). Approximately 90% of fishers operate on the inshore and 10% on the offshore banks (Kong 2003), of which an estimated 60% are based on the South Coast (CFRAMP 2000). According to Halcrow (1998), 24% of fishers were unlicensed fishers, similar to the 22% found by Espeut (1992). Unfortunately, no estimates of the number of fishers at landing sites have been comprehensively collected since 1998 (Fisheries Division 2015 personal communication). In addition, the registration system does not have any provision for deregistering fishers who are no longer fishing (because, for example, they died, left the island, or changed occupation). Therefore, information from the registration system is unreliable and the total pool of fishers at a landing site may be considerably different than the estimates provided in Table 5.

The use of the Pedro Bank for fishing by artisanal fishers from the mainland is not straightforward (Halcrow 1998, Espuet 2006, Baldwin 2014). An individual fisher may live on the Pedro Cays for several months, fishing and selling catches to packer vessels, or may make trips from the mainland to the Pedro Bank and live at sea fishing for up to seven days and bringing fish on ice back to the mainland. Many of

30 Baldwin, K. and R. Mahon. 2015. Rapid Fishery Sector Assessment of the Jamaican Seascape

these fishers report spending extended periods (an average of nine months) fishing offshore, then returning to the mainland and fishing inshore on the southern shelf for a period (Baldwin 2014). Artisanal fishers fall into three broad categories: (1) those operating from the mainland and fishing on the island shelf, (2) those operating from the mainland and fishing on Pedro Bank, and (3) those based and fishing on Pedro Bank.

3.2.1.1 Based on the mainland and fishing on the island shelf Historically, the highest proportion of artisanal fishers in Jamaica operate on the South Shelf (an inshore fishery), which is relatively wide, reaching a maximum width of about 24 km south of the parishes of St. Catherine and Clarendon (Haughton 1998). These fishers use both mechanized and nonmechanized canoes and the full range of gears (Clemetson 1994). The distribution of inshore fishery resources and fishing effort are closely linked to the distribution of habitats, and fishing takes place over the entire shelf wherever the various species are found (Venema 2004).

Table 5. Registered fishers and vessels by parish and landing site in the Jamaica Seascape area (Fisheries Division 2015)

Parish Landing site Registered fishers Registered vessels Clarendon Bd - Barnsdale (Barnwell Dale) 8 13 Be - Beauchamp 90 29 Bm - Bournmouth (Portland Cottage) 243 81 F - Farquhar (Alligator Hole) 168 45 Jb - Jackson Bay 19 10 Knights 1 3 Mt - Mitchell Town 63 10 Rp - Rocky Point (C) 1433 396 Sr - Salt River (Salt Gully, Salt Bay) 60 32 W - Welcome 123 37 Total Clarendon 2,208 656 Manchester Ap - Alligator Pond 511 139 Gr - Gutts River 4 - Total Manchester 515 139 St. Catherine Ohb - Old Harbour Bay 1418 385 Total St. Catherine 1,418 385 St. Elizabeth A - Auchendown (Culloden) 1 - Bi - Billy's Bay 48 20 Br - Black River 414 107 Ca - Calabash Bay (Treasure Beach) 188 48 Fb - Frenchman's Bay 76 22 Fc - Fort Charles 24 5 Gb - Great Bay 131 35 La - Long Acre 2 27 Pt - Parottee 216 50 Total St. Elizabeth 1,100 314 Westmoreland A - Auchendown (Culloden) 15 1 B - Braughton 19 1 Big Bridge 20 - Bl - Belmont 295 93 C - Cave 76 18 Davis Cove 1 - Gi - Green Island 87 - Hw - Hope Wharf (Old Wharf) 106 34 Lt - Little Bay 63 21 Mb - Market Beach 4 11 Old Bay 6 1 Pd - Paradise 9 -

S - Smithfield 81 25

31 Baldwin, K. and R. Mahon. 2015. Rapid Fishery Sector Assessment of the Jamaican Seascape

SA - St. Anne 173 23 SC - Scott’s Cove 103 23 SP - Salmon Point 46 32 St.M - St. Mary/Savanna-la-Mar (Cox Beach) 183 59 WH - Whitehouse (Gillings Gully) 935 168 Total Westmoreland 2,222 510 Offshore Pedro Bank (Middle Cay) 468 168 Pedro Bank (North East Cay) 463 203 Total Pedro Bank 982 371 Total Registered Fishers Southwest Seascape 9,007 2,375 - indicates no data were provided.

3.2.1.2 Based on the mainland and fishing on Pedro Bank Another set of artisanal fishers use the Pedro Bank but are based on the south coast of Jamaica. Hartsuijker (1982) first noted that many motorized canoes from mainland beaches were exploiting remote areas of Pedro Bank. In 1998, Halcrow also found an unexpectedly high proportion of fishers working on Pedro Bank and landing their fish at sites along the south coast. These fishers, known locally as “cross the bank” fishers, primarily operate from Whitehouse and Great Bay to Parottee and to a lesser extent Rocky Point (Halcrow 1998, Espuet 2006, Baldwin 2014). Where these fishers fish on Pedro Bank is related to the location of their landing site. For example, Whitehouse fishers tend to fish on the western end of Pedro Bank, St. Elizabeth fishers prefer the north central bank, and Rocky Point fishers prefer the eastern side of the Pedro Bank (Baldwin 2014).

3.2.1.3 Based and fishing on Pedro Bank These fishers primarily originate from the south coast of Jamaica and typically spend nine to 10 months out of the year living on the Pedro Cays and fishing the Pedro Bank (Espeut 2006). These fishers sell nearly all their catch to carrier vessels and contribute significantly to the landings of both artisanal and industrial fisheries. Kinship and community relationships are noteworthy among the fishers based on the Pedro Cays (Espeut 2006, Baldwin 2014, Rhiney 2014). Of note, North East Cay residents are trap fishers from St. Elizabeth, net fishers are all from Old Harbour Bay, and the largest proportion (over half) of the fishers residing on Middle Cay are hookah spear divers from Rocky Point.

Prior to 1950s and the widespread introduction of the outboard engine, Pedro Bank was little exploited (Espuet 2006). Overfishing on the South Shelf (Thompson 1945) and the development of the Fisheries Division in 1949, with a mandate to explore offshore fishing, resulted in the establishment of fishing bases on two of the Pedro Cays (i.e., North East Cay and Middle Cay) (Zans 1958). To encourage fishing on the offshore banks, a boat mechanism Table 6. Fishing gear used by Middle Cay fishers scheme was created, duty-free gas was Gear Percent of fishers using gear sold, and fishing cooperatives were 1995 2005 2014 established. According to Brown (1967), Traps 75 20 12 about 100 fishers were based on the Hookah spear 5 65 80 Pedro Cays, selling their catch to 11 fish Free dive spear 4 1 2 transport vessels and landing Chinese net 2 10 3 approximately 300 mt of fish a year. In Hand line 2 17 3 1988, Haughton reported that 200 Total number of fishers 155 348 374

32 Baldwin, K. and R. Mahon. 2015. Rapid Fishery Sector Assessment of the Jamaican Seascape

mechanized canoes and 550 fishermen were based on Morant and Pedro Cays, and by 1998, Fisheries Division records indicated that over 1,000 fishers and 197 boats from parishes in the study area were registered to fish on the Pedro Bank (Halcrow 1998).

Fishery censuses conducted on the Pedro Cays over the past 20 years show decreasing numbers of fishers since the 1998 Fisheries Division record (Table 6; Grant 1995, Espeut 2006, Baldwin 2014). Significant changes in fishing gear utilized on the Pedro Cays have occurred (Table 6). As reported in previous studies (Passley et al. 2009, Enniss and Aiken 2012), there has been a noticeable shift from a largely trap fishery to a predominantly hookah diving/spear gun fishery (Baldwin 2014). This change can also be seen in the steady decline of trap fishers based on North East Cay, with fewer than 25 fishers remaining (Baldwin 2014). Based on KI interviews and recent surveys by Outokon (2011) and Baldwin (2014), North East Cay trap fishers are disheartened about the quality of the offshore fishery’s catch (types and small size of fish), increased prevalence of sharks and dolphins attacking traps, and overfishing of immature parrotfish by hookah divers, particularly at night. Table 7. Fishers licensed to fish on lobster 3.2.1.4 Industrial fishers and conch industrial vessels A Vessel Tracking System (VTS) is in place for all industrial vessels. In 2000, 12 industrial lobster licenses Year Lobster Conch were granted (Gittens 2001), increasing to 13 in 2013 2008 203 2009 55 172 (Aiken et al. 2013) and 16 in 2015. Approximately 12 2010 40 262 licensed conch boats operate during an open season 2011 181 274 declared each year under a NTAC quota system. Fishers 2012 171 243 working on these vessels must be licensed for that 2013 73 198 fishery. In 2015, 315 fishers were licensed to fish conch 2014 277 267 and 135 were licensed to fish lobster (Table 7). 2015 135 329

Conclusion: There are about 9,000 registered fishers in the Seascape area, just under half the total for Jamaica. Fishers reside on and fish from the Pedro Cays, fish on Pedro Bank from the mainland, and fish on the South Shelf from the mainland. Individual fishers may engage in any of these modes in each year. The actual number of fishers is unknown, as the registration system does not delete fishers when they no longer fish. There have not been enough censuses of fishers to accurately track changes in numbers and distribution over time. The number of fishers on the Pedro Cays is reported to have decreased as the effective effort has increased over the past 20 years.

3.3 Landing sites and infrastructure Surveys of the Jamaican fishing industry have been infrequent since 1961 (Chuck 1963, MoAF 1975, 1981, Grant et al. 2001). The most recent comprehensive survey of the Southwest Coast landing sites was by Halcrow (1998), who reported that it was difficult to identify some of the landing sites because they were known by several names. There were discrepancies in names used in past surveys (Chuck 1963, Nembhard 1970, Ministry of Agriculture 1975, 1981, Aiken 1990), in Fisheries Division lists (Fisheries Division 1995, 1998) and in the NRCA list in the Beach Policy document (NRCA 1997). However, the 45 most prominent sites in the Southwest seascape were identified by the Fisheries Division (Murray 2015) and are summarized in the following section.

33 Baldwin, K. and R. Mahon. 2015. Rapid Fishery Sector Assessment of the Jamaican Seascape

Landing facilities for larger fishing vessels using the study area are available in Kingston Harbour and at Black River (FAO 2005). The 45 landing sites surveyed by Halcrow (1998) and reviewed in this study vary widely in size, physical characteristics, and facilities (Table 8). Old Harbour, Rocky Point, and Whitehouse are still the largest landing sites in the study area, each having more than 100 boats and together accounting for 40% of the boats and 51% of the fishers. The six landing sites and facilities in the Savanna- la-Mar area are the next largest site as a unit (Halcrow 1998). The remaining sites include 16 medium and 26 small landing sites. Historically, there were two more offshore fish landing sites (using carrier vessels) located offshore of each of the two inhabited Pedro Cays, but only one landing site offshore of Middle Cay remains (Baldwin 2014).

Table 8. Characteristics of marine fishery landing sites in the study area (see text for explanation) Types of facilities present

Site (west to east)

Ice Storage sheds Storage Toilet Water Fuel Instructor Light Electricity Coop office Coop Artisans Vendors Parking Official Market Beach N Y Y N N N Y Y N N Y N N N St. Anne’s N N N N N N Y Y N N Y N N N Smithfield N N N N N N Y Y N N Y N N N Belmont Beach Y Y N N N N N N N N N N N N Auchindown Y N N N N N N N N N N N N N Whitehouse Y N N Y Y N Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y Whitehouse - Gillings Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y Scotts Cove Y Y Y N N N Y Y N N N N N N Long Acre Y N N N N N Y Y N N Y Y N N Black River Y N N Y Y N Y Y N N Y Y Y N Parottee Y N N N Y N Y N N N Y N N N Fort Charles N N N N N N N N N N Y N N N Billy’s Bay N N N N N N Y Y N N Y Y N N Frenchmans Bay N N N N N N N Y N N Y N N N Calabash Bay Y N N N N N Y Y N N Y Y Y N Great Bay Y Y N Y Y N Y Y N N Y Y Y Y Alligator Pond N Y Y Y Y N N N N N Y Y Y N Gut River N N N N N N N N N N N N N N Farquhars Beach Y Y N N N N N N N N Y Y N N Beacham Y N N N N N N N N N N N N N Rocky Point Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N Y Y Y N Barmouth Y N N N N N Y Y N N Y Y Y N Welcome Beach N Y N N N N N N N N Y N N N Old Harbour Bay Beach Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N Pedro North East Cay N Y N N N N Y N N N Y Y N N Pedro Middle Cay N Y N N N N Y N N N Y Y N Y

Fisheries Division staff are present at eight of the largest sites and have primary responsibility for selling fuel and overseeing the operation of the site (Halcrow 1998, Fisheries Division personal communication 2015). There are government-constructed gear sheds at Cave, Black River, Whitehouse, Parottee, Calabash Bay, Great Bay, Rocky Point, and Old Harbour Bay, and storage lockers at these sites except the first two. The sheds found at other sites were constructed by the fishers themselves. Shelter for sorting

34 Baldwin, K. and R. Mahon. 2015. Rapid Fishery Sector Assessment of the Jamaican Seascape

and selling the catch is available only at Old Harbour, Rocky Point, and Whitehouse. Elsewhere, this process occurs on makeshift tables or on the ground in buckets or coolers. At a few sites, fishers constructed shelters under which to carry out gear repairs and boat building (Reid 2012). The fact that there are toilet facilities at only 10 sites, water at six, and electricity at 15 (Fisheries Division 2015) of the 45 sites reflects the ad hoc fashion in which the south coast fishing industry has evolved.

Halcrow (1998) noted that sanitary conditions vary widely from beach to beach, and some beaches have considerable amounts of litter and garbage. This remains the case today. Other sites were kept very clean by the fishers, particularly Smithfield, Billy’s Bay, and Welcome. No site was securely fenced, and stray animals were frequently found on the beaches, primarily chickens, dogs, and pigs. Their presence at sites where fish were being sorted on the ground was flagged as a potential health problem.

There have been several infrastructure improvements and developments at landing sites since the Halcrow survey (Reid 2012, Underwater Service Co. 2013). The most prominent of these was a development of the market and other facilities for fishers at Whitehouse (pier, freezers, market shed, toilet facilities, and gear sheds) in 1999. Unfortunately, the freezers are not functional, and these facilities are reportedly in bad condition and unsanitary. Part of the problem is the refusal by users to pay a fee to use the facilities. Consequently, there are no funds for cleaning, maintenance, light, or water. Gillings Gully Coop is discussing with the Fisheries Division the idea of taking over operation of the facilities, but the Coop is reluctant to take it over until the facilities have been restored.

Several more recent developments were encountered at other sites. KIs reported problems with several of these. Between 2008 and 2011, the Improving Jamaica’s Agricultural Productivity (IJAP) project undertook work at several Southwest Coast fish landing sites: Old Harbour Bay, Rocky Point, Calabash Bay, Great Bay, and Bluefields Bay (Reid 2012). The project was executed by the Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture and funded by the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA). At Old Harbour Bay, an angelfish marketing shed was constructed adjoining the old one. Unfortunately, the stalls did not have any counter space for cutting or displaying fish. Another market shed that was constructed at Rocky Point is not being used for fisheries. KIs reported that it had inadequate access and drainage for dealing with fish, so the stalls are being used by vendors of other goods. At Calabash Bay, the renovated gear sheds are in use, but the toilets are not.

At Rocky Point, KIs indicated that toilets were provided by a donation from the Canadian diaspora but were not being used, due to unwillingness to pay the $5.00 fee to use them. Consequently, there were no funds for water or light for them.

There was also concern about the way that the structures in the Wave Attenuation Devices (WADs) Artificial Reef Pilot were installed at Old Harbour Bay under the Government of Jamaica/UNEP Climate Change Adaptation and Disaster Risk Reduction Project (financed by the EU and UNEP) (Underwater Service Co. 2013). KIs stated that they were placed too close to shore because they were delivered by truck and there was no equipment available to place them farther offshore. The KI representative at Old Harbour Bay indicated that the community was not consulted in the design of this project. However, NEPA indicated that placement was correct, and that the structures were intended to be moved as the beach

35 Baldwin, K. and R. Mahon. 2015. Rapid Fishery Sector Assessment of the Jamaican Seascape

accreted. A KI on site pointed out that many of the structures had sunk in the sediment to half their height and would be difficult to move without breaking. One person suggested that the structures should have been placed from a barge rather than from the shore.

In contrast, the jetty at Bluefields Bay was also provided by the Government of Jamaica/UNEP Climate Change Adaptation and Disaster Risk Reduction Project (Reid 2012), but it was implemented by the BBFFS and was considered to have significantly contributed to functionality for fishers, tour operators, and the sanctuary wardens at that location.

KIs were asked about infrastructure needs at landing sites. As noted, considerable infrastructure has been put in place at the larger sites, and the KIs did not cite specific further needs. However, they noted that many of the smaller landing sites still needed basic facilities such as light, water, gear lockers, and toilets. At some smaller sites, land ownership remains a problem. It is difficult to place facilities when there is no clear ownership of the land or when it is privately owned.

The provision of facilities by the Government of Jamaica is contingent on fishers paying the recurrent costs (Fisheries Division 1995). A lack of organization among fisherfolk has prevented this from taking place at many beaches. Until recently, there were few functioning fisherfolk organizations in the study area, the longstanding ones being at Old Harbour Bay, Calabash Bay (serving Calabash Bay, Frenchmans Bay, and Billy Bay), Whitehouse (Gillings Gully Fishermen’s Cooperative), and, more recently, BBFFS. The Caribbean Coastal Area Management Foundation (C-CAM) initiative in the Portland Bight Sustainable Development Area and, more recently, the CaribSave CFISH project, provided assistance in organizing fisherfolk.

In 1998, most sites had good vehicular access, adequate space for vessel and gear repairs, and good drainage, particularly those located on sandy beaches that are open to the sea. However, at several sites access was difficult, usually on mangrove-lined shores where the coast is low and muddy. At these sites, drainage was reportedly poor and conditions were difficult during the rainy season. These sites included Cooke St. Bottom, St. Mary’s, St. Anne, Barmouth, and both Mitchell Town sites (Halcrow 1998).

Conclusion: The larger landing sites (Old Harbour Bay, Rocky Point, Great Bay, Calabash Bay, and Whitehouse) have had infrastructure improvements in the past 15 years. However, many of these additions are dysfunctional due to poor design, lack of maintenance, no sustainability planning, or low capacity for management. Attention is needed to their operation and maintenance. Small landing sites appear to be much the same as when they were surveyed in 1998, and the problems of flooding, facilities, and unsanitary conditions that were observed then likely continue today.

4 Post-harvest sector

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4.1 Distribution of fishery products Industrial fisheries tend to be oriented toward the export market, while the artisanal fisheries catch is generally sold locally, either to the local population or to hotels (CFRAMP 2000, van Reil 2005). Artisanal fishers generally sell their catch to a vendor or sell the catch themselves on the beach. Other modes of distribution are for personal use, and supply to a wholesaler, hotel, or restaurant (Grant 2001). Very few artisanal fishers reported supplying their catch to a processor directly, yet a large proportion of landings from fishers based on the Pedro Cays (via carrier vessels) and from Whitehouse (via middlemen) are sold to processors (Baldwin 2014). Supermarkets tend to concentrate on the sale of imported fish, which includes a large amount of frozen demersal fish, in addition to salted fish.

There are few facilities for cleaning fish at the various landing sites. There are relatively few dedicated fish markets in Jamaica (FAO 2005); four are located in the study area at Old Harbour Bay, Whitehouse, Bluefields, and Hendriks Wharf, Black River. The public market in Savanna-la-Mar contains a building for fish cleaning and retailing, with individual cleaning stations and sinks (Reid 2012). At Rocky Point, there is a shed with cleaning stations and water for washing. Hygienic conditions are below standard at landing places where so-called fish cleaners operate.

There is a well-developed system of marketing and distribution for the conch, lobster, and finfish catch landed in the study area (described in Espeut 1992). Morris (2010) noted that most industrial fishing operations are horizontally aligned and process and export their own catches. Reportedly, large pelagics were not easily absorbed by the local market (FAO 2005, Meggs 2014). Hotel chains that used to buy this product are now concentrating on cheaper imported fish (ECOST 2007). Halcrow (1998) noted that catch at a landing site may be distributed along any of several pathways: • Sale to consumers on the beach; • Transport by fishers to sell in the nearby community; • Sale to vendors on the beach who transport the fish to other communities for sale; or • Sale to middlemen on the beach who transport the fish to other communities for sale by vendors.

The first two pathways are the most common at small landing sites, and are taken by some of the fish at medium and large landing sites. The last two pathways are most common at medium and large landing sites. The final pathway is common where large volumes of fish are landed, for example, for fish moving from Whitehouse or Hendriks Wharf, Black River, to the public market at Savanna-la-Mar.

The clear majority of the reef fish catch is sold whole and fresh for domestic consumption (CFRAMP 2000, Ennis and Aiken 2014). Finfish at most sites in the artisanal sector have a direct link to the buyer via the vendors. There is little information on the numbers and modes of operation of fish vendors (Halcrow 1998, Gustavson 2002, FAO 2005). An estimated 10,000 people, mainly women who are employed year-round, work as vendors and middlemen for fishers (ECOST 2007). Most fish are taken by buyers visiting landing sites on foot and by private motor vehicles. Some middlemen use cars and small pickup trucks to move fish on ice from medium and large landing sites on the south coast to virtually every other part of the island. There is a vibrant trade with northern coast hotels during the winter (November to April) tourist season. The number of middlemen distributing fish is unknown, but is estimated at around 5,000 people around the island (ECOST 2007).

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KIs along the Southwest Coast indicated that local distribution is done primarily by vendors who buy the fish on beaches and transport it by truck to other parts of the island. One indicated that the practice had declined in the Treasure Bay area, due to an overall reduction in fishing. There was no evidence for significant changes or new practices regarding the distribution of fish for artisanal fisheries. A better understanding of the operations of these vendors is required to fully appreciate the value of the fishing industry and the roles of landing sites and fish distribution patterns in the study area and across Jamaica.

Conclusion: Vendors sell fish locally and take fish to markets in other parts of the island via conventional distribution networks. There is very little documented information about these distribution patterns and processes. Understanding them will be key to obtaining a full appreciation for the value of fisheries in the Seascape.

4.2 Processing In the early 1980s, large companies and investors began processing and exporting conch and lobster caught on offshore banks (CFRAMP 2000). Aiken et al. (1999) reported 14 processing plants in Jamaica, of which three are large plants used for both the industrial conch and lobster fisheries. These products are exported frozen and follow HACCP, EU, and United States standards for quality, controlled by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries’ Veterinary Division (FAO 2005). Conch is sold overseas as a processed product (called “50% processed”) after approximately 25% of the original whole (wet) weight has been stripped by drying. Lobsters are normally frozen, either whole or as tails, although recently a few processors have been purchasing live lobsters for export (K. Myrie personal communication 2015). Other than gutting, scaling, and icing, there is very little processing of finfish. Approximately 90% of finfish is sold either fresh on ice or as frozen products (ECOST 2007).

KIs confirmed that the four main processors in Jamaica are B & D Trawling, Rainforest Seafoods, Coles Seafood, and Everything Seafood. Rainforest Seafoods is the largest processor and exporter of seafood in Jamaica and employs approximately 300 persons at the Kingston processing plant (M. Jardim personal communication 2014). However, the Fisheries Division believes that as many as 20 smaller processors lacking official permits operate in the country (Monnereau and Helmsing 2011). These smaller exporters process the lobster themselves and sell both to the national market and internationally. The clear majority of processing occurs at plants in Kingston. In the Southwest Seascape, there are two small plants in Whitehouse and Black River (both owned by Coles Seafood) at which conch and lobster from Pedro Bank, landed in Black River, are processed and packed for export. A relatively small number of women are seasonally employed to process conch at approximately five processing plants (50 people per plant) (ECOST 2007). There is one large processor for Tilapia in Barton Isle, St. Elizabeth, which originally produced seafood exclusively for export, but now is more directed to local markets (Wint 1993).

Conclusion: There are four main processors in Jamaica and two small plants located in the Seascape.

4.3 Exports

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ECOST (2007) reported that reef fishes landed by the artisanal fishery are almost exclusively consumed in Jamaica (90%). In contrast, nearly 95% of queen conch is exported to the United States, Martinique (EU), Cayman Islands, and China (Aiken et al. 2006), and approximately 40% of spiny lobster is exported to the United States, Canada, Panama, Netherlands Antilles, Cayman Islands, and Martinique (Kelly 2002), with the remainder sold to the tourist sector in Jamaica. Most small marine shrimp is sold locally (FAO 2005).

4.4 Support services

4.4.1 Boat building Within the study area, boat building and renovations occur only at Whitehouse, Parottee, and Old Harbour Bay (personal observation 2015). Two people are actively building fiberglass plywood (ply) vessels in Whitehouse on a full-time basis (Baldwin 2014 field notes), and one person is extending a large decked vessel in Parottee. The Jamaica Fishermen Cooperative Union (JFCU) in Kingston builds boats to order (8.5 m, 9 m, and 10 m in length) in Kingston under the trade name JACO CRAFT (JFCU 2015).

4.4.2 Gear, fuel, and equipment suppliers Seven beaches in the Jamaican Seascape have fuel stations operated by extension officers of the Fisheries Division (Fisheries Division 2015). The JFCU is a major supplier of duty-free commercial fishing equipment (JFCU 2014). Fishing gear and equipment are primarily sold at its Beechwood Avenue store in Kingston and to a lesser extent at member societies which operate local stores on fishing beaches along the South Coast. On many beaches, including Old Harbour Bay, Rocky Point, Parottee, Black River, and Whitehouse, there are several private gear suppliers. Products for sale include artificial bait, diving equipment, fiberglass products, floats, marine ply, mesh wire, netting, plastic lines, rope/twine, and safety equipment. KIs from three cooperatives (Old Harbour Bay, Rocky Point, and Calabash Bay), noted that there was increasing competition in the sale of fishing gear. Some of the sellers were able to sell gear at a lower price than the cooperatives, even though the cooperatives were obtaining their gear duty-free from the JFCU.

5 Institutional and policy support of fisheries and fisheries ecosystems

5.1 Fisheries legal and policy framework NEPA (2003a) states that at least 52 pieces of legislation pertain to the management of the environment, including fisheries (although not all are relevant to coastal and marine ecosystems). They provide an excellent overview of the key pieces of legislation, as well as a pocket guide (NEPA 2003b).

5.1.1 Fisheries policy and legislation The key pieces of legislation that provide the basis for management of fisheries and fisheries ecosystems are The Morant and Pedro Cays Act (1945), aspects of the Wildlife Protection Act (1945), The Fishing Industry Act (1975), the Natural Resources Conservation Agency Act (1991), the Beach Control Act (1956), the Exclusive Economic Zone Act (1996), and the Maritime Areas Act (1997). Other laws, such as the

39 Baldwin, K. and R. Mahon. 2015. Rapid Fishery Sector Assessment of the Jamaican Seascape

Watershed Protection Act (1965), the Forest Control Act (1996), and the Endangered Species Act (2000), also have bearing on coastal and marine species and ecosystems.

The primary legislation that deals specifically with fisheries is the Fishing Industry Act (1975), which became effective in 1976. Most of the standard management measures are provided for in this Act, such as closed areas, closed seasons, banning of destructive gears, licensing, etc. This act initiated registration of vessels and fishers, licensing, and a variety of fishery-specific protective measures (e.g., lobster minimum size and protection of berried females). A primary problem with the Fishing Industry Act is that the stipulated fines are too low to be a deterrent. In 2015, the Fishing Industry Act was amended to increase the fines (A. Kong personal communication). The Act is outdated in other ways, including how it deals with MPAs and co-management.

Weaknesses in the legislation have been addressed in the new draft fisheries legislation, which was prepared with assistance from FAO and is being reviewed by various organizations and government departments. This legislation is largely consistent with that of other CARICOM countries. It will provide for fisheries management planning and several institutional arrangements, such as a Fisheries Advisory Committee, that will facilitate public participation in fisheries management.

In parallel with and leading the development of the new legislation, a Jamaica National Fisheries and Aquaculture Policy has been developed. This has undergone several revisions since it was first drafted in 2004 with assistance from FAO; the most recent revision was in 2014 (GoJ 2015). This policy is yet to be adopted by the Cabinet. The Policy provides a vision,ii guiding principles, broad goals,iii and objectives.iv It deals with fisheries in four zones based on species targeted and other geographical and ecological features: • Zone 1: Inland waters, internal waters, and the island shelf surrounding the main island of Jamaica, including the slope to a depth of 200 m • Zone 2: The proximal and offshore banks inside Jamaican waters, including Pedro and Morant Banks to a depth of 200 m, except the Joint Regime Area of Jamaica and the Republic of Colombia • Zone 3: The remainder of Jamaica’s maritime space, consisting of waters deeper than 200 m • Zone 4: The Joint Regime Area of Jamaica and the Republic of Colombia

The strategies developed for Zones 1 and 2 are directly relevant to activities that may be considered for implementation in the Jamaica Seascape. They state that the government shall rationalize levels of fishing effort in Zones 1 and 2 to ensure sustainability by: • Ensuring that all stakeholders participate in the governance process • Preventing new entrants into overexploited fisheries until stocks have recovered sufficiently • Developing unutilized and underutilized fisheries • Diverting existing fishers in Zones 1 and 2 to Zone 3, or to other activities, including aquaculture • Retooling and building the capacity of fishers to adopt alternative livelihoods and to operate in other zones • Creating an enabling environment to develop new and underutilized fisheries to promote, inter alia, local and international trade, and

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• Utilizing appropriate technologies that contribute to sustainable fisheries.

Several KIs expressed concern that after nearly 20 years and much revision and tinkering, the fisheries policy has not been adopted and the new fisheries legislation has still not been passed. In some cases, this concern was expressed as extreme frustration, and failure to pass the legislation was considered an indication that the Government of Jamaica was either not serious about managing fisheries or simply did not understand its importance for livelihoods and food security in the country.

Conclusion: Effective management of fisheries has been severely hampered by the lack of a modern and accepted fisheries policy and up-to-date legislation, which has been in preparation for 15+ years. Stakeholders are frustrated by the Government of Jamaica’s failure to bring the new policy legislation into effect.

5.1.2 Other key legislation Some selected aspects within larger pieces of legislation are relevant to EBM or the Jamaica Seascape. These are just a few of the 52 pieces of related legislation mentioned earlier.

5.1.2.1 The Wildlife Protection Act The Wildlife Protection Act affords protection to prescribed marine and coastal species of animals, including crocodiles, manatees, the Pedro seals, and five species of turtles. It also prohibits the use of poisons or other noxious materials, dynamite, and explosives to harvest fish; such provisions do not exist in the Fisheries Industry Act of 1975. Under this Act, it is an offense to take, kill, or attempt to kill or knowingly buy, sell, expose for sale, or have in one's possession any immature fish.

5.1.2.2 The Natural Resources Conservation Authority (NRCA) Act of 1991 The NRCA Act of 1991 covers marine parks and protected areas. It establishes the NRCA and mandates the Authority to inter alia: • Take such steps as are necessary for the effective management of the physical environment of Jamaica to ensure the protection, conservation, and proper use of the natural resources • Manage protected areas, national parks, and marine parks, and • Advise the Minister on matters on general policy relating to the management, development, and conservation of the environment.

5.1.2.3 Beach Control Act of 1956 The Beach Control Act of 1956 is administered by the NRCA and regulates the use of the foreshore for specified purposes. All rights in and over the foreshore are vested in the Crown. However, NRCA is empowered to grant licenses for the use of the foreshore for any public purpose, including fishing.

5.1.3 Legal basis for place-based protection of natural resources In 1987, the Jamaica Country Environmental Profile identified the need for marine parks in Jamaica (Ministry of Agriculture/IIED/USAID 1987). The 1997 “Policy for the national system of protected areas” sought to bring the many types of protected areas which can be declared under several different Acts under one framework (NRCA 1997). This Policy has been complemented by and given effect through the

41 Baldwin, K. and R. Mahon. 2015. Rapid Fishery Sector Assessment of the Jamaican Seascape

National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) (NEPA 2003) and the related Protected Areas System Master Plan (PASMP) (NEPA 2012),5 which provides an overview of the types of protected areas that may be established in Jamaica: • Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) and Marine Parks are declared under the NRCA Act of 1991 and the Beach Control Act of 1956. • National Parks are declared under the NRCA Act of 1991. • Special Fishery Conservation Areas (SFCAs) or fish sanctuaries are declared under the Fishing Industry Act of 1975. • Closed areas can also be declared under the Fishing Industry Act. • Game Sanctuaries and Game Reserves are declared under the Wildlife Protection Act. • Forest reserves and Forest Management Areas are declared under the Forest Act of 1996 and Forest Regulation.

Clearly, there is a diversity of place-based management measures developed to meet specific needs. The new Fisheries Act (2015) also provides for place-based management through the declaration of Fishery Management Areas, Fishery Management Zones, and Fishery Management Buffer Zones, within which activities that have the potential to interfere with, pollute, or otherwise negatively affect the fishery resources or the associated ecosystem may be restricted.

As development and demand for marine space in Jamaica continues6 to increase (Richards 2008), a further focus on place-based management in the form of Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) can be expected. Thus, to balance the need for development of the Pedro Bank’s resources with the protection of marine ecosystem and livelihoods, a one-year participatory MSP process was undertaken (2014–2015) to plan for the management of Pedro Bank’s marine resources as part of NEPA’s Strengthening the Operational and Financial Sustainability of the National Protected Areas System (NPAS) Project (Baldwin 2015). The MSP process produced a marine multi-use zoning design in which several protected areas were identified and management recommendations were developed to guide the sustainable use of the marine resources of the Pedro Bank.

5.2 Fisheries and conservation regulations and enforcement

5.2.1 Regulations NEPA (2003b) provides a comprehensive summary of regulation up to 2003. The specific regulations for fisheries, including regulations that are more recent than 2003, are summarized here.

The following regulations apply to reef fish fisheries:

5 The key parts of the NBSAP and the PASMP will be reviewed in a subsequent section. Ultimately, the intention is to have a single Protected Areas Act. 6 For example, offshore oil exploration has been renewed in Jamaica (Tullow 2014) and increases in marine transportation are likely because of the expansion of the Panama Canal and the controversial proposed development of a large-scale commercial port on the Goat Islands in Portland Bight (Douglas 2013, Palmer and Lang 2015).

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● Fishers must be registered and licensed, and ● Night spearfishing is banned, as of 20097.

There are no management measures in place for fish and shrimp.

A conch management plan is being revised (by R. Appeldoorn and M. Prada). The regulations for the conch fishery are as follows: General ○ Closed season (usually August 1–October 30) ○ Prohibition of trade in conch (including importation) during closed season, and ○ Protection of juveniles. Industrial fishing ○ Fisheries management areas, with the shallowest area reserved for artisanal fishers ○ A catch quota ○ Restricted access (e.g., limited number of vessels and no industrial fishing on Morant Bank), and ○ Vessels need to be certified by the Veterinary Division prior to licensing.

The spiny lobster fishery is open access for the artisanal fishery and uses a limited entry (license) system for the industrial fishery (Kong 2003). Regulations specific to the Caribbean spiny lobster fishery, according to the Fishing Industry Act of Jamaica, are as follows: General ○ Minimum size limits (carapace length > 89 mm) ○ Prohibition on taking berried or molting individuals ○ No use of spear guns ○ Closed season (April 1–June 30) ○ End-of-season declarations for lobster by processors and inspections of fish processing plants, hotels, beaches, and restaurants Industrial ○ Limited entry of industrial vessels ○ Industrial vessels can only use wooden, so-called Florida traps ○ Licensed lobster fishing vessels shall fish only in the areas specified by the licence ○ No fishing on the main island shelf of Jamaica or on any proximal bank ○ Licensed lobster motor fishing vessels shall only fish, catch, or land spiny lobster and no other species ○ All lobsters caught (except undersized and/or berried lobsters, which should be returned to the sea) shall be landed on mainland Jamaica no later than eight weeks after the commencement of each fishing trip.

7 The aim was to reduce the exploitation of reef fishes. Due to lack of enforcement and awareness among fishers, night spearfishing is still relatively common, with nearly one-third of spear fishers diving at night (Enniss and Aiken 2014).

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All five species of sea turtles are protected in Jamaica under the Wildlife Protection Act (1945) (Haynes- Sutton et al. 2011). Their protection is also included in the 1982 amendment to the Third Schedule of the Wildlife Protection Act, which stipulates that it is illegal to harvest or sell sea turtle eggs or to kill or possess "the whole or any part" of any of these species dead or alive. The NRCA Act and The Wildlife Protection Act (Amendment) Orders (1998) state that persons found guilty of hunting or possessing any protected sea turtle may be fined a maximum of J$100,000 or imprisoned up to 2 years and that the equipment used in the commission of the violation, including vehicles and boats, may be seized.

The Endangered Species Act (Protection, Conservation and Regulation of Trade) of 2000 also protects sea turtles. It implements CITES, to which Jamaica became a party in 1997. Penalties for trafficking in listed species include fines of up to J$2 million and imprisonment not to exceed two years (if brought before a Resident Magistrate) or 10 years (if brought before a Circuit Court).

Conclusion: The industrial fishery appears to have adequate regulatory measures that can ensure sustainability of the fishery if enforced. In contrast, there is a severe lack of controls on the artisanal fishery. The reason for the lack of political will to manage these fisheries is not clear.

5.2.2 Enforcement Enforcement of fishery regulations has been a major challenge for fisheries in Jamaica (Venema 2004, van Reil et al. 2005, Kong 2006, Baldwin 2014). Jamaican fishery laws and regulations are enforced by four principal agencies and one NGO: • Jamaica’s Coast Guard, part of Jamaica’s Defence Force (JDF) • The Marine Police, part of the Jamaica Constabulary Force (JCF) • The Fisheries Division (fisheries inspectors, statistical data collectors) • The NRCA (game wardens), and • Portland Bight Protected Area, an NGO (game wardens).

Undersized lobsters were seen openly displayed in the market at Old Harbour Bay (personal observation). KIs also reported that they were being exported. Reportedly, berried lobsters were also being harvested, scrubbed, and sold locally and exported. Evidence from catch and effort data indicates that landings of lobster continue throughout the closed season (CRFM 2007).

KIs expressed concern about the management of the industrial lobster fishery on Pedro Bank. They agreed with the recent limit of 2,000 traps per boat but felt that it was not enforceable. They suggested that a vessel could easily have twice as many traps in the water at any given time, since at no time did vessels have all their traps out of the water where they could be counted. One KI suggested that vessels may have up to 5,000 traps.

Enniss and Aiken (2014) report that due to lack of enforcement and awareness among fishers, night spearfishing is still relatively common, with nearly one-third of spear fishers diving at night. Prevention of illegal fishing on Pedro Bank by foreign vessels is also a major concern (Kong 2006, Aiken 2013, Aiken et al. 2013).

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KIs repeatedly called for the need to enforce basic regulations on all levels, especially lobster size limits. There is also the need for improved monitoring and control systems if any regulations are to be effective. Several people stated that proceeding further with new plans and regulations was a waste of time if the current ones were not upheld (Baldwin 2015).

Conclusion: Lack of enforcement of fishery regulations, especially the limited number of rules for artisanal fisheries, is a major issue for fisheries management.

5.3 Related national policy and legislation

5.3.1 Vision 2030 Jamaica Vision 2030 Jamaica is the country’s first long-term National Development Plan (PIOJ 2009). It aims to put Jamaica in a position to achieve developed country status by 2030. Its slogan is “Jamaica, the place of choice to live, work, raise families, and do business.” This vision describes a major transformation from a middle-income developing country to one that affords its citizens a high quality of life and world-class standards in critical areas, including education, health care, nutrition, basic amenities, access to environmental goods and services, civility, and social order.

It has four goals, all of which are key to successful EBM of the Jamaica Seascape: 1. Jamaicans are empowered to achieve their fullest potential 2. The Jamaican society is secure, cohesive, and just 3. Jamaica’s economy is prosperous, and 4. Jamaica has a healthy natural environment.

Goals 1 and 4 resonate most immediately with the aims and approaches of the CMBP Jamaica Seascape component. Under Goal 4, there are two outcomes that give legitimacy to the CMBP in Jamaica and support several other relevant national policies: • Outcome 13: Sustainable management and use of environmental and natural resources, and • Outcome 14: Hazard risk reduction and adaptation to climate change.

Strategies and activities for these outcomes relate to improved management of fisheries and MPAs and protection of the marine environment and biodiversity.

5.3.2 National Policy on Ocean and Coastal Zone Management This policy was developed by the National Council on Ocean and Coastal Zone Management (MFAFT/ NRCA 2002). It includes five policy goals: 1. Promotion of sustainable development 2. Conservation of ocean and coastal resources and ecosystems 3. Collection of baseline data and research 4. Utilization of the role of science and traditional ecological knowledge for an integrated coastal area, and 5. Provision of governance required for effective integrated coastal area management.

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Specific policy objectives are outlined under each of these goals. Parish-level coastal and marine characteristics, constraints, and opportunities are identified in MFAFT/ NRCA (2002) Annex E.

5.3.3 National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) Several strategies and actions in the current Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) NBSAP have direct bearing on the Jamaica Seascape and any work to ensure its conservation for sustainable use (NEPA 2003). Several other more general strategies and actions relating to data and information management and research also have indirect bearing. A new NBSAP is in preparation and was expected to be ready in 2016.

The current NBSAP (NEPA 2003) has two goals that are directly relevant to EBM of the Jamaica Seascape:

• Goal 1: Conserve biodiversity includes a strategy to “... decentralise the management of protected areas using local environmental NGOs or community-based organisations.” • Goal 2: Ensure sustainable use of biological resources.

Goal 2 includes the following strategies for marine resources:

• Increase understanding of fishermen and others involved in the harvesting of marine resources of the need for sustainable use of marine resources, through extension services, education, training, and technology transfer. • Develop and implement codes of conduct and guidelines for sustainable use of marine resources. • Investigate mariculture as an alternative to traditional fishing. • Conduct a management audit of the Fisheries Division to assess its management capacity, with a view to determining and implementing necessary reforms to overcome gaps and deficiencies. • Institute an Integrated Coastal Zone Management Programme through relevant agencies, local communities, and conservation organisations. • Enhance the work of the Jamaica Coral Reef Action Plan Committee to identify and implement measures to prevent damage to sensitive marine resources, including reefs, mangroves, lagoons, wetlands, and seagrass beds. • Implement pollution mitigation measures to reduce pollution from ships and land-based activities, taking into consideration existing initiatives. • Increase efforts to monitor and prevent introduction of alien species into the marine ecosystem. • Promote training opportunities for managers of MPAs. • Secure the involvement of local communities and individuals who possess traditional knowledge regarding the effective management of marine resources. • Strengthen local and regional collaboration to ensure effective monitoring and enforcement of conservation rules and management programs for fisheries. • Participate in regional and global initiatives to manage marine biological resources and seek financial and technical assistance to increase capacity to manage these resources. • Promote awareness of the impacts of collecting or damaging marine resources, particularly among tourism operators and beach users. • Promote and raise awareness of the impact of land-based activities on marine biodiversity.

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Specific actions in the NBSAP that affect the Jamaica Seascape include:

• Rehabilitation of coral reef ecosystems (led by NEPA over 10 years). This work includes assessing reefs, mooring buoys, limiting water sports, and training hotel staff. • Reduction of Pollutants in Freshwater and Marine Environments (led by NEPA over two years). This effort includes surveying rivers and coastal sites, identifying polluters, licensing them, and monitoring their activities. • Development of Sustainable Fisheries (led by the Fisheries Division over five years). This work includes stock assessment of all fishable resources, determination of species-appropriate catch limits, setting of gear limitations, an increase in the current level of enforcement, an increase in fines and penalties to deter illegal practices, empowerment of fishers to manage fishing beaches, establishment of adequate facilities at fishing beaches, investigation of the mariculture industry, and increased capacity of the Fisheries Division to carry out its mandate. • Sustainable Management of Dolphin Species (led by NEPA over four years). This includes meeting with stakeholders, reviewing literature and data, conducting boat and aerial surveys, and preparing a management strategy.

5.3.4 Protected Areas System Master Plan (PASMP) The PASMP is the road map for making the vision for Jamaica’s protected areas a reality. It sets out guidelines for establishing and managing a comprehensive network of protected areas that supports national development by contributing to long-term ecological viability, maintaining ecological processes and systems, and protecting the country’s natural and cultural heritage. The PASMP’s strategies and activities are expected to result in a network of protected areas that is representative, effectively managed, and sustainably financed. It identifies 13 long-term goals for the country and 15 short-term, time-bound national targets and supporting actions for the five-year period 2013–2017. Its development was guided by the Protected Areas Committee (PAC) established by NEPA.

The PASMP describes the historical development of protected areas in Jamaica as well as a thorough analysis of the current situation regarding gaps and institutional issues. It has nine goals:

Goal 1: To integrate protected areas into broader land- and seascapes and sectors to maintain ecological structure and function. Goal 2: To substantially improve site-based protected area planning and management. Goal 3: To prevent and mitigate the negative impacts of key threats to protected areas. Goal 4: To identify and integrate climate change adaptation and mitigation measures in protected area planning and management strategies. Goal 5: To address under-representation of marine, inland waters, and terrestrial ecosystems in the national protected area system. Goal 6: To enhance and secure the involvement of local communities and other relevant stakeholders. Goal 7: To provide an enabling policy, institutional, and socio-economic environment for protected areas. Goal 8: To ensure the financial sustainability of the protected areas within the national system.

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Goal 9: To build capacity for the planning, establishment, and management of protected areas. Goal 10: To strengthen communication, education, and public awareness. Goal 11: To ensure that scientific knowledge contributes to the establishment and effectiveness of protected areas and the protected area system. Goal 12: To evaluate, monitor, and improve protected areas management, status, and trends. Goal 13: To develop and adopt minimum standards and best practices for the national protected areas system. All these goals are relevant to EBM of the Jamaica Seascape. The emphasis on involvement of local communities in Goal 6 is relevant to the development of alternatives livelihoods for fishers. The activities related to this goal are however, not sufficiently detailed to determine what will be done.

5.3.5 Tourism Master Plan The Tourism Master Plan is relevant to EBM in the Jamaica Seascape in term of its approach to livelihoods, regarding community-based tourism in coastal areas (Commonwealth Secretariat 2002). It defines community based tourism as putting local communities in control of development of the wider tourism product and ensuring that the benefits of tourism are spread widely within the community. This approach gives priority to: • Bottom-up planning involving community organizations • Managing the interface with tourists, including the control of harassment • Developing products in which local people can take pride • Maintaining local involvement in the ownership and management of tourism products and businesses, and • Increasing the supply of goods and services supplied to the industry.

This perspective is important in terms of encouraging fishers to make a transition into tourism-based livelihoods.

The Tourism Master Plan also recognises that the protection of Jamaica’s unique and fragile environment is essential for the tourism industry. It notes that loss of water quality, beach erosion, loss of habitat, and deforestation represent direct threats to sustainable development. Several social and environmental aspects of this plan relate to fisheries and the marine environment:

• It calls for more effective management of marine parks and reduction of overfishing • It indicates that hotels and restaurants should only buy fish from responsible certified fishers • It refers to coral reef degradation and ecological carrying capacity • It flags the importance of herbivores for coral reef health • It calls for restoration of coral cover levels to >20% • It argues that fishermen and other users of the foreshore must continue to have access to the foreshore • It recognizes spatial conflict between tourism development and fishing, and

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• It argues that development approval should involve a specific description of the roles envisaged for fishermen.

The Tourism Master Plan does not cover the development of game fishing.

5.3.6 Climate Change Policy Framework and Action Plan The Climate Change Policy Framework and Action Plan acknowledges that climate change is taking place at an accelerated rate due to human activities and recognizes that as a small island developing state, Jamaica is particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, as are its fisheries (Richards 2012, MWLECC 2013, World Bank 2014). It stresses the need to develop an integrated approach to effectively build resilience at all levels and to have the policies in place to implement it. Its purpose is to mainstream climate change in all national activities.

The project “Strengthening Community Preparedness and Resilience to natural disasters in selected vulnerable communities–Jamaica” was aimed at creating capacity at the community level for Agricultural Disaster Risk Management (ADRM) (Kerr 2013). The project’s focus on community-based disaster risk management was intended to begin operationalization of the 2010 National ADRM Policy developed by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. The project was active in three fishing communities in the Jamaica Seascape: Rocky Point, Old Harbour Bay, and Treasure Beach (as well as Hellshire Beach outside the area). In Portland Bight, implementation was partnered with C-CAM (C-CAM 2013). Activities included risk assessment, increasing community preparedness, training, provision of equipment such as water tanks and generators, and adaptive options (moving fishing areas to higher ground).

The Caribbean Community Climate Change Centre (CCCCC) recently developed a National Adaptation Strategy and Action Plan for the Fisheries Sub-sector for Jamaica (CCCCC 2015). It concluded that climate change poses a real and immediate threat to Jamaica’s fisheries sector. Their assessment of readiness of Jamaica’s fisheries sector for climate change adaptation is based on the concepts of adaptive governance. The approach promoted in the strategy is one of building resilience through strengthening actor networks, institutional variety, and capacity for analytical deliberation.

Conclusion: It is important to mainstream climate change adaptation into all aspects of fisheries management and development and to build the resilience that communities and ecosystems need to cope with climate change.

5.3.7 Dolphin policy The “Dolphin policy for Jamaica with special emphasis on bottlenose dolphins” (NEPA 2014a) addresses the presence of dolphins in Jamaican waters, the trading of dolphins, and dolphin attractions. Given the lack of data on dolphin populations, the policy is based on the precautionary approach. Decisions on further development of dolphin attractions will therefore be based on research and scientific data.

Conclusion: Jamaica has several policies and plans that address both social and environmental aspects of EBM of coastal and marine areas, including fisheries. These plans specifically describe environmental

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protection, as well as the importance of community-based management. NGOs and CBOs have an important role in ensuring sustainable use of coastal and marine resources and are mutually supportive.

5.4 Intersectoral linkages at the national level Seascape-level planning and EBM require an integrated multi-level system of governance. This section examines the intersectoral mechanisms in Jamaica that will allow integration at national and subnational levels. Integration is important, given the many government and parastatal agencies relevant to coastal and marine fisheries and ecosystems in the Jamaica seascape:

• Coast Guard (JDF-CG) • Fisheries Division, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (MOAF) • Marine Police (JCF-MP) • Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Foreign Trade (MFAFT) • Ministry of Science, Technology, Energy and Mining (Mines and Geology Division) • Ministry of Water, Land, Environment and Climate Change (MWLECC) • National Environment and Planning Agency (NEPA) • Vet Services, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (MOAF) • National Solid Waste Management Authority (NSWMA) / Ministry of Health • Maritime Authority of Jamaica (MAJ) • Petroleum Cooperation of Jamaica (PCJ) • Urban Development Commission (UDC) • Jamaica National Heritage Trust (JNHT)

Various mechanisms facilitate intersectoral linkages among government departments. Some of these are undocumented or poorly documented, and further information was sought on their structure and functionality. Several national committees have been formed to address coastal and marine sustainable development issues, the membership of which cuts across many of the above agencies. They provide, or have the potential to provide, some measure of integration. They include:

• National Council Ocean and Coastal Zone Management (NCOCZM) • Protected Areas Committee (PAC) • Fisheries Advisory Committee • Interministerial Committee for the Pedro Cays • Jamaica Fish Sanctuary Network (JFSN) • The Cays Committee

One KI stated that interministerial collaboration (e.g., between UDC, Forestry, Fisheries, and NEPA) was improving and management had become more integrated in recent years.

5.4.1 The National Council for Oceans and Coastal Zone Management (NCOCZM) The NCOCZM is an overarching higher-level policy-integrating body within the government of Jamaica. Its main role of the NCOCZM is to develop integrated policy; it is not a management body. There is little

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publicly available information about its structure and function, so the information that follows came from KIs. The NCOCZM was established in 1998 as a response to the 1990 EEZ Act. It is an advisory body to the Cabinet that provides national-level policy and planning oversight for ocean and coastal affairs (Mahon et al. 2010). The Economic Affairs Department of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs is the secretariat to the NCOCZM. The Chair is the junior minister in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. There are two Deputy Chairs, currently Dale Webber and Admiral Craig from the Maritime Authority. The Council is composed of high- level representatives from the following Ministries, agencies, NGOs, private-sector groups, and academic institutions:

• Office of the Prime Minister - Environmental Management Division • Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Foreign Trade; Attorney General’s Chambers • Ministry of Energy and Mining - Mines and Geology Division • Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Fisheries Division • Ministry of Tourism • Ministry of National Security - Jamaica Defence Force Coast Guard • Jamaica National Heritage Trust • Maritime Authority of Jamaica • Planning Institute of Jamaica • Port Authority of Jamaica • Shipping Association of Jamaica • National Land Agency - Survey and Mapping Division • National Environment and Planning Agency • National Commission on Science and Technology • University of the West Indies, Mona - Centre for Marine Sciences and Marine Geology Unit • Caribbean Maritime Institute, and • Northern Jamaica Conservation Association.

In addition to the above, several individuals serve in personal capacities. These include former directors and representatives of the following:

• Jamaica Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf • Port Authority of Jamaica • National Environment and Planning Agency • Representation of Jamaica to the United Nations (New York), and • Caribbean Coastal Area Management Foundation.

One of the main problems with the NCOCZM in earlier years was apparently low attendance. Some members attended meetings seldom or only when there was a crisis. However, recently the group has been meeting every other month with about 90% representation.

The Council has undertaken several activities, including developing a coastal zone management policy, establishing a national hydrographic committee, placing a light on SW Rock (in the EEZ), developing diving

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regulations, and establishing tide gauges. It has created several short-term committees focused on specific issues to develop five-year action plans.

• The Cays Committee was established to develop policy and management for cays. Peter Espeut was commissioned in 2010 to research the 65 cays and islets in Jamaican waters. He proposed that they be assigned to four categories: preservation, conservation, recreation, settlement. • Other subcommittees were established to deal with Marpol, Ramsar, overwater structures, and marine protection from oil spills. • A discussion on fisheries and marine sanctuaries, including the criteria for the latter, is planned. The discussion will include the extent of coverage of habitats relative to national targets.

In 2011, stakeholders indicated that the NCOCZM was not adequately funded to carry out its function (Mahon 2013). Analysis of governance arrangements for living marine resources on Pedro Bank found that the responsibilities of different government departments for various issues (e.g., fishing, biodiversity conservation, pollution, living conditions in fishing camps on the cays, MPAs) needed to be clarified. That study recommended that the NCOCZM be given the resources needed to become a functional national ocean policy advisory body and be fully operationalized (Mahon 2013). Properly resourced, the NCOCZM could provide the intersectoral integration needed for EBM of the island shelf and offshore banks.

5.4.2 The Protected Areas Committee (PAC) The Protected Areas Committee (PAC) consists of heads of the government entities who have legal responsibility for protected areas declaration and/or management. The PAC was formed to harmonize the activities of these bodies (NEPA 2009). Members are: • CEO and Conservator of Forests, Forestry Department (Chair) • CEO, National Environment and Planning Agency (NEPA) • Senior Director, Environmental Management Division, Office of the Prime Minister • Executive Director, Jamaica National Heritage Trust (JNHT) • Chair of Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) • Scientific Authority of Jamaica, and • Director, Fisheries Division.

The PAC promotes the CBD Programme of Work on Protected Areas (PoWPA). This includes the preparation of the PASMP for Jamaica.

5.4.3 The Fisheries Advisory Council (FAC) The Fishing Industry Act does not specify a fisheries advisory body. While the proposed fisheries act does specify a National Fisheries Advisory Council, the act has not been passed. Although there is no legal mandate for such a body, Minister Tufton established a Fisheries Advisory Board in 2008. It was active until 2011, but declined after that. Current members include George Grant (chair, JFCU Chair); Richard Francis (industrial fisheries), Thompson (investor), Sydney Francis (industrial fisher/processor), a Whitehouse fisher (bird tours/coop), University of the West Indies, Veterinary Services, a sport fisher representative, and Fisheries Division (observer). The Council is scheduled to meet quarterly, but regular

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meetings are not occurring. KIs indicated that it is not functioning as it should. There are three subcommittees devoted to beach development (jetties, infrastructure), marketing, and fish sanctuaries.

The Sanctuaries Subcommittee of the Fisheries Advisory Board (chaired by Karl Aiken) was established as soon as the decision was made to declare the SFCAs. This subcommittee focused on foundational work in establishing the sanctuaries, such as where to locate them, who should run them, budgets, and regulations. This subcommittee has not been active recently, largely because the Fisheries Advisory Board is not very active.

5.4.4 Interministerial Committee for the Pedro Cays The specific problems relating to the Pedro Cays and their frequent appearance in the media led to the formation of an Interministerial Committee on Pedro Cays in 2014, created by the Prime Minister to identify solutions for Pedro Cays. The Permanent Secretary (the administrative head of the Ministry of Agriculture) was asked to form the committee and it was intended to be run by the Fisheries Division. The only reported meeting of the committee was at its inception.

5.4.5 Jamaica Fish Sanctuary Network (JFSN) The JFSN was created by the Fisheries Division as an independent group (a network of implementing partners) that could speak to the Fisheries Division with a collective voice. The Memorandum of Agreement documents between sanctuaries and the Fisheries Division require the inclusion of fish sanctuaries in the network. Thus far, the network has focused on planning and baseline surveys, and participation in the network has been low. The sanctuaries tend to operate in an insular fashion, so it can be difficult to get information from them and even harder to get them to develop a common position around an issue. For example, they were not able to reach a resolution on a key issue, compensation to wardens for injuries in the line of duty. The sanctuary network was/is funded by the Environmental Foundation of Jamaica (EFJ) and C-CAM is contracted to run it.

5.4.6 South West Friendly Fisheries Alliance (SWFFA) SWFFA is an informal alliance established to promote interaction among the sanctuaries on the South West coast and fisher groups. The Bluefields Bay SFCA is the core site and works alongside Whitehouse SFCA (Sandals Foundation and Gillings Gully Coop) and Galleon SFCA (BREDS). They also work to share experiences on lobster condos (a structural enhancement), artificial reefs (such as the reef structures constructed by Dr. Mike Haley), and coral gardening initiatives.

5.4.7 PASMP The PASMP proposes a Protected Areas Managers Forum that is aimed at improved coordination and collaboration among agencies and partners, including among government agencies, NGOs, and other civil society agencies.

5.4.8 National Environmental Societies Trust (NEST) There have been a few attempts to establish an umbrella NGO for conservation NGOs in Jamaica. The most notable was the National Environmental Societies Trust (NEST) supported by EFJ. This effort failed

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when NGOs voiced concerns about the way that funds were being distributed. No further details were available. The Jamaica Protected Areas Network (JPAN) also failed.

Conclusion: Intersectoral integration mechanisms are prominent in the coastal and marine environment in Jamaica. They range from the overarching NCOCZM to sectoral attempts to engage other government, NGO, and private-sector stakeholders through a variety of committees. These mechanisms are critical for EBM of fisheries in the Seascape area. The overarching role of the NCOCZM should be promoted and oriented toward networking, integration, and policy guidance.

5.5 Overarching planning and coordination of an ecosystem approach to fisheries (especially artisanal) and involvement of civil society Most KIs alluded to the problem that while there are many and diverse local activities to improve the marine environment and fisheries, they are disconnected from one another. There is a critical need for a framework to provide a point of reference for NGOs, CBOs, the private sector, and other agencies that are involved (Espeut 1992). This framework should be provided by the government and follow from the fisheries policy, which states that management of artisanal fisheries should be pursued through a community-based approach.

The KIs generally supported the idea of a strategic plan for artisanal fisheries based on the fisheries policy. The strategic plan should make it very clear that the government fully endorses co-management and that wherever possible management will be handled by community-based organizations.

KIs were asked whether the proposal to develop community-based management on the southwest coast put forward by the South Coast Sustainable Development Study (1998) was still viable. That study proposed that an extensive coastal and marine management area, namely the Portland Bight, and an umbrella NGO to oversee management and integrate the many civil society groups within the region, be extended to other areas of the South Coast. The study further proposed that two additional large management areas be identified between Portland Bight and the Negril management area.

Several KIs felt that this approach was still valid and might indeed be the only way to achieve sustainable development for coastal and marine resources in the area. In fact, it might be more acceptable now than in 1998 because resources have continued to decline. One aspect of the approach was considered particularly important: the integration of civil society organizations for both land and sea within each of the larger areas. Also important was bringing together a wide range of civil society organizations such as benevolent societies, friendly societies, and social development organizations, to extend the focus beyond fisheries and conservation.

KIs also pointed out that since 1998, viable community-based organizations have developed on the south coast in areas such as Treasure Beach and Bluefields. The success of the initiatives in these areas may be due in part to the involvement of organizations other than just fishers and to the influence of business- oriented thinking.

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Several KIs also stated that a strategic plan for community-based coastal and marine management in the Jamaica seascape should be very clear on the supporting role that must be played by government agencies. They noted that while the senior staff in the Fisheries Division appeared to understand the implications of taking a community-based management approach, junior staff occasionally carried out fisheries activities in the area without inviting or even informing NGOs and CBOs. For the co-management approach to work, the Fisheries Division and other government agencies will need to support and facilitate it in a partnership mode.

Conclusion: Stakeholders still support the community-based approach to management of artisanal fisheries in the Seascape (and indeed all of Jamaica) that has been talked about for decades and that is supported by most policy documents. They recognized the huge challenges involved in this approach, including community capacity, alternatives to fishing, and enforcement. They pointed to the strides made in the Treasure Beach and Bluefields communities when fishers, conservation NGOs, and the private sector came together and recommended that these examples be transferred where applicable. A strategic plan for community-based coastal and marine management in the Jamaica seascape must be clear on the supporting role of government agencies.

5.6 Political support for fisheries and the need to understand fisheries’ value Several KIs reiterated the common concern that there is a lack of political will and support for the proper management of artisanal fisheries. Without this support, artisanal fisheries will likely continue to overexploit the resource and poverty will continue to beset fishers and fishing communities. Two suggestions for remedies were offered.

The first suggestion is to organize civil society to create a collective voice and sense of empowerment for lobbying. Fisher associations may be one means of developing a collective voice. However, fisher cooperatives are essentially small businesses, and while they can provide the cohesion needed for a collective voice, this is not their purpose. Furthermore, as cooperatives pay dividends at the end of each year, they may not have a great incentive to increase membership.

The second suggestion is to increase the understanding of the full value of artisanal fisheries. When decision makers consider fisheries, they think primarily of the catching and landing of fish rather than of the value added (and livelihoods supported) by vendors cleaning and selling fish in markets, vendors transporting fish within the country, processors preparing fish for sale in shops and supermarkets, and restaurant employees cooking and selling fish in restaurants of all sizes and types. They also may not understand that supporting services in boat and gear construction and maintenance provide additional livelihoods. They also may not appreciate the implications for foreign exchange earned through the supply of local seafood in the tourism sector or the role of fish in domestic nutrition and health (food security). It is urgent to document these value-added and livelihood contributions and estimate the potential gains from improved management.

Some studies have attempted to value marine ecosystems (Koslow et al., Gustavson 2002, WRI Coastal Capital Project by Waite et al. 2011, valuation of coral reefs in Portland Bight by Espeut 2000), but the reports have not had the desired impact on attention and support to the fishing industry.

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Conclusion: The government’s lack of support for fisheries appears to rest on a lack of understanding of the full value of artisanal fisheries. It is urgent to document these value-added and livelihood contributions and to estimate potential gains from improved management.

5.7 International policy and agreements relevant to the Jamaica Seascape Jamaica is party to several regional and international agreements that have direct bearing on fisheries ecosystems and resources in the study area:

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS): Jamaica signed UNCLOS in 1983. UNCLOS is the overarching global constituting instrument for ocean governance. It forms the basis for many other international implementing agreements for the world’s oceans.

FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries (CCRF): Jamaica has endorsed the Code of Conduct (FAO 1995). The revised Fisheries Policy indicates that fisheries management and development in Jamaica will be guided by the FAO Code of Conduct. The guidelines produced by FAO to support implementation of the Code of Conduct provide valuable information on developing sustainable fisheries. The recently released “Voluntary Guidelines for Securing Sustainable Small-Scale Fisheries in the Context of Food Security and Poverty Eradication” is particularly relevant to the Jamaica Seascape (FAO 2015a, 2015b).

The United Nations Fish Stocks Agreement (UNFSA): Jamaica has not yet signed this agreement. It has little application to Jamaican fisheries until there are efforts to expand fishing on highly migratory and/or straddling species.

The FAO Compliance Agreement: Jamaica has not signed this agreement. The agreement deals with compliance by fishing vessels with international conservation and management measures on the high seas. It has little relevance for Jamaica now and especially for the Jamaica Seascape.

Marine Pollution Convention (MARPOL): Jamaica signed the five MARPOL annexes relating to ship-based sources of pollution in 1991. MARPOL is the international treaty regulating disposal of waste generated by the normal operation of vessels.

Cartagena Convention: Jamaica signed this convention and two of its protocols, the Oil Spills Protocol and the Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife (SPAW) Protocol. Jamaica has not signed the Land-Based Sources (LBS) Protocol.

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD): Jamaica became a party to the CBD in 1995 and completed the NBSAP, which covers marine ecosystems and biodiversity (NEPA 2003). Revision of the NBSAP began in late 2014 and was due to be completed in 2016. The Pedro Bank is a designated Ecological or Biological Significant Marine Area (EBSA).

Ramsar Convention: Jamaica signed the Convention on Wetlands in 1998. NEPA is the contact point and there are four Ramsar sites in Jamaica, of which two are in the Seascape area: the Black River Lower Morass and the Portland Bight Wetlands and Cays.

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World Heritage Convention: Jamaica acceded to the World Heritage Convention in 1983. There are no World Heritage Sites in the Seascape area.

Caribbean Regional Fisheries Mechanism (CRFM) and Caribbean Community Common Fisheries Policy (CCCFP): Jamaica is a member of the CRFM and signed the CARICOM Common Fisheries Policy. The CCCFP is a binding treaty focusing on cooperation and collaboration of Caribbean people, fishermen, and their governments in conserving, managing, and sustainably utilizing fisheries and related ecosystems. By signing the CCCFP, Jamaica agreed to implement a wide range of fisheries management and development measures (CRFM 2011).

Conclusion: Jamaica is party to most regional and international conventions that have relevance to EBM in the Jamaica Seascape. It is unclear how well it has could fulfil its obligations under these conventions. However, signing them does indicate the intention to meet these obligations, which can provide a basis for lobbying and/or supporting actions by stakeholders.

5.8 Institutional capacity for fisheries ecosystem management The management of marine ecosystems is in a state of flux in Jamaica, as the draft (2008) Fisheries Act has not been passed. As pointed out by Otuokon (2012), this Act addresses several of the uncertainties regarding responsibility for individual issues and integrating mechanisms. Its passage is expected to strengthen the national capacity for marine EBM. Once it is passed, however, a considerable amount of work will need to be done to specify modes of implementation, such as committees and co-management arrangements and their operationalization.

Institutional capacity for fisheries EBM will draw from government departments, fisher organizations, other civil society organizations, and the private sector (Espeut 1994).

5.8.1 Fisheries Division capacity The Fisheries Division of the Ministry of Agriculture has primary responsibility for the development and management of fisheries in Jamaica. The CARICOM Fisheries Resource Assessment and Management Program (CFRAMP) baseline review of fisheries divisions in CARICOM countries provided an overview of the structure and function of the Fisheries Division in 1991 (Mahon and Boyce 1992). At that time, it lacked the staff to adequately carry out its mandate, partly because there were several vacant positions. In particular, it lacked the capacity to implement extension activities for the widely dispersed, small-scale fisheries (Halcrow 1998). Five or more years before 1998, the Fisheries Division focused its attention on the management of the highly valuable commercial fisheries for conch and lobster, where the expected impact was greatest (Halcrow 1998).

Early efforts regarding small-scale fisheries attempted to collect data on landings (Grant 1996). KIs indicated that there is a serious lack of data on artisanal fisheries, including fishers, vessels, gear, landings, and effort. The fisheries data collection system developed by CFRAMP and implemented 1996–2000 has ceased to function. Thus, fisheries decision making in Jamaica is not being informed by data.

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Despite having undergone several reorganizations and staff changes, the Fisheries Division lacks the capacity to interact widely with the small-scale components of the fishing industry (Venema 2004, Kong 2005, Auditor General’s Department 2009). This capacity is fundamental to successful EBM of offshore and especially inshore fisheries ecosystems. The Jamaica Fisheries Policy recognizes this deficiency in the capacity of the Fisheries Division and avers that successful management of small-scale fisheries will require a participatory, community-based, co-management approach (GoJ 2015).

KIs agreed that the Fisheries Division does not have the capacity to undertake management of artisanal fisheries (a view that is incorporated in the fisheries policy). Several of them indicated that the Fisheries Division should provide delegated co-management for artisanal fisheries and focus on proper management (assessment, regulations, and monitoring) of industrial fisheries. One KI indicated that there had been consensus on this approach for over a decade, but the Fisheries Division is not moving forward with the artisanal fisheries aspect in a structured way.

KIs also indicated that while the above co-management approach seems appropriate in theory, the civil society willingness to undertake this role may be lacking, as well as the capacity. NGOs have a history of ups and down, as do fisher cooperatives. This subject was pursued with several of the relevant NGOs and cooperatives.

Cooperatives and the JFCU did not perceive themselves as having a role in fishery management. They noted difficulties in engaging fishers in co-management, including the need for fishers to see immediate tangible returns and to receive compensation for attending meetings. Cooperatives had little awareness of the FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries, which, as previously noted, is a basis for the new fisheries and aquaculture policy. Only one cooperative representative had heard of it. Everyone responded that implementing it would be beyond their capacity. KIs indicated that cooperatives would probably not be the appropriate civil society bodies through which to approach management. Instead, cooperatives may need to be complemented by fisher associations that handle lobbying, collective actions, and engagement with management.

Fish sanctuary staff also did not view fishery management outside the sanctuary as an issue in which they would or should be involved (reasonably so, given their capacity). The Bluefields Bay community group felt that they could pursue fisheries management beyond the sanctuary but that there was little point in seeking to reduce fishing effort without offering alternatives. They emphasized that fishery management and business-based livelihood development must go hand in hand. They did indicate that they thought their efforts to bring the marine police to Bluefields Bay had contributed to better enforcement of fisheries regulations in areas adjacent to the sanctuary, especially reduction of blast fishing.

Some NGO KIs were asked about the FAO Code of Conduct and the recently developed and published “Voluntary Guidelines for Securing Sustainable Small-Scale Fisheries in the Context of Food Security and Poverty Eradication” (FAO 2015a) as a basis for engaging fishers in developing and implementing their own local code of conduct. Most were not aware of the Code of Conduct or the new guidelines, which made it difficult to pursue this approach very far, but some expressed an interest in learning more, especially when it was explained that FAO had a program to support this approach (FAO 2015b).

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Co-management is frequently cited as a viable option for managing artisanal fisheries in Jamaica (Espeut 1993, Halcrow 1998, Bedasse 2004, van Riel et al. 2005, Kong 2006, GoJ 2015). However, the implications of co-management for Fisheries Division capacity have not been fully elaborated. The Division would need to increase the focus on skills in community development, group facilitation, community institution building, and conflict resolution, as outlined by Mahon and McConney (2004, 2011). Currently, the emphasis among Fisheries Division staff is on biology, stock assessment, and data handling.

Conclusion: The Fisheries Division still lacks the capacity to interact widely with the small-scale components of the fishing industry. This capacity is fundamental to successful EBM of fisheries ecosystems offshore and especially inshore. The Jamaica Fisheries Policy recognizes this deficiency in the capacity of the Fisheries Division and indicates that successful management of small-scale fisheries will require a participatory, community-based, co-management approach. The Fisheries Division should pursue the policy of delegated co-management for artisanal fisheries and focus its attention on proper management (assessment, regulations, and monitoring) of industrial fisheries. Taking this approach will require capacity building in community development, group facilitation, community institution building, conflict resolution, etc.

5.8.2 Fisher folk organizations Various reports have indicated that fishing cooperative activities should include fisheries management, data collection, decision making, and education (Espuet 1992, Bedasse 2004, JFCU 2014, GoJ 2015). Others have indicated that a broader set of partners, including NGOs, fisher associations, and cooperatives, is needed to bring about change in artisanal fisheries through co-management (Espeut 1993, Halcrow 1998, Kong 2006, JFCU 2014, CCCCC 2015).

5.8.2.1 Jamaica Fishermen Cooperative Union (JFCU) and member cooperatives The JFCU had its origins in 1942 as the Jamaica Cooperative Union, which was developed as an umbrella organization for all cooperatives in Jamaica. In the 1950s, the organization began importing tax-free fishing equipment to supply the fishing industry and became a secondary cooperative society. The imported equipment is a source of funds for the JFCU. The JFCU falls under the Ministry of Industry and Commerce (which is responsible for all cooperatives and friendly societies). It seeks to protect the interest of fishing stakeholders through effective representation, public education, and environmental protection (JFCU 2015). Other roles are to help fishers with insurance, provide scholarships (three types), and extend welfare in times of trouble. In the 1980s, it obtained two vessels to transport supplies to cays and transport fish back to the mainland, but this venture was not successful. Since the late 1990s, the JFCU have become involved in the construction of boats that meet Maritime Authority of Jamaica standards.

There are approximately 4,000 JFCU members (an estimated 25% of fishers in Jamaica) (A. Drysdale personal communication). The JFCU is managed by a board composed of representatives from each of the 12 local member societies. Shawn Taylor (chair) and Haveland Honeyghan (vice chair) lead the JFCU with the Fisheries Division as ex-officio board members.

Four active JCFU member societies are located in the South Coast Seascape:

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● Gillings Gully Fishermen Cooperative, Whitehouse, Westmoreland ● Calabash Bay Fishermen Cooperative, Calabash Bay, St. Elizabeth ● Old Harbour Bay Fishermen Cooperative, Old Harbour Bay, St. Catherine ● Rocky Point Fishermen Cooperative, Rocky Point, Clarendon

There is likely no need for another cooperative for the Pedro Cays, as most fishers are already members (or could easily become members) of their associated mainland cooperatives. Instead, what is needed on the Pedro Cays is a fishers’ association to lobby for better living and fishing conditions on and around the Cays (Baldwin 2015b). All fisher organizations are members of the JFCU, which is primarily oriented to cooperatives, but benevolent societies in fishing communities also can be members (e.g., Bluefields). Fishing associations cannot become members.

JFCU views its primary purpose as supporting the establishment and operation of fisher cooperatives, through administrative assistance, training, and other means. It does not intend to play a significant role in fishery co-management. JFCU KIs noted difficulties in engaging fishers in co-management, including the need for fishers to see immediate tangible returns and to receive compensation for attending meetings. They indicated that other organizations had taken on that role in some places, namely in Discovery Bay at the Alloa beach and C-CAM in Portland Bight. The JFCU noted, however, that C-CAM and the fisher cooperatives work well together in Old Harbour Bay, Rocky Point, and Hellshire. They indicated that these organizations would need considerable capacity building, as described by JFCU and Panos (2014), if they were to take on additional roles.

5.8.2.2 Bluefields Bay Fishermen’s Friendly Society (BBFFS) A fisher organization in Bluefields Bay dates to the 1970s but was catalyzed after Hurricane Ivan in 2004, in which fishers came together to receive training from USAID in seamanship, fish handling, and first aid. In 2005, the group surveyed 108 fishermen in the Bluefields area who were unanimous that the area needed a fish sanctuary, with a large majority (80%) indicating that it should be run by a fisher organization and that they would be willing to take part in it. The results of the survey propelled the fishers to register as a Friendly Society (BBFFS) in 2006.

BBFFS seeks to educate its members in sustainable fishing practices and develop employment alternatives that will enhance their quality of life and preserve the natural environment of the Bluefields ecosystem. BBFFS fosters environmental education and seeks to create sustainable livelihoods for fishermen through several environmental and social projects (e.g., cold storage project, fisher and farmer gear store, craft market, disaster assistance, and training for fishers in entrepreneurship, seamanship, game warden, fish handling, first aid, and environmental sensitivity) (BBFFS 2015). The BBFFS is also responsible for the designation and co-management of the Bluefields Bay Fish Sanctuary. They actively patrol the SFCA and seek to educate the neighboring communities about the importance of the sanctuary, partner with funders and university groups to conduct research in and around the Sanctuary, and organize fundraising to ensure the preservation of the Bluefields Bay Fish Sanctuary.

With the establishment of the sanctuary, the umbrella group Bluefields People’s Community Association (which includes the BBFFS) has turned its attention to revenue- and income-generating activities and is

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moving away from dependence on donor-funded activities. The focus of the Bluefields community is on economic sustainable development, using a business model rather than a social development model. Their approach is built on four pillars: food for all; education for all; jobs for all; and protection of the resources on which they depend. Therefore, the Bluefields community has decided to move in the direction of hospitality development. They are exploring several alternative livelihoods that will use fishers’ skills and keep them on the water, including boat tours (a sunset tour, a historical tour, and a snorkeling tour), and are negotiating to get a glass-bottom boat. Moreover, Bluefields Bay has considerable cultural and underwater archaeological interest (it was a major staging ground for the British fleet in Jamaica, and there are Taino settlements) and is collaborating with the JNHT to bring tourists to these sites. There are already well-established bird watching tours in the area (i.e., Real Adventure Jamaica Tours) and the community is exploring synergies between birding and marine tours. The Bluefields People’s Community Association is also setting up a store and market in the Bluefields Bay Sanctuary area; again, the focus is on sustainable financing. The community group is also developing a business plan for sustainable tourism (funded by Virgin Holidays).

5.8.2.3 South West Friendly Fisheries Alliance (SWFFA) SWFFA is an informal alliance established to promote interaction among the sanctuaries on the South West coast and fisher groups. The Bluefields Bay SFCA is the core site and works alongside Whitehouse SFCA (Sandals Foundation and Gillings Gully Coop) and Galleon SFCA (BREDS). They also work to share experiences on lobster condos, artificial reefs, and coral gardening initiatives.

Conclusions: Some fishing cooperatives appear to be struggling and to have relatively low membership. They are experiencing competition in their main area of operation, gear and equipment sales. Most do not see themselves as having a significant role in fisheries management. A few fisher associations (Bluefields, Galleon Beach) are more oriented toward fisher advocacy and might be more inclined to engage in management-related initiatives. More such organizations may be needed in addition to cooperatives.

5.8.3 Conservation organizations Several conservation NGOs are working to improve the fisheries resources of the South Shelf and Pedro Bank. The following section provides a brief overview of the mandate and fisheries-related activities of each NGO working in the Jamaica South West Coast Seascape.

5.8.3.1 BREDS: The Treasure Beach Foundation BREDS: The Treasure Beach Foundation (http://www.breds.org/) is a volunteer-based charitable organization with an 11-member board, established in 1998 to foster community empowerment through programs designed to enhance education, vocational training, recreation, and livelihoods to ensure the sustainability of the environment that nurtures the Treasure Beach community. There is considerable community pride and cohesion in Treasure Beach, and the community is close to becoming registered as an ecotourism community. BREDS has several community programs, including Sports for Change, education of fishers and farmers, agrotourism, and sports tourism. BREDS has good capacity to write grants and receive funding and public support.

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BREDS has two directors that oversee its environmental projects; they are responsible for managing the Galleon, St. Elizabeth SFCA (BREDS MoA 2014). BREDS also works with CaribSave on projects including the development of a sanctuary business plan, salaries for a park manager and four wardens, a boat rental, a small makeshift base at Galleon, and an office at BREDS headquarters in Treasure Beach. They would like to establish another sanctuary in the immediate Treasure Beach area.

5.8.3.2 Caribbean Coastal Area Management Foundation (C-CAM) C-CAM (http://www.ccam.org.jm/) is an NGO established in 1997 to promote coastal conservation in Jamaica, focused on the Portland Bight Protected Area (PBPA). C-CAM’s approach to natural resource management is based on the full involvement of communities through co-management using the best available scientific and social information. C-CAM seeks to develop strategies for reducing pollution, adapting to climate change, and managing threats to forests, wetlands, and fisheries. It is a sub-awardee of the CMBP. C-CAM is involved in several fishery-related projects, including the Portland Bight Fisheries Management Council (PBFMC) and the Jamaica Fish Sanctuaries Network (C-CAM 2013). It also manages three onshore SFCAs (Three Bays, Galleon Harbour, and Salt Harbour) in the PBMA and one offshore SFCA (South West Cay), Pedro Bank.

Although it is a civil society body that was established explicitly to improve fisheries management, the PBFMC has not been able to make much headway in this area (C-CAM 2103). Reasons include lack of funding and capacity. According to Kong (2006), much of the problem is the inability of C-CAM to officially assume its legal mandate to manage the PBPA natural resources. Even though NEPA delegated management to C-CAM, the co-management process has not been able to mature and move beyond the stakeholder consultation level.

5.8.3.3 CaribSave Partnership In 2008, CaribSave (http://caribbean.intasave.org/) registered as a non-profit company that works to support coastal communities vulnerable to climate change. Their efforts include providing communities with the finances, technology, and skills to sustainably manage their marine sanctuaries. In 2012, an office was opened in Jamaica with seven full-time and two part-time staff members. CaribSave is a sub-awardee in two CBMP seascapes, Jamaica and the Grenadines, serving the latter from the Barbados office. In Jamaica, CaribSave is undertaking several large projects relevant to fisheries. The Caribbean Fish Sanctuary Partnership Initiative (C-FISH) is a regional project (2012–2016) working with partners in five islands to manage over a dozen marine reserves in the Caribbean (C-FISH 2013). As part of the C-FISH program, CaribSave conducts CLIF fish biomass monitoring in Jamaican fish sanctuaries and completed habitat mapping in the Whitehouse and Galleon, St. Elizabeth SFCAs (CaribSave 2012). They have developed strong private sector partnerships with Sandals, Travel Foundation, and Royal Ocean (e.g., the C-FISH fund) to promote the development of alternative livelihoods such as local crafts and tours for the Bluefields, Whitehouse, and Galleon, St. Elizabeth sanctuaries. Local crafts and turtle tours in Sandals resorts funnel money back to the community and management of the sanctuaries (Sandals Foundation 2014). Likewise, CaribSave has partnered with Coral Restoration Foundation International to undertake coral restoration through a coral nursery in Bluefields SFCA. There are plans to allow guests to participate in transplanting these corals as a dive offering featured at the Sandals Whitehouse Resort. CaribSave is also the managing partner of the Climate and Development Knowledge Network and implements work

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with the University of the West Indies, Mona on developing flooding, risk, and adaptation measures for vulnerable coastal communities (CCRA 2012).

5.8.3.4 Environmental Foundation of Jamaica (EFJ) The EFJ (http://www.efj.org.jm/) was established in 1994 as an independent special-purpose foundation to facilitate the implementation of activities to conserve and manage natural resources and the environment of Jamaica and improve child development. EFJ is a membership organization with governance arrangements in the hands of civil society/NGO representatives and the two parties (the Governments of Jamaica and the United States) that signed the original Enterprise of the Americas (EAI) agreement in 1993. EFJ funds NGO, CBOs, and academic institutions and partners with key stakeholders throughout Jamaica. Since its inception, EFJ has approved over a thousand projects. EFJ provided funding to establish the JFSN.

5.8.3.5 Jamaica Environment Trust (JET) The Jamaica Environment Trust (JET) (http://www.jamentrust.org/) is a non-profit, NGO membership organization established in 1991 focusing on environmental education and advocacy to protect Jamaica’s resources. JET operates Jamaica's largest environmental education program, the Schools Environment Programme; provides legal advice to communities affected by environmental issues; and conducts campaigns to protect and manage specific natural resources. JET is involved in several fishery-related projects, including the Portland Bight Management Committee and the management of the South West Cay SFCA from 2012 to 2014.

5.8.3.6 Sandals Foundation The Sandals Foundation (http://www.sandalsfoundation.org/) is a 501(c)3 non-profit organization established in 2009 as the philanthropic arm of Sandals Resorts International, focusing on community, education, and environment projects in the Caribbean (Sandals 2014). In Jamaica, the Sandals Foundation supports several outreach projects in the communities surrounding their resorts. These include environmental education programs in schools, lionfish culling and tournaments, and partnerships with other NGOs to support alternative livelihoods (e.g., selling of local crafts in Sandals Resorts gift shops, sea turtle tours, coral nurseries). In addition to its role in the C-FISH fund, the Sandals Foundation is involved in several fishery-related projects, including the ongoing CaribSave pelagics project. It also finances and oversees the management of Whitehouse SFCA. In 2015, an office was constructed in Whitehouse where one park manager and four wardens work closely with the Gillings Gully Coop to enforce regulations at the sanctuary. Sandals plans to sell dive tags to support marine management and potentially to build a storage container for pelagics to supply its resorts.

Conclusion: Many NGOs are active in the Seascape. They are primarily focused on the establishment and operation of MPAs, associated conservation activities, and the development of alternatives to the current set of artisanal fishing activities. The management of artisanal fisheries appears to have slipped off the agenda for most organizations. Efforts to improve fish stocks (and thus catches) have been replaced by a focus on protected areas and livelihood enhancement.

5.9 Coastal and marine protected areas

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In 1978, the Country Environmental Profile created by the NRCD (the predecessor to the NRCA) identified the need for marine parks in Jamaica. There are two types of MPAs in Jamaica: Marine Parks (MPs) declared under the NRCA Act of 1991 and the Beach Control Act 1956, and SFCAs or “fish sanctuaries” established under the Fishing Industry Act of 1975. These are no-fishing zones in which specific terms and conditions may be determined by the Minister to allow specific fishing activities for conservation, management, or educational purposes.

5.9.1 Special Fishery Conservation Areas Special Fishery Conservation Areas (SFCAs) are managed through a partnership of government, communities, and stakeholders who work together according to an agreed modus operandi to ensure sustainable management of the fish sanctuary (MoAF 2011). Each partnership is formalized by a Memorandum of Agreement (MoA) between the MoAF and the collaborating NGO, which outlines the responsibilities of both parties. The government is mainly responsible for providing training, extending financial support, handling research and development, instituting policy and legislation, and monitoring control and surveillance of the SFCAs. Surveillance by the Marine Police and Coast Guard is supplemented by the partner NGOs (some of whom are game wardens), who patrol the SFCAs and enforce the regulations. In addition, partner NGOs may engage in research activities related to and conducted in the SFCAs. Under the MoA, the government provides financial resources (through the Fisheries Division Ministry of Fishes) that enable the partner NGOs to handle the day-to-day operations and management of the SFCA.

In 2009, 14 SFCAs were declared, and in 2012 the Fishing Industry (Special Fishery Conservation Area) Regulations of 2012 were promulgated in Jamaica (Aiken et al. 2011, McIntyre 2015). SFCAs were selected based on ecological and fisheries criteria, together with the associated civil society capacity to assist with management and enforcement activities (Aiken et al. 2011). Table 9 and Figure 6 provide an overview of seven designated SFCAs (six on the southern shelf and one offshore) and one that is proposed, all located in the South Coast Seascape.

Table 9. Overview of Special Fishery Conservation Areas within the Jamaica Seascape Name Year Location Total Area Co- Financing designated (km2) Management Three Bays 2009 Hellshire, St. Catherine 12.029 C-CAM GoJ* Galleon Harbour 2009 Old Harbour, St. Catherine 17.137 C-CAM GoJ Salt Harbour 2009 Salt River, Clarendon 10.653 C-CAM GoJ Galleon Bay 2009 Galleon Bay, St. Elizabeth 2.590 BREDS GoJ Bluefields Bay 2009 Belmont, Westmoreland 13.444 BBFFS GoJ Whitehouse Bay 2012 Whitehouse, Westmoreland 3.261 Sandals Sandals South West Cay 2012 South West Cay, Pedro Bank 12.966 C-CAM TNC Fish Bay Proposed East Polink Point, St. Catherine - - - * GoJ = government of Jamaica

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Figure 6. Fish sanctuaries of the South West Coast Seascape

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Figure 7. Map of protected areas located in the South West Coast Seascape, Jamaica

The Portland Bight Protected Area (PBPA) includes three fish sanctuaries: Galleon Harbour, Salt Harbour, and Three Bays (Figures 6 and 7). The surrounding communities of Salt River, Mitchell Town, and Old Harbour Bay support over 4,500 fishers, the largest number of all the sanctuaries and approximately 25% of all fishers in Jamaica (C-FISH 2015). C-CAM is responsible for the management of the PBPA and all three Portland Bight sanctuaries, as well as conservation of other extensive natural resources in the area. C- CAM has developed management plans for all three SFCAs (Sutton-Hayes 2010a, b, CCAM 2011, 2013). Through the C-FISH partnership, the Portland Bight sanctuaries purchased a patrol boat and a solar energy system for their Salt River field station and hired fishers as part-time wardens. As a result of the potential development of the Goat Islands as a transhipment port, much research has been conducted on the ecology of the area (CCAM/JET 2013, Douglas 2013, Palmer and Lang 2015).

The Galleon Bay SFCA is located in the parish of St. Elizabeth, which primarily includes mangrove and seagrass habitats (and not much reef). The surrounding communities of Long Acre, Crawford, Black River, and Parottee support an estimated 2,000 fishers and are close to the community-tourism center, Treasure Beach (CFISH 2015). BREDS is responsible for the management of the Galleon SFCA; a sanctuary manager oversees daily administration and works alongside four Long Acre fishermen who have been trained as SFCA wardens (all are also NEPA game wardens) and who also contribute to bird and sea turtle monitoring. Through the C-FISH partnership, Galleon SFCA has acquired a locally designed catamaran to aid enforcement by providing a surveillance platform at sea. In addition, the sanctuary rents a patrol boat and

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purchased camera, radio, and snorkelling equipment for use in enforcement and conservation activities. A baseline study of the sanctuary was completed (funded by EFJ and carried out by C-CAM and CaribSave), a business plan was developed (CaribSave 2015), and CLIF fish monitoring is conducted in the Galleon SFCA (CaribSave 2012). There is no habitat map for the sanctuary, although there are plans to map the habitats using satellite imagery (L. Brown personal communication).

The Whitehouse SFCA was gazetted in 2012. It is managed and financially supported by the Sandals Foundation. The surrounding community of Whitehouse supports over 1,000 fishers and borders the Whitehouse Sandals Resort. Sandals Foundation works closely with the Gillings Gully Fishing Cooperative to maintain fisher support for the sanctuary. In 2015, a park office was constructed, a patrol vessel was provided, and a park manager and three wardens (who were also NEPA game wardens) were hired. Wardens routinely patrol the area and carry out sea turtle monitoring (and have received support from BBFFS in this regard). Tours of sea turtle nesting and hatching are very popular with guests at Sandals, and there are plans to further develop this initiative and to sell dive tags to provide sustainable financing for the SFCA (J. Hernauld personal communication). Community surveys were conducted prior to the establishment of the SFCA to provide a baseline study, the habitats have been mapped, and CLIF fish biomass monitoring is conducted (CaribSave 2012).

The Bluefields Bay SFCA is in Belmont, in the parish of Westmoreland, and includes mangroves, seagrass beds, coral reefs, artificial reefs, a coral nursery, and lobster condos (Carroll 2013, McIntyre 2015). Moreover, Bluefields Bay has considerable underwater archaeological interest as it used to be a major staging ground for the British fleet in Jamaica. The Bluefields Bay communities of Belmont, Caves, Farm, Brighton, and Aldyuar have over 400 fishers (Reid 2014). Bluefields Bay is also home to the Bluefields Bay Seaside Villas, which has a designated Blue Flag–certified beach (Blue Flag n.d.). There are several community-based activities for tourists, including bird-watching tours, boat tours, and opportunities to buy local crafts (C-FISH 2015). BBFFS is responsible for managing the SFCA and works alongside the Bluefields Environmental Protection Association (BEPA), Bluefields Bay Seaside Villas, Sandals, and CaribSave. There are four SFCA wardens (who are also NEPA game wardens) on staff, a patrol vessel, and marine police on site. Several recent baseline surveys were conducted to map marine habitats, quantify fish populations, and determine the success of artificial reefs and lobster condos (Rudolph 2012, Carroll 2013, Scolaro 2013). The community group is also developing a business plan for sustainable tourism (funded by Virgin Holidays).

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The South West Cay Fish Sanctuary, Jamaica’s first offshore SCFA, was designated in 2012. It is composed of reefs (including significant populations of critically endangered elkhorn and staghorn corals), macroalgal hard ground, and a small amount of seagrass (Kramer 2006, IUCN 2011, Baldwin 2014). South West (Bird) Cay provides critical habitat for several migratory and breeding seabird colonies (including international and regionally endangered species) and is a critical sea turtle nesting habitat (Hay 2006, Jodice et al. 2013). From 2012 to 2014, JET was responsible for managing the SFCA; in 2015, this responsibility was transferred to C-CAM (D. Blake personal communication). There are four SFCA wardens (none are NEPA game wardens) and a patrol vessel with enforcement support provided by the JDF Coast Guard and Marine Police based on Middle Cay.

Habitat Composition Coral Heads Dead Elkhorn Reef Seagrass Limestone Platform Mud Sand

Figure 6. Composition of habitats in (a) onshore South Shelf Special Fishery Conservation Areas (SFCAs) and (b) offshore Pedro Bank SFCA

Table 9. Total area (km2) of Southwest Seascape Fish Sanctuaries and composition of each sanctuary’s mapped habitats

Mapped Area (km2) Dead Total Area Coral Elkhorn Limestone Rubble Sanctuary (km2) Reef Reef Seagrass Macroalgae Platform Mud Sand 1 Bluefields Bay 13.444 10.009 0.113 1 Sandals Whitehouse Bay 3.261 0.259 1.779 0.174 1 Galleon, St. Elizabeth 2.590 0.118 0.044 1 Salt Harbour 10.653 1.108 8.854 1 Galleon Harbour 17.137 8.367 8.432 1 Three Bays 12.029 0.055 0.141 9.124 0.128 2 South West Cay 12.966 4.981 0.005 2.568 4.247 1.176 1 Halcrow 1998

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2 Purkis 2014

5.9.1.1 General observations on fish sanctuaries Table 10 summarizes the Jamaica Seascape by total area, mapped area, and coverage of fish sanctuaries and breaks the data down by the South Shelf and Pedro Bank components of the Seascape. Only 0.52% of the Jamaica Seascape is designated as an SFCA. Less than half of the South Shelf has been mapped, despite several recent small-scale efforts (CaribSave, Fisheries Division, Carroll 2013, McIntyre 2015).

Table 10. The extent of area mapped and covered by the Special Fishery Conservation Areas in the various Seascape ecosystems Seascape area (km2) South Shelf area (km2) Pedro Bank area (km2) Extent Mapped Sanctuary Extent Mapped Sanctuary Total Mapped Sanctuary 13,754 10,398 72.08 4,496 2,807 59.11 10,947 7,591.57 12.97 (0.52%) (1.31%) (0.12%)

One KI thought that overall, fish sanctuaries were fairly successful. This was based primarily on anecdotal information from various sanctuary areas on increased numbers of fishes in areas adjacent to sanctuaries. Another KI noted that the continuity of the sanctuary program was noteworthy and that it was remarkable that all were still operating to some extent. Even though the fish sanctuaries clearly do not cover enough area, they still faced significant difficulty in sustaining their current efforts.

One of the problems noted was the significant differences between the sanctuary areas in terms of adjacent communities, ecology, isolation, and so on. Some sanctuaries are much more viable than others, particularly regarding opportunities for revenue generation. This observation might suggest that some of the less financially viable sanctuaries should be allowed to fall by the wayside. Clearly this would be a mistake, as the objective of the sanctuaries is not just to provide recreational opportunities but to provide breeding places for fish and other marine life. Sometimes the best breeding areas are the least attractive for recreational purposes. The Fisheries Division may not understand this broader picture regarding sanctuaries. There may be understanding at lower technical levels, but not among senior management.

Conclusions: A considerable amount of effort has been invested in fish sanctuaries since the declaration of new sites in 2009. Most have co-management arrangements, staff, and some level of support for surveillance. The Fish Sanctuaries Network has a clear role to play in sharing experience and expertise, as well as in lobbying for support from diverse sources. However, the sanctuaries program is fledgling and vulnerable, and it needs support. The Marine Protected Areas need to expand dramatically from the current area of 0.52% of the Jamaica Seascape, to contribute to meeting the national target of 20% coverage.

5.9.2 Other specially designated areas There are several other national specially designated coastal and marine areas (e.g., Protected Areas, National Parks, Marine Parks, Environmental Protection Areas, Forest Reserves, Fish Sanctuaries, National Monuments, Protected National Heritage sites, Game Sanctuaries, Game Reserves) in Jamaica (PAC 2014). Within the South West Seascape, there are eight Game Reserves and four historical and cultural protected

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sites (listed below). In addition, there are three larger ecosystem-protected areas: Portland Bight, the Black River Morass, and the Pedro Bank. Each is described in detail in the following sub-sections.

Game Reserves • Alligator Pond, Gut River, and Canoe Valley Game Reserve, Manchester/Clarendon • Amity Hall Game Reserve, St. Catherine • Cabarita Point Game Reserve, St. Catherine • Long Island Game Reserve, Clarendon • The Black River Lower Morass Game Reserve, Black River, St. Elizabeth • The Black River Upper Morass Game Reserve, Black River, St. Elizabeth • The Great Morass Parottee Game Reserve, Parottee, St. Elizabeth • West Harbour–Peake Bay Game Reserve, Clarendon Historical and Cultural Protected Sites • Black River Spa Natural Site • Lovers’ Leap Lighthouse • Lovers’ Leap Natural Site • Pedro Bank Underwater Culture Heritage Site

5.9.2.1 Portland Bight Wetlands and Cays The Portland Bight Protected Area (PBPA) was established in 1999 and is home to Jamaica’s largest Ramsar site (Portland Bight Wetlands and Cays), established in 2006 (Figure 7). In 2011, the area was designated as a Key Biodiversity Hotspot by the Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund (CEPF). Portland Bight includes 8,000 ha of coastal mangroves, among the largest contiguous mangrove stands remaining in Jamaica, as well as salt marsh, cays, coral reefs, and seagrass beds in a unique lagoon environment (Levy 2008). More than 3,000 fishers make their livelihoods in the area, harvesting mostly reef fish and coastal pelagics, as well as lobster, shrimp, oysters, and conch (NEGAR 2009, CCAM JET 2013, Palmer and Lang 2015). The Portland Bight Ramsar site provides important habitat and breeding grounds for endemic and some internationally threatened species (CEPF 2011, UNESCO 2013, BirdLife International 2013). These include staghorn and elkhorn lobed star corals (A. cervicornis, A. palmata, Orbicella annularis), hawksbill and green sea turtles (Eretmochelys imbricata, Chelonia mydas), the West Indian manatee (T. manatus), the bottlenose dolphin (T. truncatus), and the West Indian whistling duck (D. arborea) (Palmer and Lang 2015).

Portland Bight was designated an IBA in 2009 due to its internationally significant populations of the West Indian whistling duck (D. arborea), the plain pigeon (P. inornata), and the white-crowned pigeon (P. leucocephala), as well as the restricted range (and endemic subspecies) Bahama mockingbird (M. gundlachii hillii) (Levy and Koeing 2008). Other species include the three Myiarchus flycatchers, and the Jamaican lizard cuckoo (C. vetula). The Portland Bight cays are the only nearshore area that host nesting colonies of a variety of seabirds, such as brown noddy (A. stolidus) and the magnificent frigatebird (F. magnificens) as well as columbids and other species. Migrant shorebirds are numerous and include the last reported sighting of the piping plover (C. melodus) was in Portland Bight (BirdLife International 2013).

In 2012, Portland Bight was proposed as a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve (conditional approval) to promote the conservation of biodiversity in terrestrial and coastal ecosystems while allowing for sustainable use

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(C-CAM/JET 2013). However, the Government of Jamaica recently requested that this designation be withdrawn due to the recent interest (and social conflicts) in developing the area as a transhipment port (Douglas 2013).

5.9.2.2 Black River Lower Morass Black River Lower Morass is the largest freshwater wetland ecosystem in Jamaica and the English-speaking Caribbean (Figure 7) (Bjork 1984). The Black River Lower Morass Ramsar site was designated in 1997 and includes swamp forest, riparian forest, limestone islands, sedge marsh, and coastal floodplain (NEPA n.d.). The Black River Lower Morass contains rich biodiversity, including extensive stands of red, black, and white mangroves and other unique aquatic plants (e.g., anchovy pear (Grias cauliflora), swamp cabbage (Roystonea princeps), and bull thatch (Sabal jamaicensis). The Black River Lower Morass is also home to at least 150 vertebrate species and provides important habitat, feeding, and breeding grounds for endemic and internationally threatened species. Approximately 50% of the island’s avian species live in the morass, including the West Indian whistling duck (D. arborea), the American crocodile (Crocodylus acutus), five species of anole lizard (Aristelliger sp.), the endemic freshwater turtle Jamaica slider (Pseudemys terrapin), and the endemic frog (Eleutherodactylus luteolus). Marine fish, including commercially important species (jacks, snappers, and snook) also use the mangrove habitat in the Black River Lower Morass (CEPF 2011).

As part of NEPA’s Strengthening the Operational and Financial Sustainability of the National Protected Areas System (NPAS) project, work to improve biodiversity monitoring, information management, and decision making is underway (Webber 2014).

5.9.2.3 Pedro Bank and Pedro Cays Located in oceanic waters approximately 80 km southwest of Jamaica, the Pedro Bank is a submarine plateau more than three-quarters the size of mainland Jamaica (Figures 1, 7). The Pedro Bank includes Jamaica’s most significant reef ecosystem area and is of considerable importance for marine biodiversity (Zenny 2006). It represents one of the largest and most productive fishing grounds in the Caribbean (Kramer 2006), sustaining Jamaica’s artisanal and industrial conch, lobster, and finfish fisheries (Halcrow 1998). The Pedro Cays and Portland Rock, the only terrestrial areas, provide critical habitat for nesting sea turtles and are home to some of the largest seabird breeding colonies (Hay 2006). Thus, the Pedro Cays are internationally recognized as an IBA (BirdLife 2015). The Pedro Bank was declared a National Underwater Cultural Heritage Site in 2004 by the JNHT due to the myriad of sixteenth to seventeenth century shipwrecks and artifacts scattered across the Pedro Bank.

In 2014, the Pedro Bank was globally recognized by the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity as an Ecological or Biological Significant Marine Area (EBSA). Due to its biological, cultural, and economic importance, the Pedro Cays and Bank was recommended for protected area status by the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (GoJ 2010) and the National Ecological Gap Assessment Report (PAC 2009). To balance the need for development of the Pedro Bank’s resources with the protection of the marine ecosystem and livelihoods, a one-year participatory MSP process was undertaken (2014–2015) to plan for the management of the Pedro Bank’s marine resources. This process was part of NEPA’s Strengthening the Operational and Financial Sustainability of the NPAS Project (Baldwin et al. 2014,

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Baldwin 2014, 2015). The MSP process included the drafting of a marine multi-use zoning design to guide the sustainable use of the marine resources and provide guidance regarding the location of additional protected areas on Pedro Bank. Longer-term activities are required for effective implementation of the MSP; these include the development of greater political will, institutional and legislative reform, and monitoring programs to evaluate the efficacy of the MSP (Baldwin 2015). Moreover, long-term financing options for management operations must be developed to fully operationalize the MSP.

6 Development opportunities and alternatives to fishing Several KIs cautioned that creation of alternative livelihoods for fishers will not necessarily lead to a reduction of fishing effort, unless there is a parallel fisheries management program to ensure that new fishing effort is not applied to the fishery.

6.1 Alternative fisheries Most KIs recognized the need to diversify into different fisheries, which could include pelagics (using fish aggregating devices), deep line fishing on the slopes of banks, squid, glass eels, sea cucumbers, and octopus (Aiken 2007, CRFM 2009, Meggs 2015). In some cases, local and/or export markets need to be developed. At Whitehouse it appeared that, although they are seasonal, pelagics were sufficiently abundant to support a pelagic fishing initiative (Murray 2006). The potential for pelagics has already been discussed in the section on large pelagics. Food for the Poor provided boats and engines expressly for fishing large pelagics, but it is not known whether the program was successful.

CaribSave is carrying out a project to promote pelagic fisheries with three boats and three fish aggregating devices at different locations, including one in the Southwest Coast at Whitehouse, with training of fishers included (Meggs 2015). Sandals Foundation may support this initiative by providing cold storage to use in supplying fish to their resorts.

6.2 Mariculture Freshwater aquaculture production of fish is well established in Jamaica, with cichlids being the primary species, but mariculture has not been developed. The recently completed Plan for Aquaculture Development in Jamaica 2012–2025 (Wurman 2011) is primarily about freshwater aquaculture but does deal with mariculture. The plan points out that the potential for mariculture on the Southwest Coast still needs to be evaluated. Apparently, that area was not evaluated in 1994 when an FAO team of experts visited Jamaica to appraise possibilities for marine cage culture (Espeut et al. 1994).

The potential for mariculture in Jamaica up to 1989 was reviewed by Haughton and King (1992), who concluded that the overall prospects were good. The Ministry of Agriculture indicated interest in marine cage culture in Jamaica. Several experiments have explored the potential for marine cage culture of red hybrid tilapia by the Life Sciences Department of the University of the West Indies (Hall 1992a, b, Grant 1994). Generally, these investigations showed that there was potential for successful marine cage culture (Hall 1992a, b, Robinson et al. 1992).

72 Baldwin, K. and R. Mahon. 2015. Rapid Fishery Sector Assessment of the Jamaican Seascape

Between 1980 and 1990, the growth of mangrove oysters in Jamaican coastal waters was investigated in St. Thomas, St. Catherine, Portland, and Hanover (Siung 1976, Wade et al. 1981, Littlewood 1987, Richards 1992, Wright 1992). Commercial raft and rack culture of the mangrove oyster appears to be possible but there are difficulties related to coastal land tenure and ownership, praedial larceny, hurricane damage, coastal waterborne pollution, and the difficulty of convincing fishers to change their way of life from harvesting to husbandry (Wade 1987, Espeut and Lalta 1991, Richards 2008). There is also small-scale mariculture of the mangrove oyster, operated by the Oyster Culture Unit of the Fisheries Division at Bowden, St. Thomas, where oyster spat are collected and sold to farmers (Kong 2003).

There is continued interest in exploring mariculture as an option for revenue generation in the Seascape area:

• KIs noted that there was some potential for oyster mariculture; although the market for oysters is relatively small, they command high prices, so it can be a lucrative enterprise. • New efforts at oyster culture are planned, including near Savanna-la-Mar. • A finfish cage culture initiative may start soon at Whitehouse with the Gillings Gully fishers. The initiative is seeking co-management/ownership with artisanal fishers; Gillings Gully fishers appear to be a more cohesive group than Rocky Point fishers. • Cage culture for mangrove snapper, shrimp, and lobster are also possibilities. • The Jamaica Lobster Harvesters Association, formed in 2015, is composed of eight industrial fishers and is interested in installing lobster condos. • There is interest in Whitehouse and Galleon, St. Elizabeth, in using lobster condos to enhance production. A major issue with this approach is preventing poaching from the condos.

So far, there have been no serious evaluations of technical and financial feasibility for these various ventures. Some KIs warned against developing aquaculture or mariculture with the assumption that fishers can become mariculturists, as this is often not the case.

Conclusion: There is little evidence that mariculture is feasible, although it is believed to have potential. Matters relating to sea space tenure may not have been resolved.

6.3 Marine-based tourism and heritage There is limited recreational diving in the study area. The most suitable sites for recreational diving are the reefs in Portland Bight (Pelican Reef, Bare Bush Cay, Pigeon Island, and Portland Reef) and Alligator Reef (which used to support some recreational snorkeling but is reported to have been destroyed since 1998). The reefs surrounding Sandals Resort in Whitehouse are used by guests, as well as the coral nursery in Bluefields. Although these reefs have some potential as diving sites, it is unlikely that the south coast will become a major diving destination, as the reefs are all in relatively shallow water with no dramatic walls or outstanding underwater features (Halcrow 1998). The reefs surrounding the Pedro Cays are abundant and relatively healthy (Bruckner 2012) and were identified during the MSP process as having potential for research-based tourism (Baldwin 2014).

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KIs indicated that there are about 15 full-time and about 5 more part-time boat operators in the Treasure Beach area who are ex-fishers and now offer day tours/charters. These tours include Sunny Island, Pelican Bar, and the Black River for beach picnics. Many fishers in the Parottee area also offer day tours to visitors from Sandals in Whitehouse, Negril, and Montego Bay. In Bluefields Bay, there are initiatives to develop a variety of tours as alternatives to fishing. There is a growing interest in providing tours and increasing the diversity of offerings in the Bluefields Bay jetty area, including crafts and local food products. Capacity for working in the tourism industry was cited as a constraint to further developing tourism-related activities. Despite this barrier, in both Treasure Beach and Bluefields the development of alternative livelihoods is well coordinated at the community level.

Historically, the Pedro Bank was treacherous for shipping, and archaeologists estimate there are more than 300 sixteenth to seventeenth century shipwrecks and artifacts scattered across the seafloor (Outukon 2012). In 2004, the JNHT declared the Pedro Bank a National Underwater Cultural Heritage site (Espeut 2006). Despite this designation, the wrecks and artifacts on the Pedro Bank have not been systematically mapped, nor is the area utilized for marine tourism (Baldwin 2014).

KIs cited a variety of conservation activities as having the potential to generate livelihoods by involving visitors: coral nurseries, an adopt-a-coral program, planting out corals (at Bluefields Bay and Whitehouse), seeing and learning about artificial reefs (e.g., biorock reef in Three Bays Sanctuary), lionfish culling in the sanctuary, and lionfish tournaments. Maintenance of some of the attractions, such as coral gardens, can also provide employment for fishers (in Bluefields, two spear fishers were hired through a National Fish and Wildlife Foundation grant). Through its CFISH fund (a private-sector partnership with Sandals, Travel Foundation, and Royal Ocean), CaribSave has been promoting alternative livelihoods (CFISH 2013, 2014). Local crafts and turtle tours are sold in Sandals resorts (with plans to begin the adopt-a-coral initiative) and the money is funnelled back into the community and sanctuaries.

The Tourism Enhancement Fund is based on an arrivals tax that can be used for tourism activities and could also be used to develop alternative livelihoods. Compete Caribbean8 was cited as a grant and loan program that could fund projects relating to fisheries, farming, and tourism.

6.4 Other livelihoods The shift of fishers to other livelihoods, especially in the Treasure Beach area, was discussed above. In Bluefields Bay, alternatives have included agriculture, beekeeping for honey, local crafts, and accommodations. It is necessary to determine minimum accommodation standards before promoting this further. In Rocky Point, some fishers have turned to agriculture. Most fishers there recognized that there was little opportunity in fishing and many risks, especially for divers. However, few young men have the education to seek alternative forms of livelihood.

8 Compete Caribbean is a private-sector development program that provides technical assistance grants and investment funding to support productive development policies, business climate reforms, clustering initiatives, and small/medium enterprise development activities in the Caribbean (http://competecaribbean.org/about-us/).

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7 Concluding remarks For over 30 years, the coastal demersal resources of Jamaica, including the South Shelf, have been overexploited. The solution is well known: fishing effort must be reduced, and the harvesting of immature individuals must be minimized. For reef fish, this can be achieved in many ways (Aiken and Haughton 1987, Mahon 1990). The most commonly cited approaches include limiting the number of fishers, increasing the size of mesh in traps, closing certain areas to fishing, and enforcing a closed season. These measures have negative impacts on fishers. The fact that small-scale fishers earn some of the lowest incomes in the country and have few alternatives for employment, particularly in the study area, has made it politically unacceptable to regulate the fisheries using these methods (Aiken 1991, Espeut 1993). Indeed, even if these types of measures were put in place it would be virtually impossible to enforce them. The result of this situation is that for 30 years the inshore demersal fisheries for finfish, lobster, and conch have been declining and extremely overexploited.

Many aspects relating to coastal and marine EBM in the Jamaica Seascape have not been adequately covered by this review, such as matters of cohesion, well-being, and support in the many fishing communities on the Southwest Coast. Some CBOs that deal with non-fishing issues may still have relevance for a community-based approach to fisheries EBM, but they have not been identified. However, there are several organizations and benevolent societies in the few communities visited that would be important stakeholders in a fishery co-management system. The KI interviews and recent literature suggest that management of artisanal fisheries has slipped off the agenda for most organizations, including the Fisheries Division, and has been replaced by a focus on protected areas and livelihood enhancement. KIs acknowledged that protected areas and livelihood alternatives were necessary but are not by themselves sufficient.

The loss of revenue, livelihood, and well-being to the people living in the Seascape area (and Jamaica) that results from ecosystem degradation and fishery resource overexploitation on the South West Shelf and on Pedro Bank is unacceptable. The CMBP may be able to contribute to refocusing attention on the broader goals of artisanal fisheries management and rehabilitation.

Potential directions may include:

• Developing an overall framework to guide community-based management of the artisanal fisheries by stakeholders • Building the capacity of the Fisheries Division to facilitate the framework • Supporting specific community-based initiatives that are seeking to promote fisheries management • Supporting engagement of fishers in management, perhaps using the FAO Code of Conduct and “Voluntary Guidelines for Securing Sustainable Small-Scale Fisheries in the Context of Food Security and Poverty Eradication” • Supporting the expansion of fish sanctuary areas to improve coverage and representativeness of key habitats, and • Developing of a better understanding of the value of fisheries, especially post-harvest value-added contributions, and promoting that understanding.

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9 Appendices

Appendix I. Key informant stakeholder meetings (August 2015) Meeting Attendees Location TNC Ms. Donna Blake, Country Representative Kingston CaribSave Ms. Michelle McNaught, National Coordinator Kingston Ms. Simone Lee, Senior Project Officer Fisheries Division Mr. Andre Kong, Director of Fisheries Kingston PAC/CITES Dr. Elaine Fisher Kingston NEPA Mr. Peter Knight, Chief Executive Officer NEPA Mr. Anthony McKenzie, Director, Environmental Headquarters, Management & Conservation Division Kingston Ms. Yvette Strong, Senior Manager, Conservation & Protection Subdivision Ms. Carla Gordon, Manager, Protected Areas Branch Ms. Sheries Simpson, Manager, Projects Branch Mr. Ricardo Miller, Coordinator, Ecosystems Management Branch Sandals Foundation Mr. Jonathan Hernould, manager of fish sanctuary Kingston program Individual Ms. Karen Gayle-McDonald, Consultant (ex-head Kingston of EFJ) Fisheries Division Mr. Ian Jones Fisheries Ms. Anginette Murray Division, Mr. Junior Squire Kingston Ms. Avery Galbraith-Smikle UWI Dr. Karl Aiken, Senior Lecturer UWI, Mona Dr. Dale Webber, Pro Vice Chancellor Jamaica Fishermen’s Mr. Anthony Drysdale JFCU, Cooperative Union Kingston FAO Dr. Jerome Thomas, FAO Representative, FAO UN House, Representation for Jamaica, Bahamas and Belize Kingston Ms. Gillian Smith, Assistant FAO Representative B&D Trawling Mr. Shawn Francis, CEO Kingston Old Harbour Bay Mr. Errol Cameron, Chairman, Cooperative Old Harbour Fishing Cooperative Bay Rocky Point Fishing Mr. Keith Myrie, Chairman, Cooperative Rocky Point Cooperative Mrs. Chephanie Malcolm, Treasurer, Cooperative Mr. Jason Bromwell, Secretary, Cooperative Ms. Talia Williams, Rocky Point Youth in Action BREDS Mr. Dennis Abrahams, Board Member Treasure Beach

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Calabash Bay Mr. Shawn Taylor, Chair, Cooperative and Chair, Calabash Bay Fishing Cooperative JFCU Galleon SFCA Mr. Luke-Ben Brown Manager BREDS office Mr. Trysion Walters, Warden and sanctuary Mr. Douglas Henry, Warden site BBFFS Mr. Wolde Kristos, CEO, RAJ Bluefields Mr. Livingston Thompson, President, BBFFS Bluefields SFCA Mr. Deceita Turnei, Warden Bluefields Bay Mr. Owen Turner, Warden SFCA HQ Mr. Lawrence Cunningham, Warden Coles Seafood Ms. Taquilia Chin-Cole, Managing Director Black River Mr. Dwight Forester Parottee Fisher Mr. Basil Bennett Parottee Group C-CAM Mr. Brandon Hay, Science Officer/Fish Sanctuary Old Harbour Manager Gillings Gully Mr. Haveland Honeghan, Chair, Cooperative and By telephone Fishing Cooperative Vice Chair, JFCU

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i Calabash Bay Cooperative reported that only three fishing boats remain in operation in Calabash Bay. The largest issue is the cost of fuel to fish on the Pedro Bank. It is no longer economical, and many fishers have switched to tourism and farming. Fishers from this area rely for 75% of their income on the Pedro Bank and for 25% on South Shelf marine resources. Rocky Point KIs reported that Rocky Point depends almost entirely on the Pedro Bank (90%), with the shelf providing only about 10% of landings. The depletion of fish stocks on Pedro Bank over the years has brought considerable hardship to the Rocky Point community. There are very few alternatives to fishing for youth.

ii Vision: “Ensure the optimal contribution of the fisheries and aquaculture sector to Jamaica’s economy, food and nutrition security, poverty alleviation and sustainable livelihoods through the sustainable management and development of capture fisheries and aquaculture.” iii The goals of the policy are to: • Ensure sustainable development and management of capture fisheries and aquaculture • Promote greater efficiency and improved competitiveness of national capture fisheries and aquaculture enterprises • Promote economic and social development of fishers, fish farmers and fishing communities (coastal and riparian) • Forge partnerships with stakeholders in the development and management of capture fisheries and aquaculture, as well as ensuring transparency and accountability in the governance of capture and culture fisheries resources, and • Improve the contribution of the fisheries and aquaculture sector to the socio-economic development of Jamaica. iv The specific objectives of this policy are to: • Improve the management of marine and inland capture fisheries • Improve monitoring, control, surveillance, and enforcement systems • Improve occupational health and safety for the fisheries and aquaculture sector • Promote sustainable development and management of aquaculture • Enhance the economic situation of the fisheries and aquaculture sector and the socioeconomic status of fishers, fish workers, fish farmers, and their communities • Increase the access of consumers to safe, wholesome and unadulterated fish and fish products • Facilitate development of the value chain for fish and fish products • Reduce the impact of climate change, natural and man-made disasters, and negative impacts on the fisheries and aquaculture sector, and • Improve the governance mechanisms and enhance the institutional capacity for the management and development of the fisheries and aquaculture sector.

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