Reprinted fro~ THE AMERICAN Scuo~, Volume 119, Number 11, Summer, 1970 Copynght@ 1970 by the Umted Chapters of Phi Beta Kappa. REPORT FROM GREECE

Under the Junta

NICHOLAS GAGE and EUAS KULUKUNDIS

The hold of Greece's military dictator­ arrested for insulting a representative of ship on the average Greek citizen might the regime, condemning the coup or other be compared to the effect of a choke col­ such offenses. But they have been held lar on a dog. The colonels hold the leash only briefly and then released. In one vil­ carefully-the repression, the controls are lage in the northwest corner of the coun­ there-but the leash is so long that it is try, for example, a merchant was arrested not felt until someone forgets and steps for calling the new junta-appointed mon­ too far, and is brought to the realization arch of the province a thief, in the heat of that the initiative for his actions is not his a debate with fellow villagers. He was own. arrested, imprisoned for a month and The regime has an unusually good sense then tried and acquitted. The purpose of of when to pull and when to give rein. such arrests is to cut off open criticism At the funeral of the late Premier George by making the threat of imprisonment Papandreou, the junta did not use its real in every village. People are made an full police power to scatter the huge example of, and then freed to create the crowd that had gathered. Had it done so, impression that the regime is not arbitrary it probably would have caused further and oppressive but capable of compas­ demonstrations that would have been sion and even justice. These arrests are hard to put down. But when some news­ also used by the colonels to dramatize the papers tried a little criticism of the regime difference between them and the Com­ after direct censorship was lifted recently, munists. In many of the same villages dur­ the colonels made sure the papers never ing the Greek civil war of 1946-49, Com­ reached the countryside. munist guerrillas executed as many as a The colonels have gone to great lengths dozen people for criticizing them or their to make it clear that they will not tolerate methods. (All told 57,383 Greek civilians open opposition to their rule, . but they were killed by the guerrillas and 684,6o7 have been careful not to make such lessons driven from their homes.) In the village so painful or so dramatic that they incite where the merchant was arrested, the even greater opposition. In a number of Communists in 1948 publicly executed five areas in the provinces, people have been persons, including two women, and piled their bodies in a gully. ln comparison, the 0 NICHOLAS GAGE is a journalist whose junta's treatment of the merchant did not work has appeared in the New Y()Tk Times seem oppressive to his fellow villagers, but Magazine, the Atlantic and the New Leader. He rather restrained. One said, "I would rather was born in Greece, but he is an American citi­ have the junta for a hundred years than to zen and was educated here. He is currently writ­ have those bastards back for one day." ing a book on Greece. ELIAS KULUKUNDIS, an American citizen, currently resides in Lon­ Knowing the depth of such feelings, the don. His father-in-law, George Mylonas, was colonels still maintain in the villages that minister of education in the Papandreou gov­ their intervention on April 21, 1967, kept ernment. Mr. Kulukundis is the author of The Greece from falling to the Communists, Feasts of Memory. although in the cities they find it hard to 475 THE AMERICAN SCHOLAR justify such a line, and now say that they tiny (population 154) Cretan village of saved the country from political chaos. Aghia Paraskevi, and Nikolaos Makar­ It is in the villages of Greece that the ezos, the minister of coordination, comes junta enjoys its strongest public support, from a village in the Peloponnesus called and for good reasons. The governments Gravia, which has a comparatively large that ran Greece before the coup concen­ population of 613 people. In such vil­ trated on developing and expanding the lages women do not smoke, wear makeup cities, neglecting the villages on the theory or speak to a man who is not a close that most Greeks were leaving them for relative except to say good morning or metropolitan areas anyway. The junta has good evening. The colonels still hold gone to some pains to redress this im­ tightly to many of the values they knew balance. It increased pensions for agri­ in such villages, and Greeks still living in cultural workers, which were the lowest the countryside admire them for it. in Greece. It cancelled the outstanding Despite attitudes in the rural areas, loans of all farmers, a move highly criti­ however, the regime is strongly opposed cized by economists but roundly applauded by large numbers of Greeks in the cities in the countryside. It accelerated pro­ and on the islands. It is in the cities that grams of electrification and road construc­ the damage dorte by 1:he colonels has tion. Plans are underway, for instance, to been felt most. Greeks in Athens and other build the longest highway in Greece cities were moving rapidly toward a Euro­ across the rural northern section of the pean life-style and standard of living. But country. The highway will stretch from the colonels have slowed the movement Igoumenitsa on the Ionian Sea to the down and in some cases stopped it al­ Turkish border in Thrace. Economists together. The slowdown of the economy have argued that there is not enough and the drop in tourism that followed movement in this area to justify the $150 their arrival has lowered the incomes of million that will be spent on the road, many Greeks by as much as thirty percent. but the junta seems determined to go In addition, thousands of people have been ahead with the project. dismissed from their jobs because they There is another, perhaps equally sig­ were considered unfriendly to the regime. nificant, reason the colonels are strongly The regime's harassment of artists and supported in the villages. They were born writers has stunted cultural life in the and brought up in isolated villages and country and aroused a great deal of contro­ the puritanical measures they have tried versy. Almost all o£ the plays produced in to enforce throughout Greece epitomize Athens last season were revivals or im­ the values of such villages. The colonels ports and there have not been any sig­ may seem old-fashioned and foolish to ur­ nificant books published in Greece since the ban Greeks when they are expounding on colonels seized power. Because of the such evils as miniskirts and beards or such reputation of the junta abroad, there has virtues as church attendance every Sun­ been little cultural communication with day, but they appear strong and wise to the rest of Europe. The Athens Festival, rural Greeks. "The closest analogy to the which has featured some of the best per­ kind of people the colonels come from is formers in the world in past summers, the poor whites in America who support did not boast one major name last year. George Wallace," says an American edu­ Aristotle Onassis tried to persuade Mar­ cator who has lived in Greece for many got Fonteyn and Rudolf Nureyev to per­ years. Premier Papadopoulos, who grew form at the festival, and their appearance up in a small Peloponnesian village which was widely publicized in advance, but now has a population of 280 people, is they thought it over and declined. considered upper-class by the other officers Continued censorship of the press in who staged the coup because his father Greece constantly frustrates this nation was the village schoolteacher. Stylianos of insatiable newspaper readers. "The Patakos, the deputy premier, is from the newspapers were hardly objective before R.EPOR.T FROM GREECE: UNDER THE JUNTA the coup," says a hotel manager in Rhodes, list and said: "The big thing is about the "but at least you had the freedom to choose attack in Beirut. The censor said we must what lies you read. Now it is all one lie." riot mention that it was in retaliation for Circulation of Greek newspapers is at the attack at our airport." sixty percent of the level before the coup. "There must be some mistake," the Six papers stopped publishing after the editor said. "We can't run a story about takeover; the crypto-Communist ones an attack and not give the reason for it. were banned and the publishers of the He must mean they don't want us to others refused to publish under censor­ emphasize the shooting at our airport. ship. Call him back and ask him to repeat the On October S· tg6g, the junta an­ instructions, please." The assistant left nounced with great fanfare that it was the room and returned a few minutes later. lifting press censorship. At the same time, "I had it right the first time, and he wasn't however, it handed editors a long list of too happy I called back," he said. "As forbidden subjects that in effect kept press far as we are concerned there has never control almost as tight as before. The re­ been an attack of any kind at our air­ gime has published a code of 101 articles port. For tonight we should just forget designed to "cleanse" the press. Stories we have an airport." that the junta feels undermine public We asked the editor how he felt work­ confidence in the economy could bring six ing under such conditions. "What can months imprisonment under the code. you do?" he said. "The only option you Editors convicted of inciting sedition, as have is not to work at all. lt is not much the junta sees 'it, could get life. When the of an option." code was announced, Mr. Patakos offered Perhaps the most destructive interven­ the junta's philosophical reasoning for tion of the regime has been in education. making it so harsh. "Severity," he said, The Greek educational system was anach­ "is the mother of justice and freedom." ronistic and inadequate to begin with, When censorship was in force, even but the colonels have pushed it even papers supporting the regime had to fol­ further into the tunnel. "Young People low the censor's commands, as we wit­ of Greece, the Revolution Is for You" nessed one night while visiting the offices of proclaim signs on highways leading out Eleftheros Kosmos. It was December 29, of Athens. But in its educational policy tg68, the day Israel retaliated to an Arab the regime seems primarily interested in terrorists' attack on an El AI jet in Athens making certain that the young people of airport by launching a helicopter raid on Greece are for the revolution. Hundreds an airport in Beirut. We were sitting with of teachers and professors considered un­ one of the paper's editors when his assistant friendly to the regime have been dis­ came into the office carrying a piece of pa­ missed. All the others have been required per with a list of shorthand messages on it. to submit detailed histories, especially on "The Censor's office just called," he said. what they were doing during the period "You want to go through it now?" of the civil war, and a statement of polit­ "Yes, all right," said the editor. "What ical beliefs. In publif: schools the indoctri­ is it tonight?" nation of students is a part of the curricu­ The assistant said the paper was in­ lum. In the lower grades, for example, structed not to print in any form the students are asked to rise and repeat slo­ [ New Year's message King Constantine gans such as, "My mother is Greece. My had issued from exile in Rome, but to father is the national government. And give prominent display on the front page I am the Greek people." The climate of to the regent's message, and it was not to chauvinism in Greek schools, which has mention the statement of former foreign always been heavy, is now more intense minister Evangelos Averoff calling on than ever. "The children of this country the government to move toward parlia­ are sick and tired of being taught that mentary rule. Then he looked from his Greece is the navel of the world," says an 477

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American educator who teaches in a pri­ of resistance. Intellectuals and profes­ vate school in Athens. "Patrida [father­ sionals have refused to collaborate with land] should never become a dirty word, the regime and they continue their boycott but it is with students now." even though many of them have suffered In the universities the asphalia, the for it. More active resistance is develop­ security police, has built up a network of ing fast, as a rash of bombings last sum­ informers to report on the activities and mer in Athens demonstrated. But full attitudes of fellow students. Early last and effective resistance takes leadership, summer the regime also appointed a gov­ and the colonels have been careful to exile ernment commissioner for every faculty. to remote villages and islands military men The job of the commissioners, mostly re­ and political figures who might provide it. tired army officers, is to see that teaching Those still around don't want to take the programs are in line with the goals of personal risk involved in leading a rebel­ the junta. To keep tight control of the lion against the junta. "They want the peo­ teaching staffs at universities, the regime ple to throw the colonels out first," says a has not only dismissed numerous profes­ truck driver from Larisa, "and then call sors, it has also restricted the numbers of them to take over. The people are not that new appointments and lowered the retire­ dumb anymore." ment age of teachers so that older, re­ There are, however, more subtle rea­ spected professors of independent minds sons why resistance to the junta has been can be replaced with ambitious younger minimal. One of them may be understood ones more to the regime's liking. All this quickly by a visit to Athens. The city is naturally has created a shortage of quali­ punctuated with the skeletons of hun­ fied professors and a considerable drop dreds of buildings now under construction. in the quality of instruction. Every morning crowded buses roar out The regime's intervention has not been of Athens for the nearby beaches at Gly­ limited to Greek schools. Private institu­ fada, Vouliagmeni, Varkiza and Lagonisi. tions such as the American-sponsored The better restaurants are almost full Athens College have also been affected. most nights, and the hawkers of lottery Professor Costas Kalokairinos, a Greek tickets at Omonia Square still do a good national on the college faculty, was dis­ day's business. In other words, life under missed in March, 1g6g, by the then min­ the colonels may be unpleasant-partic­ ister of education, Theophylactos Papa­ ularly for students, professors, politicians, konstantinou. (Greek instructors at Athens journalists and artists--but it is not so College are not considered civil servants, unpleasant that it's worth risking impri­ but they are pensioned off by the govern­ sonment or death to change. Incomes ment and on this ground it holds the right have fallen, but not so much that a couple to fire them.) The justification for the can't go to a taverna once in a while. dismissal: Papakonstantinou said a book Greek newspapers are disappointing, but Professor Kalokairinos had once published there are Le Monde, the International on Byzantine history quoted directly from Herald Tribune and Le Figaro at the the Great Soviet Encyclopedia and con­ kiosks for those who read other lan~uages tained "Communist reasoning" such as or the Greek programs on the BBC every the claim that Macedonia was once a part night for those who don't. Uncles and of Bulgaria. friends are dismissed from jobs but at least they get part of their pensions when Many Europeans and Americans, who they go. "They have not really squeezed tend to think all Greeks are brothers to us," a tailor in Piraeus told us. "I wouldn't Alexis Zorba, find it hard to understand cast my vote for them if I had a choice. why so passionate a people have ac­ But things are not so bad that l'd throw cepted dictatorship so passively. Greeks myself in front of a tank to get them out." themselves give many answers. They point The colonels have been careful not to out that there have been some forms display their power beyond that necessary

------REPORT FROM GREECE: UNDER THE JUNTA to keep themselves in control. There are >nost of them are reflected in those stated no more soldiers in the streets of Greek in an interview we lJ,ad with one of the cities than anywhere else in Europe, and senior men in the ~erican embassy. The uniformed police seem less visible now interview was held iq his large, panelled than before the coup. Although arrests office and began with': a question we had continue, Greeks don't seem to concern asked every other merpber of the mission themselves unless their own families are we talked with: Did', the embassy know affected, and most are not. Of the six beforehand about the (:oup? thousand people who were sent to prisons following the coup, more than two-thirds We had no idea at all (be said]. We thought have been released. Most significant, the there might be a coup from royalist generals but not from populist col~nels. When it hap­ colonels have not executed anybody. pened, everyone here flopped around in com­ "Greeks are wonderful, but when they plete confusion. We didn't know what to do. start to kill, they can be the most terrible The colonels, whatever else may be said about people in the world," Mrs. Constantine them, are very skillful conspirators. Papadop­ Mitsotakis, wife of the Greek politician, oulos, Patakos, Makarezo$ all served in the told us in her home last year, a few months Greek intelligence service at one time or before she was allowed to join her husband another and are very good at keeping secrets. in exile in Paris. "I remember during the war when you would walk into the We asked if conditions in Greece prior street and find somebody's body riddled to the coup had deteriorated to such an with bullets and you didn't know whether extent that intervention by the army was it was the Germans, the rightists, the necessary. Would the elections that had leftists or a jealous husband who killed been scheduled for May 28, 1967, have him. I am terribly frightened for Greece led to a center-left coalition that would if the killing ever starts." have resulted ultimately in a Communist Students of Greek history see a good takeover, as the colonels claim? He an­ reason for the absence of strong resistance swered: to the junta in tl:le fact that the country The situation was bad but hardly as bad as it has developed during the past twenty has been made out. The violence--demonstra­ years a significant bourgeois class. For the tions, student riots, strik~took place mostly first half of this century Greece was in­ in 1965 when George Papandreou was pushed volved in five wars and numerous up­ out as premier by King Constantine-not in heavals. The only period of stability and the period immediately preceeding the coup. progress came after 1950. During this time George Papandreou had promised that he would most Greeks were able to acquire some­ not have cooperated with the Communist-front party no matter how the elections turned out. thing-a house, a farm, a business-for I think he would have kept his promise. the first time in their lives, and they want For two years before the coup you had a to be around to enjoy it, even if it's under deteriorating political situation in Greece, but the colonels. the palace is primarily responsible for that. In Finally, Greeks feel it's not their re­ a parliamentary system, when you reach a polit­ sponsibility to drive out the colonels. ical impasse as Greece did in 1g65, you go to "The Americans brought them in," a the people. The palace maneuvered for more high school teacher on Corfu told us, than two years to prevent elections by promot­ "and the Americans can get them out." ing makeshift governments that had no basis If there is one belief about the colonels of support. But even though the parliamentary that most Greeks share above all others, system was not working well in Greece, there was no Communist danger. The Communist­ it is that they are in power because the front party, EDA, had actually declined in United States wants them there. voting strength, and the Communists simply ·Over a period of ten months we talked to didn't command the means to cause any other several members of the United States kind. of trouble. The idea that there was an diplomatic mission to Greece both infor­ imminent threat of a Communist takeover is mally and officially. The comments of for the birds as far as I'm concerned. In fact, 479 THE AMERICAN SCHOLAR the colonels themsel\'es ha\'e backed away from by them [he said]. The colonels have not been their early statements that Greece would have that oppressive as far as dictators go. They have fallen to the Communists. Many people be­ not executed anybody. The number of political lieved these statements largely because of An· prisoners is small and most of them come out dreas Papandreou. Andreas represented a new if they sign a pledge that they won't engage and somewhat dangerous force in Greek politics in political activity. People are not exactly by questioning everything that Greeks felt se­ dropping dead on the streets from starvation cure about-NATO, the close ties with the or wasting away in concentration camps. A United States, a strong stand against Russia. large number of Greeks, probably the majority, His statements made a lot of people afraid, may not be happy about the junta, but they made them think that Greece was heading to­ are not very active in showing their discom­ ward Communism or chaos as long as he had fort. So I don't see Washington taking any any access to power. strong action against the junta until the prob­ lem becomes acute. We then asked what the attitude of the American mission was toward the (What bothers opponents of the junta colonels. He said: is not only that the United States is not doing anything against the junta but that Well, there is a split in the mission. The it seems to be doing a lot for it. For military advisers think very well of them. As to military allies they are as cooperative as one example, Washington -actively tried could wish. [Former Ambassador Phillips] persuade the members of the Council Talbot leaned heavily on a wait-and-see policy, of Europe not to expel Greece. "The that we should give them time to show their American government is always sending intentions. I think they have done that. I someone to decorate or to be decorated think they have no intention at all of moving by the colonels," says Helen Vlachos, the toward parliamentary government. Their slow­ exiled publisher, who refused to publish ness in implementing the constitution approved her papers under dictatorship. "Ambas­ in a referendum in September, 1968, is a cer­ sador Talbot was always trying to persuade tain sign of that. I see no evidence whatsoever me to start up my papers. 'Oh, come on that they are preparing for elections. Even if now,' he would say, 'these guys are not Papadopoulos wanted to hold them, I don't think he would be allowed to do it. so bad.'") The Revolutionary Council, which is made We asked the American diplomat in up of some thirty key military officers and is Athens how the United States could bring the primary policy-making group in the govern­ down the colonels if it wanted to. He ment, has made known its opposition to elec­ answered: tions. Elections, no matter what their outcome, There are several ways. If Washington de­ would carry the seeds of the colonels' removal cided that this regime is bad for Greece, bad for from power. Elections would lead to more the NATO alliance, bad for this section of the criticism, more demands for change. And I world, and said so publicly, I think the junta don't think the colonels believe their own pro­ would topple. Also if the Administration con­ paganda that the bulk of the Greek people tacted Constantine Karamanlis, the former pre­ are with them. They're too smart for that. mier to whom most people hopeful of a return We asked if the United States could to parliamentary government are looking, in­ pressure the colonels to hold elections. He vited him to Washington and indicated Ameri­ can support for him, elements in the armed said: forces would push the colonels out and invite No, we could push them out if we tried hard Karamanlis back. enough, but we don't force them toward elec­ tions. They'll just say no and we'll either have We asked if he saw any chance of that to accept that or try to push them out. Let me happening. hasten to add here that I don't see us pushing Right now none at all [he said]. What I do them out. see is the colonels going on for a long time, probably getting tougher as they go. There are We asked why. some very hard-liners in the army making their It's hard to prove that the people of Greece influence felt right now. If the regime gets are that unhappy over them or that oppressed tougher, resistance will develop. pushing the REPORT FROM GREECE: UNDER THE JUNTA

colonels to harsher measures, which will in turn (At the last moment, as a face-saving stimulate stronger and wider resistance. Then, measure, Greece voluntarily withdrew.) I think, Washington might take some definite The government's troubles began in action. January, 1968, when two lawyers, James If that is a possibility, we asked, why Becket and Anthony Marreco, went to doesn't the United States do something Athens to conduct an investigation on now and save Greece from all that vio­ behalf of Amnesty International, and re­ lence? He said: turned to write two reports describing the practice of torture by the Greek se­ That would be nice, but it's unrealistic to expect any government to be that logical. Gov­ curity police. Later, as a result of charges ernments are geared to respond to crises, not to brought by the three Scandinavian gov­ anticipate them. It is difficult for a government ernments, the European Human Rights to take preventive action in an area that in­ Commission took up the question and ( volves the internal affairs of another country completed a report which found that the unless its interests are clearly and directly Greek government was practicing torture threatened. This is particularly true now, after as a matter of policy. Vietnam. The great majority of Commission wit­ If Washington won't take direct action, nesses said they were tortured by fal­ we asked, is it at least trying to let the anga, an ancient practice originated under colonels know that it wants to see them the Ottoman Empire and employed by move toward elections? both sides in the Greek civil war. (In some instances, men and women reported sexual We are [he said], but they don't seem to believe us. They think we say we want elections tortures, and some dozen witnesses said only for public relations purposes, which is a they were tortured by electric shocks.) view I find difficulty in avoiding myself at times. The victim of falanga is usually strapped Patakos went to Washington for Eisenhower's to a bench or a flat surface and beaten funeral and Secretary of State Rogers asked on the soles of his shoes with a club or an him when the junta planned to go to the people. iron bar. "After a dozen blows you don't Patakos said it had done so already in the con­ know where the pain is coming from," stitutional referendum of 1968. Rogers told one person explained. "You think they him Washington would like to see the junta are hitting you on the top of the head." move toward direct elections as soon as possible. After twenty or thirty blows, the victim Patakos nodded and smiled. I'm sure he didn't believe him. usually loses consciousness, to be revived with cold water so that the beating can Before we left, we asked him what he be carried on. At regular intervals, he is thought about the reports of tortures. made to stand, walk, or even jump to Did he have any knowledge that the junta revive the circulation in his feet and thus was torturing political prisoners? "We to maximize the pain. Since the victim has don't know for certain," he said. "They his shoes on, the beating leaves no scars, seem to get a lot of information fast from and although the pain may be unbearable people they arrest, which leads us to at the time, he may be able to walk as early believe that prisoners are beaten. Greek as ten days later. Some persons have said police have a reputation for beating that they were subjected to falanga several prisoners. But we are not absolutely sure times during interrogation periods that I of anything. We just don't know." have lasted as long as forty days. I The Greek government rejected the Torture has been the bete noire of the charges of torture as lies and Communist Greek government, and, although it was propaganda, making much of the lack of not on the agenda when the ministers of physical evidence for such charges. In 'the Council of Europe met in December, some cases it has employed the Soviet the rash of unfavorable publicity probably ploy of claiming that the witnesses are enabled the plaintiff governments to rally mentally deranged. In November, 1g68, the votes necessary for Greece's expulsion. it brought three witnesses to Strasbourg THE AMERICAN SCHOLAR to testify that they had been in the Security they "did not know if torture was being Police Headquarters and had not been carried on there." In addition, Mr. Marti tortured, but two of them defected to the says that the chief of police "was able to opposition and testified that they had affirm that no ill-treatment or torture was been, after all. (Then one of them dis­ inflicted on the prisoners." He also men­ appeared under mysterious circumstances tions that three detainees interviewed to reappear in the Greek Embassy in after they had been transferred from Stockholm where he repudiated his testi­ Bouboulina Street were able to show mony a second time before returning to wounds "which they said they had suffered Greece.) in the course of torture," but he does not In addition, the government has made say where these wounds were located or a more subtle attempt to defend itself by what they looked like. He says ten de­ appealing to the authority of no less pres­ tainees said they had been given falanga tigious an organization than the Inter­ once, twelve said they had been given it national Red Cross. Since May, 1967, the more than once, twenty-four said they Red Cross has made repeated visits to had been punched with fists, and eighty­ Greece, mostly to island detention camps, five said they had been well-treated. prisons and prison hospitals. Finally, the colfdusiOJf he draws from Under the terms of the Geneva Con­ this evidence is a syntactic and semantic ventions, which apply not only to Greece labyrinth: "The l.C.R.C. limits itself to but to any signatory, the Red Cross must reporting these contradictory declarations make its reports available to the host from which it does not feel it has to draw government and may not publish them conclusions about the reality of the al­ unless the government does so first. To leged tortures." date, the Greek government has chosen Quotations from this report became to publish only two of four general re­ the substance of a government pamphlet ports, both following Red Cross protests entitled "The Truth About Greece," against its attempts to quote from the hailed as a "smashing reply" to the allega­ reports in a tendentious and misleading tions of torture. The pamphlet was with­ manner. In one case, Foreign Minister drawn following vigorous Red Cross pro­ Panayiotis Pipinellis said that the Red tests, but criticism of Mr. Marti's investi­ Cross delegate had utterly repudiated the gation did not subside. charges of torture, an allegation that was "The Red Cross was under pressure to proved false when the published report investigate the torture question," says revealed that the delegate had not men­ Anthony Marreco, one of the authors of tioned the subject at all. the Amnesty International Report, which In fact, there are only six pages in one asserted that the Greek government was of the published reports that deal with practicing torture. "But they were deter­ torture. They concern the visit in March, mined to do it without being conclusive. 1968, of the Red Cross delegate, Laurent In other words, Mr. Marti's main concern Marti, to the Security Police Headquar­ was not to say anything that would result ters in Bouboulina Street where much of in his being thrown out of Greece." the torture has allegedly taken place. Mr. On this last point, Mr. Marti readily Marti (who was recently replaced as the agrees: he believes he can be most useful Red Cross representative in Athens) re­ to the Greek political prisoners if he is quested permission for this visit in ad­ allowed to visit them, instead of being vance, and since he does not speak Greek, barred from the country as Marreco was. he was accompanied by an interpreter Like Mr. Marti, Red Cross officials define who was a permanent employee -of the their role precisely as that of a relief Greek Red Cross. When he arrived, he organization, and they point with pride found only two detainees in the Secu­ to their success in convincing the govern­ rity Headquarters and, in the presence of ment to close the detention camp on the the interpreter, both of them told him that island of Yaros and to release some aged REPORT FROM GREECE: UNDER THE JUNTA and infirm prisoners. Here too they have the real problems of Greece-press censorship, had their failures, for the government '10 elections, suspension of civil liberties. It will not usually respond unless continu­ would be much better if people on the outside ally prodded. For example, in March, 1969, stopped shouting "Stop the tortures" and Mr. Marti complained to the govern­ started shouting "Start the elections." ment of the overcrowded condition of one But despite Mr. Marti's political in­ of the detention camps on Leros, where dictment of the Greek government, many people were reponed to be sleeping in critics believe he has given it ample room corridors, and the Red Cross later sug­ for maneuver in the torture question. For gested that the government release the example, one of his subordinates has more aged and infirm prisoners to improve seen the physical evidence of torture and ~~ the general morale. Mr. Marti has made reported it to his superiors. After a visit at least four visits to Greece since that to a detention camp in the summer of time, but it was not until December that 1968, a Red Cross doctor reported that r he was reported to have returned to Leros in unusual instances "certain ... detainees to see if these suggestions were carried out. were able to show us the physical evidence Since the report on this visit will prob­ of torture," and he suggested that the Red ably not be published, any further pres­ Cross urge the Greek government to stop sure on the government will again be up all forms of torture. People who have to Mr. Marti. seen both the published and the unpub­ As for the torture issue, Mr. Marti lished reports say that Mr. Marti has not explained his criteria in an interview included this mention of torture, a fact during one of his recent trips. He is a that would support his critics' most seri­ well-tailored Swiss with an oval face and ous charge: that he has his evidence but receding hair. He showed us to the ter­ is not using it. race of his office, which offers a beautiful "No one will show Mr. Marti a man in view of the Acropolis. the process of being torJured," says Ole Espersen, the assistant Danish agent be­ You cannot imagine what we hear from for­ fore the Human Rights Commission. "But mer prisoners [he said). But we cannot go by he has seen prisoners with the marks of what we hear, only what we see. Journalists can print stories of former prisoners who say torture on them. Now why doesn't he put they have been tortured and let their readers that in his reports? The Greek govern­ judge if they are true. I cannot make judg­ ment could suppress the report if it wanted ments. I must say only what I see. I must see to, but the Red Cross has the responsibility evidence in the prisons or on the prisoners. That to report the facts or not make any re­ is the only evidence I can accept. port at all." Partly as a result of such criticism, the We asked Mr. Marti if he had seen Red Cross has recently adopted a more evidence of torture on the prisoners. He activist interpretation of its powers. Ac­ said: cording to a source close to Red Cross That's confidential. But I can tell you that circles, one official recently described it as you cannot get much evidence unless you have an attempt "to obtain increased freedom free access to every police station in the country, and to use it ... to make tests, see the because it is at the stations where the beatings response, and on the basis of those tests, are likely to take place. By the time people either continue our work or discontinue get to the prisons, it is too late ... Besides, the it." In keeping with this policy, the Red problem here is not a problem of torture. It is Cross successfully pressured the govern­ different and worse . . . When a government wants everyone in the country to think as it ment to sign an agreement providing for thinks, to believe what it believes, to follow a degree of intervention usually unac­ to the letter what it commands, then you have ceptable to a nation in peacetime. In pure Fascism. That is the problem here. It is June, 1¢9, a Red Cross official presented not a problem of beatings. All the hue and cry it to Premier Papadopoulos, and on No­ about the tortures draws attention away from vember 3. with just over a month to go -

THE AMERICAN SCHOLAR before the meeting of the Council of of one source, "there was a misunder­ Europe Minister£, Papadopoulos signed. standing . . . there were delays," but Under the terms of the agreement, the finally a decision was taken by the Com­ Red Cross is granted the right to visit mittee itself that makes it a matter of any detention center, whether civilian or policy for the delegate to make his visits military, and to demand to see any political "on the shortest possible notice." prisoner. After every visit, the Red Cross will issue a communique announcing the Greeks call the chauvinistic, puritani­ dates, places and conditions of its visits. cal and single-minded men who com­ Lest anyone miss the point of this last mand power in Greece today stenokepha­ provision, the agreement specifically pro­ loi, narrow-heads. But in some ways, the hibits the government from misrepre­ king and the politicians who ruled be­ senting the reports in any way. As a result fore them could have used some of their of these increased activities, the Red Cross ability to bury their differences and announced that it is establishing a per­ focus on priorities. In April, 1g67, Greece manent mission to Greece, to be housed in had the highest per capita income of quarters separate from the local Red Cross any country to have suffered a coup, well chapter. over double the average. Nevertheless, The Red Cross clearly won the first the intrigues of the palace as well as of round, and the victory belongs to those tire politicians had contributed to a state officials who have long been arguing that of uncertainty that left the country de­ the Greek government would submit to fenseless, ripe for a military takeover. a more activist policy. Even so, the Red Constantine Karamanlis and several of Cross has still not attempted to assert his ministers believe that if King Paul the full measure of freedom that officials had not pushed their government out of believe is necessary to make a thorough power in 1g63, it would still be serving to­ investigation of the torture question. Ac­ day and there would be no colonels. An­ cording to informed sources, these officials dreas Papandreou and former ministers believe the new agreement can be fully of the Center Union party claim that if effective only if the delegate asserts his King Paul's successor, Constantine, had right to make his visits without serving not done the same thing to George Pa­ notice ahead of time. Nothing is stipulated pandreou in 1g65, the Center Union to require the delegate to announce his would still be in power and again there visits, but for some reason Mr. Marti has would be no colonels. always done so. "From 1946 onwards, the king ruled "You may wonder why we let them with complete authority over the armed know [we are coming]," he told us last forces," says Constantine Mitsotakis. "And July. "Because it gives them time to fix he intended to keep his powers. The first things up. I say fine to that: let them fix victim of this system was Karamanlis. things up. That is our job, to improve The second was Papandreou." conditions for political prisoners. If they The monarchy has never had solid improve them because they know we are roots in Greece. It dates from 18~o when coming, that's fine." Greece drove out the Turks after four On this issue, Mr. Marti has found hundred years of occupation only to himself at odds with the new policy, which become a protectorate of the European obviously presupposes a much wider con­ powers, which promptly installed an ad­ ception of the way to improve conditions. olescent and ineffectual Bavarian prince Informed sources say that after the agree­ named Otto as ruler. Since there is no ment was signed, Mr. Marti was instructed hereditary aristocracy in Greece, the to conduct his visits without serving nt>­ monarchy has no natural allies among tice, but nevertheless he continued to sub­ the people and has used the armed mit written requests to the foreign ministry forces to safeguard its position. With in his accustomed manner. In the words the support of the military behind them,

~------...... REPORT FROM GREECE: UNDER THE JUNTA Greek kings seldom paid much attention the Center Union, a coalition of splinter to public opinion. parties led by George Papandreou. In In 1963, Karamanlis advised King Paul fact, the Center Union claimed that the to cancel a state visit to London, be­ winning margin had been the result of cause ht anticipated demonstrations by coercion and fraud in the rural areas, the British Communists. King Paul ig­ where the army gendarmerie had con­ nored his advice, forcing the issue to a siderable arbitrary authority. (When the crisis which ended with Karamanlis' res­ Center Union finally came to power in ignation. According to one of his former 1963, it discovered a so-called "Plan Peri­ ministers, the king had been looking for cles" which the ERE had left behind in a reason to push him out of power. "On army dossiers. It provided some evidence one side he felt threatened by Karaman­ for the claim.) lis," the minister said, "because he had Having learned a lesson from his nar­ been making increasing demands on the row margin of victory, Karamanlis was palace to loosen its hold on the armed apparently planning to embark on an en­ forces. And on the other he saw that pub­ larged social program to woo popular lic support for the monarchy was falling support when King Paul pushed him out. rapidly. Aware that the public had also "Our government was well aware that its grown disenchanted with Karamanlis, he standing with the people had deterio­ used the London visit to force his resig­ rated," said a former member of Kara­ nation and bolster the monarchy." manlis' cabinet. "The reason was our A tough, able leader, Karamanlis had heavy emphasis on capital investment at done much to build up the country since the expense of social services. But we had taking office in 1955. By 1960 the econ­ a plan to do something about it. If Kara­ omy was growing annually at a rate of manlis had not been pressured into re­ almost eight percent and some $wo mil­ signing, he would have given himself a lion in foreign investments were pouring year's leeway and during that period he in annually. In his zeal to build up a would have launched a series of pro- strong economy, Karamanlis had ne­ grams to upgrade education, increase glected education and social services, pensions, expand public services and all and his government was repeatedly ac­ the rest. Enough voters would have been cused of strong-arm methods, particu­ won back to ensure victory for Karaman­ larly in the rural areas. But Karamanlis lis. But we never had the chance to use claims there was an overall strategy in his the plan." methods. The intervention of the monarch un­ "You think I don't care about people?" doubtedly cost Karamanlis the election. Karamanlis asked a visitor to his home When the ballots were counted in No­ in Paris last year. "I care very much. But vember, 1963, it became dear that Pa­ I knew that the most important thing for pandreou's Center Union had won by Greece after the wars and all the devasta­ only three percent of the vote. Without a tion was to build her up. To do that sac­ clear majority, Papandreou rejected a par­ rifices had to be made. What good is it liamentary coalition with the Commu­ to turn out one thousand engineers a nist-front party, the United Democratic year if there are no jobs to put them in? Left (EDA), and called for new elec­ I did what was best for Greece ... During tions in February, 1g64. Many Greeks the eight years of my administration, we tend to vote simply for the party they built a strong economic foundation that think is going to win, and this election would have had Greece on the level of was no exception: after the slim victory Italy by now if my policies had been fol­ three months earlier, the Center Union lowed." in February won fifty-three percent of In the elections of 1961, Karaman­ the vote-the largest plurality in postwar lis' party, the National Radical Union Greek history. (ERE), had been strongly challenged by Nevertheless, according to George Pa- 485 THE AMERICAN SCHOLAR

pandreou's followers as well as his critics, A number of men in the councils of he remained an opposition leader even the Center Union decided that the only after he became prime minister, and way to prevent Andreas from taking during his scant sixteen months in of­ power was to bring George Papandreou fice, he failed to develop a clearly for­ down as well. One of them was Panos mulated policy. Kokkas, the powerful publisher of the Andreas Papandreou believes the Athens daily Eleftheria, who favored re­ downfall of his father's government was placing him with Mitsotakis. Eleftheria ensured in Washington in June, 1964, attacked Papandreou on the issue of the when George Papandreou refused Presi­ army, claiming that it was a party unto dent Johnson's request for a meeting itself which should be made directly re­ with Turkish Premier Inonu to defuse sponsible to the elected government. But, the Cyprus crisis. But many people in the according to Andreas Papandreou, these Center believe another cause of the attacks were really a provocation, calcu­ party's downfall was Andreas himself. lated to bring government into conflict Andreas Papandreou had left Greece with the monarchy and thus remove it in 1940 to study economics at Harvard from power. University. A rapid rise in the aca­ Pressured by his own party and pub­ demic world brought him to the Univer­ lic opinion, George Papandreou started sity of California at Berkeley as a full replacing rightist army officers with lib­ professor in 1955. In 1961, he gave up erals, including those on Cyprus and teaching and returned to Athens at the other sensitive posts. General George invitation of the Karamanlis government Grivas, the rightist commander of Greek to be director of the Center of Economic forces on Cyprus, was not happy at the Research. Three years later, having given influx of such officers, and after some up his American citizenship, he ran in digging, he claimed to have discovered a the elections as a deputy in his father's secret army group named ASPIDA, al­ party. ledgedly headed by Andreas Papandreou. When his father became prime minis­ Grivas took his allegations to Defense ter, Andreas became his chief aide. Dur­ Minister Petros Garoufalias, warning ing the same year, however, he re­ that the aim of ASPIDA was to over­ signed under a cloud of never-proved throw the monarchy and pull Greece out scandal, involving the awarding of a gov­ of the Atlantic Alliance. (Some twenty­ ernment contract. When his father eight officers were ultimately convicted brought him back in the powerful post of conspiracy in the ASPIDA affair, but of minister of coordination, a lot of peo­ it was never proved that their intention ple thought Papandreou was determined was to overthrow the monarchy or that to make his son the future leader of the Andreas Papandreou was their leader. Center Union. There had been in the army a secret "Andreas wanted swift advancement," rightist group called IDEA, whose mem­ says Constantine Mitsotakis, his possible bers determined promotions and assi~­ rival for the party leadership. "Twice he ments, and thus it was not strange that had to be rescued by his father from an opposing group of liberal officers ministries where he had failed. Our should form an o~anization to counter­ party was a new party of many smaller act it. Unnoticed at the time was a third groups with much less discipline than the secret organization in the army, made up ERE, and whatever balance existed be­ of rightist officers who resented IDEA's tween them was destroyed by Andreas. power. This group. called EENA, was He had great influence over his father. headed by a then unknown colonel named Usually we would take one decision as a George Papadopoulos.) group and in the evening Andreas would Accordin~ to Andreas Papandreou, his go alone to his father's home at Kastri and father's trusted friend Garoufalias ac­ convince him to do something else." tually contributed to the misunderstand- REPORT FROM GREECE: UNDER THE JUNTA ings between Papandreou and the king, months if the king had left him alone," hoping to be called as prime minister of says an ERE politician who has served an interim service government. in several governments in the past Another man standing in the wings twenty years. "He was being undermined was Constantine Mitsotakis, who Andreas by members of his own party and his says had promised Queen Mother Frede­ failures were beginning to catch up with rika that in the event of Papandreou's him. But by dismissing him, the king fall he would break with the party and made him a hero." bring eighty Center Union deputies with If Mitsotakis had counted on eighty him. (Mitsotakis denies the charge and deputies for a government to replace Pa­ says he continually urged George Papan­ pandreou, events were to show that he ,J dreou not to force a confrontation.) had seriously miscalculated. Many depu­ ' When Garoufalias brought the news of ties were intimidated by the immediate ASPIDA to Constantine, the king de­ pro-Papandreou popular reaction, and manded a full investigation. "I regard it refused to defect. The Communist-front as your duty to proceed at once to do EDA party, which had been preparing what I ask," the twenty-eight-year-old to attack Papandreou before the crisis, monarch wrote to the seventy-seven-year­ now took the lead in organizing demon­ old prime minister. "This is my very last strations in his support. Every evening, warning." the city resounded with the rhythmic ca­ When Papandreou refused the king's dence: "Pa-pan-dre-ou." When a student request, Garoufalias promptly launched was killed during a clash with the police, the investigation on his own. Papandreou the left seized the opportunity of staging called for Garoufalias' resignation, and, a dramatic public funeral.. Hundreds of as a temporary measure until another mourners marched with upraised fists be­ minister could be appointed, he an­ hind the grieving mother and sister of nounced that he was taking over the de­ the victim. fense ministry himself. In the meantime, the Mitsotakis But the king refused to accept Papan­ group, already stigmatized as the Apos­ dreou as defense minister in his own tates, jockeyed to put together a parlia­ government. Even Mitsotakis now says mentary majority. The first politician en­ the king's position was indefensible. "lf trusted with this thankless task was the Papandreou was good enough to be elderly speaker of the house, Ioannis prime minister, he was good enough to Athanassiades-Novas. After an undistin­ be defense minister," he says. Papan­ guished but dignified political career, dreou clearly reached the same conclu­ Novas found himself in a parliament sion himself. On July 15, he declared that where chairs were thrown in the course his resignation would be effective within of debate. twenty-four hours, obviously assuming The Novas government lasted a mat­ that the king would then have to call for ter of days until it was overthrown by a new elections in which he could take his vote of no confidence. The next patch­ case to the people. The king did no such work coalition lasted a matter of weeks. thing. He simply accepted Papandreou's Meanwhile, the crowds in the streets de­ resignation, effective immediately. To the manded that the king observe the consti­ l amazement of everyone who was not in tution and appoint a caretaker govern­ on the plot from the beginning, several ment to prepare for elections. But the I gentlemen in frock coats-including Mit­ king refused to call for elections, which sotakis--showed up at the palace, ready to would have amounted to a referendum be sworn in as the new government. on the monarch and which he was sure The king' s high-handed dismissal of to lose. Instead, he played for time, draw­ Papandreou triggered events that ulti­ ing one prime minister after another mately led to the coup. "Papandreou from the ranks of the Apostates. would have collapsed on his own in six In opposition, the role he loved best,

\ THE AMERICAN SCHOLAR Papandreou showed his great talent as a But the colonels succeeded with in­ campaigner. A consummate orator, he credible ease. Officers not in on the plot stumped the countryside, asking, "Who followed their orders, because they rules Gree<:e? The king or the people?" thought they were coming from the gen­ Massive crowds roared the answer. At erals, and by implication from the king. the same time, his son went even further, For a while no one knew who had taken broadening the attack to include what he over the country. So deeply rooted is the called the "ruling establishment," com­ fear of Communism in the Greek mind, posed not only of the palace, but the that many people thought it was the Com­ armed forces and the American embassy munists. In the space of several hours, as well. Despite the Papandreous' popu­ six to seven thousand Greek citizens were larity, Andreas' suggestions that Greece arrested. George Papandreou and Pana­ review the relationship with the Atlantic yiotis Kannellopoulos were confined to Alliance invited the charge of Commu­ house arrest; Andreas Papandreou was nist sympathies and aroused deep anxie­ taken to prison. At the same time, boats ties. The charge was not altogether miti­ began to leave for the island concentra­ gated by the fact that the Communists tion camps with suspected Communists bitterly attacked him as a paid American and other leftists. - - agent whose aim was to draw away their It is tantalizing to imagine what would votes. have happened if the king had made some For almost two years, the deadlock con­ gesture of protest, or if some prestigious tinued. Instability dried up foreign in­ group such as the ambassadors had re­ vestments, and in all respects the coun­ signed in a bloc. One year later, the try was at a standstill, paralyzed by un­ Czechoslovakian experience offered some rest, insecurity and general disgust. In suggestions as to how passive resistance mid-April, 1!)1}7, when Panayiotis Kannel­ can delay a takeover, and in the Greek lopoulos, ERE leader and head of the case the element of time might have been fourth coalition, announced that it was im­ decisive. But the king said nothing, even possible to postpone elections any longer, though the colonels had signed his name Athens already abounded with rumors of to their first governmental decree. Mean­ an impending coup. Everyone believed that while, in all walks of life, Greeks resumed generals close to the palace, eager to save their daily affairs. For many of them, after Constantine from the humiliation of a Pa­ almost two years of the most extreme pandreou victory, would intervene. But political haggling and maneuvering, the whether or not such a plan in fact existed, coup actually came as a relief. The colonels on the morning of April 21, a triumvirate had no trouble finding the words for their of colonels stole the march. first message to the public: The officers who staged the coup num­ We have long witnessed a crime which had bered about three hundred out of ap­ been committed against our society and nation. proximately ten thousand in the Greek The unhesitant and shameful pany dealing, army, and the tanks surrounding govern­ the misconduct of a great part of the press, ment buildings and power installations the methodical assault against all institutions, numbered thirty-eight. For the colonels their corrosion, the debasement of Parliament, it was a bold gamble, and they were well the slandering of everything, the paralyzing aware of the risk if they failed. A close of the state machinery, the complete lack of friend of the family of Stylianos Patakos understanding for the burning problems of told us that, on the night of the coup, our youth, the ill-treatment of our students, the moral decline, the confusion and the blurring, he gave his strong-willed older daughter the secret and open cooperation with subversives, a pistol and told her that if he did not and finally, the continuous incendiary slogans get word to her by three o'clock the fol­ of unscrupulous demagogues have destroyed lowing morning, she was to shoot her the peace of the country, have created a cli­ mother and her younger sister and then mate of anarchy and chaos, have cultivated take her own life. conditions of hatred and division and have 488 REPORT FROM GREECE: UNDER THE JUNTA led us to the brink of national disaster. There for the king after all, and he let them go. was no other way of salvation left than the A few minutes later, they returned and intervention of our Army ... placed the general under arrest. The colonels said they had come to "Constantine should have gone to Crete," save the country from the Communists, says an American military attache. "His but it soon became clear that they had strongest support has always been the come to save it from many other people navy and the air force, both of which have as well. Through the summer and the extensive installations in Crete. With the autumn, they began to dismiss hundreds support of the navy and the air force, of royalist officers. The colonels them­ which the colonels had not got around to selves were all from poor villages, and purging yet, he would have quickly taken had never been favorably treated by the control of the island. Crete ·would have upper-middle-class military establishment. given him an unassailable base and di­ (Patakos, for example, had languished vided Greece. The colonels would have for ten long years as a lieutenant colonel.) had to bow to him or risk civil war, the So they took their first opportunity to very thing they said they had come to settle some old scores and put their own prevent. Washington would not have been men in key posts. able to tolerate the situation and would By the end of 1!}67, the extent of the have used its influence against the wlo­ military purges alarmed King Constantine nels." enough to move him to action. On De­ cember 13, King Constantine launched his The Greek political world was put famous countercoup, departing in a plane into a deepfreeze when the colonels took for northern Greece, accompanied by his over on the morning of April 21, and if queen, their child, and his mother Fred­ it were to be taken out tomorrow, it would erika. emerge more or less in the same form. "The time has come for you to hear Except for George Papandreou who died the voice of your monarch," he said, but in October, 1968 (leaving the party with­ the recording of his message was broad­ out a leader) the dominant personalities cast on a weak radio in Larisa and not are the same, and the junta has not been many of his subjects heard their monarch's able to make any inroads into their opposi­ voice. In Kavalla, where the king spent tion. With the exception of the present the afternoon, huge crowds demonstrated foreign minister Panayiotis Pipinellis, an their solidarity, even though this capital extreme Royalist and frequent advocate of the tobacco country is traditionally of dictatorship in the past, no former leftist in orientation. The king's plan was politician has agreed to join a junta cabi­ to send a column from there to occupy net, occasional rumors that some would Salonika, to establish this Macedonian city do so are probably only encouraged by as a secessionist capital, just as Eleftherios the junta because it looks good to have Venizelos had in his dispute with Constan­ someone talking about future political tine's grandfather in 1917. developments. In reality, a deadlock con­ But he was having trouble getting the tinues: the politicians have the experience powerful army divisions in the area to to run the country, the colonels have the come to his support. There were still country to run. many generals loyal to him, but by the Any list of the political opposition must time he decided to act, the colonels had include the king, a fact that says more put their own men in key posts and they about the traditional powers of the Greek were able to intercept the generals' orders monarchy than it does about this par­ before they reached the commanders in ticular monarch. There are occasional the field. One general caught two of his suggestions that Constantine should ap­ subordinates countermanding his orders point a government-in-exile to induce and had them arrested. But they per­ diplomatic pressure by its sheer nu~ance suaded him that they were really working value. · THE AMERICAN SCHOLAR "The king is playing his last cards," in this capacity he has important qualifica­ Mrs. Helen Vlachos says. "The junta will tions: 1) during his eight years as prime soon set a date for a ref~rendum on the minister, he made a reputation for strong monarchy which the king would lose now authoritarian rule; 2) ha:ving lived in exile even if it were free." for the last six years, he is not compromised But even Mrs. Vlachos concedes that by the events leading to the junta; 3) there the king is not likely to take the offensive. is no one else. Like most kings, he faces the problem of Karamanlis does not give interviews but, being surrounded by courtiers who at­ in an informal conversation with a visitor tempt to shelter him from advice that to his apartment in the fashionable Mont­ is likely "to upset him." Their own advice morency section of Paris, Karamanlis to him is that any overt act of opposition viewed the recent events philosophically on his part will hasten the day of the and with a touch of "I told you so." dreaded referendum, and his best chance of survival is to assume a passive stance. It is unfortunate what has happened in Greece [he said]. But I warned them in 196!1 One of them said he believed that "Con­ that they would be voting for chaos if they stantine is gaining in popularity because voted for the demagogues who opposed me. he is not doing anything, and only lives Greeks have always had a built-in destructive on as a suffering symbol." sense and whenever they start to move forward, The Athens politicians have not done they always do something to ruin it. Whenever anything either, although they have a someone comes along and tries to show them weaker claim to symbolic suffering, and, which way to go, they listen for a while and except for a few on the left and center­ then they turn on him and try to destroy him. left who are in prison or exile, most of You see that throughout Greek history-Aris­ them cannot claim to be suffering at all. tides, Themistocles, Pericles, Kolokotronis, Venizelos. The Greek people are a smart people They go to their offices regularly, stay up but a difficult people to talk sense to. There to date on the latest Athenian rumors, comes a time when they will seek out the most and generally behave as though some­ foolish voices in a crowd and listen only to thing were about to happen.. They are them. not unwilling to dwell on the junta's weaknesses or to castigate the United States Karamanlis is still a massive presence for not overthrowing it, but in two and at sixty-one, although now he seems a a half years they have not launched a little pale, and the gray in his hair is single offensive against it on their own. closer to white. He regards the colonels Instead they have allowed the initiative as insolent amateurs, but he is under no to pass almost entirely to the politicians illusions about what will be required to in exile abroad, who naturally have overthrow them. He said: greater difficulty remaining in touch with These colonels know nothing about govern­ the political realities within the country. ing a country. You would think that a military These include Constantine Karamanlis, regime would be cautious economically. But Andreas Papandreou, Constantine Mitso­ the colonels are more foolish than even the takis, the former finance minister who demagogues who followed me. They have taken broke with the Papandreous' in 1965, a whole series of short-term loans, three to five and George Mylonas, former Center Union years, to pay for grandiose projects that are minister of education. not going to return an income for ten to fifteen Prime minister of Greece for eight years. What kind of regime would do a thing consecutive years (a record in twentieth­ like that? A reckless regime. A foolish regime. century history), Karamanlis has lived in But only the United States can change the situation in Greece. Until Washington decides Paris ever since he gave up the leader­ to act, nobody else can do anything. You can­ ship of his party before the elections of not fight a man with your fists when he has 1963. Almost as soon as there was a junta daggers in his hands. Someone stronger has to to overthrow, he was mentioned as the come along and take the daggers away from him man to head a successor government, and first. 490 REPORT FROM GREECE: UNDER THE JUNTA Should Washington decide to take ac­ foreign-based Greek capitalists to raise tion against the junta, Karamanlis has badly needed money for the opposition. indicated that he is willing to supervise So far he has not been willing to do so. the country's return to democracy. In At the very least, they hoped he would doing so, he has insisted he would not be add his voice to those of the other exiled acting as the leader of the conservative politicians lobbying for Greece's expulsion ERE party, but as a national figure, in the from the Council of Europe. But when words of one confidant, "as a sort of the Council invited Karamanlis to testify referee, almost above politics." before its Political Committee in Paris Other politicians have tried to deter­ (along with Mitsotakis, Mylonas and Papan­ mine what is meant by a "referee, almost dreou), he declined on the ground that he above politics." In particular, they have had already said all he had to say. tried to get K.aramanlis to commit him­ At the opposite end of the political self on the question of what constitution spectrum, Andreas Papandreou is a com­ would apply during the hypothetical plete antithesis to Karamanlis. He loses transition period. If it were the 1968 no opportunity to make a public appear­ Constitution with its authoritarian powers ance, and outlines his prescriptions for passed by the junta under martial law, the future in great detail. Not only is he many of them feel a new dictatorship making no effort to woo United States would be in the making, this one under support, but his campaign seems predicated Karamanlis. on the belief that such support is not While such fears may seem farfetched, forthcoming. In fact he may have good they have been encouraged by the fact reason to believe that it is out of the that Karamanlis has done little to clarify question for him. his views, and has steadfastly refused to "I think Andreas Papandreou is a major sign any sOrt of written agreement. In obstacle to the restoration of democracy September, tg6g, however, he maqe his in Greece," said one official at the Ameri­ long-awaited public statement, calling on can embassy in Athens, who at the same the junta to retire or to be overthrown, time is highly critical of the junta. "The and inviting the Greek army to over­ smartest thing the colonels did was to let throw it, if necessary. him leave the country. Now they can "If .... those who govern at present ... use him as a bogey man. They can point fail to appreciate their duty [to resign]," to him and his statements and say 'That he said, "it will have to be pointed out is what we saved you from.' " to them by those who joined them in good This view is shared by some members faith." At the same time, he was at pains to of Papandreou's own party, and one of reassure anyone in Washington that the them in Athens told us in all seriousness junta could be ovenhrown, if not with­ that he thought Papandreou's staff was out violence, at least without threatening riddled with junta spies who are. advising Greece's membership in the NATO alli­ him to do and say just those things that ance. will help the junta. We visited Papandreou not long ago and I must take the opportunity also of assuring asked him what he proposed as an alter­ those who are anxious about the future that I native solution if the junta could be over­ would not have broken my silence if I did not thrown. believe that the country can be restored with· out danger to conditions of normalcy, and if This dictatorship can fall in any number of I were not prepared to make my contribution ways [he said] so that what one proposes de­ if need be toward that end. pends a great deal on how one foresees its demise. Now I have two hats, and I'd be glad Despite this statement, Karamanlis has to make this clear for you. One hat is my frustrated even his staunchest supporters, resistance capacity, so to speak. I am in many of whom have hoped that he would charge of the Panhellenic Liberation Movement, use his immense influence among the one of the organizations engaged in resistance 49 1 THE AMERICAN SCHOLAR against the regime. We of PAK have put out a zations." These include the Communist­ statement on how the next few steps in case dominated EDA party and its resistance the resistance forces occupy the seat of power... counterpart, the Patriotic Front, whose Papandreou lit a cigarette and blew the cooperation Papandreou knows is unac­ smoke toward the ceiling. ceptable not only to Karamanlis and the ERE but to most of the Center Union But this is not really what you are asking me as well. ("I don't know what Andreas [he said]. Rather you are asking if there is a can be thinking," says George Mavros political solution short of a takeover by the of the Center Union in Athens. "We have people. Naturally a possibility for this exists had to apologize for his leftist affiliations in principle ... in principle. It can happen by a decision on the part of the sponsors of the before, and now we have to apologize for regime, which means the Pentagon, that this them again.") thing is not workiPg out, and in that case they Papandreou must have known that Ka­ would change the signals to the Greek military. ramanlis could not accept Communist Now in this case, I shall not speak anymore cooperation and hope to win the support with the hat of the resistance movement but of the staunchly anti-Communist Greek with the hat of the Center Union party of which officer corps, nor for that matter the I am the spokesman abroad. So far as the party United States. Ifut if be had had any is concerned, my stand is the following: there doubts as to Karamanlis' reaction to his should be a get-together of the Greek parties proposal, he had learned the answer exactly elected in the last free elections in 1964, with one exception-the Progressive party of Mr. Marke­ one year before. zinis which has been collaborating with the In September, 1968, Papandreou made junta and has therefore become unacceptable his only attempt to communicate with to us. These parties should attempt to draw Karamanlis since before the coup. It was up a magna carta for the transitional govern­ not by telephone or even by letter, but ment. For this purpose, I am prepared to sit by a telegram that Papandreou simul­ around a table with the right and with the left. taneously made available to the press in By left I do not mean the Communist party which he invited Karamanlis to sit down which was not elected, but the EDA party with him and Antonios Brillakiss of the which was elected and represents a proportion EDA party to work out a joint program of the Greek voters, a small one to be sure. authorizing an interim prime minister We asked Papandreou if he would sup­ to lead the country to democratic rule. port Karamanlis as prime minister of the Even on strictly logical grounds, it is interim government. hard to see why a leader of the EDA party, which won twelve percent of the vote If both the left and the right were agreed in the last Greek election in 1964, should [he said] and if at the same time the program have an equal vote in working out a joint were acceptable. I would not consider any solution that is based on the concept of a program with the ERE party, which won fUhrer, no matter who he is, even if it happens thirty-five percent of the vote, or with to be me, which is not at all likely. If the Papandreou's own Center Union which representatives of these parties choose some­ won fifty-three percent. But the thought one to be prime minister-! don't care wh~ of Karamanlis sitting down at such a table I will accept him on the provision that he com­ is so inconceivable that it is difficult to mit himself to following the program-the believe that· Papandreou was serious. magna carta-which has been jointly approved. Karamanlis' reply was terse and negative I do not accept the procedure of finding a man (Papandreou says he is not at liberty to first and saying, "In you we trust, do what you disclose it), and the two men have not can to get us out of this mess." communicated since. One year later, in Papandreou supported Karamanlis' re­ September, 1g6g, when Papandreou hailed cent statement with the reservation that Karamanlis' declaration with the same the policies of any interim government condition, he was simply repeating a pro­ must express "the joint platform of the posal that he knew beforehand would be political parties and the resistance organi- rejected. 492 REPORT FROM GREECE: UNDER THE JUNTA

Papandreou told us that his position transition period of one year, during which was inspired by political logic. neither the 1968 nor the 1952 Constitutions would be in effect, but instead we would employ No matter what we do in the transition the United Nations Bill of Human Rights as period, it will be the most difficult thing in a guide. We would call for free genuine elec­ the world to take this wreck of a society and tions by the end of the first year. All parties-- . turn it into a viable and free country. He who none excluded-would run for office ... and the stays outside will have the great benefit of free first parliament would be a constituent assembly criticism. In the elections afterward, the left to write a new constitution. In the meantime, will pick up thirty to thirty-five percent, t~e on the basis of the law which existed in April Center will pick up twenty-five percent. We will 1967, we would try the junta on two counts, be the third party, not even second. My poli­ one on treason and high treason which under tical acumen, such as it is-and I think I have Greek law carries a maximum sentence of a good sense for events-convinces me that this twenty years, and secondly on the basis of a is the case. I do it as a matter of principle, but common criminal law because all actions they I do it also in the interests of Greece. have taken are considered by us to be illegal He may also be doing it because his and shall be studied nakedly by the courts so personal influence would be grea~ly re­ that torture, imprisonment, and so forth, would duced if he were to be absorbed mto a be treated as common crimes. coalition supporting Karamanlis. If the Whatever his critics may say about him, Karamanlis solution were brought about Papandreou takes clearly defined positions in spite of his objections, he would prob­ on all issues, from the king, whose return ably want to remain outside, to have what he would make subject to a referendum, to he calls the benefit of free criticism, and Aristotle Onassis, whom he would banish to lay claim to. the thirty to thirty-five from the land without appeal. His un­ percent leftist vote in the next election. compromising attitude has probably For good measure, he stipulates that in or­ alienated many people whose support he der to lead the interim government, Kara­ would need to carry out a program, but manlis should disqualify himself from run­ at the same time it has projected him ning in the next election. among people in Greece as a symbol of "If I were in his role, I would not the resistance, which is particularly vivid hesitate to accept this restriction," he said. because it fills a void created by the ab­ "I will not be and I do not ask to be, but sence of vigorous leadership. Here, many if I were, I would not hesitate." people believe Karamanlis is partly re­ We asked Papandreou if he would be sponsible. Karamanlis' own supporters willing to participate in a transitional believe Papandreou can say so much government. mainly because Karamanlis says so little "Personally, I would not wish to," he himself. said. "If I can possibly avoid it, 1 will. "If we have free elections in Greece," The more freedom I can have in such says Constantine Mitsotakis, "I think a period, the more I would like it." there will be three parties: Karamanlis, Of course, the success of Papandreou's Andreas, and the EDA. The rest of the strategy depends on the next election Center will have to make its choice." being held at all. Papandreou admits Mitsotakis' choice is facilitated by the he is looking to the distant future when fact that he made it in 1965, when he the resistance organizations overthrow the broke with the Papandreous. He now junta, and despite the fact that he will maintains that in doing so he was attempt­ spend that time in exile, he is confident ing to avert the confrontation that led that he will be able to keep the resistance eventually to the coup, but he does not movement under his control. In the mean­ conceal the fact that he is carrying a heavy time, he has outlined a detailed contin­ burden of shame for his past machinations. gency plan. With pungent irony, he observes in effect In case the resistance forces occupy the seat that what he did was worse than a crime: of power [he says], we are committed to a it was a mistake. And perhaps since he

49~ REPORT FROM GREECE: UNDER THE JUNTA reorganization of government machinery, to have the company promote $840 mil­ the "cleansing of social institutions," and lion in foreign investments for Greece economic, social and political reforms. in the next twelve years. Fifty million of The colonels may find, however, that that was supposed to come the first two they cannot run things on their own and years, but the deadline passed in May have to invite broader participation in last year and only two projects, worth less the government. "The colonels are not than $1 million, had reached the ground­ men of great intelligence and they have breaking stage. Finally, both Litton and the no experience or talent for government," junta gave up a few months ago and can­ says a representative of an international celled their agreement. The junta has also agency, who has had dealings with them. tried to persuade some of the more famous "Papadopoulos is intelligent, quite intel­ Greek industrialists to get involved in ligent. But the others are not. And Papado­ the economy of Greece, including Aristotle poulos has little imagination. His views Onassis, Stavros Niarchos and Thomas A. are very narrow." The most conspicuous Pappas. failure of the junta has been its inability Pappas came to Greece in 1961 and to attract talented and experienced men won the concession for an oil refinery in to serve in the government. It cannot hope Salonika. He has been a controversial to achieve most of its ambitious goals figure in Greece ever since, particularly with the men serving it now. "Most of the after he told a Greek journalist that he men running ministries are unbelievably had done some work for the Central In­ incompetent," says a German businessman telligence Agency on occasion while living with extensive interests in Greece. Premier in the country. It has been reported that Papadopoulos has found it so difficult he is close to the junta, which is supposed to get competent men that he has held as to admire his contacts with the Adminis­ many as five ministries at one time himself. tration in Washington, but the enchant­ The situation is certain to get worse be­ ment between them is fading. In an inter­ cause military men now in secondary posi­ view in his office early last year, carefully tions in the government are pressing for supervised by public relations men, Pap­ top jobs, and they are even less experi­ pas said the present regime is doing fine enced than the civilians in the govern­ and his relations with it are excellent. ment. But we ran into him a few months later at The junta has had its most difficult the Astir Palace Hotel overlooking a time handling the economy. In the seven beautiful cove about fifteen miles from years before the coup the gross national Athens, and he appeared much less product grew between seven and eight pleased with the co!onels. He was waiting percent annually, but the first year the for guests-relatives of the late President colonels were in power the increase Eisenhower-to join him for dinner. dropped to less than half the rate. The We asked him how his plans for developing colonels attributed the decline to the crisis a meat industry in Greece were going. in the Middle East in the summer of ''I'm not optimistic about anything with 1967 and other factors beyond their con­ these people," he said. "They just don't trol. In 1968 they launched a five-year know how to act in a business way. But development program with a growth tar­ you know their biggest problem? They get of eight percent. Last year, the first don't trust anybody. They keep stalling year of the plan, the growth rate was only and shifting and stalling, and you never four and a half percent, according to the know what to expect from them. How junta's figures, or less than three percent, can you deal with people like that?" according to American economic analysts. In 1969, Greece had its best year eco­ To make up for the decline, the colo­ nomically since the coup. The junta says nels have gone in for big dramatic proj­ the country's economy grew eight and a ects. In 1967 they contracted with Litton half percent during the year. Independent Industries, the United States conglomerate, economists say the increase was around six 495 REPORT FROM GREECE: UNDER THE JUNTA without. Although most Greeks are still group. Dionysos Karageorgas, a profes­ hopeful that change can come peacefully, sor at the Pantios School of Political a few have turned to drastic methods. Sciences in Athens, was trying to fix the During the past months bombs have detonator on one of thirteen bombs in been exploding throughout Athens with the basement of his house, according to increasing regularity. Last July alone, op­ Athens police, when it went off. As a ponents of the junta set off ten bombs. result of injuries from the blast, he lost The Athens Hilton, the Bank of Greece, his right arm and the sight of his left the foreign press and information office eye. Karageorgas, who served in the Cen­ and numerous American cars, including ter of Economic Research, was among the one belonging to a U. S. Army attache, professors who were dismissed when the have been hit by bombs. Some of the blasts junta seized power, but he was later re­ are thought to be the work of the right­ instated. In April he was sentenced to life wing National Resistance Movement imprisonment after being convicted of sedi­ (KEA), and American property seems to tion by a military court. Twenty-six other be one of the primary targets. "You have Greeks tried with him received long prison become more hateful than the Athens terms. regime," a leaflet addressed to Americans All the resistance groups have a long from the KEA declared. "You will be way to go before they are strong enough responsible for the civil war that will fol­ to threaten the regime, but many of them low." The leaflet was signed by "General seem determined to try, particularly the Akritas," the mysterious leader of the move­ right-wing groups that include former ment. (The name comes from Dighenis army officers with training and experience Akritas, a Byzantine hero. General Grivas as fighters. The right-wing establishment used the first part, Dighenis, as his code is strongly opposed to the junta because name while leading the fight against Brit­ it lost the most power and influence with ish rule in Cyprus during the 1950s.) In its the arrival of the nonestablishment colo­ leaflets the group says it wants Constan­ nels. The left has been out of power since tine Karamanlis to be brought back to the civil war. Although it is quite weak restore parliamentary government in now, the left commands considerable sup­ Greece. port among students and certain groups In addition to the KEA, there are more of workers and can call on them when it than two dozen other resistance groups decides to move. operating throughout Greece, including The right and the center may be behind much one called the Patriotic Front, which is of the little resistance there is now to the junta directed by Communists. The strongest [says a former minister in the Karamanlis groups belong to the right and center, government], but you can be sure that as it the left being weak and disorganized at the builds up, the left will get into it in full force. moment. The bombs that have exploded It did not take much for the Communists to seize thus far have been timed to go off at control of the resistance movement during the night to avoid hitting people, although occupation. I don't think there is ever going about half a dozen people have been in­ to be another civil war in Greece. I think jured as a result of the blasts. "You can Greeks learned their lesson the last time. But if things don't change, we're going to have a lot tell the Communists are not behind the of violence in Greece, a lot of senseless killing blasts," says a Greek journalist. "If they and a lot of destruction. I don't say that as were, the bombs would have been set up Andreas Papandreou says it-as a threat. I to kill." The most seriously injured victim say it because I am afraid of what is going to was apparently a member of a resistance happen here.

497 REPORT FROM GREECE: UNDER THE JUNTA without. Although most Greeks are still group. Dionysos Karageorgas, a profes­ hopeful that change can come peacefully, sor at the Pantios School of Political a few have turned to drastic methods. Sciences in Athens, was trying to fix the During the past months bombs have detonator on one of thirteen bombs in been exploding throughout Athens with the basement of his house, according to increasing regularity. Last July alone, op­ Athens police, when it went off. As a ponents of the junta set off ten bombs. result of injuries from the blast, he lost The Athens Hilton, the Bank of Greece, his right arm and the sight of his left the foreign press and information office eye. Karageorgas, who served in the Cen­ and numerous American cars, including ter of Economic Research, was among the one belonging to a U. S. Army attache, professors who were dismissed when the have been hit by bombs. Some of the blasts junta seized power, but he was later re­ are thought to be the work of the right­ instated. In April he was sentenced to life wing National Resistance Movement imprisonment after being convicted of sedi­ (KEA), and American property seems to tion by a military court. Twenty-six other be one of the primary targets. "You have Greeks tried with him received long prison become more hateful than the Athens terms. regime," a leaflet addressed to Americans All the resistance groups have a long from the KEA declared. "You will be way to go before they are strong enough responsible for the civil war that will fol­ to threaten the regime, but many of them low." The leaflet was signed by "General seem determined to try, particularly the Akritas," the mysterious leader of the move­ right-wing groups that include former ment. (The name comes from Dighenis army officers with training and experience Akritas, a Byzantine hero. General Grivas as fighters. The right-wing establishment used the first part, Dighenis, as his code is strongly opposed to the junta because name while leading the fight against Brit­ it lost the most power and influence with ish rule in Cyprus during the 1950s.) In its the arrival of the nonestablishment colo­ leaflets the group says it wants Constan­ nels. The left has been out of power since tine Karamanlis to be brought back to the civil war. Although it is quite weak restore parliamentary government in now, the left commands considerable sup­ Greece. port among students and certain groups In addition to the KEA, there are more of workers and can call on them when it than two dozen other resistance groups decides to move. operating throughout Greece, including The right and the center may be behind much one called the Patriotic Front, which is of the little resistance there is now to the junta directed by Communists. The strongest [says a former minister in the Karamanlis groups belong to the right and center, government], but you can be sure that as it the left being weak and disorganized at the builds up, the left will get into it in full force. moment. The bombs that have exploded It did not take much for the Communists to seize thus far have been timed to go off at control of the resistance movement during the night to avoid hitting people, although occupation. I don't think there is ever going about half a dozen people have been in­ to be another civil war in Greece. I think jured as a result of the blasts. "You can Greeks learned their lesson the last time. But if things don't change, we're going to have a lot tell the Communists are not behind the of violence in Greece, a lot of senseless killing blasts," says a Greek journalist. "If they and a lot of destruction. I don't say that as were, the bombs would have been set up Andreas Papandreou says it-as a threat. I to kill." The most seriously injured victim say it because I am afraid of what is going to was apparently a member of a resistance happen here.

497