RESOURCES ESSAYS

BIBLIOGRAPHY of the war by then and wanted escapist films Altman, Rick. The Video Connection: Integrating Teaching the Pacific rather than more combat. Video into Language Teaching. Boston: Houghton Third, the war in the Pacific was a racial Mifflin Co., 1989. Warby Arthur through Barbeau Films war. During the conflict, the basic inhuman- Amelio, Ralph A. Film in the Classroom. Dayton, ity of the Japanese was hardly ever ques- Ohio: Pflaum Publishing, 1971. Barrett, Gregory. Archetypes in Japanese Film: The tioned. There was a considerable difference Sociopolitical and Religious Significance of the in treatment of the Japanese and Germans as Principal Heroes and Heroines. London & Toronto: he present generation is a visual enemies in American films. In Europe, we Associated University Presses, 1989. generation. Our students have not warred against the Nazis; in the Pacific, Buruma, Ivan. Behind The Mask: On Sexual known a time without television and extermination was the goal. While films Demons, Sacred Mothers, Transvestites, Gangsters, the VCR. Thus, the use of films is an made after the war might present a more Drifters, and Other Japanese Cultural Heroes. New T York: Pantheon Books, 1984. ideal way to present the Pacific phase of balanced picture, they are not necessarily Ehrlich, Linda C. “Wandering Fool: Tora-san and World War II. Good films can be dramatic better films. the Comic Traveler Tradition.” Asian Cinema 8:1 in demonstrating the reality of that war to Finally, Hollywood went to war. The pro- (Spring 1996): 3–27. present day students. duction companies in California churned out “F†ten no Tora” (Tora, the Vagabond). Special Even bad films can be useful in other an almost inexhaustible supply of pictures. issue of Sh†kan Yomiuri. Tokyo: Yomiuri shinbun- Many actors and filmmakers were also part sha, 3 September 1996. ways. Those dealing with the Pacific often Hennessey, Janis M. “Using Foreign Films to contain the grossest stereotypes. Many of of the government war effort. Some of the Develop Proficiency and To Motivate the Foreign these films, though, can help a teacher deal top directors worked making documentaries. Language Students.” Foreign Language Annals 28 with the production and presentation of pro- By agreement, most of these were never (1995): 116–20. paganda. While the racial stereotypes pre- shown in theaters while the war was in Maynard, Richard A. Classroom Cinema. New sented in the worst films are sometimes progress. A number of them are excellent. York & London: Teachers College Press, 1977. offensive to people today, it is important to In this essay, I’ll look at a few of the films Morris, Ivan. The Nobility of Failure: Tragic Heroes in the History of Japan. New York: Holt, remember that they were part of the psyche which are available from a list of perhaps Rinehart & Winston, 1975. of the period. one hundred. These include what this writer Richie, Donald. Japanese Cinema: A Film Style and Occasionally, I teach a course entitled feels are some of the best, and undoubtedly National Characteristics. London: Secker & “Images and Realities: the Films of World the worst. The good ones give students a Warburg, 1971. War II.” Dealing with the whole sweep of feeling for what the conflict of their grand- Schillaci, Anthony, and John Culkin, eds. Films the war, the course includes sections on the parents was like. Even the worst films have Deliver. New York: Citation Press, 1970. European/North African theater and the use. They were seen by large audiences; Segers, Frank. “Tora-san Film Series That Has ‘Way We Were’ Hold on Japan.” Variety (21–7 Home Front. While this course is designed they were the “reality” of the day. In analyz- December 1988): 41, 42. for college undergraduates, the segments on ing these, a teacher has an opportunity to Shochiku Studios. Otoko wa Tsurai yo: F†ten no the Pacific War, and parts of the documen- discuss such issues as propaganda and Tora-san nij†go nen no sokuseki (It’s Hard Being tary and foreign film sections, could be used racism. a Man: 25 Years of Tora-san, the Vagabond). at any level from middle school through col- The best American film on the Pacific Tokyo: K¬said¬ shuppan, 1995. lege to teach about the war in Asia. War, They Were Expendable (135 min.) ———. Such≠ru shashin de tsuzuru Tora-san: Sono sekai (The World of Tora-san through Photo Stills). Here, I’ll discuss several films. These brief appeared in the last year of the conflict. The Tokyo: K¬said¬ shuppan, 1995. synopses will allow teachers to choose films film focuses on the officers and men of Tadao, Sato. Currents in Japanese Cinema. Tokyo: to suit their particular needs. While some of American PT boats in the Philippines at the Kodansha International, 1982. the teachable features of the different films beginning of the war. Its cast of characters “Tora-san iku” (Tora-san passed away). Special will be highlighted, individuals will see included some of the top names in issue of Asahi Graph. Tokyo: Asahi shinbunsha, other purposes appropriate for any film. Hollywood of those years. 1996. There are a few important points to Under John Ford’s skillful direction, time Yamada Y¬ji. Eiga o tsukur† (Making of Films). Tokyo: √tsuki shoten, 1986. remember at the start. First, there was a time is taken to develop the characters and the Yates, Ronald E. “Japan’s Everyman.” Chicago lag between the concept of an idea for a film story line. These are Americans fighting a Tribune, 16 April 1989, sec. 13, p. 28. and the release of that film for theaters. In a losing battle in hopes of delaying the enemy. quickly made film, the gap might have been The abrupt shift from peacetime to war is half a year; for more elaborate productions, adequately depicted. There is frustration at it approached two years. Thus, some films losing as well as the heroics that one expects on the initial stages of the war did not in such a film. The attack of these tiny boats appear until the war was almost finished. against a Japanese cruiser may be among the Second, most of the early films were hack most spectacular combat scenes ever filmed. jobs, filled with propaganda. Many of the Though it is available in a colorized version, “combat” scenes were heroic, but rather purists may prefer They Were Expendable in MASAKO NAKAGAWA is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Modern Languages and unrealistic. This situation improved as the the original black-and-white. Literatures at Villanova University, Pennsylvania. war continued and Americans had seen As a relatively long film, there is time to She teaches Japanese language and literature. miles of newsreels, but viewers were tiring develop the characters as the combat scene

58 EDUCATION ABOUT ASIA Volume 2, Number 2 Fall 1997 RESOURCES ESSAYS

While the racial stereotypes presented in the worst films are sometimes offensive to people today, it is important to remember that they were part of the psyche of the period.

death, and the hero is the only survivor. On his trek to rejoin his unit in a prisoner of war camp, he comes upon vultures feeding on unburied Japanese dead. Assuming the role of a Buddhist monk, he stays behind in Burma, determined to locate all unburied Japanese dead and perform proper Buddhist funeral rites for them. The Burmese Harp is a beautifully made film that offers a version of the Japanese mil- itary that was not seen by Americans during the war. It is a good antidote to the usual fare Film poster for They Were Expendable. Released by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer; directed by John Ford; screenplay by Commander Frank Wead, from the book by William L. White. Cast: Robert Montgomery, John Wayne, of televised war films. Students with whom I Donna Reed, Jack Holt, Ward Bond, Marshall Thompson and Paul Langton. have used this film find it compelling. Taking Source: The John Wayne Scrapbook by Lee Pfeiffer. Carol Publishing Group Edition, 1996. Copyright © 1989 by Lee Pfeiffer time to develop both characters and the story line, the director has filled the screen with gripping images. If these three films deserve merit because of shifts from north to south. At that time, PT There is Japanese brutality. Hospitals their quality, we should look at my choices boats were relatively untested in combat; to become a target for bombing raids; unarmed for the worst films of the Pacific War. Easily the irritation of their crews, they were often cargo ships crowded with refugees are the worst American film of the entire period used to shuttle messages and passengers attacked at sea. There are scenes depicting appeared just as the war came to an end and from place to place. As the squadron lost the superiority of the Japanese at jungle wasn’t released until after Japan’s surrender. vessels, the crews were transferred to other camouflage. Even the strong American feel- In The First Yank into Tokyo (1945, 83 min.), duties. We never see the Japanese enemy ings of the time against miscegenation can Tom Neal plays an American sent into Japan face-to-face. be found. Of course, typical of most to rescue an important scientist from a pris- Another useful film for classroom purpos- American films, there is a strong love story oner of war camp. es grew out of a fireside chat in 1942, when interwoven with the plot. The hero is ideal for the task. Having Franklin Roosevelt told the story of a naval To counteract the anti-Japanese bias of grown up in Japan, he speaks the language doctor who saved wounded American sea- these films, it may be useful to turn to Kon like a native. He’s willing to undertake the men on Java. Based on James Hilton’s Ichikawa’s The Burmese Harp (1956, 115 mission because his fiancée disappeared as a screenplay, Cecil B. De Mille directed The min.). The story revolves around the attempt nurse in the Philippines. In the film’s first Story of Dr. Wassell (1944, 140 min.) with of a Japanese unit to escape from Burma major idiocy, he submits to irreversible plas- Gary Cooper in the lead role. into Thailand in the closing days of the war. tic surgery to make him look Japanese. The The story highlights Dr. Wassell’s Commanded by a music teacher, the unit Korean underground assists in getting Neal attempts to move seamen wounded in the practices singing to keep up their morale. In into the Japanese home islands. naval battles off Java to a port from which a touching scene in which they are preparing Assigned as an orderly to the hospital of the they could be evacuated to Australia and to die, they surrender to the British when camp, he discovers that his fiancée is a nurse safety. As with John Ford’s epic, there is their enemy sings the same song they have time to develop both story line and charac- enjoyed. They then discover that the war ters. Lauding the British and Dutch as well officially ended a few days earlier. ARTHUR BARBEAU is a Professor of History and as the Americans, the film is filled with the A non-commissioned officer, the protago- Anthropology at West Liberty State College. stereotypes of the time, which can lead to nist is sent to convince another Japanese Barbeau has studied and travelled extensively lively classroom discussion. unit to surrender. These soldiers fight to the in China.

59 RESOURCES ESSAYS

there and that the sadistic camp Still, even The First Yank into Tokyo and commandant is his former The Imperial Japanese Empire can be prof- college roommate. Just about itably used in the classroom. The former is every anti-Japanese stereotype excellent for showing modern audiences the found its way into this film. racism that pervaded films of the time. One The enemy are sadistic, venal, need not go beyond this to examine the many corrupt, and ill-mannered. They stereotypes that were common then. The lat- lust after white women, mis- ter film raises more serious questions con- treat prisoners, and abuse the cerning the insistence of some Japanese that Koreans. And, of course, they history may be rewritten to convince a later can be hoodwinked by the lone generation that even facts can be ignored. American. Such a film is revisionism at its worst. The film ends as Neal gives There are a few final suggestions that may up his place on the submarine be beneficial to teachers who plan to use to his fiancée. He stands on the films in class. Far too many educators are beach holding off a Japanese reluctant to spend so much time on a film; the attack. After all, how could his school year is just too short. Any of the films love ever accept him if he mentioned can add new dimensions to the continued to bear the physical class even if only the parts pertinent to the features of the brutal enemy she discussion are shown. I’ve had excellent knew so well? results showing as little as thirty seconds to a If we can excuse The First minute of a two-hour film. Yank into Tokyo its excesses as Although students today are visually orient- part of the wartime psychology, ed, many do not really use their eyes. On the same can’t be said for The numerous occasions, I’ve shown relatively Imperial Japanese Empire short segments of a film with the sound off, (1985, 120 min.). This big-bud- forcing students to describe what they are The Japanese protagonist, in the guise of a Buddhist get epic, Japanese financed, deliberately seeing. While their initial responses may be monk, plays the traditional Burmese harp. The harp attempts to stand history on its head and “But how do we know what we are seeing if and its music are central features in Kon Ichikawa’s absolve Japan for any culpability for World there is no sound,” they quickly begin to compelling anti-war film, The Burmese Harp. War II. The plot follows several Japanese make their own judgements about the Photo courtesy of Public Media Incorporated. soldiers through the entire conflict. Despite images. This, alone, is often a plus. n some excellent combat scenes and spectacu- lar scenery, the film mirrors the failure of FILM SOURCES subsequent Japanese governments to admit The Burmese Harp any responsibility for the actions of its Public Media Incorporated wartime predecessor. 5547 N. Ravenswood Ave. Historical inaccuracies and misinterpreta- Chicago, IL 60640 tions abound. Japan was merely attempting to 800-826-3456 liberate Asians from Western imperialism The Imperial Japanese Empire when it was “suckered” into the wider con- Video City Productions flict by the deliberate actions of Franklin 4266 Broadway Roosevelt and his British henchmen. Oakland, CA 94611 Flaunting international conventions, these The Story of Doctor Wassell Universal Home Video Westerners used flags of truce to lure brave 100 Universal City Plaza Japanese soldiers to their deaths. Backward Universal City, CA 91608-9955 Chinese failed to appreciate a Japan that was 818-777-1000 leading them to freedom. They Were Expendable * As if these skewed historical interpretations The First Yank into Tokyo * were not enough, there are many jarring inconsistencies. Two will be mentioned as * EDITOR’S NOTE: Due to Time Warner’s illustrations. In some of the combat scenes, recent acquisition of Turner Home Entertainment, weapons are used that were not available at we were unable to determine the current status of the time. Even more glaring is the fifty-star these two films. However, we consulted Blockbuster Video Company and were assured that both The American flag behind the tribunal at the trial First Yank into Tokyo and They Were Expendable of General T¬j¬ on obviously trumped-up are available on video in their catalogue and may be charges. ordered through them.

60 EDUCATION ABOUT ASIA Volume 2, Number 2 Fall 1997