Proceedings of UGC Sponsored National Seminar on Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India:
Policy Perspectives
Edited by
Bhaskar Chaudhuri
Assistant Professor
Department of Geography, Saheed Kshudiram College
Kamakhyaguri, Dist. Alipurduar, West Bengal, India
Organised By
Department of Geography, Saheed Kshudiram College
Kamakhyaguri, Dist. Alipurduar, West Bengal, India
in collaboration with
Red Cross Society, Alipurduar
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Title: Proceedings of UGC Sponsored National Seminar on The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives
Editor: Bhaskar Chaudhuri
Edition: First
© Copyright Reserved 2017
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored, in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, reordering or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher.
ISBN: 978-93-86675-13-2
The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives iii
Dedicated
To
Late President of India
Prof. (Dr.) A.P.J. ABDUL KALAM
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives iv
Preface
The book is an edited version of papers presented in the UGC sponsored national seminar held in Shaheed Kshudiram College, Kamakhyaguri, in Alipurduar, India from 17th to 18th February 2017. The proceeding has collected the papers selected for the first volume. The topic of the seminar was 'Regional dimensions of social development in India: policy perspectives'.
India despite all the progress during last seven decades has not done well in social development sector. Illiteracy, Poor health, lack of access to basic services, absence of awareness, lack of transparency and corruption accompanied by lack of empowerment have led to unsatisfactory progress in many fronts.
The first paper is about the study of Maynaguri block on health and environment. The second paper deals with the status of child labour in Kolkata. The third paper focusses on Chamar caste in West Bengal. The fourth paper is on women movement in Manipur from political perspective. The fifth paper is written by Raghab Ghosh on Jangipur population growth in Murshidabad district in relation to environment, which mainly focuses on human environmental conflicts. The next paper deals with the neglected aspect of smoking behaviour of the Masters level students of Calcutta University and their perception about smoking habits. The seventh paper is about health problems in Cooch Behar District. It is a block level study authored by Subhamay Dey Khan. The eigth paper is on the Rajbangshi community in the north districts of West Bengal and their interaction with globalisation. The ninth paper is about economic deprivation of scheduled caste community in India. The next paper discusses about the social and economic condition of the poor tea garden workers in Jalpaiguri District of West Bengal. The paper by Kuntala Biswas, discusses about the urban problems in Alipurduar town. The sex ratio problems and its various aspects were discussed in the paper of Purbasha Paul. The next paper deals with functional literacy and gender gap in schools in India: Why non-governmental organisation is important? The paper seeks to look beyond Census of India and emphasized on functional literacy and the NGOs involved in literacy movement. The paper by Bhaskar Chaudhuri seeks to focus on real literacy, or functional literacy in India and the role the NGOs are playing. Sanitation condition of Coochbehar district: A case study of Jatrapur village, Rajarhat, West Bengal is an empirical study written by Koyel Roy, Anindita Dey & Subhajit Saha. The paper focuses on infrastructural bottlenecks in the village. Human development in Howrah district has been discussed in a paper in detail with statistical application. Another paper has thrown light on the Hindu
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives v and Muslim communities and the differences between their developmental parameters in Hooghly with the help of empirical analysis. The paper by Ashok Sarkar and Sinor Lama has focussed on Male labour circulation and left behind women: A case study of some selected villages of Coochbehar district of West Bengal. The problems of unemployment are severe in this region, and as a result outmigration is common. The paper on ecotourism in lake areas of Tripura district is an empirical research work. It highlights on human and environment conflict and the development agenda needed. The paper by Dr. Surjapada Paul has discussed about thirty tea garden workers in the Dooars region of West Bengal. The paperSocial Exclusion and impact on Dalits in India by Dhiman Shil has addressed the concerns related to dalits who are living in the fringe of Indian society. The threat of arsenic pollution in west Bengal (India) and its impact on human healthhas highlighted the arsenic pollution and its impact on human health. A socio economic analysis of tea-garden area of dalgaon tea estate of dooars region: a case study of S.T. population by Sanchayan majumdar is an empirical study. Thus the book aims to focus on various aspects of social and economic development in India and leaves many research questions for future researchers to be answered. The opinions expressed by the authors are their own and the editors have no role to play regarding their personal opinions.
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives vi
Contents
Living environment and human health a study of Padamati village of Maynagudi 1 block Jalpaiguri District in West Bengal: Madhusudan Karmakar, Assistant Professor, Department of Geography, Maynaguri College
The status of child labour in Kolkata: An overview: Krishnakali Roy, Assistant 9 Professor, Department of Geography: Birpara College, Alipurduar
Chamar: A neglected community of West Bengal, India: Binay Rabidas, Assistant 14 Professor, Department of political science, Balurghat college Dakshin Dinajpur, West Bengal, India
Women Movement in Manipur, India: Analysing genesis, motives and obstruction: 21 Ananya Guha Roy, Assistant Professor, Department of Political science, Saheed Kshudiram College, Kamakhyaguri, Alipurduar
Population growth in Murshidabad district of West Bengal and its impact on the 32 environment and society: Raghab Ghosh, Assistant Teacher in Geography, Jangipur High School, Murshidabad
Smoking Behaviour of Post Graduate Students of Ballygunge Science College, 43 Kolkata: A Brief Discourse: Abhijit Datta, Belur B.Ed College and Alumnus of Ballygunj Science College, Calcutta University
An introspection into the measurement of health problems of Cooch Behar block II 51 in Cooch Behar district of West Bengal, India: Subhamay Dey Khan, PG scholar, Department of geography, Cooch Behar Panchanan Barma University
Globalisation and its discontent: A case study of Rajbangshi society in North 56 Bengal Region of West Bengal, India: Moumita Dey, M Phil Research Scholar, Department of Political Science, University of North Bengal
Economic deprivation of scheduled tribes in India: Analysing their social 63 exclusion: Abhijit Debnath, Guest Lecturer, Department of Geography, Saheed Kshudiram College, Kamakhyaguri, Alipurduar
The status of development and problematic issues: A case study of Alipuduar town, 70 West Bengal, India: Kuntala Biswas, Guest Lecturer, Department of Geography, Alipuduar College
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives vii
Fresh water scarcity in India: Analysing a major problem of millions of people in 78 India: Haripada Paul, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Geography, Saheed Kshudiram College, Kamakyaguri
Women literacy and the role of NGOs in india : Bhaskar Chaudhuri, Assistant 89 Professor, Dept. of Geography, Saheed Kshudiram College, Kamakyaguri
Sanitation Condition of Coochbehar District: A Case Study of Jatrapur Village, 99 Rajarhat, West Bengal: Koyel Roy, Anindita Dey & Subhajit Saha, P.G. Scholar, Coochbehar Panchanan Barma University
Level of human Development in Howrah District of West Bengal: A Block Level 107 Analysis: Pompa Mondol, Asst. Teacher, B.C.Vidyamandir (H.S.)
Socio-Economic Disparity among Hindus and Muslims of Naity Gram Panchayat 117 in Hugli District of West Bengal, India: Mousumi Basu, Part time Lecturer, Prafulla Chandra College
Male labour circulation and left behind women: A case study of some selected 125 villages of Coochbehar district, West Bengal, India: Ashok Sarkar, NEHU and Sinor Lama, Alipurduar College
Prospects and Challenges of Ecotourism: A Case Study Of Rudrasagar Lake In 137 Tripura: Pradip Debnath, Scholar, Tripura University
Literacy pattern and level of development of the tea garden workers of Dooars 151 region, West Bengal: Surjapada Paul, Assistant Professor, Department of Geography, Siliguri College Social Exclusion and impact on Dalits in India: Dhiman Shil 171
The threat of arsenic pollution in west Bengal (India) and its impact on human 176 health: Debnarayan Roy and Sanjit Kumar Shil Sharma
A socio economic analysis of tea-garden area of dalgaon tea estate of dooars region: 183 a case study of S.T. population: Sanchayan Majumdar
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives viii
Acknowledgement
The UGC sponsored National level seminar was organised by Saheed Kshudiram College, Department of Geography in collaboration with Red Cross Alipuduar from 17th to 18th February 2017. The book would not have been possible without financial assistance from the University Grants Commission and active participation of Red Cross Alipurduar. We are indebted to our Principal Dr. A.K. Safily, Prof. Anil Bhuimali, Hon’ble Vice Chancellor of Raiganj University; Prof. Tapas Pal of Raiganj University;Prof. Sonel Som, Dept. of Geography of our Institution; Prof. Ananya Guha Roy of the Dept. of Political Science of our Institution, Swapan Acharjee Bhaduri, Secretary of Red Cross, Alipurduar. The book would not have been possible without their active help and inspiration.
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 1
LIVING ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN HEALTH: A STUDY OF PADAMATI VILLAGE OF MAYNAGURI BLOCK, JALPAIGURI DISTRICT IN WEST BENGAL
Madhusudan Karmakar
Assistant Professor, Department of Geography
Maynaguri College
Abstract
Living environment plays an important role on the health of the rural people. The living environment affects the health of the rural people in many ways. Lack of proper education, houses with less ventilation system and sunlight access and sanitary system and above all poverty have made people vulnerable to many diseases. Women are victimized environmentally much in the village than the male. Most of the women use wood as their cooking fuel. It creates a smoky environment in the kitchen that affects the respiratory problems. The main objective of the study is to present how living environment of people of Padamati village of Maynaguri block, Jalpaiguri district, West Bengal in India affects the people of the village. The increasing health problems of the rural folk due to living environment have stimulated to carry out this present work from geographical point of view.
Introduction
Environment refers tothe combination of external physical conditions that affect and influence the growth, development, and survival of organisms. It is the ‘sum total of surroundings which surround man at a given point in space and time’(Park, 1980:28). Living environment refers to the existing surroundings around which we live and work. At the dawn of the civilization the environment was clean but with the progress of time it began to degrade. Human beings in search of food, shelter, and material comforts affect the environment either advertently or inadvertently. Thus in turn, man himself has been affected much due to changed degraded environment.The poor suffer most since they live in unsanitary conditions, face malnourishment and are not in the reach of health care services (Manoharachary, et. al. 2006). The present study
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 2 will highlight the nature ofliving environment and its impact on the human health of Padamati village and suggests some remedial measures to tackle the problems.
Objectives
The main objective of the study is to present the living condition of people of the villageand to assess that how living environment affects the people of the village. The study also suggests the ways in which human beings may be made aware of the environment
The Present Study Area
As per 2011 Census of India Maynaguri CD Block had a total population of 329,032 of which 291,073 were rural and 37,959 were urban. There were 170,030 males and 159,002 females. Scheduled Castes numbered 234,287 and Scheduled Tribes numbered 4,328. As per 2011 census the total number of literates in Maynaguri CD Block was 217,359, out of which 121,785 were males and 95,574 were females.
The present study area Padamati village lies in Padamati GP of Maynaguri block. It falls in Jalpaiguri district of West Bengal. The total population of the Padamati village is 8,407 (2011 census). The percentage of population of this gram panchayet to the total block population is 2.56%. The present study area is dominated by St and Sc population.
With an agrarian background most of the people of the region are engaged in primary sector. The percentage of agricultural labourers of the Maynaguri block to the thirteen blocks of the Jalpaiguri district is only 1.19% (District Statistical Hand book, 2006). Again the percentage of the total irrigated area of the block to the total thirteen blocks of the district is only 1.98%. Thus it reflects that the block is very poor in agriculture. Due to lack of proper tertiary activities the number of people engaged in tertiary sector is less and thus the area is economically poor.
Geographical Scenario of the Area
Padamati village rests in the western part of Maynaguri block. Flowing in the western side Teesta river has become the main river of the area. The Jorda river flows in the east of the village. There are many swamps and ponds in and around the Padamati village.
The climate of this part of North Bengal is hot and oppressive in summer season, heavy rain and
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 3 moisture is found in air while during winter, temperatures may drop rapidly. With the onset of the monsoon, the Teesta river often causes flood in the villages.
The cold season starts after mid-November and the temperatures drop rapidly. January is the coolest month with the average daily minimum temperature at 10.3ºc while the mean daily maximum temperature stands at 23.8ºc.
The present study area is characterised by different types of vegetation. The vegetation belong to monsoon deciduous type.
Database and Methodology
The present study is mostly based on primary data generated through author’s field survey and direct contact with staff of the concerned Gram panchayet office and the villagers of the area. The field surveys were conducted in a systematic manner in two phases. In the first phase the secondary data for the present study were collected from Padamati Gram Panchayet office and Mayna guri Block Development Office from 10 to 12 May, 2015.
The second phase was related to the collection of primary data. To collect data on general information about the environment and the public health of the area schedule surveys were conducted. A total of 50households were surveyed in the village on 15thto 16thMay, 2015.
However all these collected primary and secondary data were later on systematically processed, arranged, tabulated and analyzed to have a clear view of the environmental scenario of the area. Certain cartographic methods have been adopted to make data easily understandable in the present work with statistical records.
Living Environment and Health
The living environment of an organism includes all the living things that can affect its survival. According to National Institute for Health and Welfare (THL, 2015) living environment includes the damp damage, indoor air, community air (e.g. traffic, wood smoke), environmental noise, extreme temperatures, and quality residential environments. On the other hand, health is the level of functional or metabolic efficiency of a living organism. In humans, it is the ability of individuals or communities to adapt and self-manage when facing physical, mental or social
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 4 challenges. The World Health Organization (WHO) defined health in its broader sense in its 1948 constitution as "a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity."
Generally, the context in which an individual lives is of great importance for both his health status and quality of their life. It is increasingly recognized that health is maintained and improved not only through the advancement and application of health science, but also through the environment where he or she lives. According to the World Health Organization, the main determinants of health include the social and economic environment, the physical environment, and the person's individual characteristics and behaviours.
More specifically, key factors that have been found to influence whether people are healthy or unhealthy include the following:
Income and social status Social support networks Education and literacy Employment/working conditions Social environments Physical environments
Personal health practices and coping skills Healthy child development Biology and genetics Health care services Gender Culture
Among these factors, living environment including physical, social and economic environment play an important role in human health. The present study is an outcome of this issue.
Analysis of the Study
Based on the above mentioned geographical, social and economical backgrounds the following information on the environment vs health have been gathered by the author through the field survey:
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 5
Sources of Drinking Water
The field survey carried out by the author reveals that most of the villagers use tap as their main source of drinking water. Of the total population of the village, 67% people use tap (Fig-1). On the other hand the percentage of people using well as their source of drinking water is 33 %. Thus it is found that most of the people of the village are using drinking water from the tap.
80 100 P 70 P E 60 E 80 R 50 R 60 C 40 C E 30 E 40 20 N N 20 10 T T 0 0 … … Well Tap YES NO
Fig-1 : Sources of Drinking water at Padamati villageFig- 2 : Percentage of people having Sunlight access
Number of Rooms
From the survey it is known that the percentage of people having 2 to 4 rooms in the village is 26%. On the other hand the percentage of people having less than 2 rooms is only 74%. Therefore it is clear that the living condition of the most of the people of the area is not environmentally sound.
Sunlight Access
The household survey shows that the percentage of houses having sufficient sunlight access in the village is 81%. On the other hand 19% people do not have such sunlight access (Fig.-2).
Ventilation
The survey also reveals that the air circulation system of the houses in the village is moderate. Out of the total houses the percentage of houses having good ventilation is 73% while the houses
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 6 having poor ventilation system is 27%. So from the survey it is clear that all houses of the village do not have sufficient ventilation system.
No. of Persons Living in Rooms
The survey reflects that out of the total population of the village 63% people are living in two rooms only. The percentage of people living in two to four rooms is 37%. Thus the survey shows that the required rooms per person are less in the village. There should have more rooms for living per person.
Separate Kitchen
The survey shows that the percentage of people having separate kitchen of the area is 71%. On the other hand 29% people of the area do not have any separate kitchen (Fig-3). Hence some people have to suffer from smoky problem.
NO YES
0 50 100 PERCENTAGE
Fig-3: Percentage of people using separate kitchen at Padamati village
Domestic Fuel Used
The household survey reveals that 72% people of the village use wood as their fuel. Only 28% people use gas in their cooking purpose. So the smoky environment affects most of the women of the area. Deforestation also prevails in and around the area since villagers use wood as their cooking fuel.
Sewage System
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 7
From the survey of sewage system it has been noticed that 74% villagers have proper sewage system while 26% people do not have such facilities.
Sanitary System
From the survey it has also been revealed that the percentage of people having good sanitary system in the village is 81%. The rest 19% people do not have such facilities. Therefore these people are vulnerable to many infectious diseases.
Greenery in the House Area
The survey shows that the percentage of people having greenery in the house is 81%. The 19% people do not have proper vegetation cover in their house.
Fig-4: Percentage of people having respiratory diseases at Padamati village
Persons having respiratory diseases
From the house hold survey it has been noticed that the percentage of people having respiratory problems is 16% (Fig-4). Insufficient ventilation system of the house, lack of proper sanitary system, living in a congested room and other health problems etc. are responsible for such disease.
Key Findings
The area is economically lagged behind and the level of education is also not satisfactory. These two factors along with the existing environment have directly or indirectly influenced the health of the villagers.All houses of the village do not have proper ventilation system and sunlight access. All villagers do not have also proper sanitary system. Due to poor rural economic condition rural folk cannot construct environment friendly houses. Insufficient ventilation system of the house, lack of proper sanitary system, living in a congested room etc. are responsible for
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 8 the respiratory disease in the village. Again the lack of consciousness among the villagers about the sewage and sanitary system also creates hinder to take proper health protection measures. Women are victimized environmentally much in the village than the male. Most of the women use wood as their cooking fuel. It creates a smoky environment in the kitchen that affects the respiratory problems.
Remedial Measures
People living below the poverty level in the area should be provided houses by Indira Awas Yojana. Gram Panchayet and the Block Development Office can take a vital role in this case. Proper attention should be paid to the development of infrastructures of the village i.e sewage, sanitary systems and setting up of Sishu Siksha Kendra, Madhyamik Siksha Kendra and other educational set up. Regular health awareness programmes are to be carried out by the Gram panchayet.
Conclusion
At present it is very necessary to take proper steps to eradicate the health problems. In this case Gram panchayet can play a dominant role. Apart from the above mentioned remedial measures Gram panchayet should come forward to set up agro based small industries in the village to uplift the poor economic scenario. In this case priority must be given to the self help groups. If the people are economically benefited the health problems caused by environment will be minimized.
Bibliography& References
Chanda, B.K. (2006).Environmental Studies.Part-I, Paper III, Directorate of Distance Education, Rabindra Bharati University, p. 55-60.
Gov. of India (2006). District Statistical Handbook, Jalpaiguri 2006.
Ghosh, A.K et al (2008). ‘Status of Environment of West Bengal- A Citizen’ s Report.’ Endev- Society for environment and development, p. 23-74.
Park, C.C(1980).Ecology and Environment Management, Butterworths: London,p.28.
Khullar, D.R. (2008). ‘India- A Comprehensive Geography’. Kalyani Publishers: New Delhi.
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 9
Tiwari, R.C. (2007). Geography of India, Prayag Pustak Bhawan: Allhabad.
Manoharachary, C. & Reddy, P. (2006). Principles of Environmental Studies.BS Publications: Hyderabad.
Nambiar Report of National Institute for Health and Welfare (THL, 2015). Helsinki, Finland.
WHO (1946).World Health Organization, Preamble to the Constitution of the World Health Organization as adopted by the International Health Conference, New York, 19–22 June 1946; signed on 22 July 1946 by the representatives of 61 States (Official Records of the World Health Organization, no. 2, p. 100) and entered into force on 7 April 1948. In Grad, Frank P. (2002)."The Preamble of the Constitution of the World Health Organization". Bulletin of the World Health Organization 80 (12): 982.
The Status of Child Labour in Kolkata: An Overview Dr.Krishnakali Roy Assistant Professor in Geography Birpara College Birpara, Alipurduar Email: [email protected]
Abstract: The practice of employing children in work on a full time or part time basis for earning is a curse for the society. This causes great harm to the society and civilisation. The child is deprived from child-education, games and other normal activities which are essential for the mental-social development. The Childhood is destroyed with this system. This leads to the social deprivation of the country and community. Child labour is a common phenomenon in Kolkata in different sectors like in motor-mechanics, garage, tea-stall, hotels, leather factory, stitching, printing, binding, house help, etc. Huge number of children is involved in rag-picking and garbage disposal. The maximum number of child labour resides in slum and squatters of Kolkata. The child labour is unlawful but is a common characteristic of the modern society. The major reason behind this is lack of education and poverty. This paper highlights the status and characteristics of child labour in Kolkata. The reason behind the child labour is also to be emphasised. Key Words: Child labour, Kolkata, Childhood, Poverty, Child-education, Awareness.
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 10
Introduction
The child labour is an important problem for many decades. Child labour has been a national and international crisis because it dangerously destroys the future of the children. Recently the International Labour Organization (ILO, 2013) estimated there are around 215 million children between the ages five to fourteen who work worldwide. They are often mistreated and work for prolonged hours, in very bad conditions. This can affects the child physically, mentally and emotionally. The child labour effects the total childhood of many generations. These children do not have the basic rights like access to school or health care. The use of child labour is very prevalence in India and the cause is deep rooted with poverty. UNICEF India has estimated 28 million children aged five to fourteen involved in work (UNICEF, 2011). With time till date the number child labour have increased to great extent. This effects the total all round development of the child. There are several factors that force children to work such as inadequate economic growth, poverty, unemployment over population and lack of education and health care (Ahmad, 2012).
The Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986 prohibits the child employment. The law states that it is illegal to employ a child below 14 years. But we find child labour in all sectors of economy.
The child labour is a common feature of Kolkata. This paper highlights the status and characteristics of child labour in Kolkata. The reason behind the child labour is also to be emphasised.
Study area
The present study is mainly concerned with the prevalence of child labour in Kolkata Metropolis. The capital city Kolkata being a business centre attracts a huge number of population. Migration and commutation from rural areas in search of work is very common here. The incidence of child labour is a general feature of the city. A large number of child labour comes from rural areas may be as commuters or with becomes the inhabitant of the city. Therefore, the study will not
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 11 only reveal the conditions of child labour in Kolkata but will also give an idea about the socio- economic conditions of the surrounding areas.
Methodology General observation Field survey in selective Slums Interview with slum children, Street Children Interview with some Households, School teachers situated nearby the slum area Interview with some social workers and NGOs
Objectives
To gain an understanding about the extent of child labour in Kolkata To identify the types and varieties of child labour in Kolkata To understand the root cause behind the child labour and reasons behind their Involvement To highlight the loss of childhood To determine the impact of child labour on education To highlight the phenomenon of child labour beyond Kolkata in its surroundings
Causes Poverty is a major cause behind the child labour. The child labour is a common phenomenon which has a positive relationship with poverty. They don’t have food therefore huge number of children is engaged as labourer to earn some money for their family. Studies have demonstrated that the most notable reason being poverty (Bhat & Rather, 2009). The parents send children to work because of their low income. Poverty is the root cause behind child labour. Family size is an important factor and poor households usually have more children involved in child labour than children from smaller households, which demonstrates family size have a positive impact on child labour. The income of the child labour is very important in maintaining the household or even the survival of the household and own. Most of the families have no idea about family planning resulting in large number of children. Gender biasness Among the girls and boys the girls are much more likely to be out of the school and working as domestic help. The poor parents are not able to educate both male and female child they usually educate their male child. The girl child therefore becomes a child
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 12 labour. The domestic help is very common from the slums of Kolkata. The girl child accompanies her mother during her work as domestic help and earns living through the work. Education In certain areas education is not easily available and costly therefore huge numbers of children become school dropouts. Lack of awareness Different cultures of many families forces the children to work at very young age which are related to traditions. The parent forces their children to learn skills that can be good for their future. This is a very common feature in the lathe shops, garages, cycle/ motor cycle / motor repairing shops, tea stalls, hotels, factories, etc. where we find a number of child labour. The root cause behind the child labour is poverty and without eradicating poverty the child labour cannot be abolished.
Child labour in different Sectors
The survey and general observations shows that child labour is found in various sectors of Kolkata.
Road side tea stalls Hotels, Dhabas, Motels, Restaurants, food shops, etc. Tailoring and stitching shops Garage Lathe industry Cycle/ motor cycle / motor repairing shops Big and small factories Girl children have to act as maid servants and baby-seater. They are engaged in washing cleaning of clothes. Fireworks, match stick and incense industries which have unsafe environment Garbage cleaners Hawkers Porters in railway station area Beggars Book Binding Street circus There are number of laws which prohibit child labour but most are flouted and not obeyed. The boys or girls take up a small job as domestic help in restaurant against very nominal wages or sometime only for food. In most of the small scale industries child labour works in an unsafe and
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 13 unhealthy environment not even suitable for adults. The garage industries of Kolkata employ huge number of child labour and they literally work in danger. Huge number of rag pickers is found in North Kolkata mainly in Marques Square area very near to sealdah station. The life of the rag pickers is deplorable. During begging or singing in vehicles for some money the girl child is accompanied by the mother and the male child is with the father or other male.
The child has no time for primary education and secondary education. The child remains completely illiterate and unskilled. The health and hygiene of the child is also affected. The child grows up as unskilled labour and his future is doomed. Hence in his own benefit and interest no child should be engaged as labour both from legal point of view as well as for the child’s future.
Impact
The division between work and labour however is difficult to draw. Some time it is a difficult task to detect whether the child is working or is undergoing some training which may help him in his future. For example in some cases the young mechanic opens a new Cycle/ motor cycle / motor repairing shop who was previously working in another Cycle/ motor cycle / motor repairing shop as child labour. The role of child labour on the education is complex. There is a negative side as well a positive side. The working children provide funds that go directly towards his/ her educational costs. Wages are also positive for family expenditures. The child has less time for education. The school timetable clashes with work schedule and as a result the child misses his/her school to earn the livelihood. The child labour faces mental and physical hazards. The child hood is lost and the child finds no time for relaxation, access to friends etc. The child- marriage has its root in child labour. The girl child is forced for early marriage by her parents for security reasons as they cannot leave the child for work in faraway places.
Findings and Suggestions
The role of midday meal is immense in eradicating child labour from most of the sectors of the economy. In most cases the parents send their child mainly for getting some food and education is secondary to them. Therefore, not only midday meal but also facilities for lodging and total fooding are essential for poor children. The hostel education can decrease the menace of child labour. The BPL families should be covered totally by the rationing system. The awareness about
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 14
the family planning is essential. The rehabilitation centre for the child labour should be established in large number to provide them the lost childhood.
Conclusion
The poverty is the main reason behind the child labour. The laws will not eliminate or reduce child labour until and unless poverty is not eradicated. If child labour is restricted forcefully without taking care of the child labour it will result in corruption, drug addiction and finally will head towards a condition that may led to death.
References
Ahmad, Ayaz (2012) Poverty, Education and Child Labour in Aligarh City-India. Stud Home Com Sci. pp. 165-172. Bhat BA and Rather TA, (2009). Child labour in the handicrafts home industry in Kashmir: A sociological study, Int NGO J,4 (9). 391-400. International Labour Organization, (2013). World Report on Child Labour Economic vulnerability, social protection and the fight against child labour. Geneva. United Nations Children’s Fund (2011) The Situation of Children in India.
CHAMAR: A NEGLECTED COMMUNITY OF WEST BENGAL
Binoy Rabidas Assistant Professor, Dept. of Political Science, Balurghat College, Dakshin Dinajpur, West Bengal, India.
Abstract
In the age of modern civilization there is a common consensus on the matter of non-existence of casteism, variation of highness and lowness based on the ritual purity, untouchability, differentiation between clean and unclean occupations associated with particular caste consideration etc. But this consensus is nothing more than a bookish approach and lip-services of the policy makers and unscrupulous politicians especially in a country like India which has been recognized a practicising ground of social hierarchy in the form of castes, sub-castes on the basis
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 15 of cultural superiority, religious expression, facts and feasts, traditional occupations etc. since last several centuries. India being a land of castes, creed and religion, these may vary in standing from one region to another or even within the same region. For instance, the State like Bihar of India with high percentage of Chamar and such other unclean and untouchable ‘Bihari’ inhabitants is neglected by the anti-Bihari segments of other States. Similarly, within a particular State the so called unclean untouchable minority Chamar castes people is neglected by the upper castes people. For example, in West Bengal , the ‘Bangalees’ ( Bengali speaking people) considered the minority underprivileged Chamar castes people as unclean and untouchable even today. Therefore, it should be pointed out that division of population in respect of caste, creed and religious consideration is still persist in the mind of upper castes people more particularly in the upper castes Hindu. Development of education, science and technology etc. has no doubt played significant role in combating the worst nature of negligence towards these outcaste population not only in India but across the globe. But despised communities like Chamars still suffers of social evil like untouchability despite the Untouchability (Offences) Act, 1955 has passed by the Government of India against this social injustice. It should also be noted that the Chamar community in West Bengal on account of their special circumstances are subject to both social and economic disabilities for which they almost compelled to engaged themselves in unclean and degrading occupations like pilling off the hide of dead animals, mending shoes of general public etc. which are not very remunerative and entail risks in matters of health and sanitation. Socially, the Chamar community in West Bengal dehumanized by caste hatred of upper castes Hindus comprising the Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Baisyas and even by the touchable Bengali speaking Shudras. Policy of reservation by the constitution of India has brought no fruits for these despised communities of people due to caste-based reservation. Due to socio-economic and linguistic problems the Chamars of this State suffers educationally backwardness also.
Key words: Untouchability, Unscrupulous, Despised, Underprivilege, Dehumanization, Jalachal, Chamari Acharan, Bangalee.
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Introduction:
Chamar, the devotees of Jagat Guru Sant Rabidasji are subject to both social and economic disabilities. In West Bengal they existed in the capacity of a minority ethnic group. The Hindu Bangalees (Bengali speaking population) are the dominant majority inhabitants of this State. The castes system of Hindu society of India sharply divided the entire Hindu population into two-tier, namely, upper caste, consisting of Brahmin, Kshatriya and Voisya and lower caste, consisting of ‘Shudra’. Generally, the Shudras were collectively called ‘untouchable’ means the water touched by the Shudras not accepted by the upper caste Hindu population (Jalachal). Ambedkar throughout his life fought for emancipation of these lower and neglected segments of ‘untouchables’ and installing them on the pedestal of dignity and self-respect in the platform of Indian socio-economic life. But it is very unfortunate that even the lower caste Shudras divided into two sharp compartment-‘touchable’ and ‘untouchable’. The condition of the untouchable lower castes people is more deplorable in some regions of India in comparison with the touchable lower castes groups. For instance, in West Bengal the ‘Namashudras’, ‘Rajbanshis’ are considered themselves as touchable lower castes Shudras whereas the people belonging to the Chamar community comprising several endogamous caste groups within this community such as-‘Muchi’, ‘Rishi’, ‘Ram’, ‘Ruhidas’, ‘Harijan’, ‘Rabidas’ etc.have been treated as untouchable lower castes. The Chamar people in West Bengal are being the lowest of the low untouchable backward communities, hated by both upper castes Hindu comprising Brahmins, Kshatriyas, and Voisyas and lower castes touchable Bengali speaking (Bangalees) Shudras. Not onle that even the Bengali speaking minority Muslims often used to neglect the Chamars on account of their special circumstances and therefore, dehumanizes these categories of people severely. Naturally, this caste hatred kills moral and sterilize the spinal chord of the self or ego of the people of Chamar community and thereby gets introvert with their inferiority complex. This division of people based on caste in a society in West Bengal, purely based on the principle of graded inequality, which means elevation of some and degradation for others.
The several caste groups within the Chamar community have been declared as Scheduled Castes, here after (SCs) by the department of Backward Class Welfare, Government of West Bengal, under the special provisions of the constitution of India for the upliftment of the
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 17 underprivileged sections into the mainstream. In the list of SCs population of West Bengal the Chamar community on account of their special circumstances is subject to both social and economic disabilities and hence occupies the lowest rank among the other listed SCs. In respect of customs, culture, ritual activities, language, mode of earnings etc. the Chamar population is quite different and regarded as the poorest of the poor from the rest of the SCs. A great majority of this Chamar population associated with certain traditional habits such as eating beef and other forbidden food and in some cases eating carrion. That is why, in fact, these categories of people are often hatred by the higher castes Hindus as unclean and loathsome. Besides, a great majority of these populations are leather workers and engaged themselves in several degradable occupations such as mending shoes at the footpaths, pilling off the hide of dead animals like cow, buffalo, and sheep etc. for the purpose to maintain their livelihood. They do so because of severe poverty and also due to the fact that they are the victims of untouchability. Socially, economically, culturally, educationally the Chamar castes people are very backward in West Bengal in comparison with other States more particularly where the people of this community occupy large caste-aggregates.
Major areas of Negligence: We have already mentioned that the Chamar is the most neglected community of West Bengal in India. Therefore, a few basic areas of their negligence need to be pointed out as follows:
Hatred for lowest cultural identity: India is a land of multi-religion, multi-culture, and multi-language. Unity in diversity is the unique feature of Indian civilization. India has no religion, culture of its own; rather it is enriched with the affinity and amulgation of different religions and cultures of different segments of population. In each segments or endogamous caste groups has its own culture and affixed with their own traditional customs, and ritual activities. Keeping in mind this unique feature of Indian civilization the culture and cultural activities of all its castes groups should be given due respect irrespective of highness and lowness degree or quality of cultural elements of different castes groups. It does not mean that there is no respect of culture of different castes in throughout India. But it is very much absent in West Bengal where the traditional cultural activities of the Chamar community are demoralized by the dominant Bangalees. The Bangalees are often used the term
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‘Muchi Culture’, ‘Chamari Acharan’ (mean minded behavior) etc. as means of hatred the traditional culture of these minority ethnic group. As a result of that a great majority of Chamar families have changes the culture of their own by choice and engaged themselves in observing the’ Bengal’ culture which is recognized as- ‘Bangaleer Shrestha Sanskriti’. (superior culture of Bangalees as per their own perception). This tendency of Bengalinisation of the Chamar’s peoples culture itself becomes a matter of joke for the local Bangalees. This type of negligence towards the cultural identity of the Chamars defiantly makes these people oppressed and suppressed. Of course, there are good number of well wishers in the Bangalees who encourages the Chamars and such other lower castes minority ethnic groups to observe and keep continued their own cultural characteristics.
Negligence towards education: The illiteracy rate is very high in this community. Lacks of awareness, language problems, severe poverty etc. are the major cause of their educational backwardness. Language is the key factor for their educational backwardness. Bengali is the predominant language of West Bengal since Bangalees are the dominant inhabitants here in this State. The ‘Bangla’ is their mother tongue. On the other hand, Hindi is the auxiliary language for the Chamar community. Because their mother tongue is Bhojpuri and they are also very swift to speak in Hindi, the national language of India. But in West Bengal there is little scope and opportunity to receive education through Hindi medium primary and secondary educational institutions. Because there found no Hindi medium schools in most of the villages and sub-divisional towns in this State. In these circumstances the learners of Chamar community are almost compelled to take admission in the Bengali (Bangla) medium schools. It is to be noted that the Bangalees (not all, but many) are often disregard the language of the Chamar community. That is why, in fact, a great majority of the Chamar community’s children have not shown their interest to go to the Bengali medium schools for education and therefore, remained uneducated.
Negligence being lower caste identity: Due to caste hatred a good number of Chamar castes people have changed their surnames such as- ‘Rabidas’ into ‘Das’ to suppress their actural caste identity. This caste conversion tendency is now become a regular practice here in West Bengal. This tendency is very much
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 19 found in the educated Chamar castes families. As a result of that the educated and established human resources of this community is missing day by day. That is why the status of this community is degrading in this region. It is important to note that ‘Das’ is the surname of the touchable lower caste ‘Namashudra’ – a sub-caste of the lowest tier of the Hindu castes system which is recognized as ‘Shudra’. It is irony of the fact that once a Chamar people changed or converted his own previous caste identity, starts to criticize the down-trodden Chamar castes in numerous ways. They forget that they were also hated by the Namashudras.
Negligence towards women: In West Bengal the conditions of the Chamar castes woman is very miserable. They are the severe victims of illiteracy and child marriage. The customto which the women of this community are associated is often hated by the Bangalees. For instance, many Bangalees reproach the pattern of wearing sarees of the Chamar castes women. As a result of that the women of this community prefers to confine themselves within the boundaries of their own houses. Those who wanted to assimilate themselves with the Bangalee women used to start changing to pattern of wearing sarees of their own custom and like to go for Bangalee pattern.
Negligence in affirmative actions due to caste-based reservation: Due to caste-based policy of reservation, the people belongs to the Chamar community is categorized as Scheduled Castes(SCs). In the list of SCs population in West Bengal the Chamars on account of their special circumstances are subject to both economic and social disabilities and hence they occupy the lowest rank among the other listed SCs. Population. The little educated people of this community always failed to compete with the comparatively better-off SCs people for favor of Governmental jobs and therefore, have relegated to dirty or menial occupations. The Bengali speaking SCs often used to say in the tune of Mahatma Gandhi that the Chamars are the son of God and therefore, they are automatically entitled to get governmental jobs easily. But in real practice it does not happened so. The Chamars are also required to take part in the same type of competition with the other comparatively better-off SCs people for getting jobs. Hence these categories of people remained very much neglected due to caste-based reservation policy.
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Conclusion: We can conclude the present paper in the tune of Dr. Munshilal Gautam. According to him the castes which carry out menial work do not have any place of respect in the eyes of socially well placed castes. Their position is like an illegitimate child and that of prostitutes. The child of a prostitute or an illegitimate child will sink in his body and mind the moment you ask about his father. Similarly, a person belonging to the low caste gets sunk mentally and bodily the moment you ask his caste. The conditions of Chamar community of West Bengal is almost same and therefore treated as a most despised community and the people of this community remained socially, economically, culturally, educationally backward, oppressed and suppressed. In order to create a healthy societal developmental atmosphere here in West Bengal and such other States of India it is the need of the hour to bring these categories and such other underprivileged communities from a state of ‘dehumanization’ into one of equality through the use of modern methods based on education and the exercise of legal and political rights. References: Chouhan, Brij Raj, (1969). Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. Economic and Political Weekly, 4: 257-263. Gautam, Munshilal. Babusaheb Rajbhoj - in Search of Buddhist Identity. Siddharth Gautam Shikshan and Sanskriti Samiti, Dhansari, Aligarh (U.P.) Galanter, Marc, (1984). Competing Equalities.Oxford University Press. Delhi. Gurumurthy,U. (1987). Panchayati Raj And The Weaker Sections. Ashish Publishing House. New Delhi. Mahar, J. Michael (ed), (1972). The Untouchables in Contemporary India.The University of Arizona Press, Tucson, Arizona. Murugaraja, S. (2008).Is Democracy A Joke With Caste-Based Reservation?Competition Success Review, April. 2008. Rabidas, Binoy (2015). “Relevance of Caste Based Reservation with special Reference to Chamar Community of West Bengal”. In Jitendra Sahoo(ed) book, India’s Consititutional Development Since The 1950’s Its Socio-Political and Economic Dimensions. New Academic Publishers, New Delhi.
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WOMEN MOVEMENTS IN MANIPUR (INDIA): ANALYZING GENESIS, MOTIVE AND OBSTRUCTION
Ananya Guha Roy Assistant Professor, Dept. Of Political Science Saheed Kshudiram College, Kamakhyaguri
Abstract
Purpose - In this paper, I want to focus some lights on the women’s protest that happened in the extreme north-eastern part of our country i.e. in Manipur.
Methodology - The present paper is solely based on secondary sources of data. The study would be based on content-analysis.
Findings - By enacting and literalizing their protests, they actually forced the state to gaze upon the consequences of its actions on its own citizens, to recognize the farce of its liberal democracy.
Implication- It was around the 1970’s that the contemporary women’s movement began to be more radical and active, especially against the Indian state who for a time declared a state of emergency which led to the repression of all political and progressive groups, not just women. This repression led to a fight back by women’s organizations which enormously increased their scope and power.
Practical Implications - By exposing the nation’s defenders as perpetrators of crimes on its own women, they questioned the basic ideas of citizenship, democracy the role of nation-state. The women did not just plead for a removal of AFSPA, rather they demanded that the state recognized their humanity and only through such recognition peace talks on equitable terms and sustainable as well as democratic development are possible. This paper will draw the attention of the Government so that proper steps can be taken in this regard.
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Value – This paperhighlights thegenesis, motive and obstruction of women in Manipur. Through this paper, everyone will know the actual scenario of women in Manipur where the human rights have been violated and women are the victims everywhere in Manipur.
Key Words - Democratic development,Fight back,Liberal democracy, Manipur, Women’s protest.
Introduction
“I am here to stand up for their rights, raise their voice...... it is not time to pity them. It is the time to take action...... ” – Malala Yousoufzai, the youngest ‘Nobel Laureate’.
It was around the 1970’s that the contemporary women’s movement began to be more radical and active, especially against the Indian state who for a time declared a state of emergency which led to the repression of all political and progressive groups, not just women.This repression led to a fight back by women’s organizations which enormously increased their scope and power. Today, issues are fought over a large spectrum of issues including; union rights, abusive partners, the rights of ‘dalit’ women (the lowest caste in the Hindu religion), worker’s rights, sexual assault and much more. (Ray, 1999).It is not just left-wing and progressive causes that are fought over by women, but right-wing issues too.
Protest by women in India against oppressive conditions comes in many forms. Today the women’s movement ‘exists in a highly decentralized form with hundreds of organizations in both urban and rural areas throughout the country’. This description furthers our claim the wide breadth that movement encompasses. How do we define what is part of the Indian women’s movement? As Jeffrey points out, female resistance to oppression can be found in several places and in varied forms; the excessive salting of meals, the singing of songs to remember injustices and comfort others, derision of husbands to friends and family behind his back, etc. (Jeffrey and Basu, 1998). These protests may seem trivial but they show the Indian women to be far from the compliant, ignorant person that she is often painted as in the west.
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Review of Literature
Desai (1996) shows us that the Indian women’s movement has become more affective by distinguishing between national and local level organisation. Through autonomous, flexible and informal structures and collective types of organisations the Indian women’s movement has been able to achieve in both political and cultural spheres: National organisation and collective work with other groups to achieve political goals and local successes through initiating collective responsibility in cultural matters. Desai points out that the flexibility of women’s groups has enabled more successes and is being copied internationally. This dispels the notion that gains can only come nationally through bureaucratic structures, the Indian women’s movement has shown that through cooperation and consensus building great successes can be achieved (Desai, 1996).
This is supported by Bush (1992) in his study of the Indian states in response to and dealings with issues of domestic violence. When the state recast the problem of violence as a social issue it had the affect of providing protection against violence but there was no actual empowerment. This led to superficial successes. This study points out that the institutionalisation of women’s movements may lead to diminished effectiveness. Therefore, the more open, autonomous form of organisation can be more beneficial to the Indian women’s movement. Whilst Ray (1999) insists that no women organisation can have complete autonomy in their field of operation, their history, etc. So, we can say that these groups have a large degree of autonomy concerning outside political influence, thus showing the large amount of groups operating in a protest field.
Objectives
In this paper, it is intended to focus on the women’s protest that happened in the extreme north- eastern part of our country i.e. in Manipur. The small north-eastern state – burdened by violent insurgencies and the resulting military presence – is known for its strong women. It is home to the national sports hero Mary Kom, the five times World Boxing Champion. It is also a home to Meira Paibi or Women Torch-bearers, which has been known for its effective campaign against alcohol, drug addiction and human rights violations.
The major objectives of the study are as follows:
1. To showcase the economic, social and cultural background of the region and the women under study;
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2. To explore the political reason behind the emergence of those protests;
3. To highlight the exact nature of those protests;
4. To realise the obstacles that have come as threat before those protests as well as the women.
Research Questions
1. What are theeconomic, social and cultural background of the region and the women under study?
2. What was the political reason behind the emergence of those protests?
3. What was the exact nature of those protests?
4. What types of obstacles were faced by the women during the time of protest?
Limitations
The study is based on only secondary sources of data. In the study, only one state has been taken into consideration but in reality all the north-eastern states are facing the same problem. In all parts of this region, human rights have been violated but the state is silent. Due to time constraint, all states have not been taken in my study.
Methodology
The present paper is solely based on secondary sources of data. The study would be based on content-analysis. Different journals, periodicals and websites will be considered to highlight the exact scenario of women’s protest. The study will cover the National, State and Regional newspaper as sources of data.
Discussion
NUPI LAN :Ima Keithel, the women market of Manipur, is situated at the central of Imphal town. The power of the women market of Manipur was demonstrated on various occasions. In 1904, thousands of ladies demonstrated in the town to protest and disobey the order of the Superintendent that public should supply bamboo; cane, etc. to construct the houses of Assistant Superintendent which was burnt at night. In the year 1939, amidst the World War II, Manipur
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 25 witnessed a great mass movement against the colonial federal authorities of the state. The movement, which was carried solely by womenfolk, was popularly known in the history of Manipur as the Nupi Lan or women’s agitation. Thus the movement is a particular kind of women’s movement, which challenged the colonial policy of the British.
The deep-rooted cause of the movement, according to various writers was directly related to the newly developed socio-economic and political condition in the state immediately after British occupied Manipur. Another factor was the economic exploitation by the feudal authority like Maharaja aided and abetted by the intrigues of a section of colonial exploiters. The new socio- economic and political system introduced by British caused a widespread dissatisfaction among the people of Manipur. With the help of Marwari (traders from mainland India) coupled with the introduction of motor vehicular transportation and rice mills, Britishers began to export rice in large quantity from the state and supplied it to different army battalions at Kohima, Lakhimpur, Aizawl, Lokra, Darrang and Itanagar and also at some civil areas of Assam. Gradually they established their monopoly over the trade and the quantity of export of rice was increased for every year, from 36,436 maunds in 1898-99 to 1, 55,014 maunds in the year 1925-26. The new economic trend provided a negative impact to the womenfolk who play important role in the economic life of the state. As a result the women grain dealers were not able to carry out their usual trade, and at the same time common people also could not get rice from the market. Consequently, the women, particularly the grain dealers and paddy huskers, were deprived of their means of livelihood. With the installation of rice mills, most of the female who were rice dealers and working in the traditional rice industries, lost their jobs. Their number had suddenly declined from 1,171 in 1921 to 249 in 1931 (Singh, 1992).
The immediate cause of the movement was the serious damage of the standing paddy crops by the excessive rain during July-August, 1939. The cause was the sudden rise of the price of rice, non-availability of rice in the market, monopoly of trade by the Marwari’s and consequently resulting in the deprivation of women from their right to rice trade.
The actual outbreak of the movement occurred on December 12, 1939. On this day thousands of women from market gathered around Durban (highest Manipuri original, appellate of rice) from the state. They shouted slogans: ‘Stop the export of rice immediately’, ‘Stop running of rice mills’, etc. Instead of convincing the women, the authorities decided to take up some repressive
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 26 measures against the women. They became aggressive and turned their attention towards mill owners. They destroyed some of the mills for violating the agreement that the mill owners would not run their mill further.
They decided to boycott the market (bazar). It became a matter of concern to the authorities since the economy of the state would suffer if women refused to cooperate. The strategy of ‘Bazar Boycott’ was the most forceful action. To tackle the uncontrollable situation, the British authorities decided to use repressive measures against the leaders. Four of the important women leaders were arrested in January, 1940 and were sent to jail. They still continued boycotting. This was the end of 1940 when Imphal was hit by the World War II.
It was a great landmark in the history of Manipur. Although the movement was launched by the womenfolk, it brought forth a constitution and administrative reform in the region. The boycott of the market certainly convinced the state authorities that the women of Manipur could take up any form of agitation once they were fully convinced of their goal. This was apparent from how the colonial authorities during those days regarded the outbreak as the most important event of the year 1939.
NUDE PROTEST: At 3.30 am on 11 July 2004 in Bamon Kampu, Imphal East District in the northeastern state of Manipur, three members of the Indian National Army stormed the house of 32-year-old Thangjam Manorama Devi. They beat her up along with her relatives and her elderly Mother. Havildar Suresh Kumar, an army man, signed a memo stating that he was arresting Manorama for being ‘a suspected insurgent, explosives expert and hard-core member’ of the banned People’s Liberation Army (PLA). The memo also stated that no incriminating evidence had been found in her house or on her person. The army men told the family that Manorama would be handed over to the Irilbung police in the morning. Less than three hours later, Manorama’s lifeless body was discovered four kilometres from her house with torn clothes and bearing scratch marks all over, a wound on her thigh, probably inflicted by a knife, and bullet wounds on her back, upper buttock and vagina. One of her nipples had been plucked off (Human
Rights Watch, 2008).
Police cremated the body as an unclaimed corpse though her relatives were there to perform her last rites. According to her family members, a post-mortem examination was conducted ignoring
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Human Rights Commission’s guidelines. The Sector Assam Rifles, the paramilitary forces of the Indian Army that had arrested Manorama, declared her to be a People’s Liberation Army (PLA) member who had been shot dead while trying to flee from their custody (UN Report, 2007).
Contradicting the earlier memo that had asserted that no incriminating evidence had been found in her house or on her person, a spokesperson for the army claimed that Manorama had a hand grenade and a wireless set (Sapam, 2010). After that, general mass agitation was erupted throughout Manipur. Students’ and women’s organisations called a general strike for three days. Following this event, when government imposed curfew, people, denying it fought the Manipuri Police, Indian Reserve Battalion and the Central Reserve Police Force on the streets. The most unique protest was done by a group of middle-aged women of Meira Paibi. They had shocked the nation with their nude protest in front of the Western gate of the iconic Kangla fort in Imphal.
In an unprecedented move, the women took off their clothes. Facing the fort gates, they shouted challenges to the Indian army. They carried a banner reading ‘Indian Army rape us, Indian Army take our flesh’. Over 50 women from different women’s organisations in Manipur supported the protest. As 12 naked women marched towards the Kangla gate, they shouted: ‘You dogs of Assam Rifles! Come rape us like you raped Manorama!’ They screamed, ‘We are mothers of Manorama. Come satisfy your lust. Play on our bodies. Eat our flesh. Come, Indian Army’ (Sapam, 2008).
The mothers took this step out of desperation. “We had sat on ‘dharna’, taken to the streets crying ourselves hoarse. Yet, there was no result. It was time for a last stand, to do something that had never been done before,” recalls Keisham Taruni, President of Nupi Samaj. Thokchom Ramani, secretary of Nupi Samaj, narrates, “That day we prayed to the gods, decided to go on a fast and came out ready to die. We came out so that Manorama’s fate did not befall others.” The decision for this drastic measure was taken jointly. “What use were our clothes? Since the AFSPA had been imposed in 1980, they had killed us, raped us indiscriminately. It was as if we did not cover ourselves. So we said, fine, take our clothes, we will fight you naked. Come out if you have the strength/courage,” says Laishram Gyaneshori, of Apunba Manipur Kanba Ima Lup (AMKIL), another women’s group that was part of the protest (Anjulika, 2010).
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Ima Lourembam Nganbi, vice president of AMKIL, who has been in and out of jail often, continues, “We gathered at the gate, spread out the banners, and then swiftly threw away our clothes. We could not hear or see anything else except our furious voices. We were in a trance- like state.” Although the 12 were arrested soon after, they shouted slogans and went on a hunger strike inside the jail. They were released after three months and all charges were dropped. Of the 12 mothers, only 2 were graduates, the rest were mostly illiterates or semi-literates. Yet, the tragedy of their lives was similar. The massive militarisation of the area and imposition of the AFSPA, 1958, under which arbitrary killing, torture, massacres, forced disappearances, rape and molestations by the security forces have taken place over the years.
Manipuris, by and large, do not wish for the security forces to be withdrawn. They simply want human rights violations by troops to end, and for the perpetrators to be punished. As Phanjoubam Ongbi Sakhi, a Meira Paibi leader has explained that people can hardly sleep at night as they are scared of a knock on the door. Everybody is responsible, and not just the army. These are the people who snatch sons from their mothers. The brutality knows no limit. The army are also human beings. There is no reason not to love them. As young people the army used to make them feel safe and secure. But nowadays they behave like beasts. The atrocities like rape have been questioned. Why kill? People can no longer look upon those people as mothers (Human Rights Watch, 2008).
At least 100 women were injured in police attacks since violence broke out on Thursday, with some having to undergo surgeries to remove pellets embedded in their bodies. Authorities imposed an indefinite curfew fearing more protests. But women in hundreds started defying the curfew from Friday night by taking to the streets, prompting the police to resort to force to keep the protestors at bay. On Sunday, protestors torched at least half-a-dozen government buildings, making authorities cut short a curfew relaxation.
“We want to punish the soldiers involved in the brutal killing of Manorama and so we are demanding handing over the errant soldiers to us,” says Memchaoubi Devi, president of the women’s rights group Porei Lemarol Meira Phaibi Apunba Manipur.She adds, “It is better to protest naked than allow the soldiers to kill and rape our women.”
A total of 32 women’s groups have come under one platform to protest the killing. Women in Manipur are known for taking up cudgels against social issues. “This protest is not going to die
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 29 down until and unless the guilty soldiers are punished. Even if someone is involved in militancy, he or she should be brought to the court of law and not just killed or raped,” lashes out Leirik Devi, president of the Kangla Mei, another powerful women rights group.She vows, “We are prepared to shed blood but cannot allow the soldiers to outrage the modesty of our daughters. This protest will intensify.”
Bowing to mounting pressure, the Assam Rifles Saturday removed an unspecified number of soldiers from duty against whom there was a court of inquiry ordered to probe the alleged custodial death. assures Assam Rifles spokesman Major SD Goswami, “Anybody found guilty would be punished.” The state government has also ordered a probe following rising pressure from women’s groups.
But women’s groups in the state have refused to call off their agitation even after the suspected soldiers were said to be taken off duty. Says Leirik Devi, “Until and unless we get a concrete assurance from the authorities that cases like rape or custodial killings will not recur, and stern action is taken against those errant soldiers, we are not going to stop our agitation.” “We cannot stop atrocities committed on the women by security forces unless we resort to radical forms of protest like stripping in public.”
In October last year, 15-year-old Sanjita Devi committed suicide after being allegedly molested by army soldiers in Manipur. The army instituted a court of inquiry, but the findings were never made public. Manipur Chief Minister Okram Ibobi Singh, the elected head of the state, in a letter to Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh asked the federal government to “restrain and do the needful to check the conduct of security personnel” deployed in the state.
Conclusions
The AFSPA has created a continuous ‘state of exception’ in the region. Manipuri people, particularly Manipuri women, have been reduced to a mere biological existence without political life – they have been de-nationalised, arbitrarily characterised as ‘insurgents’, denied basic citizenship rights and raped and killed with impunity. By enacting and literalising their protests, they actually forced the state to gaze upon the consequences of its actions on its own citizens, to recognise the farce of its liberal democracy. The women did not merely take the state to task for failing in its commitments, but actually challenged the Indian Army, which is synonymous with the nation. By exposing the nation’s defenders as perpetrators of crimes on its own women, they
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 30 questioned the basic ideas of citizenship, democracy the role of nation-state. The women did not just plead for a removal of AFSPA, rather they demanded that the state recognised their humanity and only through such recognition peace talks on equitable terms and sustainable as well as democratic development are possible.
Recommendations i) Government should be taken proper step to protect the human rights at any how and at any cost. ii) Peace talk should be organized between the women and Government. iii) The army should be punished if they unnecessarily harass the women and child. iv) Proper monitoring should be done in order to avoid unwarranted situation in the state.
References
1. Ray, R. (1999). Fields of Protest, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
2. ibid
3. Jeffrey, P. & Basu, A. (1998),Appropriating Gender. Great Britain: Routledge.
4. Desai, M. (1996). Informal organizations as agents of change: Notes from the contemporary women’s movement in India, Mobilization: An International Quarterly,1 (2).
5. Bush, D. (1992). Women’s movements and state policy reform aimed at domestic violence against women: A comparison of the consequences of movement mobilization in the U.S. and India. Gender and Society 6, (4), 587-608.
6. Singh, R.K.J. (1992). A Short History of Manipur,New Delhi.
7. ibid
8. Human Rights Watch. (2008),pp.25-30.
9. Human Rights Problems Persist, Says UN Report’ in UN News Service, 22 March 2007.
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10. Sapam, A.(2010). Manorama’s family: Waiting forever. Kangla.Retrieved fromwww.kanglaonline.com/index.php?template=kshow&kid.=1086, accessed 21 May 2010.
11. Sapam, Human Rights Watch. (2008). pp.30-32. 12. Anjulika, T. Next, the protest will be by all the women of the state,The Weekend Leader, 5 (47). 13. ibid 14. Human Rights Watch interview with Ph. Sakhi, Imphal, February 26, 2008.
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POPULATION GROWTH IN MURSHIDABAD DISTRICT, WEST BENGAL AND ITS IMPACT ON THE ENVIRONMENT AND SOCIETY
RAGHAB GHOSH
Assistant Teacher
Jangipur High School, Jangipur, Murshidabad, West Bengal
ABSTRACT
Population issues in the present day world are considered vital because most of us believe that the development in an area was intimately related with its population growth. Population growth does create long term pressures on a society’s resources which needs immediate attention. Growing population and quest for improvement in living standards together have necessitated continuous economic development and hence greater and exploitative use of resource which at times could be called abuse of resources. Economic development is generally measured in terms of growth in average per capita incomes. Growing population and the resultant multiplying human activity have already started straining the environment to the extent that it can no longer recover quickly enough to be able to support the growing billions. Murshidabad District is one of the most populated and backward district in West Bengal. The growth of population is already a major impact on the society.
Key Word : Population, Population Growth, Economic Development, Resource, Environment
INTRODUCTION
Garnier (1978) said in his book ‘Geography of population’ that “Population Geography is concerned with describing the demographic factors in their present environmental content, studying also the causes, their original characterstics and possible consequences.”
At present population and environment – these two components are interrelated with each other. In the past, population growth had not so much impact on the environment. But
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 33 gradually population growth rate increased and the population boom has a massive impact on the society. Humans are no longer the product of environment, they are also its transformer as well as creator. In fact human beings have been an ecological dominant force since their emergence on earth. Population grew rapidly at the time of industrial revolution. Pollutant material and smoke are produced from industry and it had a very bad impact on the environment. Malthus warned about the perils of population growth. Malthus also said that with increasing population, food supply will decline. Though after Malthus, his theory was proved almost wrong. Food production and supply have increased with the population growth.
ABOUT STUDY AREA
Murshidabad District is a district of West Bengal. Murshidabad District is located between 23º43’N and 24º52’N latitude and 87º49’E and 88º44’E longitude. The head quarter of the district is Berhampore. It has a total area of 5324 sq km. It is situated in the lower Gangetic plain of India. Our sacred river Ganga divided it into two branches here. The main branch of the Ganges is known as Padma, flows through the entire eastern boundary of Murshidabad District, separating Malda District (India) and Rajsahi (Bangladesh). Burdwan and Nadia are in the Southern side and Birbhum and the Pakur (Jharkhand) are on the western side of the District. The other branch of the Ganges is known as Bhagirathi, the main river of the district. The river flows through its middle towards the south and has divided into two parts named Bagri and Rarh. Murshidabad has 254 Gram Panchayats, 26 blocks, 5 Sub-divisions and 7 Municipalities.
DEMOGRAPHY OF MURSHIDABAD
Murshidabad district has 6 percent of the area and comprises 7.78 percent of the total population of West Bengal. As per Census 2011, the total population is 71.02 lakh and the literacy rate is 63.88%. Murshidabad has a large concentration of minority population (more than 66% of the total population). The district is educationally backward and poor female literacy rate is a matter of concern.
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Table 1: Murshidabad district population scenario in 2011
DESCRIPTION 2011 2001
Actual Population 7,103,807 5,866,569
Male 3,627,564 3,005,000
FEMALE 3,476,243 2,861,569
POPULATION 21.09% 23.76%
GROWTH
AREA Sq. KM 5,324 5324
DENSITY/km2 1,334 1102
Proportion to West Bengal 7.78% 7.32% Population
Sex Ratio (per 1000) 958 952
Child Sex Ratio (0-6 age) 968 972
Average Literacy 66.59 54.35
Male Literacy 69.95 60.71
Female Literacy 63.09 47.63
Total Child Population 1,013,392 1,044,534 (0-6 Age)
Male Population (0-6 514,876 1,044,534
Age)
Female Population (0-6 498,516 5,29,796 Age)
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Literates 4,055,834 514,738
Male Literates 2,177,187 2,620,538
Female Literates 1,878,647 1,502,724
Child Proportion (0-6 14.27% 17.80%
Age)
Boys Proportion (0-6 14.19% 17.63% Age)
Girls Proportion (0-6 14.34% 17.99% Age) http://www.census2011.co.in/census/district/7-murshidabad.html
OBJECTIVES
The study has tried to know the variation of population growth with time and its impact on society and environment of Murshidabad District, West Bengal, India.
METHODOLOGY
The study has been made based on data which is collected from Govt. of India Census report and District statistical handbook and internet to analyse the population growth and its impact on the society and environments. The work has been collected from secondary data sources. The study is descriptive in nature.
POPULATION GROWTH OF MURSHIDABAD
Data is collected from varous censuses for showing population growth from the year 1901 to 2011 AD. And within this 110 years time period, population increased from 1.32 million to 7.10 million causing 5.5 times increase. Population growth of Murshidabad District has
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 36 increased rapidly. This situation may be called population explosion. The various chronological periods has been discussed below:
First 50 years (1901 to 1951 AD): During the first 50 years, population increased but not at rapid pace. The total population was 1.32 million in the year 1901 and 1.72 million in 1951. So during this period population increase was natural. However, the decade between 1911 and 1921 witnessed population decrease due to First World War, famine, epidemic etc.
Second Stage (1951 to 1981AD): In this 3 decade population growth was very high and its result shown on the data. Population increased from 1.72 million to 3.70 million. After independence, India produced more food than the previous years and Green Revolution took place causing bumper crop production.
Third Stage (1981 to 2011AD): India Government introduced population policy. Medical facilities, education, health and infant health condition were much better. So the population growth started decreasing.
Table 2: Population growth variation from 1901 to 2011
YEAR TOTAL Variation since the preceding MALE FEMALE POPULATION Census
ABSOLUTE
PERCENTAGE
1901 13,23,479 ------6,48,836 6,74,643
1911 13,46,069 +22590 +1.71 6,65,726 6,80,343
1921 12,25,095 -1,20,974 -8.99 6,10,629 6,14,466
1931 13,71,604 +1,46,509 +11.96 6,83,958 6,87,646
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1941 16,41,610 +2,70,006 +19.69 8,25,038 8,16,572
1951 17,17,229 +75,619 +4.61 8,70,222 8,47,007
1961 22,91,863 +5,74,634 +33.46 11,61,220 11,30,643
1971 29,46,563 +6,54,700 +28.57 1 5,06,774 14,39,789
1981 36,97,552 +7,50,989 +25.49 1 8,87,426 18,10,126
1991 47,40,149 +10,42,597 +28.20 2 4,39,342 23,00,807
2001 58,66,569 +11,26,420 +23.76 3 0,05,000 28,61,569
2011 71,03,807 +12,37,238 +21.09 3 6,27,564 34,76,243
http://www.census2011.co.in/census/district/7-murshidabad.html
Figure: 1 Total population increase in India from 1901
8,000,000
7,000,000
6,000,000
5,000,000
4,000,000 TOTAL POPULATION 3,000,000
2,000,000
1,000,000
0
1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011 1901 YEAR
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Figure: 2 Population growth in India from 1901 to 2011
40
35
30
25
20
15 GROWTH RATE (%) 10
5
0 1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011 -5
-10
-15
Table 3. Population growth Rate in India (data) year INDIA WEST BENGAL MURSHIDABAD
1901 00 00 00
1911 +5.75 +6.25 +1.71
1921 -.31 -2.91 -8.99
1931 +11.0 +8.14 +11.96
1941 +14.22 +22.93 +19.69
1951 +13.31 +13.22 +4.61
1961 +21.64 +32.80 +33.46
1971 +24.80 +26.87 +28.57
1981 +24.66 +23.17 +25.49
1991 +23.87 +24.73 +28.20
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2001 +21.54 +17.77 +23.76
2011 +17.64 +13.84 +21.09
Here the data represents that the growth rate of Murshidabad District is very high than west Bengal and India. Only in the decade 1941 to 1951, we noticed minimum population increase due to India’s independence and partition of Bengal. Many people had migrated to present Bangladesh.
Figure: 3 Population growth in Murshidabad District from 1901 to 2011 40
35
30
25
20 INDIA 15 WEST BENGAL 10 MURSHIDABAD 5
0 1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011 -5
-10
-15
Impact on Environment
Growing population and the resultant human activity have already started straining the environment to the extent that it can no longer recover quickly enough to be able to support the growing billions. Only 29 percent of the earth’s surface is land and rest 71 percent is under water. Human beings are mostly responsible for air pollution. Human activity like industrial activity, use petroleum for car, use firewood for cooking, and thermal power etc are responsible for atmospheric pollution. The ozone layer in the atmosphere protects us from ultraviolet radiation from the sun. Carbon dioxide, Carbon monoxide, Nitrogen oxide, CFCs, Mythen are green house
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 40 gases. These gases are responsible for global warming. These green house gases are increasing at rapid speed. These gases deplete ozone gas and thus ozone layer decreases. Ozone hole allows incoming ultraviolet radiation into the earth, causing global warming, which can alter the climate of earth, warm up the oceans, melt the iceberg and result in expansion of oceans (Sen, 2008).
Significant environmental hazards are the results of the consequences of high technology agriculture. Soil erosion, salinisation are some of the problems which are becoming increasingly alarming in the intensively cultivated cereal growing areas in the world (Hussain, 2010). The agricultural land is decreasing due to population pressure. Use of deep tubewell in the agricultural sector is increasing at rapid pace. The World Bank and UNESCO warns India about using ground water in the winter season due to excessive use of ground water in this area. Using excessive ground water causes soil to get saline and become less fertile and production of crops decrease as a consequence. Brickfield and thermal power dust ash causes infertililty of land.
Looking back at the district, it may be seen that Murshidabad has many rivers. Bhagirathi is the main river of this area. Padma, Jalangi, Kana mayurakshi are the other rivers. Ahiran bil, Bhandar daha are the main marsh lands of murshidabad. Farakka and Sagardighi thermal power stations are two big industries of Murshidabad. Both causes pollution of Bhagirathi or Ganga river. Hot water, ash and other mineral and metal discharges from this industry pose threat. Sewage and sludge are being disposed of in raw form into the rivers and is the most common form of water pollution. Farakka barrage project area, Dhuliyan, Jangipur, Jiaganj-Azimganj, Berhampore, Beldanga are municipal areas and all the wastage of these areas are thrown into the Bhagirathi river. Haldia-Kolkata-Farakka-Allahabad are located on the Ganga river. Many barges and steamers pass through this way. Coal from Indonesia is imported to the Farakka thermal ower station using this water way. So the petrol is causing pollution. Human beings have become concerned with their environment since it is their immediate surroundings that provided the resources necessary for survival. The agents of environmental transformations are numerous and the processes involved in this change are very complicated (Dhara, 2013). During the past two to three million years, the major agents of environmental changes have been climate and humans, both of which can directly impact the process operative in environmental systems (Thomson et al., 1986).
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The pressure of population causesdisturbing the equilibrium between population and resources due to increasing load of population. However, it may be difficult to produce a universally acceptable definition of pressure of population which may encompass all kinds of population pressure situations, which vary highly both in time and space, since it involves relationships between ecological, social, cultural as well as historical variables (Chandna, 2008 : 421 and Chandna, 1979).
UNEMPLOYMENT: The relationship between unemployment and population is ofteninverse. According to census 2011, unemployment is a big issue in this district. Many people work in other state or in other parts of West Bengal. The census data suggests that non working persons exceed working persons and it is also noticeable that women work participation in is very low. The following table shows the distribution of non-workers in Murshidabad district.
Table 4.Workers and Non-Workers in Murshidabad District TOTAL WEST BENGAL MURSHIDABAD
WORKERS NON-WORKERS WORKERS NON WORKERS
34756355 38.08% 56,519,760 61.92% 2589907 36.46% 4,513,900 63.54%
MALE 26716047 57.07% 20,092,980 42.93% 1985667 54.74% 1,641,897 45.26%
FEMALE 8040308 18.08% 36,426,780 81.92% 604240 17.38% 2,872,003 82.62%
Source: Census of India 2011
HEALTH: The health condition of this area is not well. People sufferfrom various diseases. The main profession of the women is beedi binding. As a consequence, men, women and children sufferfrom tuberculosis.In Jangipur subdivision, the health issues are prevalent. Illiteracy is the majorreason behind the problem. According to census 2011, the literacy rate of this district is very low, i.e. only 66.59%.
PER CAPITA INCOME: Per capita income of Murshidabad is very low than other parts of the country. Over population, use of resource and consumption of food is very low. There is no big industry here. In the villages, most of the people work in agricultural lands. Though farming is
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 42 the main livelihood, the income from farming is very low. It is also seen that some times people work in agricultural lands without any benefit. Natural calamaties like flood and drought or irregular monsoon play a big role in the village economy of the district like other parts of India.
CONCLUSION: Increasing population in Murshidabad district has caused degradation of environment and society. Excessive growth of population in Murshidabad as depicted in the census may be called population explosion. People face the problemsof unemployment, water shortage, food problem, abuse of resource, climate change etc. India's population policy 2000 needs to be implemented in the district by involving the local people at the grassroot level. Government of India and West Bengal and also the local administration bodies have towork with full cooperation.
REFERRENCE
Census of India (1901 – 2011). Government of India.
Hussain, M., (2010). Human Geography, Rawat publication, Jaipur, pp. 412.
Chandna, R.C., (2008). Geography of Population, Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana
Chandna, R.C., (1979). India’s population policy, Asianet profile, Hongkong, Vol7, no 4.
Garnier, Beaujeu (1978). Geography of population, Longman, 5-400.
Sen, J., (2008). Janasankhya Bhugol, Books and Alloyed Publication, Kolkata
Thompson, L.G., Mosley-Thompson, E; Dansgaard, W; and Grootes, P.M., (1986). The Little Iceage as Recorded in the Stratigraphy of the Tropical Quelccaya Ice Cap, Science, 234, 361-364.
Dhara, S., (2013).Janasankhya o bosoti Bhugol, Nabodaya Publication, Kolkata
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SMOKING BEHAVIOUR OF THE STUDENTS PERSUING M.A. /M.SC: A STUDY ON BALLYGUNGE SCIENCE COLLEGE, KOLKATA
Abhijit Dutta, Alumnus, Department of Geography,
Ballygunge Science College, Calcutta University
Abstract: Smoking is the practice of burning tobacco and inhaling the smoke. The practice was believed to begin as early as 5000–3000 BC.Now adays smoking is very common among boys and girls. Basicallyteenagers and adults have this practice to establish their adulthood, and to assert their Independence.In most developing countries, tobacco consumption was relatively low in the past. It has been increasing in recent years, as developed countries have exported more cigarettes to the developing countries, and as developing countries have cultivated more tobacco themselves to produce cheaper tobacco, at the sacrifice of food production.There are many obstacles and constraints to smoking control in the developing countries, but banning smokingis badly needed to prevent lung cancer and other smokingrelated diseases, in order to alleviate economic burdens and to increase production of foods and other crops.The study helped to fill the gap of research regarding smoking among university students.
Key Word: Chain Smokers, Occasional Smokers, Peer Influnece, Ballygunge Science College
SECTION A
1.1. Geographical Importance: In modern times, some subjects such as Geography have become highly dynamic, so its research work has become more dynamic and diversified.Tobacco is one of the most economically significant agricultural crops in the world. It is a drought tolerant, hardy and short duration crop which can be grown on soils where other crops cannot be cultivated profitably.There is very little research work in this field. The paper seeks to draw other researchers' attention also so that it can pave way for further research in future.
1.2. Introducing Study Area: The Area of the study selected as Ballygunge Science College, Calcutta University. The campus is famous well known all over the India for its old history of imparting education, NAAC A Grade and the students from various part of the India.The
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Latitude of Ballygunge Science College is 22031’38’’N and The Longitude is 88o21'46''E.
1.3. Objectives: The objectives of the study are following:
I. To find out the magnitude of smoking II. To obtain descriptive data on the patterns of smoking and the factors associated with it. III. To see the patterns ofsmoking, drug abuse and other health risk factors among the girl students compared to boys. IV. Student perception about smoking. V. The study helped to fill the gap of research regarding smoking initiation among university students VI. Expenditure pattern related to tobacco consumption.
1.4. Research Design: This study was designed to be descriptive in nature and uses primary data. The data were gathered using an online survey and participatory method. The survey was structured to collect basic demographic information, smoking history, alcohol use, and stress and risk perception. Most part ofthe survey was conducted at college canteen and boy’s hostel and tea stall.
1.5. Methodology:
Questionnaire Development: Questions were asked related to the use of cigarettes in addition to the cultural, social and psychological factors associated with cigarette smoking among both male and female students of the Ballygunge Science College. The research is a case study and empirical in nature.
Schedule development:
I started my survey by using personnel email survey. They filled up the schedule according to the questions.
Sample size: During the survey time, I decided to start with 120 Samples. But students refused to voluntarily fill up the questionnaire; finally I selected 100 samples for this topic. Among the 100 students, there were 60 male students and 40 female students. Among the smoker students, 6 are chain smoker and regular smokers are 33/100 and occasional smoking students are 42/100,
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 45 and most are female students. Male respondents respond less than female respondents. But during pilot survey and random sampling the male respondents responded well.
SECTION B
BASIC INFORMATION ABOUT MALE AND FEMALE SMOKERS
2.1Male and Female Smokers: Among the students, 100 is the sample size. During survey, it is found that there are 75%smokers. Among the respondents, male students are 66% and 34% are female students.During the survey time in May, 2016 most of the students were busy to attend their final examination or field survey. So it was difficult to collect data. There are 50 male smokers among the total sampling students. Female students are around 25, nonsmokers are 25. The two age groups are surveyedi.e. 22-23 and 24-25 age groups.All the students have entered second or fourth semester during survey time.
2.2. BasicCharacteristics ofSmoker: It was found that the smoking habit is very common among the students. Basically smoking habits includes Hukka, smoking cigarette and/or Bidi. Now most teenagers are inclined to smoking. One thing which came out repeatedly during the exercise was that the ones who smoke generally succumb to smoking as a stimulant without which they feel they would fail to survive.Some important behaviours among the smokers are mentioned below:
They need a smoking session after they wake up in the morning. This is common among the all chain smoker or regular smokers. Without the morning session of smoking most of them (boys mainly) cannot get their bowels in motion, this characteristic feature is mainly found among regular smokers. It is observed that some students start smoking within 5 minutes of waking up. 3 female respondents smoke 10 times a day. They consume cigarettes during alcohol consumptions. During university days, they use toilet as a smoking place or ideal place is canteen.
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SECTION C
PATTERN OF SMOKING
3.1. Regular or Occasional: About 56% girls occasionally smoke and they use Silkcut occasionally. Few of them consume Marlboro brand. Peer pressure plays an important role in university student smoking habits and perceptions. The students think that their peers approve of smoking. In hostel culture peer pressure is more common. Sometimes students start smoking due to the influence of other's smoking behaviour.
3.2. Smoking Initiation: About 30% of the surveyed students reported that they had never consumed two or more puffs initially. After that it became increasing habit. Most of them are female students and they all belong to occasional smokers. Most regular smokers started their smoking either at higher secondary level or college level. Most of the male smokers say that they started from school level, and some of them started smoking from class 8. Among the girls, some of them started smoking during school but their addiction started mainly after higher secondary and college life. Some students started smoking after joining university while their boyfriends or girl friends started smoking and they also became smokers.
SMOKING INITIATION CHOICE 100%
80%
60%
40% STUDNETS IN% STUDNETS 20%
0% OWN CHOICE PEER INFLUENCE FAMILY TRADITION .
Fig 1.1. Smoking Initiation (Source: primary survey data)
There are 80% students who choose smoking on their own choice. About 12% are influenced by their close friend or others. About 4% are influenced by family tradition.
3.3. Smoking Consumption Level: Fig 1.2. shows regular and irregular smokers' behaviour and daily consumption. It is found that 40 out of 75 students consume <3 cigarette in a day some of
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 47 them consume 1 or less puff, <3 include thosewho are irregular or rare smoker or both. Chain smokers are basically those who lit a cigarette without finishing another cigarette.
SMOKING CONSUMPTION PER DAY TO REGULAR OR OCCASIONAL SMOKER
50
40
30
20 STUDENTS 10
0 <3 CIGGERATE 3 TO 6 >6 CIGGERATE CHAIN CIGGERATE SMOKER
Fig 1.2.Daily consumption.(primary survey data)
Smoking culture is not new in hostel and canteen culture. C onsuming alcohol too is not very uncommon there. They are using mostly Gold Flake small and Silk Cut and some use Gold Flake light. Markets are inundated with cigarette brands but students prefer silk cut and gold flake since these are less expensive.
SECTION D
(EXPENDITURE)
4. Expenditure: Occasional smokerssmoke during party or celebration and the use tobacco or cigarette.Rs. <500 monthly expenditure shows 27 students are irregular smokers but their consumption level is low, i.e. Rs.500 to Rs. 1000 monthly expenditure = 23 students and >Rs.1000 =10 students.From the above class >Rs.1000, most are chain smokers or regular smokers.They are mostly addicted and they know it is not good for health but they cannot survive without it.The regular smokerssmoke after 60 minute or 1hour after they wake up.
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SECTION E OPINION OF THE SMOKERS 5.1. Quit smoking or not: It has questionedif the respondents ever tried to quit smoking. Most regular smokers said “no never tried before present ". Some of them said “yes I tried multiple times but smoking is an addiction and without it we cannot survive".
Thesample questions are mentioned below:
1. Have you ever tried to quit smoking?
2. If yes then how many times?
3. What precautions takento stop smoking?
4. Have you observed any change in your health after you quit smoking?
Many students smoke during exam time or during any kind of pressure, smoking gives relief to them and those who disagree often says that smoking is an addiction and nothing more than that.
SMOKING AS KEY FACTOR OF STRESS RELIEF
20%
24% Agree Disagree Don’t know 56%
fig 1.3. Is smoking key of relief of stress (Source: Primary Survey Data)
Most of the occasional smokers agree that it is the key reliever of stress. When they feel more tired or unhappy they use smoking and alcohol also.
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5.2. Hiding Information regarding smoking: Students tend not to disclose their smoking behaviour to their guardians or parents due to fear of being scolded. Because most of them know well that this behaviour leads to gradual degradation of the lungs in long term, hence there is a always a fear of being imposed restrictions from family. But the lure of momentary relief forces younger people to go for smoking.
SECTION F 6. Major Findings: During survey it is found that there is lot of physiological changes among female regular smokers or chain smokers. They have an odd lifestyle and smoking is addiction among them.Few is really conscious about their health. They are so addicted that they skip their staple food which is rice but they fail to skip a cigarette. One respindents stayed away from smoking for a period of 3 months but finally succumbed to smoking while he saw his friends smoking. Most of the ones who are regular smokers or chain smokers, have black lips. This survey was mainly a random sampling survey. The health hazards are alarming. 1. Lips turn black 2. Vocal Cords get upset 3. Addiction increasing sometimes There are some occasional smokers who have not seen any change before smoking or after smoking.
Conclusion: Government need to imposelaws for restriction of outdoor smoking in a strict manner. But such an initiative is just part of a solution. This only stops external environment pollution. But it does not stop indoor smoking; hence people who are addicted generally make different approaches
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 50 and attempts to figure out new locations to smoke, thereby gradually becoming worse victims of long term diseases.
Probable solution:
Cigarette production, import and consumption should be banned. Government should start anti smoking educational camps from early classes in schools which prepare students from early stage. Govt. and educational institutions must encourage awards for cities and localities for minimum consumption of smoking. Educational institute must encourage children to vent out their anxiety or frustration in other forms of activities and / or sports. Advertisements of cigarette brands or alcohol brands must be banned. Cigarette making companies need to produce other anti smoking alternatives as well.
References and Bibliography
1. CTRI (2017). Tobacco in Indian Economy, CTRI official website accessed: http://www.ctri.org.in/for_tobaccoEconomy.php. 2. Paudel,D.(2003). Tobbaco use among Adolescents students in secondary schools of Pokhhara sub Metropolitan city of Nepal, April, Department of medicine and family health MaharajgunjCampus, website accessed http://www.healthnet.org.np/resource/thesis/cmedicine/deepak/tobacco.pdf. 3. Valerie, H. (2012).Smoking behaviour among college students, 30 May, website accessed: http://baylor-ir.tdl.org/bylor/thesis ptf. 4. Pietrangelo, Ann and Kristeen Cherney (2017). The Effects of Smoking on the Body, Health line, 9 May, website accessed,http://www.healthline.com/health/smoking/effects-on-body.
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AN INTROSPECTION INTO MAJOR HEALTH PROBLEMS OF COOCH BEHAR-II BLOCK IN COOCH BEHAR DISTRICT OF WEST BENGAL, INDIA
Subhamay Dey Khan P.G. Scholar, Dept. of Geography, Cooch Behar PanchananBarma University
Abstract
Health is an important component for ensuring better quality of life. Large masses of Indian poor continue to fight hopeless and constantly losing the battle for survival and health. This war begins even before birth as malnourishment of the mother reduces life chances of the foetus. In the Indian rural area, where over fifty percent of families are living in poverty, it is not only food security but also ill-health, which causes serious distress. In this paper it has been shown that the villagers of Cooch Behar-IIblock affected by the age-old problems of TB, Malaria, Diarrhoea; children are suffering malnutrition and facing new challenges posed by environmental pollution mainly due to contamination of air and water. Women and the children of many poor families do not get proper health care, even at the time of pregnancy of women they do not get exact care. The findings of the study show that the major health problems and causes of the problems in this area and some required steps by the Government or the local Gram Panchayat to solve this problem and to develop the area.
Keywords: Health Problems, Malnutrition, Poor sanitation, Female Health etc.
Introduction
Health is the level of functional as well as metabolic efficiency of a living organism. The humans have the ability to adapt and self-manage when facing physical, mental or social changes. The rural India has over 68 percent of India’s total population and half all the residents of rural areas live below the poverty line, struggle for better and easieraccess to healthcare and services. There are many challenges that rural healthcare is facing. Among them the main challenges for rural healthcare is the lack of knowledge and awareness. Schools are perfect places where kids as well as their parents can be made aware about healthcare issues and their solutions. One of the most critical requirements for health care service in rural areas is doctors. Doctors and medical
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 52 specialists are the integral component of the India's healthcare system but rural Indiai is currently facing about 64 percent shortage of doctors. The villages of India are suffering froma plethora of health problems dueto lack of infrastructure and a variety of social, cultural and physical causes. Likewise, the villages of Cooch Behar-II block are also facing many health problems from different sectors. The present study has been analysed taking into account of the major health problems and their causes in Cooch Behar-II block of Cooch Behar district.
Study Area at a glance
The Cooch Behar-II block is situated in the northern part of Cooch Behar district of West Bengal. The geographical area of this block is 362.36 sq.km. The block is situated in the eastern part of the River Torsa. As per 2011 census the block has 2,98,163 of total population where the male population is 1,54,011 and female population is 1,44,152. There are 13 Gram Panchayats in the block. The northern part of this block is bounded by Alipurduar district and southern part is bounded by Cooch Behar sadar.
Objectives
The main objectives of the present study are-
To study the major health problems of the area. To examine the causes of the diseases and its impact in surrounding environment. To suggests some remedial measures to reduce the problems of the block. To know about the developmental schemes in these areas taken by the government and the local Panchayat.
Methodology
The present study has been carried out by mainly secondary method. The relevant secondary data and information were collected from the Census of India, Gram Panchayat Office, Block Development Office, BMOH office etc. The data collected from secondary sources have been analysed based on both qualitative and quantitative methods. However all the collected data were later on systematically processed, arranged, tabulated and interpreted to have a clear view on the nature of Cooch Behar-II block in Cooch Behar district.
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Major Health problems in Cooch Behar-II block
There are several health problems found in this block. Diseases such as dengue fever, hepatitis, tuberculosis, malaria etc. continue to plague this region due to increased resistance to drugs. The diarrheal diseases are the primary causes of early childhood mortality. These diseases can be attributed to poor sanitation and inadequate safe drinking water. There is a government hospital in Pundibari and a T.B. hospital in Mahishbathanin this block, but the infrastructures and the facilities are not very suitable for people. The buildings are very old and dirty. The capacity of beds and the number of beds according to patient in these hospitals are not sufficient. Even it creates problems in the emergency condition of patients especiallyfor emergency delivery patients. The transport system of some areas such as Bararangas, Dhandhingguri, Ambari, Chakchaka, Khapaidanga etc. villages are very bad, as the roads cause trouble for emergency patients. Many of the villages are still accustomed to old practice of delivery at their own houses till now, which causes health hazards forthe new-born babies as well as mother.Giving birth more than one child in younger age is prevalent still now in some villages of this block which causes malnourishment for both mother and child. It also causes low immunity for both of mother and child. As a result the growth of many children of this block is found to be inadequate.
Causes of health problems in Cooch Behar-II Block
Malnutrition
Many poor children below the age of five of this block are malnourished. The malnutrition occurs due to the unhealthy condition that results from not eating enough healthy food. Malnutrition impedes the social and cognitive development of a child in this block and these irreversible damages result in lower productivity. Some of the children are sick with chronic malnutrition, especially when suffering from anaemia; often suffer from a lower learning capacity during the crucial first years of attending school. Due to the lower social status in some villages of this block, the girls are far more at risk of malnutrition than boys of their age. The insufficient care of women is is endemic in this block, especially during pregnancy.
Poor Sanitation
More than 30 percent families of the block have very poor sanitation system and 10 percent of the block lack access to latrines where many people defecate in the open field. It is the
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 54 surrounding environment, which directly affects the health of people. The villagers in the eastern part of the block living in Dhangdhingguri, Marichbari, Ambari, Beldanga village etc. are not accustomed to proper sanitation and some of the families of this area defecate in the open. As a result the environment is very unhealthy like slum area where bad smell is always present in this portion of these villages. The open air defecation leads to the spread of disease and malnutrition through parasitic and bacterial infection.
Lack of safe drinking water
The pure drinking water is very important for survival. Most of the households of this block use drinking water from tubewell in their own houses, which is not pure and safe for drinking. The economic condition of some villages is not very well. Many of them are living below the poverty line. Due to the bad economic condition of some villages, the water filter is absent in many households and they drink water directly from tubewell. It causes many diseases such as diarrhoea, liver diseases, skin allergy etc. Most of the children suffer from frequent occurrences of diarrhoea, skin diseases in this block due to impure water. Especially it is found mostly among the children of five years to fourteen years old in this block.
Female Health issue
Mostlythe females in this block are married in very tender age.Even it has been found in many households that many girls are married before their minimum age of marriage. As a result they become mother quickly, and even they bear more than one child in their tender age. It causes low immunity to the mother and also for the baby. It has been found that only 15% of mothers get complete antenatal care. Mainly it is found less or more in the Eastern partof Dhangdhingguri, Marichbari, Madhupur, Kathalbari, Pundibari, Boudiyardanga, Khapaidanga, Bararangas etc. villages.The mothers are engaged intheir daily house chores, hard and heavy work during their pregnancy because of their poor economic condition.
Remedial Measures
The Block Development Office and the Gram Panchayatshould takes some steps to solve the health problems in this block. These are:
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For ensuring good health, there is need to change the mindsets of the donors and extension workers involved in rural development programmes. Primary health care should become the basic necessity for every individual, than treating it as a separate component of development. There is a need for internalization of health programmes by orienting the field worker to emphasize on community health, especially the supply of pure drinking water, sanitation, immunization and nutrition. To prohibit marriage before minimum age and giving hard punishment and imposing law against this practice. To develop the infrastructure and facility of the Govt. hospital of Pundibari and the Govt. T.B. hospital of Mahishbathan and also increase the number of beds in these hospitals. The Govt. should apply various govt. health schemes and policies for developing the health in this block.
Conclusion
In conclusion it can be said that there are many health problems present in this block. It can be mitigated by increasing the awareness of people and local government. In recent times, it is found that this block is polio free because of the pulse-polio programme successfully worked in this block during last few years. The Anganwari workers of this block are working very well. Even they do survey in the households of these villages and collect the health report every month. The govt. scheme of RSBY (Rastriya Sastha Bima Yojona) is successfully working in this block. So, it may be assumed that the problems of health in this block can be minimized by the government efforts and the block will be developed in respect of different parameters and the people will be also aware about their health.
References
Kishore, Jugal (2005). National health programs of India: national policies & legislations related to health. Century publication. ISBN 978-81-88132-3. Gupta, Rajat K; Kurma, Goutam; Maitra, Banik C.(2005). A foundation for public health in India. McKinsey Quarterly, Special Edition. BDO Office (2016). Block Development Office, Cooch Behar-II Block (2016). Census Report, 2011-2016. Monthly Health Report (2011-2016). B.M.O.H. Office.
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GLOBALISATION AND ITS DISCONTENT: A CASE STUDY ON RAJBANGSI SOCIETY IN NORTH BENGAL REGION OF WEST BENGAL, INDIA
MOUMITA DEY
M.Phil Research Scholar
Dept.of Palitical Science, University of North Bengal
Introduction
Globalisation is an important factor in the modern globalised world that integrateand mobilize cultural values of people at international level. Due to rapid technical progress, many countries are unified and transformed as a result of the forcesof globalisation. Globalisation has significant impact on cultural, social, fiscal, political and communal life of countries. In broad sense, the term globalisation means combination of various economies and societies through flows of information, ideas, technology, goods, services, capital, finance and people across boundaries. Globalisation is described as the process through which societies and economies are integrated through cross border exchange of ideas, communication, technology etc. Globalisation has been associated with areas of change in cultures, languages, traditions, markets, politics and economies. Globalisation has different implications for different people. For some, it is the movement of language, ideas, people and production around the world. The term globalisation has been associated with key areas of change which have caused market transformation globally. At political level, the process of deregulation, as well as liberalisation have led to an apparent diminution of state and a general assumption is that all states everywhere must be democratic and ensure good governance for their people.
Methodology
The present paper is totally based on secondary source of information.The date was drawn from various sources which have been duly acknowledged. Information on globalization was obtained by consulting books and websites concerned.
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Globalisation in India
Globalisation has a wide role to play. It has left its footprints at every sphere of life. Not only in India, but the exchange of world views and ideas has resulted in a major transformation of the lifestyle and living standards of people globally. Our deep rooted traditions and customs have lost their hold with the emergence of globalisation. India has rich cultural background and the glory of its culture is famous throughout the world. Globalisation has not only inculcated westernisation in India, but conversely the Indian culture has also spread its wings globally. Culture and traditions of any geographic region hold a special significance with respect to its uniqueness and that is the differentiating factor for a population within a geographic boundary from the other. This uniqueness has been disturbed to the varying degree in lieu of globalisation.
No society can make progress unless there is a deep rooted sense of “we”and “us” pervading all sections at that society even while there may be a number of internal differences between them. No country can become economically powerful if its economic and social elite class does not fuel ashamed of the destitution and degradation of their fellow citizens if it fails to provide a life of dignity and opportunities for advancement to all its members. Our outstanding achievements of freedom movement was that people of different strata, castes, communities, regions and economic sectors came together on a common platform with a sense of a shared mission and a shared destiny to realize certain common purposes. Gandhi tried to create an atmosphere whereby a significant section of wealthy and relatively powerful groups began to use their clout, not just for their own self interest, but in favour of marginalised members of the society. The tendency of all social inequalities and poverty related problems can only be seen through the prism of class struggle.
Globalisation and Rajbangsi Society
The Rajbangsi were the indigenous people of the greater part of North Bengal and lower Assam in the pre-colonial and colonial period. Numerically the Rajbangsi are the third largest Hindu caste in West Bengal constituting 28 percent of the total population. Rajbangsi are numerically the 'earliest settlers’ in the region (Jana,2012). In 1901 when the Rajbangsi were enumerated in the census as 'the Koch’(a tribal community), there was protest against thedecision by the leaders of the community who claimed the Kshatriya status for the Rajbangsis.
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The principle of differentiation, according to Hegel, imposes on the things that are supposed to be differentiated, the obligation of being different – not in any way – but only in a socially recognizedway.
The origin of this caste is shrouded in mysteryand the basic debate is around the question of their association with the Koches. Whatever might have been their actual origin; there is no dispute about the fact that the Rajbangsis were the early settlers in North Bengal. They were socially homogenous community in the sense that there was no sub –caste among them. Dr.Chary Chandra Sanyal stated,
The above obsavations point to the fact that the Koches are non-Aryan in origin. Some of them adopted the Hnduism and become Rajbanshis. These Rajbanshis later on claimed to be Kshatriya. According to Swaraj Basu (2003) the local situation also provide enough ground for the Rajbangsi assertion of Kshatriya identity and their effort to build up caste solidarity.
There are debates about the origin or ethnological identity of the Rajbangsis.The main debate is whether the Rajbangsiswere originated from Mongoloid race or Aryan race.This debate was initiated from the starting of the census work from 1870 onwards by the British-India Government. In the census report Government has shown the Rajbangsi and Koches in the same group. But Rajbangsiprotested against the census report. They demanded that Koches and Rajbangsis were not originated in the same human race. Koches were the tribal people and the Rajbangsi originated from Aryan race. In accordance with the social status of the Aryans, Rajbangsi held the second position that was Kashatriyas after the Brahmans. That corresponds the description from different sources of the Hindu Shastras or mythologies that after defeating in Porshurama they came to Ratnapith and it was the place beside the Trishrota or Jalpes, settled there and they were called 'Bratyo kshatriyas'. This kshatra movement got a new motion under the leadership of Thakur Panchanan Barma who led the movement throughout North Bengal and Assam. Ultimately their demand became successful and in the census report of 1911 Rajbangsi and koches were shown separately. In spite of that debate it is not proved anthropologically whether the Rajbangsis were originated from the Aryan Race. Prehaps their physical structure or biological features of their bodies are assimilated with the Mongolian stock of people. Naturally, almost all the historians and the British officials showed that the Rajbangsi originated from the Mongoloid race.
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Life Style
At present the Rajbangsis are Hindu by faith but originally they were perhaps Koches, an Indo- Mongoloid tribebelieving in tribal culture. It is assumed by most of the historians and social scientists that the Rajbangsis were converted to Hinduism from koches.There were many Gods, Goddesses and deities who are worshiped by the Rajbangsis. It should be mentioned here that there were many non- Aryan Gods and Goddesses worshiped by the Rajbangsi as they were basically non – Aryan. After being converted into Hinduism they worshiped Hindu God and Goddess. Among then non – Aryan deities there are Bisto Thakur, worshiped by the name of Jalhakur also. This worship is held in the month of Bhadra. He is a deity of water. The Brohma Thakur is a deity of Agniar fire. Besides, there is Paban Thakur or deity of air, Basumati Thakur, Bisha Hari, Thakurani, Mahakal Thakur, the oldest deity, Gramthakur, Shib Thakur or Mahesarear, Lakshi Thakurani, Dharmathakur etc. The worship of Banadurga is held in every year at the time of ekadashi of Durga worship at Maynaguri in the village of Barnish near Maynaguri. This worship is performed in accordance with the Rajbanshi mythology. Kainagata- this worship is started from the previous purnima. In this worship their forefathers are respected by sacrificing water by the Brahmana or Adhikary. Nabanna- This worship is observed at the time of collecting new crops. Gochuna- this worship is observed before glowing plants of paddy in the land. Jatrapuya -this worship is performed in the day of Nabami of the month of Aswin (October) by giving sugarcane, lemon and other fruits and the next day, on the day of Bijoya Dasami or Dussera, the Jatrapuja is observed in the house. Different kinds of religions are seen to be performed in the Rajbangsi society through the ancient period when rain was not seen in rainy season as a result of which agricultural is affected. One of these festivals is 'Benger Biyo’ (marriage of frog). As the Rajbangsi were converted in to Hindu which is referred earlier, they perform all the worshipping, and occasions in accordance with the Hindu customs and mythology.
George Abraham Greearson (1928) published his research report named “Linguistic Survey of India” in 1928, where he mentioned abot crossing the river (Brahmaputra) when coming from Dacca, only to be confronted by well marked from of speech in Rangpur and the districts to its north and east. It is called Rajbangsi and it undoubtedly belong to the eastern branch of language family has still points of difference which lead us to class it as a separate” the Rajbangsi
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 60 language languageis a dialect of main Bengali language of Rajbangsi of North Bengal as ‘Rangpuri Bengali'. Dr. Charu Ch. Sanyal wrote,”The Rajbangsi speak Bengali but it is a local dialect sometimes widely away from stand and Bengali”.
Although the Rajbangsiseat everything like the Hindus, but some special foods are eaten by the Rajbangsis of which 'Chheka sakh', 'Lapha sakh’ are considered asdelicious food by the community. Another food is eaten locally known as sutka and sidal. Later on, after huge number of people migrated to North Bengal, many indigenous foods were started as food by the migrated people. Gradually, the indigenous people became habituated with the food habit of the migrated people. Jagat Singh Barman (1976) stated that they eat everything in accordance with the Hindu people's food habit and there are no vast differences between the indigenous food habit and the food habit of other Bengali people.
Tthe women of Rajbangsi community wearing a dress called Buki (Bukali).The dress code has been prevailing since ancient time.Apart from this; the two parts of a dress named Riya and Mekhla are used by the women. It should be mentioned here that the men of poor family wear small dhoti from the upper side of knee. During social reforms movement, Thakur Panchanan Barman propagated wearingdhoti instead of `Nengti’ and 'Sarei' and women should wear 'Buki’. According to C.C Sanyal, the traditional clothes of both men and women nowadays follow the fashion of the upper caste in the society.
As the Rajbangsi now belong to Hindu community, so the marriage ceremony is performed according to the Hindu religion or Brahminical references. The marriage ceremony of the Rajbangsi of the district is completed by three stages, namely pan tola, adhibas and marriage. The guests of bride go to the house of bride groom and the new clothes and ornaments are worn by the bride groom. This occasion is called Pan Tola. In the second stage the following occasions are performed, such as turmeric is touched to the body of the bride groom called adhibas and the occasion is called Naua Kamani. The Hargouri Puja, Nandi mukhi shradhya and in the last stage the main marriage ceremony is performed.
Factors behind Underdevelopment
Economic factor
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Thetraditional dominance by the landlords in rural society was by and large over by the end of fifties. Ownership of agricultural lands shifted to new owners having the purchasing power. Cash rich Hindu Bengali migrants from erstwhile East Pakistan were the most beneficiaries of the new act.Influx of migrants in to North Bengal was a continuous process and their number was so great, they became a major factor in political ‘Vote Bank’ and they were utilised to the fullest. But, it created lot of pressure on the aboriginal agriculturist Rajbangsi community in North Bengal.
Changing ownership of agricultural lands
Village or Block level political leaders wielding enormous power often act as decision making bodies for the rural Rajbangsis in North Bengal. In the past, small farmers, mostly the share croppers depended heavily on local leaders for a share of land under land distribution policy of the State Government. Most of the landdistributed among the peasants, were estimated to be 1.4 crores alone affiliated to ‘Krishak Sabha’ in West Bengal, during thirty years of Left rule.So far the lands distributed changed hands several times to finally reach at the hands of the influential local people.
Displacement of Rajbangsi speaking people from towns
In modern period, literate and better informed upper caste Bengali people migrated from south Bengal for royal jobs or trade, actually started pulling down this community. It began in 1908 from the time when Kalika Das Datta, then minister of Cooch Behar king Nripendra Narayan colluded with the Company officials to bypass the king to take unilateral decision to secede Jalpaiguri and Darjeeling to the British Empire. In fact, after the sad demise of the royal influence, the upper caste Hindu Bengalis settled in the kingdom, slowly placed them in the driver’s seat as far as administration of urban centres of erstwhile entire northern Bengal was concerned. It happened in the case of capital town of erstwhile Koch dynasty, Cooch Behar where ethnic Rajbangsis lost their landed properties to caste Hindu Bengalis, most of whom were migrated from southern Bengal long ago under the patronage of the royal house. Similar case was seen for Jalpaiguri town too.
Negligible Access to Industrialisation and Services Sectors
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Industrialisation in Rajbangsi inhabited areas has long been neglected. Except, tea, timber and few others agro-based industries such as pineapple, bamboo, cane furniture etc. no worth mentioning industry is available in such areas where Rajbangsis can find some employability. So far, these people have not proved to be enterprising, may be because of their nature or for lack of capital and opportunities. Also, they have not developed banking habits. Due to poor financial conditions and inability to pledge collateral security, generally Rajbangsis fail to get Bank loans for setting up any industry. Again, lack of adequate exposure to modern life, this community has negligible presence in the vibrant services sector, which is contributing to the growth of Indian economy. So, unless special economic packages are given to the Rajbangsi, they cannot do business and set up any industry.
Conclusion
As a result of globalisation, there is not much change in the status of Rajbangsi community in North Bengal. They have been affected by unemployment, lack of education opportunities, job opportunities etc. So far these people have not proved to be enterprising, may be because of their nature or for lack of capital and opportunities. Also they do not have banking habits. Particularly of the northern part of North Bengal, most of the labourers including men and women work on the road, work as servants, helper or masons.
References
Barman, J. (1976).A dualistic labour system?A critique of the 'informal sector'concept, Economic and Political Weekly, November 27, 1870-76. Basu, Swaraj (2003). Dynamics of caste movement: The Rajbangshi of North Bengal, 1910-1947, Manohar Pub., New Delhi. Greearson, George Abraham (1928). Linguistic Survey of India, Office of the Superintendent of Government, India, 1903-1928. Sanyal, C.C. (1965). The Rajbangshi of North Bengal, Asiatic Society.
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ECONOMIC DEPRIVATION OF SCHEDULED TRIBES IN INDIA: HOW IT DRIVES THEIR SOCIETY EXCLUDED?
Abhijit Debnath Guest Lecturer, Department of Geography, Saheed Kshudiram College, Kamakhyaguri, Dist. Alipurduar, West Bengal
Abstract
Scheduled tribes are one of most deprived community of India in economically as well as socially. Backwardness, and geographical isolation push them from the way of development. Indicators of better livelihood like proper education, houseing condition, health facility and availability of drinking water is almost negligible condition in this society. Number of people below poverty line, per capita expenditure, per capita income, standard of living makes them one of most neglected community of India. Economic deprivation is one pre condition of social exclusion of their society.This paper examines the quantitative amount of their dismissal in economic status in terms of various indicators of better livelihood besed on secondary data collected from various sources. It also highlighted how this economic detriment leads them not to copeup with other section of society. Some suggestions are recommended for policy implication to prevent their societal status.
Key words: Adivasi, below poverty line, Malnutrition, per capita expendature, Social dismissal
Introduction
Indian society has been broadly divided into tribal, rural and urban societies on the basis of their geographical surroundings and socio cultural characteristics. Tribals live in relative isolation marked with distinct culture, language and religion. In the contemporary world they are considered to be socio-economically backward. These tribal people are commonly known as the “Adivasi”.
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A tribe can be defined as a community living in hilly or well demarcated areas having its own culture. Article 366 (25) of the constitution of India refers to scheduled tribes who are scheduled in accordance with aricle 342 of the constitution. This article says that only those communities who have been declared as such by the President through initial public notification or through a subsequent amending act of parliament will be considered to be scheduled tribes. Essential characteristics for a community to be identified as scheduled tribes are
Indications of primative traits Distinctive culture Shyness of contact with the community at large Geographical isolation Backwardness
On the other hand economic deprivation is defined as the lack of sufficient income for people to play roles, participation in relationships and taking part in the accepted roles expected of them in the society. Economic deprivation is a state of income inequality wherein income generated by an individual is not enough to cover his basic needs of livelihood. It has increased the gap between rich and poor where rich becomes richer and the poor becomes poorer. This is because the rich people have the financial means to create more wealth. Economically deprived people, on other hand, barely have enough for subsistence. Economic deprivation still remains a serious problem in the world particularly in the third world countries like India. This is very prominent in some community groups especially among the scheduled tribes.
Demographic profile
Total tribal population is 10.43 crore constituting 8.6 percent of the total population of India. According to the census of 2011, 89.97 percent of them live in rural areas and rest in urban areas. The decadal growth of tribals from 2001 to 2011 has been 23.66 percent against 17.69 percent of the entire population. Growth rate is higher compared to the other communities and in terms of sex ratio they stand in a better position in India. The sex ratio of scheduled tribes is 990 females per thousand males. Broadly the scheduled tribes inhabit two distinct geographical areas of India
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–the central India and north eastern area. Sex ratio is an important population characteristics that highlights the social attention provided to women. It is found that the child sex ratio of scheduled tribes has been declining from 2001 (972) to 2011 (957) though it is higher than all over India child sex ratio of 914.
Educational status
Education forms an important component in the overall development of individuals, enabling them greater awareness, better comprehension of their social, political and cultural environment and also facilitate in the improvement of their socio-economic condition. This holds true in the case of the scheduled tribes in India also. Although literacy levels of scheduled tribes have improved, the gap in literacy level both for tribal men and women has not declined significantly. It has increased from 8.53 percent in 1961 to 58.96 in 2011. Male-female gap in literacy rate has decreased from 24.41 percent in 2001 to 19.18 percent in 2011. However this marginal improvement is not sufficient to achieve educational parity on terms of the level of achievement between tribal and non tribal students as they still have low achievement level and fall a long way behind the expected levels. This is a major concern and requires strategic intervention. Tribal communities continue to lag behind the general population in educational achievements. The reason for this can be categorized as external, internal, socio-economic and psychological. The external constraints refers to the problems associated with the school system, content curriculum, medium of instruction, monitoring and teacher related problems. Most of the tribal communities have their own language different from the language spoken in the state where they are located. Difference in language is one of most important causes of lagging behind in their education, which also creates psychological barrier among the tribal people.
Economic profile: The various dimensions of poverty relating to health, education and other basic services have been continuously internalized in the planning process. Several poverty related programmes have been launched from time to time to reduce the incidence of poverty in the country. In addition to this; spatial programmes have been taken up for the welfare of scheduled caste groups. Poverty may be viewed as absolute or relative poverty. Absolute poverty refers to a set standard which is consistent over time i.e. basic measurement criteria remains same for long time. Relative poverty in contrast, views poverty in societal parameters - defined and dependent on social context; people evaluate their own well being not only in the basis of
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 66 what they have but also on the basis of what they have relative to other people. According to the Planning Commission of India, the per capita consumer expenditure is main criteria to demarcate the poverty line (Table 2). Poverty is defined as the total per capita expenditure of the lowest expenditure class, which consumed 2400 kcal/day in rural areas and 2110 kcal in urban areas with an attempt to provide comprehensive package of essential goods and services to people below the poverty line at current price.
Table1: Rural-urban distribution of ST population below poverty line
Rural (%) Urban (%) 47.2 33.3 Source: Statistical profile of scheduled tribes in India, 2013
BPL population among scheduled tribes is the second highest after scheduled caste population compared to the other communities. But state-wise variation is also found, as the condition is worse in the states like Orissa (75.6), Madhya Pradesh (58.6), and Maharashtra (56.6). Condition is better in urban areas compared to rural areas dominated by scheduled tribes. As per the planning commission, during 2004-05, at the all India level 47.2 percent of scheduled tribes are below poverty line in rural areas as against 33.3 percent in urban areas (Table 1).
Table 2: Average monthly per capita expenditure: MPCE 2004-05 (RS)
Rural 426 Urban 857 Source: report no-472, NSS 6th Round 2004-05
Malnutrition, that is the most crucial keyword for nutrition related research as it encompases a wide range of deficiencies which are clearly associated with unfavourable health outcomes. Tribals of India are mostly vulnarable - socially as well as economically. India with its large and diverse tribal population, witness wide variation in respect to nutritional status and access to land utilization, nutrition and health services and so on. There is a consensus that the health status of the tribal population is very poor and worst because of their isolation, remoteness and being largely uneffected by the developmental process going on in the country. The tribal population is at higher risk of under nutrition because of their dependence on primative agricultural techniques i.e jhum cultivation and also transition of occupation to daily wagers resulting in irregular food supply. Insifficient food intake leads to protein energy malnutrition (PEM) and chronic energy
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 67 deficiency (CED). Nutritional status is an important tool to study of the health status of any community. It largely depends on the consumption of food in relationship to the tribal ecosystem and their nutritional status. Nutrition has been found to be assiciated with morbidity as well mortality conditions. Low socio-economic status and poor dietary pattern with negligible intake of vegetables and fruits, is a pointer of great health threat. On the other hand, they fight with hunger and infectious diseases due to poor basic health amenities.
Basic amenities:
Historically the economy of most tribes in India revolved around hunting and food gathering and then subsequently their livelihood was based on subsistance agriculture. A large number of them in rural areas of india still depend on forest for their livelihood and therefore their basic necessities like food, fuel, housing materials etc. are procured from the forest produce in the forest based tribal economy. Census 2011 illustrates that in terms of basic amenities such as housing conditions, the availability of drinking water, sanitation facility, electricity, communication etc. the scheduled tribes are lagging behind the general population, thereby affecting the former's ability to reach their potential.
Table 3: Household by type of source of drinking water (%)
Perceived full intervention 53.82 Perceived partial intervention 19.58 Perceived non intervention 26.6 Source: Statistical profile of scheduled tribes in India, 2013
Table4: Availability of latrine in households (%)
Households having latrine facility 25.30 Open defecation 74.70 Source: Statistical profile of scheduled tribes in India, 2013
In terms of the availability of drinking water, about 53.82 percent of water sources are perceived to be of full intervention but rest of sources are either potential or non intervention (Table 3).
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Whereas, most of the households (about 74.70 percent) have no latrine facility within the premises (Table 4).
Table 5: Condition of households (%)
Good Liveable Dilapidated 40.62 53.13 6.25 Source: Statistical profile of scheduled tribes in India, 2013
In terms of the condition of the houses, only 40.62 percent households are in good condition and remaining are either liveable or dilapidated. Besides these economic developmental indices, per capita income is also considered in the context of economic deprivation of tribals. Per capita income of the tribals is the lowest compared to the other communities. That leads to their contribution to least share in GDP of India. There is also huge imbalnce between people engaged in different occupations and their share in GDP. All these indicators of standards of living show that they are highly vulnarable in terms of economic developmental process. In terms of education, basic amenities of livelihood, and health, they are highly deprived community in India.
Policy Interventions:
Though India's education system over the past few decades has made significant progress, the literacy of the scheduled tribes has been a matter of concern even after so many years of independence. This is despite the fact that the largest proportion of centrally sponsored programmes for tribal development is related to single sector of education. Currently Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) is implemented as India's main programme for universalizing the elementary edication. Its overall goals include universal access and retention, bridging the gender and social category gaps in education and enhancement of learning level of children. The new law provides a justifiable legal framework that entitles all children between the age of 6 and 14 years is free and compulsory admission, attendence and completion of elementary education. It provides for children the right to education of equitable quality, based on the principle of equity and non discrimination. Gross enrolment ratio of scheduled tribe’s children at the elementary level is justified but it falls drastically at the secendary level. Quite clearly, the reason for high dropout of tribal children after class VIII and then again after after class X have to be addressed if their educational status is to be enhanced to enable them to take advantages of the overall
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 69 growth of the economy. The ministry of tribal affair administers two special area programmes namely special central assistance to tribal subplan (SCA to TSP) covering 23 states and grants under article 275(1) of the constitution of India covering 27 states. Under these programmes, funds are provided to the state governments as an addition to other components of tribal sub plans for undertaking various tribal development initiatives and for raising the level of administration in ttibal areas with an aim to boost the socio-economic status of tribal people. Besides this, the ministry has launched a new central sector scheme named as "Vanbandhu Kalyan Yojana" during 2014-15, which aim to develop the backward blocks in the states having scheduled tribe population. Poverty allevation has been one of the guiding principles of the planning process in India, and therefore, the importance of its quantification is important despite diversity of opinions among experts regarding the methodology of measurement. The various dimensions of poverty relating to health, education, and other basic services have been continuously internalized in the planning process. Many anti-poverty programmes have been launched from time to time to reduce the incidence of poverty in the country. In addition to these measures, special programmes have been taken up for the welfare of scheduled tribes. Social deprivation prevents culturally normal interection between an individual and the rest of the society. This social dismissal is included in a broad network of correlated factors that contribute to social exclusion. These factors include mental illness, poverty, poor education, accompanied by low socio- economic status. With social detriments, one may have limited access to the social world due to factors such as low socio-economic status and poor education. The socially excluded people may experience deprivation of basic capabilities due to lack of freedom, rather than mere low income. Thus they constitute the most disadvantaged section of the society based on per capita income, literacy rate, health status and lack of access tobasic amenities.
Thus, economic deprivation becomes one of the preconditions of social exclusion. As social deprivation is not a natural phenomenon, itis a manmade condition. On the other hand, tribal people have some mental illness, and psychological barrier that they will not be able to adjust with the main stream society. Economical weakness leads to social separation. This can be overcome only by providing them equal opportunity in every economic as well as societal entity and enable them with all neccessry materials of living to help them to achieve level playing field. Without development of tribal community, true progress of society is not possible.
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References and Bibliography
Basak, Bijoy (2013). Tribal society in India and its features, 25 November, website retrieved http://www.importantindia.com/8683/tribal-society-in-india-and-its-features/.
Bose, N.K (2002). Tribal life in India, National Book Trust, New Delhi, India.
Govt of India (2013).Statistical profile of scheduled tribes in India 2013, Ministry of tribal affairs, statistical division.
Kapoor, Anup K. & Meenal Dhall (2016).Poverty, malnutrition and biological dynamics among tribes in India, University of Delhi, India.
Khullar, D.R. (2014). India: A Comprehensive Geography, Kalyani publishers.
NSS (2004-05). Report no. 472, NSS 6th Round 2004-05, Govt. of India.
Sujatha, K. (1968). Education amoucation, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India, New Delhi.
THE STATUS OF DEVELOPMENT AND PROBLEMATIC ISSUES: A CASE STUDY OF ALIPURDUAR TOWN, WEST BENGAL, INDIA
Kuntala Biswas Guest Faculty, Department of Geography, Alipurduar College
Abstract
Alipurduar is a municipal town and district headquarter of Alipurduar district in north Bengal in the Indian state of West Bengal situated in the east bank of Kaljani River on the foothills of the Himalayas, the town is the gateway of North Eastern states of India and Bhutan. This town located in the Dooars region and called as “Dooars queen”, for its forest, wildlife, timber and scenic beauty, since the colonial period. It has an average elevation of 93 meter (305 fit).In present, illiteracy, Poverty, unemployment, pollution, sanitation, MSW, over population etc.
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 71 these creating a hazardous situation. With the phase of time, different development takes place in Alipurduar town but on the other hand few social problems also have been observed. This paper is trying to attempt to show the developments and different problematic issues in Alipurduar town.
Key words: Alipurduar, Dooars, illiteracy, poverty, unemployment, pollution, sanitation, MSW, social problems.
Introduction Alipurduar was a sub-divisional municipal town of Jalpaiguri district, but from last 2 years Alipurduar considered as 20th district of West Bengal, located in the eastern bank of Kaljani River on the foothills of Himalayathe town is the gateway of North Eastern states of India and Bhutan. This town located in the Dooars region. Alipurduar is called as the Dooars queen.Alipurduar town is surrounded by deep forest and tea garden. Two rivers flow across the town, known as Kaljani and Nonai. The river Dima flows through the western part of the town. It is a tributary of river Kaljani and it meets with the latter near SmashanKhola.
Alipurduar municipality contains nine census town, such as, South Jitpur, Chechakheta, Alipurduar Railway Junction, BholarDabri, Sobhaganj, Falakata, Jaygoan, North Latabari, Kamakhyaguri and rural areas of 66 grampanchayats under six community blocks such as, Madarihat, Birpara, Alipurduar-I, Alipurduar-II, Falakata, Kalchini, and Kumargram. Location map of study area
India
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West Bengal
Alipurduar ward map Source: Alipurduar Municipality Office Methodology and database The present study has been carried out with the help of both primary and secondary data. Primary data are generated by field observations and from various sources, which are included below-
1. Alipurduar Municipality Office 2. Block Land and Reforms Office (BLRO)
Secondary data is mainly collected from various sources like books, journals, websites which related to this topic. The collected data has been processed, tabulated and later interpreted for the convenience of the present study. The data have been analysed based on both qualitative and quantitative methods.
Objectives of the present study
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The main objective of the present study is to access the status of developments that have occurred in Alipurduar town from its beginning and to discuss the present status of Alipurduar town and different problematic issues which are faced by the people of Alipurduar.
Historical background of the town Alipurduar
Once Alipurduar was the biggest municipality town of Jalpaiguri district in West Bengal. Alipurduar district was declared as the 20th district of the state West Bengal on 25th June, 2014. The name of the town Alipurduar is known by the name of Colonel Hedayet Ali. As per his name this town was named as Alipurduar. (Sunder, 1895).
In 1942 colonel Hedayet Ali was the commander at the military settlement on the bank of the River Kaljani in Alipurduar. The entire tract of the Buxa Dooar was leased out to Hedayet Ali on his superannuation, so the growing town adjacent to the military settlement started growing as well. According to Debnath (2010), the military settlement in the town of Alipurduar, in course of time, gradually became less important because of the rapid growth of military cantonment at Buxa Fort (northern direction of Alipurduar) and also the Chila Roy Barrack (Cooch Behar). But along with the expansion of tea plantation and setting up of railway lines, again Alipurduar gained importance in terms of communication and administration. The partition of India in 1947, led to the immigration of refugees from East Pakistan and rapid growth of population in the town of Alipurduar.
Developments of Alipurduar town 1st phase of development (1600-1899) Human settlements grow up in a place which is favourable for living. Thus, the modern town Alipurduar grew up depending on river Kaljani. This town is more than 125 years old. Most of the regions of Alipurduar and Jalpaiguri were controlled by Cooch Behar during16th century. Hence, discussion about Alipurduar can not avoid discussion about Cooch Behartoo. In the year of 1854 Jalpaiguri formed as a sub-division and it became a district on 1st June, 1869. In the year 1867 Buxa was formed as a sub-division of Jalpaiguri. Following that, the sub-division changed to Falakata and it continued up to1874. But Falakata was not the permanent sub-division. In 1872, the population density of Alipurduar was only 24. And finally, in 1876 the sub-division was converted to Alipurduar (Grunning, 1911). There was no pakka road in Alipurduar. People used elephant and sheep carts to travel. In 1890 the city dwellers built the ‘Babupara’ area.
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Alipurduar court was situated in the northern part of the jail and in the southern part there was a Revenue Department, surrounded by hedge. But these offices were not settled for long time for the flood caused by the river Kaljani and so had to shift to their present places. In recent times the P.W.D office has occupied the rice fields.
2nd phase of development (1900-1999) The development was continuing with the phase of time. The Cooch Behar State Railway was built up in 1883 and it connected Alipurduar in 1900. In the year of 1901 the railway was extended to Rajabhat khawa and Jayanti. The railway track was narrow gage at first but in 1910 it changed to meter gage. There was a bridge built up in the river kaljani but is no longer existing now. The first bridge on Kaljaniriver was built in 1900. The first high school was established at Alipurduar in 1916 named Alipurduar High School. Alipurduar Court building was set up in 1928. The total population of Alipurduar was 3000 in 1930. After that Alipurduar McWilliam School was founded in 1937. After these two boys schools and a girls school were established named Alipurduar Newtown Girls High School in 1956. Alipurduar just started to grow, but every year the town suffered due to flood by the river Kaljani. To protect the town from flood, construction of dam was started in 1951. After the partition, many refugees came to Alipurduar from East Bengal and the population increased. For all these reasons and the increasing population, Alipurduar was declared as a Municipality Town in 1951. Alipurduar Municipality Office was established at Sharing Patti in 7th February 1957. But it was a rental building. Municipality needed own land and own building. Lastly they found a land having 44 decimals area with two storied buildings. Finally municipality office shifted at the present position in 1964. The Kaljani Bridge was built up in 1966. The local board of Alipurduar was constructed in 1891 but lost its importance on 1st January 1984, as it got extinct. The first Municipality election started in the year of 1963 with 15 wards. With the increasing population the no of wards increased again to 20 wards. There was a railway bridge in Jayanti connected with Alipurduar, but after the flood of 1993, the bridge was totally broken down. In 1998 Greenland Nursing home was established.
3rd and the last phase of development (2000-2016)
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In the 2001 the population of Alipurduar town had increased by 72,999 people. The progress of Alipurduar town is continuing with the phase of time. Dooars Academy of Technology and Management College (DATM) was established on 31st Octobor 2005. The Eastern Dooars B.Ed. training college was established at Bhatibari on 7th August 2006. Covers an area of 8740.92 sq. mt, Alipurduar B.Ed.Training College was established at Tapshikhata in 2008. Alipurduar Mahila Mahavidyalaya was established on 4th August 2008, and the classes began temporarily in Alipurduar Collegiate School and continued there for 4 years till the foundation stone of the new college building was laid on 16th of February, 2009. On 23rd December 2010 Jalpaiguri Dooars primary Teachers Training Institute was established at Ghagra, Alipurduar. In 24th August 2013, the opening of the Central Co-operative Bank was very important step for the development. Finally, on 25th June, 2014, Alipurduar sub-division was declared as a District. The opening of Alipurduar Indoor Stadium is another example of its progress. The Alipurduar open stadium and swimming pool works are in progress. Currently the foundation of ultramodern Administrative building is in process. It is the second largest Administrative building in west Bengal after Nabanno - the main administrative building in Howrah, and a 5-floor bungalow of District Council is being prepared. In the year 2008 the .B.F. Road of Alipurduar was expanded as one way road. In recent years the A.K Road and Puran Bazar road is also going to be as one way. At present, the main road beautification is another example of its development. With a new children’s park called Shishu Uddyan at College Halt area continued the beautification of Alipurduar town in 2010. After the year 2000 Alipurduar got a new nursing home known as Maa Seva Nursing home. At present Alipurduar people have 3 hospitals- APD district hospital, Lions eye hospital, Alipurduar railway hospital hospital, and 4 Nursing homes. After the year 2014 Alipurduar sub divisional hospital was upgraded to district hospital which has different features- Increased staff strength included 13 new doctors; CT Scan Unit 16 Slice; Fair Price Medicine Shop which gives 65.5% Less on Medicine; Rogi Sahayata Kendra for Assisting the Patients families RSBY Rastriya Swasthya Bima Yojona, this service for BPL Patients RSBY Card Holders; Digital X Ray Unit from May 2015; Dialysis Unit- 6 Bed & 5 Machine from April 2015; Critical Care Unit 12 Bed (CCU);
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SNCU- Sick New born Care Unit; Burn Unit going to be opened Shortly; New USG Colour Doppler Machine Digital Display Board for Showing Blood Stock Position opening shortly with in May 2016; Semi Auto Analyzer Machine for Pathology Department for various blood tests, to better service of Blood Bank for Public service; New Nursing Training School 25 Seats opened; PHE Overhead water tank for Water supply in all over the Hospital; Child Ward Repair & renovation etc. Not only that, Alipurduar District Hospital has got an Ultramodern Critical Care Unit Ambulance, and this ambulance has all kinds of different features like ventilation to OT. The Alipurduar ROB (Railway Over Bridge) is in progress. Now Alipurduar has its own health centres equipped with their doctor, nurse, staffs and all kind of different features for all the people of municipality.With lighting the street by LED lights, the beautification of Alipurduar town, by MLA Development Fund took place on 31st December 2016. The work of Alipurduar electric furnace is in process.
I. II.
Source: Author photographs of Municipality garbage disposal van and ambulance Compactor machine using by APD Municipality to dispose their waste Critical care unit Ambulance
Source: Alipurduar District Hospital
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Table: 2 Population density of Alipurduar (M)
Year 1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971
Population density 43 73 87 98 115 132 202 264
Source: Census of India
Table: 3
Total coverage area of various process inAlipurduarMunicipality, 2016
Sl. No Purpose Area (%)
1 Educational area 0.55
2 Industrial area 1.20
3 Commercial area 2.00
4 Residential area 1.58
5 Various Services 0.015
Source: Alipurduar Municipality Office.
Problematic issues of Alipurduar town The Alipurduar municipality has not been able to collect garbage properly, leading to piles of waste all over the town because of the absence of a dumping ground. Water problem in few areas is another problem faced by the population of Alipurduar. Traffic problems due to shortage of main roads and increasing use of rickshaws, autos, totos, personal cars day by day. Problems of dumping of household garbage. In recent years, the problem of dust has increased in Alipurduar because of the foundation of railway over bridge at Assam get area, Alipurduar court. Water problems in rainy seasons at Badherpar area. Due to heavy rainfall, the people of that area are facing various types of problems.
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The main problem of this town is the footpaths are occupied by shops of this town for their own benefits, which makes critical problems to freely walk on footpath.
References and Bibliography Debnath, S. (2010).The Dooars in historical transition(1sted.). N.L. Publishers in association with National Library in Siliguri, West Bengal Grunning, J.F. (1911). Eastern Bengal and Assam District Gazetteers, Jalpaiguri.The Pioneer Place, Allahabad. Sunder, D.H.E. (1895). Survey and Settlement of the Western Dooars, in the District of Jalpaiguri. Calcutta: Printed at the Bengal Secretariat Press. Census of India (1901-2011). Registrar General of India, Govt. of India.
FRESH WATER SCARCITY IN INDIA: ANALYSING A MAJOR PROBLEM OF MILLIONS OF PEOPLE
Haripada Paul Assistant professor, Department of Geography, Saheed Kshudiram College, Email- [email protected]
Abstract
Water scarcity is the lack of sufficient available water resources to meet water needs within a region. Water scarcity involves water shortage, water stress or deficits, and water crisis. Fresh Water is an essential resource to sustain life. More than two billion people worldwide live in regions facing water scarcity and in India this is a particularly acute crisis. Millions of Indians currently lack access to clean drinking water, and the situation is getting worse. India’s demand for water is growing at an alarming rate. The rapid growth of population and development calls for increased allocations of ground water and surface water for domestic, agriculture and industrial sectors. Meanwhile, India’s supply of water is rapidly dwindling due primarily to mismanagement of water resources, although over-pumping and pollution are also significant contributors. As demand for increasing supply of water in coming years, India will face subsequent problems, such as food shortages, intra-state and international conflict. India’s water crisis is predominantly a manmade problem. Extremely poor management, unclear laws,
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 79 government corruption, and industrial and human waste have caused this water supply crunch and rendered what water is available practically useless due to the huge quantity of pollution. In managing water resources, the Indian government must balance competing demands between urban and rural, rich and poor, the economy and the environment. In this paper, it is aimed to delineate the relation between recharge and withdrawal of water, and also to find out the causes of water crisis which faced by the millions of people in different parts of India. The reports of the National Water Policy of India, CWC, NCIWRDP, FAO, World Bank, census of India are regarded as secondary sources of data. Today, there are thousands of village and town facing an acute drinking water shortage. Water supply plants are not able to supply sufficient water in cities. That is why it is an urgent need to address the issue of water scarcity in India to make better policy decisions which will affects it’s availability in future.
Keywords: water scarcity, recharge, withdrawal, mismanagement, manmade problems, conflict, policy.
Introduction Water related problems had reached a crisis point in India and given rise to issues of widespread drought, decreasing ground water level, salinity and increasing pollution of water bodies. All these issues related to imbalance in demand and supply. The situation of a gap between the demand and supply of usable water is of grave concern, having given rise to a division of people into the ‘haves’ and ‘have not’s in terms of their access to quality water. Apart from drawing to geographical demarcations, water crisis has sharpened the dividing line between the urban and the rural, the rich and the poor. The media reports about starvation deaths, increasing cases of suicide among farmers, mother selling of their babies, and the rising graph of criminal activities in rural areas- are not too distant to be forgotten. They all relate to the plight of rural poor faced with the situation of unsuitable yield from farmland, due to paucity of water (Maheshwari and Pillai, 2011). Scarcity of water has also affected the performance of several industries, including power plants. Besides the social and economic angle, the present water situation has political, legal, environmental and even religious connotations.
Objective The present paper has the following objectives- 1. To delineate the relation between recharge and withdrawal of water in India
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2. To find out the causes of water crisis which faced by the millions of people in different parts of India 3. To suggest some remedial measures for water management to reducing water depletion
Methodology
The present paper is based on secondary sources and data has been collected from the reports of the National Water Policy of India, CWC, NCIWRDP, FAO, World Bank, census of India, books, journals, etc. The collected data has been analyzed and represented by different cartographic techniques.
Supply of fresh water Ground water: Fresh water is constantly formed newly through a phenomenon known as hydrological cycle .Ground water recharge is the process water percolates down the soil and reaches the water table by natural method .Rainfall is the major source of water in India. India receives most of its water from south west monsoon. About 75% of annual rainfall occur during a short span of four months between June to September .As far as rainfall concern it shows large variation in the amount of rainfall received by different parts of India e.g. the average rainfall is less than 13cm over the western Rajasthan, while some parts of Meghalaya it has as much as 1141cm. As per Indian Metrological Department India’s annual rainfall is around 118.28cm. The annual availability of groundwater is determined by the annual recharge of the aquifer by surface water. Thus the availability of groundwater is intricately linked to the availability of surface water. The annual potential of natural ground water recharge from rainfall in India is about 342.43 km3, which is 8.56% of total annual rainfall of the country.
Groundwater is the major source of drinking water in both urban and rural India. It is also an important source of water for the agricultural and the industrial sectors. India possesses about 432 billion cubic meters of groundwater replenished yearly from rain and river drainage, but only 395 billion cubic meters are utilizable. Of those 395 billion cubic meters, 82% goes to irrigation and agricultural purposes, while only 18% is divided between domestic and industrial. Total static groundwater available is approximately 10,812 billion cubic meters.
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Groundwater is increasingly being pumped from lower and lower levels and much faster than rainfall is able to replenish it. The average groundwater recharge rates of India’s river basins are 260 cubic metre per day. The Delhi Jal Board, which is responsible for supplying potable water, estimates that water tables are dipping by an average of .4 meters a year. In addition, the human, agricultural, and industrial waste that pollute India’s rivers seep into the ground, thus contaminating the groundwater. Groundwater crisis is not the result of natural factors; it has been caused by human actions. During the past two decades, the water level in several parts of the country has been falling rapidly due to an increase in extraction. The number of wells drilled for irrigation of both food and cash crops have rapidly and indiscriminately increased. The following table represents the supply of ground and surface water over time in India-
Table-1: Supply of Ground and Surface water in India Year Ground water (billion Surface water(billion cubic cubic meters per annum) meters per annum) 1997 225 325 2010 200 280 2020 130 220 2050 40 50 Source: World Bank report on water in India.
Figure No. – 1, Supply of Ground and Surface water in India
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350
300
250
200 Ground water 150 Surface water
100
50
0
WATER WATER BILLION IN CUBIC METERS 1997 2010 2020 2050 Year
Surface water: The annual precipitation in India is about 4000 billion cubic meters. Since river forms the natural hydrological unit, estimates of surface water resources are made basin wise and the annual mean of flow in a basin is reckoned to be its water resource. India has 24 identified river basins and the total surface water resource of these basins has been estimated at 1953 billion cubic meters (Maheshwari and Pillai, 2011). The Himalayan Rivers, such as the Ganges, are formed by melting snow and glaciers and therefore have a continuous flow throughout the year. The Himalayas contain the largest store of fresh water outside the polar ice caps, and feed seven great Asian rivers. This region receives very heavy rainfall during the monsoon period, causing the rivers to swell and flood. The coastal rivers, the Brahmaputra and the Krishna, especially on the west coast, are short in length with small catchment areas. The peninsular rivers, which include the Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri, flow inland and also greatly increase in volume during the monsoon season. Finally, the rivers of the inland drainage basin, such as the Mahanadi and the Godavari, dry out as they drain towards the silt lakes such as the Sambhar, or are lost in the sands (Brooks, 2007).
India receives an average of 4,000 billion cubic meters of rainfall every year. Unfortunately, only
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 83
48% of rainfall ends up in India’s rivers. Due to lack of storage and crumbling infrastructure, only 18% can be utilized. Rainfall is confined to the monsoon season, June through September, when India gets, on average, 75% of its total annual precipitation. Once again, due to India’s storage crunch the government is unable to store surplus water for the dry season. Such uneven seasonal distribution of rainfall has not stimulated the development of better capturing and storing infrastructure, making water scarcity an unnecessary yet critical problem.
Demand and Usage: In 2010 between the domestic, agricultural, and industrial sectors, India used approximately 829 billion cubic meters of water every year. By 2050 demand is expected to double and consequently exceed the 1.4 trillion cubic meters of supply.
Domestic: India’s 1.21 billion people need access to clean drinking water. The demand for drinking water is divided between the urban and rural populations, and comprises about 4-6% of total water demand. Due to the amenities of typical urban life, such as flush toilets and washing machines, people living in cities tend to lead more water intensive lives. The urban population has doubled over the past 30 years, now representing 31.11% (census, 2011) of India’s total population and is expected to reach 50% of the total population by 2025. Population growth is going to accelerate the water crisis in India, especially as more and more people move into the cities and become part of the middle class. Because the rivers are too polluted to drink and the government is unable to consistently deliver freshwater to the cities, many urban dwellers are turning to groundwater, which is greatly contributing to the depletion of underground aquifers. Rural citizens face a similar crisis. Currently 31.11% of the rural population lack access to drinking water and of the 36 states in India, only 7 have full availability of drinking water for rural inhabitants. Most people who live in rural areas demand less water for day-to-day living than people living in cities, and the majority of their water demand comes from agricultural needs. The following table reflects the water withdrawal in various sectors in India.
Table-2: Ground and surface water withdrawal in India. Sector Ground Water withdrawal Surface water withdrawal (in %) (in %)
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Agriculture 92 89 Industrial 5 2 Domestic 3 9
Source: Earth Trends, 2010, World Resource Institute.
Agricultural: Despite the recent rapid growth in the services and industrial production, agriculture is still an integral part of India’s economy and society. Between 1947 and 1967 India underwent the Green Revolution, which concentrated on expanding farm yields by double-cropping existing farmland and using seeds with improved genetics. The result was a huge increase in agricultural production, making India one of the world’s biggest exporters of grain. The availability of canal water led farmers to adopt highly profitable, but extremely water intensive crops, such as sugar cane. In addition, India achieved its goal of obtaining food security. The rural economy sustains two-thirds of India's 1.21 billion citizens. Unfortunately, this huge surge in agriculture, required significant water resources for irrigation and accelerated the onset of present water shortages. India’s agricultural sector currently uses about 90% of total water resources. Irrigated agriculture has been fundamental to economic development, but unfortunately caused groundwater depletion. Due to water pollution in rivers, India draws 80% of its irrigation water from groundwater. As water scarcity becomes a bigger and bigger problem, rural and farming areas will most likely be hit the hardest. Thus far, food security has been one of the highest priorities for politicians, and the large farming lobby has grown accustomed to cheap electricity, which allows extremely fast pumping of groundwater, which is something they are unwilling to give up for the sake of water conservation. If India wants to maintain its level of food security, farmers will have to switch to less water intensive crops. Otherwise India will end up being a net importer of food, which would have massive ramifications for the global price of grain.
Industrial: Another area of concern is the water intensive industries. Water is both an important input for many different manufacturing and industrial sectors and used as a coolant for machines, such as textile machines. Cheap water that can be rapidly pumped from underground aquifers has been a
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 85 major factor in the success of India’s economic growth. For example, the garment industry in Tirupur, a city in the southern state of Tamil Nadu, was growing faster than anyone thought possible for several decades. By 1990’s, however, the town was running out of water, which is a critical input for dyeing and bleaching. Despite the many benefits from a thriving economy, industrial waste is largely responsible for the high levels of pollutants found in India’s rivers and groundwater. Many corporations end up polluting the very water they later need as an input. According to the Ministry of Water Resources, industrial water use in India stands at about 50 billion cubic meters or nearly 6 per cent of total freshwater abstraction. As per the Ministry of power, thermal power plants which are the most water intensive industrial units, constitute around 65% of the installed power capacity in India. This demand is expected to increase dramatically in the next decade (Brooks, 2007).
Water crisis in different parts of India: The drinking water crisis in many Indian cities is reaching alarming proportions. Urban population is suffering from irregular water supply, sometimes leading to clashes among them. Over 300 districts in 13 states of the country, including Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Chhattisgarh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Haryana, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Maharashtra, are facing shortage of drinking water as per the report of “ Union ministry of drinking water and sanitation” (2016). Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh have reported the most number of districts, 50 and 46 respectively affected due to water shortage.
People in north-western India are aware of the problem – their wells have been running dry. Around 114 million people live in the region, where around 95% of groundwater withdrawals are for irrigation of crops – primarily rice, wheat and barley.
In north Gujrat the water table is falling by 6 meters per year. In Tamilnadu, a state with more than 72 million people, wells are going dry almost everywhere and falling water tables have dried up 95 percent of the wells owned by small farmers reducing the irrigated area in the state by half over the last decade (Indian Express, 2014).
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Causes of water scarcity in India: The water scarcity is mostly man made due to excess population growth and mismanagement of water resources. Some of the major reasons behind water scarcity in India are -
1. The ever increasing population (currently 17.31% of the world’s population) while India’s share of water resources at roughly 4% which is very small.
2. Reduction in traditional water recharging areas.
3. Sewage and wastewater drainage into traditional water bodies.
4. Release of chemicals and effluents into rivers, streams and ponds.
5. Lack of on-time de- silting operations in large water bodies that can enhance water storage capacity during monsoon.
6. Lack of efficient water management and distribution of water between urban consumers, the agriculture sector and industry.
7) Inefficient use of water for agriculture
8) The rise in the per capita consumption of water.
The ever increasing imbalance in the demand and supply position of water forms the cores structural aspect of water crisis, solution for which is sought by enhancing supply potential. Reducing the imbalance in demand and supply by managing the demand has not been encouraged so far even though it is a viable alternative for solving water crisis. The absence of a national water vision, lack of centralized planning, inadequacy of water usages laws and the intolerance of stakeholders of water resources development projects towards one another are all non structural aspects of the water crisis.
Water management: The tragedy of India’s water scarcity is that the crisis could have been largely avoided with better water management practices. There has been a distinct lack of
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 87 attention to water legislation, water conservation, efficiency in water use, water recycling, and infrastructure. Historically water has been viewed as an unlimited resource that did not need to be managed as a scarce commodity or provided as a basic human right. These attitudes are changing in India; there is a growing desire for decentralized management developing, which would allow local municipalities to control water as best needed for their particular region. India recently recognized the need to manage existing water reserves in order to avoid future water strain. However, for a country of such vast geographical expanse the initiatives taken so far are too few and too spread out. The following steps can be taken in different sectors to reduce the water depletion. a) Agricultural Sector: i) Improve water usage efficiency in the production of water-intensive crops such as rice, wheat and sugarcane; encourage adoption of techniques such as rain-water harvesting and watershed management in agriculture ii) Reduce subsidies on power and implement customized pricing models to counter groundwater exploitation through excessive withdrawal
b) Industrial Sector: i) Encourage investment in recycling and treatment of industrial wastewater through regulations and subsidies for water treatment plants c) Domestic Sector: i) Implement policies to make rain-water harvesting mandatory in cities with new construction projects ii) Propagate efficient water usage practices through community based education programs
Conclusion: It is a mistake to assume that water scarcity has gone beyond remedial measures. There is still time and the onus lies on all countries to take steps to deal with it. We have the resources and the technology to do so and it is a simple question of prioritizing. Hence it is urgent need to
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 88 maintain a balanced water management approach involving radical changes in policies, practices, performance and public behavior, apart from changes in constitutional provisions is required to reduce the gap between demand and supply.
References
1. Census of India, (2011). New Delhi, Registrar General and Census Commissioner, Ministry of Home Affairs (censusindia.gov.in). 2. Earth Trends, 2001, World Resource Institute 3. NASA (2007). Grace report of NASA. 4. Government of India (2015). Ground water resources of India, Central Ground Water Board, Ministry of Water Resource, New Delhi. 5. Kumar, R., Singh, R.D. and Sharma, K.D. (2005). Water resources of India, Current Science, vol. 89, 794-811. 6. Government of India (2009). Reassessment of water resources potential of India, Central Water Commission, New Delhi. 7. Government of India (2008). Water resources of India, Publication No. 30/88, Central Water Commission, New Delhi.
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 89
WOMEN LITERACY AND THE ROLE OF NGOS IN INDIA
Assistant Professor in Geography Saheed Kshudiram College (The University of North Bengal) Kamakhyaguri, Dist. Alipurduar, West Bengal [email protected]
Abstract
Literacy of women in India is conventionally studied as per data of the Census of India. The enrolment of girls lags behind their male counterpart in most cases, and in the case of private schooling boys are enrolled more than girls. This indicates strong deprivation factor in the society. The scenario of functional literacy is also very poor. Although the Census is a standard reference; there are several non governmental organisations involved in the research of women literacy. NGOs such as the Pratham ASER Reports paint grim scenario accross chronological background. India can learn from the Khasi community in Meghalaya and internationally the Scandinavian countries, who are trend setters in establishing gender equality. Further, there is an attempt to discuss the prevailing researches about the gender differences in science and mathematics achievements in schools. Secondary data as well as primary data generated in schools of Alipurduar and Barrackpore municipal areas are gathered for studying the gender differences in mathematics literacy.
Keywords: Women Literacy, NGO, functional literacy, Khasi community and Scandinavian countries
Structured Abstract
Purpose –The problems such as, gender discrmination in government aided schools vs. privately owned schools are to be discussed. The functional literacy is a unique concept,is not covered in the census of India, but it is researched by Pratham International. The study focusses on these aspects.
Methodology – The paperhas beenwritten by analysis of Pratham International data, further substantiated by National Sample Survey data etc. The paper is descriptive in type as there are
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 90 cross references and analysis of secondary data. The policy perspectives assume importance in this study. So examples of the Scandinavian countries are mentioned here.
Findings –The gradual progress in female enrolment and gender equality in primary schooling achievement is obvious. It is obvious from NSSO data as well as Pratham NGO data. Yet, enough work is to be done in achieving functional literacy.
Implication-The study carries policy implications such as lack of stress on functional literacy in primary school levels in government aided schools. The policy recommendations suggest successful policy implemetations from other countries where gender disparitity issues are successfully addressed.
Practical Implications – The gross enrolment rate in primary schooling system, aided by Mid Day Meal and Sarva Shikshya Abhiyan, has witnessedalmost full enrolment among both genders in recent years. Nevertheless, these numbers hardly present a comprehensivepicture of gender equality in education. Value –The real attainment of literacy is more important than mere achievement of enrolment and retention. The skewed distribution of girls and boys in private schools reminds us of the need to reformelementary education in India.
Key Words –Girl, functional literacy, school, NGO, Census, Pratham
Paper Type – Scholarly Article
Introduction: The problems of female literacy in India are to be studied in context of socio-cultural associated with economic conditions. The women literacy has improved recently, even if the conservative Hindi heartland trails. The Census of India data and surveys done by the non-governmental organisations or NGOs reveal wide differences in real achievements. The policy aspects need to bridge the gap for real literacy attainment. Inspite of steady growth in girls’literacy achievements, many just fail to read or grasp the 3Rs; i.e. skill in reading, writing and arithmatic with full comprehension. Some hindrances pose challenges like absenteeism, drop out, inadequate infrastructure besides very low level of functional literacy.
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Review of Literature
India’s literacy achievement
India is not ranked high in UNDP’s Human Development Report on the Gender Inequality Index as India lags behind Pakistan, Bangladesh and even Nepal. Manukonda (2013) found the gross enrolment in primary education, has got boost fromschemes like Mid Day Meal and Sarva Shikshya Abhiyan. Hence, enrolment has crossed 100 percent among both genders recently. However, these numbers do not present a complete scenario of gender issues in education. Historical discrimination, socio-cultural background, disparities in resource distribution such as expenditure on education, and social interaction between men and women still remain deeply embedded. Education is the single most factor of economic growth of a country. Literacy signifies the socio- economic as well as cultural ambience of a nation, ethnic group or community. It has influences on qualitative and quantitative aspects not only of the human resources but also other demographic attributes like fertility, mortality, age of marriage and work participation, aiming towards human welfare (Sawant and Lewis, 2004; Som, 2014).Inspite of growing literacy, the educational quality and lack of functional literacy hinders the educational growth. Many families are do not spend money or put efforts to educate girls. Violence and discrimination further make it even more challenging to attend and prosper in learning.While there are 1017 girls for 1000 boys in government schools, there are only 804 girls for 1000 boys in privately owned schools. In Haryana the disparity is wider e.g. 639 girls per 1000 boys in private schools, and 998 girls per 1000 boys enrolled in government schools. Only Meghalaya has fewer boys enrolled in private schools.Retention and regular attendance are massive challenges before India. Lack of proper sanitation at schools, engagement in domestic chores and early marriage are common hindrances. A survey by the Haryana education department revealed sexual harassment in schools, with above 1000 girls in a single district complained some form of exploitation or abuse. Societies favouring greater freedom manage to create greater scope for participation, and enable a safe as well as enabling environment ultimately prosper. The status of school education in India has been highlighted citing sources other than the Census data. Several NGOs have conducted study in India on the topic. ASER 2014 Report (2015) finds that social distance between teachers and students in government funded schools has remained a major problem. In the past few decades the middle class and the creamy layer among poor have preferred to enrol
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 92 their children in private schools. Thus, the poor, migrant labourers; the extremely marginalised social groups and also the girls belonging to not-so-poor families are left in the cold. The girls in the age group of 15-16 currently not enrolled in school has witnessed drop from 22.6% (ASER 2006 survey) to 17.3% (ASER 2014 survey). In few states the proportion of girls of age group 11-14, out of school remains more than 8% such as, Rajasthan (12.1%) and Uttar Pradesh (9.2%). The proportion of 15 - 16 year age group not enrolled in school is very high. Nationally, in rural areas, 15.9% among boys and 17.3% among girls in 15 - 16 age group are now out of school. In 2014, among 7-10 years, 35.6% of boys are found in private schools in comparison to 27.7% girls. For 11-14 years, 33.5% of boys are enrolled in private schools against 25.9% of girls. On the basis of availability and useability, the share of girls’ toilets has witnessed a growth from 32.9% in 2010 to 53.3% in 2013 to ultimately 55.7% in 2014. Yet, it is low viewed in relation to the deplorable condition of girls’ education. In four states, such as, Kerala, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh and Haryana, more than 75% of schools had useable girls’ toilets.A study in June by the Delhi government shows that nearly fifty percent of the over two lakh students in Class 6, at Delhi government-run schools, are unable to read at all. Only twenty five percent of them are able to read from Hindi textbooks or from a Class 2-level English book.The students were given an oral test to check learning levels. Only 13% were able to identify alphabets and a third solved a three-digit division sum.The 2014 Annual Status of Education Report (ASER) of students belonging to the Nand Nagri municipal area of Delhi showed similar results,(Kausar et al, 2016).
NGOs playing active role India’s school education system lacks quality as compared to Pakistan, Nepal and Bangladesh. The proportion of women with five years of primary schooling were 48 per cent literate, which was much less than Nepal (92 percent), and Bangladesh (54 per cent) as per the data released by the Centre For Social Research in its October 24, 2016 report. The figure 1 suggestspoor access to education by girls in India, asa lion’s share of other developing countries are well ahead of India.
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Figure : 1
Source: CSR (2016)
Several studies suggest that schools face obstacles due to absenteeism and defective management and also due to appointments based on nepotism. As a provider of the most widespread elementary education, constituting about 80 percent of all government accredited schools, the elementary education in the country faces severe shortage of teachers and infrastructural deficiencies.Access to education still poses one the greatest challenges in India. The UNICEF (undated) press releases suggest that even if lower primary schools are accessible within one kilometer for 94 percent of population, every second girl has never been enrolled. This disparity has regional dimensions also with better literacy in the southern and north-eastern states, but poor in the densely populated cow belt, which is feudal in nature. UNICEF, NGOs and other agencies have helped the government efforts to better literacy levels in states having the largest numbers of out-of-school or dropout children, with a stress on girls of marginalized and minority groupssuffering from the highest levels of illiteracy. Chakravarty (2016) views that the National Sample Survey Organisation’s (NSSO) survey on education (71st round) done during January to July 2014, provides us the net attendance ratio (NAR) dropping sharply in secondary school and is worse at the higher secondary stage. Besides, the difference between the richest fifth and the poorest fifth in terms of enrolment is widened from primary to secondary and higher education levels. But not much gender difference is seen in enrolment at all-India level, particularlyin primary level. NAR or net attendance rate is poor in government aided schools. NAR at the secondary schools in Gujarat is 63 percent for boys against 43 percent for girls. The disparities between SCs and STs and other categories increase at higher educational institutions.The disparities is significant for urban girls belonging to ST category at the secondary and higher
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 94 secondary classes. The religious identities are also very important, as evident from enrolment of Muslims is lowest at every level in both male and female. In urban areas, the enrolment of Muslim boys at primary schools is marginally lower, and their proportion at the higher educational institutions is substantially lower. In the case of Muslim girls in urban areas, NAR is substantially lower compared to other religions.
NIRANTAR is a national centre for education and gender, which introduced Sahajani Shiksha Kendra, in 2002, for empowerment of women in Lalitpur district of Uttar Pradesh. The “Girl Star” project has shown films depicting stories of underprivileged girls from five North Indian states who after receiving education; managed to break socio-economic constraints to emerge successful.The programme has been successful in reachingmore than 2000 women belonging to most marginalised communities like Dalits and Adivasis. These young women in the long run, inspire younger girls to attend school and continue their education. Many have even selected unconventional professions like scrap management, bee-keeping, archery etc. Other NGOs such as, Harbans Bhalla provides educational support poor rural children in Jammu & Kashmir, by focussing on education of the young Muslim girls. NGO like Educate Girls was started in Rajasthan for 500 schools, and now covers about 4,500 villages of the state. It has been successful in 87 per cent retention, imparted training to 3,500 teachers and 4,500 communityvolunteers and has set ambitious target of 99 per cent enrolment for girls (Chaudhuri, 2017).
Objectives: The issues such as gender discrmination in government aided schools and private schools are to be discussed. The idea of functional literacy is absent in the census of India, but the concept is studied by Pratham International surveys.
Research Questions
1.The NGOs are able to play key role in elementary education
2. Literacy in Census of India differs from the concept of functional literacy
3. Girls have better enrolment in government primary schools rather than private schools
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 95
Limitations
Thestudy has limitations as the source of data is secondary only, and not necessarily verified by primary ground level survey. There is little scope to discuss the vast and complex problem of gender discrmination inliteracy in such a limited scope. The census is considered as a reliable source of data, yet the data by the leading NGOs are taken as authentic here. There is hardly scope of cross verification regarding authenticdata collection by the NGOs.
Methodology
The study is based on secondary sources of informations. The literature review has been done to establish the extent of gender discrmination in India in terms of enrolment. The data has been analyzed to show the extent of disparity with the neighbouring as well as Scandinavian countries. Emphasis is on discussing the policy issues of India and the Scandinavia as role model for women literacy. Hence, the study is primarily descriptive in nature. The gender disparity in rural India is a topic of special interest, analyzed by cross references of data and information.
Discussion
Female literacy in India has been studied with the help of Census data. So, the study is based on NGO data such asASER Report 2014 (Pratham International), NIRANTAR, UNICEF and National Sample Survey Organisation’s (NSSO) for overallunderstanding of the real literacy scenario. Citing examples of Nordic countries, Zahidi (2013) has mentioned high female work force participation; lowest salary differences in the world, and adequate opportunities for women to prosper to leadership positions etc. These developed and equitable economies have enabled the parents to effectively combine work and family, leading to more women participation in workplace, shared participation in childcare, increased work-life balance for both genders, more equitable labour distribution at home, and in some cases, a boost to declining fertility. Policies in those countries also include paternal leave in association with maternity leave, generous, state-funded parental leave provided by a generous tax incentives, social insurance and post-maternity re-entry schemes and so on. These policies have resulted in declining opportunity costs of more children and caused rising birth rates, as compared to other developed countries. In the case of India, legislative interventions are not sufficient to cause social transformations. The Nordic countries have set interesting goals of gender equality, and have made gender discrimination a punishable offence. The Finnish educational institutions strive for attainment of gender equality through
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 96 comprehensive yearly plans. The implementation is further monitored by an ombudsman. Infrastructure, altered perceptions, security and strong institutional endorsement are necessary to overcome the vicious cycle of gender discrimination. Som et al (2012) found that school availability is the main factor for literacy that view support by the most of the eminent scholar in his work. But the present studies show the low moderate correlation between the availability of school and literacy rate. But in the context of female literacy has more effect than the male literacy.In rural areas parents discriminate the boys to give education compared to girl child. Poverty also compels the parents to discriminate the girls by preferring the boys to give education. Poverty also compels the parents to involve their children to sundry works, rather than sending them to schools. Therefore in order to achieve the goal of universalization of education, more stress should be given for female literacy. Population growth rate and proportion of children act like pseudo variables. They affect the development especially economic development in negative way. Engage the women in high level to care for children. So they have not found the time for concentration on education. Backward districts like Uttar Dinajpur, Bankura, Puruliya, and Malda are backward in literacy and to solve this literacy problem more attention on the development level is needed especially on health, women empowerment and increased school facility. Disparities in literacy by sex have to be narrowed down. Financial assistance should be granted to the weaker sections of the society in order to raise their socio-economic conditions especially in the country sides. The local bodies, NGOs and voluntary organizations have to be invited in this regard. It should not be the task of government only but each and every section of the society should be involved in such programmes.
Some notable examples set by NGOs Some notable examples set by NGOs can be guiding principles. The primary education has several problems such as, staff shortage and non-teaching responsibilities besides other issues choking the system. We can take a cue from Kausar and Chhetri1The added individual attention is hardly seen. As the students from socio-ecnomically disadvantaged sections are weak academically, they rearely receive proper academic guidance and help from their families. There
11Half of Class 6 students in Delhi govt schools can’t read at all, Sep 08, 2016 Heena Kausar and Shradha Chettri , Hindustan Times
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 97 is an urgent need to review the curriculum because of mismatch between syllabus and learning levels. There should be measurable learning outcomes for teachers and students to achieve. Marlena said the Delhi government launched Chunauti 2018 programme in which students are divided into remedial groups. Special lectures are regulalrly planned for them to bring up their learning levels. The activities of some organisations are important such as, Sir Dorabji Tata Trust, DVV (German Adult Education Association) sponsors Sahajani Shiksha Kendra: Literacy and Education for Women’s Empowerment, with the active leadership of Nirantar initiated Sahajani Shiksha Kendra (SSK) in 2002 (UNESCO, 2017). 'Sahajani'locally means ‘one who helps women’. The programme aims at empowering women and adolescent girls through literacy and education that makes connections with their lived realities as wel as rights, and empowers them to develop analytical skills on gender, development and many other related issues. Through its many activities, the programme reaches more than 2000 women and adolescent girls of the most marginalised communities like Dalits (Scheduled Castes) and Adivasis (Scheduled Tribes).SSK’s work on adult literacy, nurtured by Nirantar, is critical in a context when women literacy rates are only 20% in SC and ST areas and where there is lack of best practices and models on adult literacy. The programme encompasses an innovative ethnographic research on literacy-numeracy practices, developing and testing packages and modules of thematic literacy and Continuing Education (CE), and linking issues related to health, gender, violence, caste, right to work, etc. with the educational work.
Today ‘adult education’ is applied interchangeably with ‘vocational training’ or ‘functional literacy’, and apart from this, there are very few initiatives integrating women empowerment and social transformation within their educational activities.
The strategies adopted in the SSK programme are as follows:
Village-level literacy centres, which are located in the community or hamlet and run over a period of 18 months Village-level (six-day) literacy camps Residential (ten-day) literacy camps Regular literacy follow-up and issue-based meetings with women learners
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At the village level, there is a cadre of newly-literate Dalit and Adivasi women leaders in the SSK programme. They are organised into loose collectives called ‘samitis’ and the vision is for them is to strengthen their literacy skills through a Continuing Education programme, and to come together in a collective formation – a federation – that will act as a pressure group in the area to demand and get entitlements. These collectives are engaged in dialogue and negotiation with local self-government, and events like awareness programmes, rallies, demonstrations, etc. This is an important strategy for strengthening greater participation and ownership of the local community in the SSK programme, and also in the long-term sustainability of the change process.
References
ASER (2015). Annual Status of Education Report (Rural) 2014, Provisional; 13 January, Pratham, 15 - 320.
Centre for Social Research (2016). Does Literacy Rate Indicate Literacy?, October 24.
Chakravarty, Manas (2016). How unequal is access to education?, May 09,website accessed: http://www.livemint.com/Opinion/t1QNCalLHTDkt8iun03jdK/How-unequal-is-access-to- education.html Kausar, Heena and Shradha Chettri (2016). Half of Class 6 students in Delhi govt schools can’t read at all, Hindustan Times, Sep 08.
Manukonda, Krupakar (2013). A girl first, a student later, June 7, Retreived fromhttp://pragati.nationalinterest.in/2013/06/a-girl-first-a-student-later/
Som, Kalyan Sundar and R.P. Mishra (2014). Literacy and Their Differential in West Bengal, International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR), 3(6,) June, pp. 1537 – 1545.
UNESCO (2017). Sahajani Shiksha Kendra: Literacy and Education for Women’s Empowerment, website accessed: http://litbase.uil.unesco.org/?menu=9&programme=82
UNICEF (undated). Girl-Star-Project, website accessed:http://unicef.in/PressReleases/339/Girl- Star-Project
Zahidi, Saadia (2013). What Makes the Gender Equality Winners?, Economic Times, 10/24/2013, website accessed: http://www.huffingtonpost.com/saadia-zahidi/what-makes-the-nordic- cou_b_4159555.html
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SANITATION CONDITION OF KOCH BIHAR DISTRICT: A CASE STUDY OF JATRAPUR VILLAGE, RAJARHAT
Koyel Roy
Scholar, Cooch Behar Panchanan Barma University
Anindita Dey
Scholar, Cooch Behar Panchanan Barma University
Subhajit Saha
Scholar, Cooch Behar Panchanan Barma University
Abstract
According to Merriam Webster, ‘things considered to be essential to make life easier and more pleasant’ is called basic amenities. There have been so many basic amenities like food, cloth, shelter, health etc. for alive. Providing basic facilities to people is one of the important responsibilities of a democratic country like India. Health is one of the basic facilities which mainly driven by sanitation condition. Although urban people are aware of the fact but sanitary condition of rural India is miserable till now. The present paper shows such condition of rural India with the reference of Jatrapur village of Koch Bihar district. This paper also highlights the present scheme operating in rural areas and peoples’ awareness about the necessities of sanitary latrines for the benefits of their own health.
Keywords: Sanitation; Democratic country; Mission Nirmal Bangla; NSSO; ODF
Introduction
According to Merriam Webster, “the act or process of making or keeping things free from filth, infection, or other dangers to health” is called sanitation. Sanitation is the hygiene which protects health through prevention of human contact with the hazards of waste materials as well as the
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 100 treatment and proper disposal of wastewater. As it is said that ‘health is wealth’, we must concern with our health which is mostly depends on our sanitary condition of surrounding areas.
Third world countries like our India, most Indians depend on on-site sanitation facilities which mean mainly pit latrines in rural areas. But in urban areas the scenery is quite different; they mostly use septic latrines. As urban area shortly advance in education than rural area, they largely aware with their health but in rural areas peoples are not aware for their health. So they are not bothering with sanitary condition. Jatrapur village is situated besides NH 31 at Koch Bihar district, but remains neglected till now in sanitation. Although 90% households have sanitary latrines but most of them are pit and semi pakka latrines. So, to highlight the present condition of this village and consciousness of people about sanitation we have done this survey.
Objectives of the study
The main objectives of the paper are-
To identify the sanitary condition of Jatrapur village. To identify peoples’ awareness upon human health of that village. To know how government help them to improve their sanitary condition. Analyzing different schemes of sanitation is it’s another concern. To represent their emphasis given on separate latrines and toilets of the study area.
Location of the study area:
West Bengal is located in the eastern part of India. Koch Bihar district is located in the northern part of West Bengal. Jatrapur village with Census of India Village-code 308292 is located in Cooch Behar –II C.D Block of Koch Bihar district in west Bengal, India. This village is under Takagach Rajarhat Gram Panchayat. It is located near Rajarhat Chowpathy besides NH 31. This village has 216 households.
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Fig 1: Location Map of present Study Area
WEST BENGAL COOCH BEHAR
COOCH BEHAR BLOCK- II JATRAPUR
Source: Maps of India, www.coochbehar.nic.in, Google map
Methodology
The present study is mostly based on primary data and quite influenced by secondary data. For conducting this research both the primary and secondary data have been collected through field survey and from Gram Panchayat Office, Rajarhat. In order to carry out the present study,
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 102 collected data are then tabulated, analyzed and represented in this paper. For representing these data we use relevant quantitative, cartographic and GIS techniques.
Present condition of sanitation:
According to NSSO survey report, in 2013, in West Bengal only 39.7% rural houses do not have toilets, where as in India 59.4% rural houses do not have toilets. So it indicates that West Bengal has surpluses than other states in India. West Bengal Government has aimed to achieve ODF status within 2017 with its ambitious project “Mission Nirmal Bangla”.Koch Bihar district of West Bengal also aims to stop open defection, to develop sanitary and hygienic habits among its habitants and to make the district Nirmal District. For the year 2009-2010 sixty gram panchayats have been proposed for moving the Government of India for Niraml Gram Puraskar.Our study area, Jatrapur village also achieved 90% ODF status. But some people even now defecate in open areas and do not have pakka latrines. The sewerage system is very poor. The scenario of sanitary condition of this village has given below:
Availability of sanitary latrines and toilets:
In Jatrapur village 90% households have sanitary latrines; only 10% households do not have any latrines. But only 40% houses have separate toilets, 60% houses do not have toilets. There is no house with separate toilets for women.
Yes No Yes No
Fig 2: Availability of sanitary latrines Fig 3: Availability of toilets
Types of latrines:
The survey reveals that there is a growing awareness among the villagers about sanitation. Only 15% latrines are pit latrines. 47.5% houses have pakka latrines; on the other hand 27.5 %
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 103 households use semi-pakka sanitary 50 latrines. 4 houses use community latrines. Some families also have applied in Gram % Panchayet for the up 0 gradation of their poor kaccha latrines.
Treatment of waste materials:
In the study area only 35% houses have septic tanks and 7.5% houses use community septic tank for disposal of waste materials from latrines and toilets. 57.5% households have pour flush latrines with small cement rings, which is not environmentally benign. Poor sewage systems in these latrines lead to many diseases and contamination of ground water.
60 40 20 0 %
Fig 3: Latrines with disposal systems
Source: Household Survey, 2016]
Growing consciousness:
As 79.20 % inhabitants of these sample population are literate, so they are conscious about the hygiene and health. Most of the old persons are illiterate, they do not use any kind of sanitizer or soaps, some of them (12.5%) use soils to wash their hands after using latrine or toilets. But educated younger generation use soaps to avoid diseases. Many of the households in this area upgrade their pit latrines into pakka latrines. It is found that 30% of the households transform their kaccha latrines from 2012-2016. 22.5% sample houses upgrade kaccha latrines from 2000- 2004. Only 12.5% houses switched to septic latrines before 2000. These indicate people are become more conscious about sanitation and hygiene.
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60 40 50 40 20 30 20 % 0 % 10 0
Fig 4: Use of materials for hand wash Fig 5: Building year of sanitation
[Source: Household Survey, 2016]
Causes of poor sanitation:
Although many of the people upgraded their pit latrines into pakka latrines, yet some people does not have well conditioned sanitary latrines. The main reasons behind this picture are-
Poor economic condition. Lack of awareness among the people especially old generation. Scarcity of co ordination between different governmental organizations. People are not familiar with the schemes, which they can avail from the Gram Panchayet. Low priority is given to sanitation.
Assistance from Government:
Mission Nirmal Bangla:
Government of West Bengal started its journey towards achieving ODF status for rural areas since the World Toilet Day celebration on 19th November, 2013. After the launch of Swacch Bharat Mission by the Government of India, the state government decided to converge its efforts with the new structured programme to achieve ODF and to make a clean environment under the state brand name of “Mission Nirmal Bangla”. For achieving the objective, an effort was started
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 105 through constituting a state mission under the panchayats and Rural Development Department in the State Government.
Major thrust areas:
Mission Nirmal Bangla has the following thrust areas-
All household should have access to safe sanitation. All members of all households use the toilets. Hand washing at critical times to be practiced universally. All places of public congregation to have community sanitary complexes. All households to have their solid and liquid waste management plans. Under this scheme only 32 households have been covered in Jatrapur village. Out of these 32 households only 28 sanitary latrines have been completed and 4 are under construction.
Major findings of the study:
From the above discussion, these changing patterns are found in the present study area-
People upgrade their pit latrines into septic latrines in the influence of new generation and education. Rural people also take care of hygiene by using soaps or sanitizers after latrines. In the study area, there are no provisions of separate toilets for women and most of the households do not have separate toilets. It is found that most of the latrines (57.5%) are distant from the houses, so females have to face problems during night. Most of the respondents are not aware of the scheme, which are operating for giving affordable toilets to rural peoples. Only 1 house is found which got assistance from the Government to build their latrine, but they even did not know the name of the scheme. Few community latrines are found, some houses use that to avoid open defecation. The survey area has one primary school, which also has separate provision of toilets and latrines for boys and girls.
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Conclusion:
The above discussion reveals that in Jatrapur village of Koch Bihar district 9 out of 10 houses have latrines and 4 out of 10 houses have separate toilets. It indicates that people realize the necessity of latrines and they are also conscious of the hygiene. But as many of the latrines are pit latrines or semi-pakka latrines, they need to be upgraded into pakka or repaired. Although State and Central Government stretch their helping hands to the rural population, many of them in our study area are not aware of the schemes or how to avail of those facilities. Some people applied for sanitary latrines in Gram Panchayat but they do not get any kind of assistance for making toilets. They have to make it on own expenses, so they ignore it and use pit latrines. Government should examine the progress of sanitation development in field and remove all the discriminations in giving the money to make latrines or toilets. Different NGOs and government organizations should arrange campaign to make people aware of the benefits of sanitation.
Reference:
URL: http://www.wsp.org. URL: http:// www.adb.org. URL: http://artnet.unescap.org. URL: http://coochbehar.nic.in URL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanitation
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LEVEL OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT IN HOWRAH DISTRICT OF WEST BENGAL:
A BLOCK LEVEL ANALYSIS
Pompa Mondal
Assistant Teacher
B.C. Vidyamandir (H.S)
ABSTRACT
Development is a multidimensional phenomenon, which not only brings out qualitative changes but also quantitative growth of society. It has been appropriately conceptualized as a process, which improves the quality of life of people. Regional disparity is the outcome of unbalanced regional development that varies from region to region depending upon socio-cultural, economic and demographic characteristics. Howrah is a one of important district of West Bengal which has havoc disparity in terms of human development. Block level variation in human development using fourteen parameters is mainly focused in this study by UNDP method. The simple statistical technique of Deprivation index has been used to compute block level human development index based on the data mainly collected from primary census abstract 2011 of Howrah district and district statistical handbook of Howrah district 2011 and analyzed by GIS software. The computed human development index for each block portrays wide inter-district disparity. The value of HDI value is much better in blocks of Eastern part than blocks of the Western part namely. Development in transportation system along with growing consciousness of people about family planning, education, workforce etc. provide a distinct position to the blocks of Howrah district comparatively with other.
INTRODUCTION
India being characterized with diversified physical as well as socio-economic characteristics shows wide regional disparity in terms of levels of development. In post independence period, major emphasis was given in achieving balanced regional development by introducing various
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 108 forms of regional planning in the country. Removal of regional imbalances in development has remained the declared goal of planning in India (Mohan 2005). Human development looks like a simple term but has a complex connotation. It may have different meanings for different contexts. The human development report 1995 (HDR 95) of the United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP) describes human development as a process of enlarging people’s choices (HDR95, 1995 p.11). It must enable all individuals to enlarge their human capabilities to the fullest and to put those capabilities to the best use in all fields like social, economic, cultural and political (HDR94, 1994 p.13). UNDP’s first human development report in 1990 proposed well being as the end product of development. In that sense it is a precursor to achieve comprehensive health physical, mental and social well being as propounded by the World Health Organization.
On the other hand it has been defined as it must be seen in terms of progressive reduction and elimination of malnutrition, diseases, illiteracy, unemployment and inequalities (Thakur, 2008). According to Dudly the development has been defined as if poverty, unemployment and inequalities have declined from the high levels than beyond doubt this has been a period of development for the country concerned.
The present study has an attempt to evaluate the block levels study of human development of Howrah district, West Bengal. Regional imbalances in a country may be natural due to unequal distribution of natural resources. Apart from uneven distribution of geographical advantages historical factors have also contributed to regional inequalities (Bagchi, 2011). So, in this study block wise disparity in human development also analyses in respect of selected indicators.
STUDY AREA
The study area Howrah district of West Bengal lies between 22°48′ N and 22°12′ N latitudes and between 88°23′ E and 87°50′ E longitudes covering an area of about 1467 sq.km with fourteen community development blocks, two municipality and one municipal corporation.The district is bounded by the Hooghly River and the North 24 Parganas and South 24 Parganas districts on the east, on the north by the Hooghly district (Arambagh and Shrirampur sub-divisions), and on the south by Midnapore East district (Tamluk sub-division). On the west Howrah district is bordered by the Ghatal sub-division of Midnapore West district. Howrah is the district headquarters.
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According to the 2011 census Howrah district has a population of 4,841,638.The district has a population density of 3,300 inhabitants per square kilometer (8,500/sq mi). Its population growth rate over the decade 2001-2011 was 13.31%. Howrah has a sex ratio of 935 females for every 1000 malesand a literacy rate of 83.85% (District Census Handbook. 2011).
LOCATION MAP
WEST BENGAL
Source:District Planning Map Series NATMO, Kolkatafig.1
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OBJECTIVES
The present study is aimed at investigation the following objectives:
1. To evaluate the spatial pattern of human development. 2. To display the inter-block disparity in levels of human development on the basis of some indices in the study area. 3. To study the underlying causes responsible for the disparity in human development. 4. To suggest some remedies to minimize the disparities in human development of the study area.
METHODOLOGY
In calculating the level of Developmentthe researcher has attempted to followthe methodology suggested by UNDP asfar as possible. But unavailability of block level data for many important parameters proved a hindrance here. Most of the data is secondary sources namely primary census abstract (2011), district statistical handbook of Howrah, DISE data, different socio- economic cells etc. selected indicators are:
Table 1: Selected indices for computing H.D.I of Howrah district
variables description
X1 sex ratio
X2 decadal growth rate
X3 population density
X4 literacy rate
X5 gap in male female literacy rate
X6 % of urban population to total population
X7 % of worker to total population
X8 gap in male female workforce rate
X9 % of cultivated area to total geographical area
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Collected data has been compiled, processed and computedby Deprivation method or Human Development Index (HDI) using two steps.
The first step is to define a measure of deprivation that a region suffers with respect to all the chosen variables. The index of deprivation is obtained from the following equation:
Iji= Maxi– X ij/ Max i– Min i
[ Iji= index of deprivation of ith variable at j th unit of study.
Maxi and Mini= maximum and minimum value of ith variable respectively.
Xij= actual value o ith variable at jth units of study.]
The second step involves defining an average deprivation index ( HDIj) by taking a simple average all chosen variables:
HDIj= ∑ I ji/ n
[ HDIj= average deprivation index of jth units of study.]
Finally obtained human development index for each block of Howrah district has been recognized in four classes with a view to show the inter block disparity in levels of human development. GIS software has been used to depict the spatial pattern of disparity in human development in the study area. Selected indicators are given bellow.
DISCUSSION
Since development is often assumed as economic phenomena per capita availability of gross product and its growth are the most common measures of development (Gatade, et.al.2011). Due to absence of any proper national accounting system such monetary value fails to present the details picture of a region. Hence, comparison of levels of human development of different area wise disparities involves the selection of suitable indicator of development keeping in mind the regional interest. In the present study 9 indicators have been taken from various sectors of society.
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The problem of inter-regional disparities in the level of development came to the surface in the beginning of the nineteenth century in the capitalist countries like U.S.A, Canada, U.K, France (Tewari 1985). The district possesses immense potentialities with its physical and socio economic resources. But due to inter-block disparity in terms of physical as well as diversified socio-economic condition of people Howrah district treated as not total developed by the imbalances in human development index. Actual status of the blocks of Howrah district manifested through the H.D.I and G.D.I. The composite index of all the selected indicators of human development present overall scenario of inters block disparity in the level of development. Social disparities may have many causes ranging from historical to present status in education, health and other
Table 2:spatial distribution of individual indices of each block, Howrah district
Blocks X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X6 X7 X8 X9 Udaynarayanpur 946 10.56 1735 81.05 10.96 0.00 42.64 44.97 73.74 Amta - II 945 9.97 1514 81.21 10.75 7.61 37.83 49.83 67.20 Amta - I 949 11.52 1883 81.04 10.56 27.79 36.07 51.08 62.36 Jagatballavpur 953 14.53 2013 78.3 9.28 27.62 39.08 46.26 72.41 Domjur 991 21.24 3885 76.75 8.4 80.27 39.05 47.42 40.11 Bally Jagachha 965 27.33 6717 85.76 7.87 95.56 40.31 45.02 26.73 Sankrail 953 13.72 5601 78.97 9.89 89.36 38 44.13 61.86 Panchla 946 17.81 3547 78.03 7.38 82.90 40.4 40.46 74.69 Uluberia - II 957 18.38 2719 75.18 10.81 57.83 35.61 45.23 75.65 Uluberia - I 961 18.26 2224 78.18 9.13 14.21 36.32 43.05 67.02 Bagnan - I 939 15.83 2778 83.68 8.86 36.74 35.19 45.32 81.94 Bagnan - II 938 12.38 2167 82.56 9.07 27.60 38 45.55 75.65 Shyampur - I 966 12.76 1758 78.84 9.99 10.99 35.8 48.37 79.51 Shyampur - II 953 14.66 1936 80.55 9.57 10.55 36.64 47.33 77.23 Source: District Census Handbook (part A & B) of Howrah 2011 amenities (Ram, 1995). Applying the human development index method the district is divided into high, moderate, low and very low categories based on combined scores of nine indicators.
Table 3 : Human Development Index for each dimension
blocks X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X6 X7 X8 X9 HDI
Udaynarayanpur 0.85 0.97 0.96 0.52 0.00 1.00 0.00 0.58 0.15 0.56
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Amta - II 0.87 1.00 1.00 0.50 0.06 0.92 0.65 0.12 0.27 0.60 Amta - I 0.79 0.91 0.93 0.52 0.11 0.71 0.88 0.00 0.35 0.58 Jagatballavpur 0.72 0.74 0.90 0.83 0.47 0.71 0.48 0.45 0.17 0.61 Domjur 0.00 0.35 0.54 1.00 0.72 0.16 0.48 0.34 0.76 0.48 Bally Jagachha 0.49 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.86 0.00 0.31 0.57 1.00 0.36 Sankrail 0.72 0.78 0.21 0.75 0.30 0.06 0.62 0.65 0.36 0.50 Panchla 0.85 0.55 0.61 0.86 1.00 0.13 0.30 1.00 0.13 0.60 Uluberia - II 0.64 0.52 0.77 1.17 0.04 0.39 0.94 0.55 0.11 0.57 Uluberia - I 0.57 0.52 0.86 0.84 0.51 0.85 0.85 0.76 0.27 0.67 Bagnan - I 0.98 0.66 0.76 0.23 0.59 0.62 1.00 0.54 0.00 0.60 Bagnan - II 1.00 0.86 0.87 0.36 0.53 0.71 0.62 0.52 0.11 0.62 Shyampur - I 0.47 0.84 0.95 0.77 0.27 0.88 0.92 0.26 0.04 0.60 Shyampur - II 0.72 0.73 0.92 0.58 0.39 0.89 0.81 0.35 0.09 0.61 Source: calculated by authors based on the table no.2
SPATIAL PATTERN OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT IN HOWRAH DISTRICT
Source: based on table 3 calculated by authors fig.2
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High level of development: ( HDIj: > 0.61)
Only four blocks namely Jagatballavpur, shyampur II, Bagnan II, and Uluberia belongs to the category of high level of human development with HDI value of 0.61, 0.61, 0.61 and 0.67 respectively. From the study it is observed that the district has no strong base in primarysector. Mainly the industrial sector dominated the economy.Different industrial work synchronizes the economic base of people here. The nearest Uluberia Municipality acts as growth pole for all around development of the three attached community development blocks, these are shyampur II, Bagnan II and Uluberia I. (fig.2)
Medium level of development: (HDIj: 0.51-0.60):
Most of blocks of Howrah district are belong to the category of medium level of human development with HDI value ranging from 0.51 to 0.60. There are seven blocks namely Udaynarayanpur, Amta I, Amta II, Bagnan I, Uluberia II, Panchla and Shyampur I in this class of human development. All these blocks are trying to trying to engage with several activitiesrelated to service sector for the improvement of different socio-economic parameters like health, education, employment etc.Thepoor performance of organized industry has preventedemployment expansion in recent few years. Several situations like non availability of land, lack of proper policies, nonattracting schemes and gradual shutdown of several industries.
Low level of development: (HDIj: 0.41-0.50):
Only two blocks viz. Domjur and Sankrail have experienced the low level of human development having human development index (HDI) value of 0.48 and 0.50 respectively. Both the blocks are located adjoining to each other which are very near to the block with very low level of human development index value that is Bally-Jagacha which shows west to eastern decreasing trend of HDI. Different human development indicators represent as in poor condition.
Very Low level of development: (HDIj: < 0.40):
The low level of human development is observed in only one block with HDI value of 0.36. Lack of proper educational development, low level of economic activities, poor quality of health system and absence of proper development planning create barrier in attaining developed societal condition here.
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MAJOR PROBLEMS:
Identified Problems
Gender gap in literacy rate and workforce participation rate is high. The work participation rate in the district (33.67%) is marginally lower than the state average of 36.77%. The female participation rate of Howrah district is uniformly low in both urban and rural regions. In recent few years the rate of develop or establish of new large or medium industry are very negligible in this district. Percentage of area under cultivation is not increases significantly. Farmers of rice cultivation losing interest to cultivate rice because not getting the minimum support price (MSP) though the rice is the main field crop in this district. The district has a strong industrial base but still requires basic and modern infrastructural facilities and also improvement needed to power supply.
CONCLUSION
Development of a particular region depends not only upon a single criterion rather it is the interplay of several socio-economic factors that together determine the levels of the region.Hence, it is not necessary that a region well equipped with adequate resource potential can ensure better levels of living of its people. Howrah district shows an immense micro regional disparity in human development. The higher human development may be attributed to more developed infrastructural facilities, resources availability and mental perception of the people. Shyampur II, Bagnan II, Uluberia I and Jagatballavpur blocks are shows better condition in terms of these indices. But on the other hand there are few blocks which perform in the category of low human development because these have low level of literacy, poor infrastructural development and awareness about the Government scheme and plans. Government should emphasize on infrastructural facilities in the low level of human development blocks which helps to reduce the regional disparity in the Howrah district. Different educational, economical and other social infrastructural schemes should be introduced to fulfill the complete development.
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References and Bibliography
Bagchi, Kanak Kant (2011). Regional Disparities in India’s socio-economic development, New Century Publications. Chand, M and Puri, V.K (1983).Regional planning in India, Allied publishers, Bombay. Chattapadhyay A. (2008). Economic Geography and Introduction of Resource Studies, T D Publication, Kolkata. District Statistical Handbook of Howrah District (2011 & 2012). Bureau of Applied Economics and Statistics, Government of West Bengal. Govof West Bengal, (2011-12). Economic Review Bureau of Applied Economics and Statistics, Department of Statistics and Programme Implementation Government of West Bengal, 2011-12. Gatade, D.G and Ghargr, R.R (2011). Levels of Development in Upper Krishna Basin (Maharashtra), Golden Research Thoughts, Vol. 1 Issue VI pp.1-4. Kundu, S.K and Mondal. D (2012). Levels of development in Murshidabad district of West Bengal: A Block Level Study: ILEE, 35(1), June. Mishra. N.K and Singh. M.B. (2015). Status of human resource development in district Saharsa(Bihar): A Geographical Analysis. ILEE, vol:38(1), June. Mohan,K. (2005).Addressing Regional Backwardness: An Analysis of Area Development Programmes in India, Manak Publication, New Delhi. Roy P. (2012). Economic Geography: A Study of Resources, Central Educational Enterprises, Kolkata. Siddiqui,F.A and Hussain, N.(2010). Analysis of Micro Level socio-economic Disparities in MaldahDistrict,West Bengal, Asia Pacific Journal of Social Science,Vol.II(1),pp.39-61. Singh, J.P. (1995). Levels of Development in Madhya Pradesh, The Deccan Geographer, Vol.33,pp. 55-68. Tewari, R.T (1985). Inter-regional disparities in the level of Development, Ashish Publishing House, New Delhi,pp. 102. Gov of India (2010).West Bengal Development Report: Planning Commission,Government of India, Academic Foundation, New Delhi, UNDP (2004). West Bengal Human Development Report, ExecutiveSummary,
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 117
SOCIO-ECONOMIC DISPARITY AMONG HINDUS AND MUSLIMS OF NAITY GRAM PANCHAYAT IN HUGLI DISTRICT OF WEST BENGAL, INDIA
Mousumi Basu Part-time Lecturer, Prafulla Chandra College
Introduction: Socio-economic condition is an important indicator to measure the level of development of any region. Indicators, such as total population, sex ratio, literacy rate, educational enrolment, work participation rate are considered as vital factors of development. Among these, literacy rate is an indispensible indicator behind the development. To achieve skills for improving economy and general well being, literacy acts as an important tool. On the other hand, disparity always hinders the economic growth. This paper is an important attempt to analyze the demographic, educational and economic disparity among Hindus and Muslims of Naity Gram Panchayat.
Location of the study area
Study area is located in south- eastern part of Hooghly district,West Bengal.Naity Gram Panchayat is about 21 km from Kolkata .This area is located at Chanditala block-II in the south-eastern part of Hooghly district. This area covers 220 42’38” North to 22044’8''North latitude and 88015’East and 88016’51” East longitude. Naity Gram Panchayat is divided into 6 villages and it covers an area of about 8.4 sq km. (Fig.1)
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NRSC-Resourcesat-2 LISS-III (24m) (Fig. No. 1- Source: District planning map series & Panchayat office)
Objective Of the study:
To ascertain the socio economic disparity between Hindu and Muslim population of Naity Gram Panchayat and its surroundings, following aspects are to be analyzed:
To examine the disparity of concentration of Hindu and Muslim communities. To find out the changing pattern of demographic structure between Hindu and Muslim. To examine the disparity in educational status of Hindus and Muslims. To find out the changing nature of work participation rate between Hindu and Muslim. To evaluate the inequality on economic composition between these two communities. Finally to assess the inequality regarding development between these two communities.
Sampling size:
Type Total No. Percentage of survey Sample size Household 8179 5% 409 Total number of household of the study area is 8179. Only 5%of total houses have been surveyed.
Demographic structure of Naity Gram Panchayat:
Naity Gram Panchayat is established in 1986.This gram panchayat occupies an area of about 8.4 sq km and includes25348 total population(census 2011) among which 55% are Hindu and 45% are Muslim.
Among six villages of this study area, Chickrand village has the highest population (10375) and Danpatipur village has the lowest population (1768).Total occupied houses are 8179.Bankagacha village has highest population density (570/sqkm).Lowest population density (91/sqkm) is found in Naity village (Fig. 1.1)
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Fig.1.1-(Source: Primary survey,2016)
Average sex ratio of the study area is 895 which is lower than national average sex ratio (940).Sex ratio of four villages are lower than the national average sex ratio(940).Onlyone village(Chickrand)shows highest number of females (1016) per thousand male. (Fig. 1.2)
[Fig. 1.2(source: primary survey,2016] Demographic disparity :
According to household survey, there is slight disparity between Hindu (56.44%) and Muslim (43.56%) population. In every village, Hindu population is higher in number than Muslim population except one village (e.g. Adan) where Muslim population (81.59%) is higher than Hindu population (18.41%).The sex ratio among Hindus in Naity Gram Panchayat is 938/1000 male (slightly below the national average 0f 940/1000 ). But sex ratio of Muslim is 820/1000 male which is far below than the national average. Disparity also arises at village level in case of child sex ratio. In the age group of 0 – 6, sex ratio is 1173/1000 among Muslims and 991/1000 among Hindus.
BPLVs. Non BPL As a whole, percentage of BPL card holder is lesser than Non BPL persons. Some disparities present in the number of BPL card holders among Hindus and Muslims. According to the survey analysis 4.3% and 15.8% BPL card holders are belong to Hindu and Muslim community respectively. (Fig. 1.3)
Fig.1.3 (source: primary survey,2016)
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Spatial variation of house type : The types of house structure actually various according to the economic condition of the residents. Pucca houses dominate in every village .Kuncha houses are small in number.
Educational disparity: Literacy level of the Naity Gram Panchayat is very high. Percentage of literate male is 92.85% and female literate is 88.75% among Hindus.Among Muslim population, male literates are 78.33% and female literates are 52.93 %.( Fig.1.4)
FIG. 1.4(source: primary survey, 2016)
A m o n g
H i n dus, educational level of maximum people is upto Graduate. But in Muslim population, educational level of maximum people is upto higher secondary .Number of Graduates and Post graduates are very rare. It has been reported that the rate of dropout and stagnation is high among Muslim community.From my house hold survey,it is clear that the dropout candidates are maximum in Muslim than Hindu .In Muslim population,dropout rate is 0 .7% to 3.7% and in Hindu population 0.1% to .7% are dropout candidates. (Fig.1.5)
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Fig. 1.5 (source: primary survey,2016)
Medium disparity exists in the villages of Adan, Bankagacha and Payragacha. Lowest disparity presents in two villages of Chickrand and Naity.Like Hindu Muslim literacy, disparity also exists between male and females both in case of Hindus and Muslims. Among Hindus, there is slight disparity regarding literacy rate of male and female population.But disparity in male and female literacy rate of Muslims is very high. Among six villages disparity in literacy rate is very high in Bankagacha andDanpatipuvillege.High disparity in male- female literacy rate presents in Adan village. Medium disparity in literacy rate presents in Naity and Payragacha villages. Lowest disparity in literacy rate is found in Chickrand village. Economic Disparity: According to the sample survey report, the work participation rate among Muslims (25.82%) is slightly lower than the Hindus (31.25%) of Naity Gram Panchayat. Disparity is more prominant among female workers of Hindus and Muslims.Number of Muslim female workers (7.80%) are far below the Hindu female workers (30.22%). Among the total Hindu workers, 6% are engaged in agriculture, 12% are engaged in personal business, 5% are engaged driver, 4% are engaged in other works, but 73% people are engaged in service. Among the total Muslim workers,40% are engaged in agriculture, 1% are engaged in service, 3% are engaged in business,another 3% are engaged in other services,but 53% are engaged in their own jewellery shops.(Fig.1.6)
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Fig.1.6-(Source: primary survey,2016)
From the above statement, it is clear that the maximum numbers of working people of Hindus are taking service as major source of earning.But most of the Muslim workers are basically engaged in self employment activities.There is a huge disparity regarding income level among Hindus and Muslims. Among Hindus,14% male and 6% female earn Rs <5000 to 15000 per month and 7% male and 3% female earn Rs 15000 to >20000 per month.Among Muslims 15% male and 2% female earn Rs<5000 to 15000 per month and 8% male earn Rs 15000 to >20000 per month. But there is huge disparity present in the female earning members between Hindus and Muslims.
DISPARITY AMONG HINDUS & MUSLIMS OF SIX VILLAGES, NAITY
GRAM PANCHAYAT, 2016 (AFTER KENDALL)
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Fig. 1.7 (Source: HOUSE HOLD SURVEY, 2016)
Major Findings:
There is wide disparity inpopulation concentration among Hindus and Muslims. Muslims have better sex-ratio than Hindus. Muslim educational centres (Madrasa) are much less in number in Naity Village area. Law female literacy rate among Muslims due to the conservativeness, male dominancy, lack of social acceptance etc. Muslim Female work participation rate is also much lower than Hindu females. The overall development regarding education, per capita income is much higher among Hindus than Muslims.(Fig.1.7 )
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Suggestions: Number of Muslim Madrasas should be increased in Muslim dominated areas. Female Work participation rate must be increased to minimize the gap between Hindus and Muslims. Provide Scholarships to the Muslim Students to control the Drop out Problems. Take special plan to provide job opportunities for Muslim females.
Concluding Remarks : Gender Disparity always leads to weaker Economic growth, while the stronger socio- economic condition usually leads to the reduction in gender disparity. Thus, it is our prime concern to overcome this problem of disparity between various communities. It needs more and more awareness among people, help of Government grants and the co- operation of non-governmental agencies.
REFERENCES: Census of India, 2011 Census of West Bengal, 2011 Datt & Sundharam: Regional Planning Indian economy Das .N.G :Statistical Method Geographical review of India, Vol. 72
"Literacy in India". Census2011.co.in. Retrieved 2012-09-10.
Mishra .R.P. : Regional Planning & Development Mishra .R.P. : Regional Planning & DevelopmentPal .K.Saroj: Statistical for Geo- Scientists Technique and Application Pande, Astone (2007). "Explaining son preference in rural India: The independent role of structural versus individual factors". Population Research and Policy Review Pal .K.Saroj: Statistical for Geo- Scientists Technique and Application R.C.Chandra: Social Development Report, 2012 R.C.Chandra: Social Development Report, 2012
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Statistical Hand Book of Hoogly District. "Supreme Court: False cruelty cases under Section 498A ruining marriages". Indiatimes. 9 December 2014. Retrieved 9 December 2014. Subhash C. Kundu, (2003) "Workforce diversity status: a study of employees' reactions", Industrial Management & Data Systems, Vol. 103 Iss: 4, pp.215 – 226 Statistical Hand Book of Hoogly District "The EU's Contribution A to Women's Rights and Women's Inclusion: Aspects of Democracy Building in South Asia, with special reference to India" (PDF). Retrieved 2012-09-10. "The India Gender Gap Review" (PDF). Retrieved 2012-09-10. "Women's Education in India" (PDF). Retrieved 2012-09-10. "Working women face longer days for lower pay". Wageindicator.org. 2012-05-29. Retrieved 2012-09-10.
MALE LABOUR CIRCULATION AND LEFT BEHIND WOMEN: A CASE STUDY OF SOME SELECTED VILLAGES OF COOH BEHAR DISTRICT, WEST BENGAL, INDIA
Ashok Sarkar, Research Scholar, Dept. of Geography, North-Eastern Hill University, Shillong (Corresponding Email: [email protected]) Sinor Lama, Assistant Professor and Head, Dept. of Geography Alipurduar College, West Bengal
Abstract
Food, clothing and shelter are three basic needs of human being that have compelled them to move one place to another. Circulation refers to the short term repetitive nature of movement
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 126 where individual or a group of people move away from their home to other places in search of work and return after a short period of time. The study area, Cooch Behar district has agriculture based economy with lower productivity. Inadequate employment facility, industrial backwardness, profitless agriculture and growing price of essential commodities have compelled the rural males of the district to move in order to work elsewhere particularly in northern and southern Indian states. Male labour circulation from the area under study has been altering the socio-economic status of rural marginalized women in the society. Temporary absence of male members in the family brings an opportunity for the women left behind to be the de-facto head in the family and to take several important decisions independently. Hence, absence of male members also affects socio-economic status and lifestyle of the women left behind both in positive and negative ways. Thus, an endeavour has been made in this paper to highlight the impact of male labour circulation on the socio economic status of women who are left behind with a few proposals.
Keywords: Labour Circulation, Backwardness, Decision Making, Socio-Economic
Introduction:
The basic requirements of human being i.e. food, clothing and shelter have compelled themselves to move from one place to another throughout the year since time immemorial. This movement of people is dynamic and complex social process involving pattern, nature and causes of such movements. This process of movement of human beings is generally termed as ‘migration’, which makes different meanings in time and space.1Zelinsky in 1971 proposed the term ‘circulation’ instead of ‘migration’ to specify the short term, repetitive or cyclical pattern of movement.2Therefore, the labour circulation may be defined as a circulatory pattern of movement, when individual or a group of people moves away from their home to other places in search of work and after a short interval they come back to their places of origin. Here, the ‘male labour circulation’ refers to the male agricultural labourers of the study area who are the head of their families.
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The present study shows that the area is one of the economically backward areas of West Bengal and the primary occupation of inhabitants of the area is agriculture. Hence, the status of the agricultural labourer of this area is concerned with unemployment because of seasonal nature of agriculture, overtime of work and low wages and marginalization.3It is a fact that adult male rural out-migrants are significant labour group in all the big cities and urban centres, mainly in industrially developed states of India. It is also noticed that, many of them leave their wives, children and parents at homeand live in urban destinations as single.4 Although, there are technological development, changing political viewpoint and several steps as taken by the Government in this occasion have slightly altered the standing of agricultural labourers. Consequently, large numbers of male agricultural labourers are compelled to leave their family members at home to lookfor work and move outside the state from Cooch Behar district to Rajasthan, Bihar, Delhi,Tamilnadu, Kerala, Punjab, Haryana and other Indian states.5
The circulation of male labourers has been altering the entire socio-economic circumstances of the study area to a large extent.Casually, absence of the out migrant labourersin the family brings an opportunity for women who are left behind to be the head of the family.6In this occasion, women of out migrant labourer’sfamily take several important decisions in the household independently and enjoy higher freedom and autonomy in their family.7
History of Literature: The issue of male labour circulation and its consequences upon their non-migrating wives has received significant attention to the researcher recently.It has been noticed that the prime focus was concentrated only on the women who migrated herself.8 But there are very few researches on the women who are left behind due to male labour circulation. Even though, women do not take part in migration directly, they are totally affected by such migration processes.9Jamie P. McEvoy(2008) has contributed an empirical study on impact of male out-migration on the left behind women based on a small farming community of south eastern Mexico.10 In Indian perspectives, Desai and Banerji (2008) have been significantly contributed in this area based on the Human Development Survey in 2005.11History shows that, men always put their supremacy in the forehead of women, although women contribute half in the evolution of human civilization. But, now, it is the need of the hour to focus on the women who are left behind for male labour circulation and on their socio-economic status as a whole.
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The Research Problem:
It has been found that very few works have done on the status of the rural women who are left behind after the male members of their families move away from homes in search of works to the other Indian states. In addition there are both positive and negative impacts of such labour circulation on the women of the rural families and very few studies have been made in this context.
Objectives:
The basic objectives of the paper are-
To find out the level and extent of freedom enjoyed by the rural women who are left behind due to male labour circulation. To find out the power of decision making of the left behind women in their family and society. To find out the level of empowerment among the left behind women in present and absence of their male members in the family.
Database & Methodology:
The present study is completely based on primary data and the database related with the topic is not registered by any Governmental or non-Governmental organizations before this study. A database has been made with primarily collected data and a sample of65 households has been selected randomly for the purpose of collection and preparation of data. Left behind women of the absentee house aged between 17 to 52 years have been interviewed for the purpose of relevant data collection with the help of a questionnaire including some important indicators. The techniques followed by Desai and Banerji (2008) have been used to measure the overall socio- economic status of women who are left behind for male labour circulation.12 Various indices, like decision making power, freedom of movement, women workforce participation in agriculture and women empowerment have been calculated with the following formula- i = P-A/A
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Where- i = Index value
P= Number of total observation of each category which is multiplied by the number of indicators have been taken (P = N x I).
A = Sum total of the value scored by each indicator (A = x1 + x2 +...)
The result shows that the value ranges between ‘0’ to ‘1’ and lower the value indicate higher the degree of empowerment and vice-versa.
Description of the Study Area:
The study area, Cooch Before district has a long history of past. Cooch Behar was attached with Indian dominion on 12th September in the year 1949. Before this attachment, Cooch Behar had been ruled by the Koach Dynastyfor last 450 years and during this time it was considered as a feudatory princely state. Later, Cooch Behar became the part of West Bengal and appeared as a district on 1st January, 1950. Geographically, Cooch Behar is located between 26 ⁰ 32 ' 46 '' N to 25 ⁰ 57 ' 6 '' N latitude and 89 ⁰ 52 ' E to 88 ⁰ 45 '' 02 '' E longitude. The area is surrounded by Alipurduar district in north and Bangladesh in south, Jalpaiguri district in north to west and Assam statein east. The total area of the district is 3386 km2 and total population is 28, 22, 780 (Census, 2011) with a population density of 833 persons per km2.13Cooch Behar is one of the economically backward districts of West Bengal which does not have any industrial back-up. Primary occupation of inhabitants of the area is agriculture which lies in primitive subsistence level with low productivity.14
Results and Discussion:
The result of the study explains that male labour circulation likely brings a significant change in the role and responsibilities of women left behind in the study area.15,16,17Theyalso contribute to manage all the household matters and to handle the domestic properties. It has been noticed thatthis kind of labour circulation also helps to make the rural women to be slightly empowered in their households and in the society. Consequently, they receive greater freedom, higher
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 130 autonomy and power of decision making in their family.18Similar conditions have been found by the authors during the field study.
Women Decision Making Power:
Several studies on women empowerment and autonomy have revealed that the decisions taken by women are always neglected in Indian society although they are not less intelligent even in comparison with men.
It is clear from the table-1 that the age group of 35-40has the lowest index value (0.20) which indicates highest power of decision making. On the other hand 17-22 age group has the highest index value (0.89) which indicates lowest decision making power among all the groups. Long experience in household matters and necessity in daily life lead the women to take decisions independently. Two age groups like 23-28 and 41-46 have relatively lower index value (0.32 and 0.34) correspondingly that indicates higher empowerment facility in decision making. Another age group i.e. 29-34 and 47-52 have moderately higher index value (0.42) and 0.43) respectively than the total index value that represents lower decision making power. Total calculated index value (0.41) also indicates higher decision making power in the study area.
Women Freedom of Movement
In rural India, there are partial restrictions on physical movement of women. Many of women stay at home and if they go outside they must go with their close relatives. But circulatory movement of male labourers to outside the state in search of work and absence of the males in the family make it probable for women to move liberally within and outside the home in the area under study.
Table-2 reveals that, women belonging to age group of 35-40 enjoy highest freedom of movement as the group has occupied lowest index value (0.25) because they frequently go outside or to buy essential items. Similarly, age groups of 23-28, 41-46 and 47-52 have scored 0.42, 0.49 and 0.49 index value correspondingly which represents moderately higher freedom of movement. Women belonging to 17-22 age group enjoy lower freedom of movement as the scored lowest index value (0.80).Another age group 29-34 have relatively higher value (0.66),
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 131 indicates lowest freedom of movement. The total women mobility index value (0.52) also reveals that women in the study area left behind for male labour circulation enjoy moderate freedom of movement.
Women Workforce Participation in Agriculture
Women agricultural labour force participation index has been calculated based on five indicators to assess the women participation in agriculture. Table-3 shows that women agricultural labour force participation index value is lowest in age group of 35-40 (0.27) as the women belong to this group are fully self dependent and they play the prime roles to manage their family that indicates the highest actual participation.
Similarly, the age group of 47-52 has the highest women agricultural labour force participation index value (0.85) which indicates lowest actual participation in agriculture. It is found that the age group of 17-22 has scored of 0.74index value which indicates relatively lower participation. On the other hand, 35-40 age group has the lowest index value (0.27) indicates highest participation in agriculture. Three age groups i.e. 23-28, 29-34 and 41-46 have moderately lower index values of 0.50, 0.34 and 0.46 respectively shows comparatively higher actual participation. Total women agricultural labour force participation index value (0.51) represents that women the study area have moderate participation in agriculture.
Level of Satisfaction
The table-4 reveals that the women of 35-40 age groups are highly satisfied as the age group has occupied lowest satisfactory index value (0.22) among all the groups and the primary role as played by the women in this regard helps them to achieve this kind of satisfaction. On the other hand, age group of 17-22 having the highest index value of 0.69 indicates that women in this group enjoy lowest level of satisfaction due to their dependency on other family members. Another two age group i.e. 23-28 and 41-46 women are also less satisfied because the groups have scored higher value (0.60 & 0.60) respectively.
Similarly, two age groups like 29-34, 41-46 and 47-52 scored the index values of 0.28 and 0.37 respectively which indicates women belonging to these age groups realise relatively higher
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 132 satisfaction. The total satisfactory index value also represents women of the study area are moderately satisfied.
Overall Women Empowerment
Table-5 represents the overall women empowerment of the study area. Result shows that the age group 17-22 enjoy the lowest empowerment as the group scored (3.12) highest index value among all the age groups and also it is greater than the total composite score value (1.95). Women belonging to age group of 35-40 scored the lowest composite value (0.94) which is also lower than the totalvalueindicating their higher empowerment status. Similarly, three age groups i.e. 23-28, 29-34 and 41-46 having composite score value 1.84, 1.70 and 1.89 respectively indicate lower empowerment facility for women of these groups. Another age group i.e. 47-52 scored composite value of 2.14 is also lower than the total value which indicates lower empowerment in this group. Conclusion:
A common characteristic of rural labour migration in the developing countries is that migrants leave their wives and children at home to reduce expenses at their work places that are located mostly in urban areas. They send remittance to home to meet household expenses. Such solo movement and consequent absence of male members at home push their wives to take up roles which they did not take usually when their husbands are at home. It leads women to improve their power and control over household management. In this way women play a vital role in the family and in the society. This kind of role played by the women and their engagement in household activities gradually makes women self dependent and enhance their empowerment in their family and society. The women left behind in the study area due to male labour circulation experience the same facet of autonomy as discussed earlier.
Reference:
1. Trewartha, G. T. A Geography of Population: World Patterns. New York: John Willy &Sons, 1969
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2. Hugo, Graeme J. "Circular migration in Indonesia." Population and Development Review (1982): 59-83. 3.Thornier, D. A. Land and Labour in India. Mumbai: Asia Publishing House, 1974 4. Agasty, P. M. and N. R. Patra. “Migration of Labour and Left Behind Women: A CaseStudy of Rural Odisha”. American International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences, 7, no. 1(2014): 28-33. 5. Som, B. B. “Agrarian Social structure, a Case Study of Some Villages of Cooch Behar.”PhD. Theses Paper Submitted in North Bengal University, Department of Sociology and Anthropology.(2001).Accessed 15 November 2016. http://dspace.vidyanidhi.org.in:8080/dspace/.../NBU-2001-016-Prelim.pdf 6.FAO. The Feminization of Agriculture. Rome, Italy. (1999).Accessed10 August 2016. http//www.fao.org/Gender/en/agrib2-e.htm. 7. Ennaji, M. and F. Sidiqui“The Impact of Male Migration from Morocco to Europe onWomen: a Gender approach.”Finisterra: Revista Portuguesa De Geografia,39 no.77 (2004): 59-76. 8. McKay, D. “Reading Remittance Landscape: Female Migration and Agricultural Transition in the Philippines.”Geografisk Tidsskrift, Danish Journal of Geography,105, no. 1 (2005): 89-99. 9. Hugo, G. Migration and Women’s Empowerment. Women’s Empowerment andDemographic Processes, New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. 10. McEvoy, J. P. “Male out-Migration and the Women Left Behind: A Case study of a SmallFarming Community in South-eastern Mexico.” All Graduate Theses andDissertations Utah State University(2008). Accessed October 23 2016, http//digitalcommons.usu.edu/etd/179 11. Desai, S. and M. Banerji“Negotiated Identities: Male Migration and Left Behind Wivesin India.”India Human Development Survey online, no. 10,(2008). Accessed October23 2016. http//ihds.umd.edu/IHDS-Paper Migration.pdf 12. Desai, S. and M. Banerji “Negotiated Identities: Male Migration and Left Behind Wivesin India.” India Human Development Survey online, no. 10, (2008). Accessed October23 2016. http//ihds.umd.edu/IHDS-Paper Migration.pdf 13. Census of India, 2011 14. Chakravarty, D. Some Aspects of Interlinked Credit Contracts: A Case Study in TwelveVillages of North Bengal.Economy and Society of North Bengal. Kolkata:Progressive Publishers, 2008. 15. De Haan, Arjan. "Livelihoods and poverty: The role of migration‐a critical review of theMigrationliterature." The journal of development studies 36, no. 2 (1999): 1-47. 16.McDowell, Christopher, and Arjan De Haan. "Migration and sustainable livelihoods: Acriticalreview of the literature." (1997). 17. Osaki, Keiko. "Economic interactions of migrants and their households of origin: Arewomen more reliable supporters?" Asian and Pacific Migration Journal 8, no. 4(1999): 447-471. 18. Dyson, Tim, and Mick Moore. "On kinship structure, female autonomy, and demographicbehaviour in India." Population and development review (1983): 35-60.
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List of Tables
Table 1: Power of Decision Making Index
From where In and Which What
which What how ...
Surveyed crop should 3
Age school should much i= (P– +x
females should be be 2
group children be sold money +x A)/P
(N) cultivated bought 1 P = N *I N = P should (x4) should
(x1) (x2) x A= go (x3) be lended
(x5)
17-22 7 2 0 2 0 0 4 35 0.89
23-28 10 8 5 4 9 8 34 50 0.32
29-34 17 10 15 7 11 6 49 85 0.42
35-40 11 9 8 7 9 11 44 55 0.20
41-46 7 0 7 3 7 6 23 35 0.34
47-52 13 10 9 0 7 11 37 65 0.43
Total 65 39 42 23 45 35 191 325 0.41
Source: field survey
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Table 2: Women Freedom of Movement Index
Visit ...
Surveyed Friends Father’s 3
Age to Shopping Catching i= (P– +x
females house house 2
group doctor (x4) fish (x5) +x A)/P 1
(N) (x1) (x2) P = N*I = P
(x3) A= x A=
17-22 7 0 2 3 0 2 7 35 0.80
23-28 10 4 7 9 5 4 29 50 0.42
29-34 17 9 6 7 7 0 29 85 0.66
35-40 11 7 11 9 6 8 41 55 0.25
41-46 7 0 4 6 4 4 18 35 0.49
47-52 13 9 6 10 5 3 33 65 0.49
Total 65 36 44 45 30 21 157 325 0.52
Source: field survey
Table 3: Women Workforce Participation in Agricultural Index
...
Surveyed In In Field 3
Age Manuring Harvesting i =(P– +x
females sowing weeding visit 2
group (x3) (x4) +x A)/P 1
(N) (x1) (x2) (x5)
P = N *I N = P A= x A= 17-22 7 0 3 2 0 4 9 35 0.74
23-28 10 7 5 2 5 6 25 50 0.50
29-34 17 15 11 13 8 9 56 85 0.34
35-40 11 10 6 7 8 9 40 55 0.27
41-46 7 7 5 0 0 7 19 35 0.46
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47-52 13 2 0 4 0 4 10 65 0.85
Total 65 43 36 27 23 42 159 325 0.51
Source: field survey
Table 4: Level of Satisfaction Index
Surveye Develop Children ...
Enough 3
Age d Fooding Clothing ed ’s i= (P– +x
remittan 2
group females (x1) (x2) housing educatio +x A)/P 1
ce (x3) P = N *I N = P
(N) (x4) n (x5) A= x A=
17-22 7 6 2 0 1 2 11 35 0.69
23-28 10 7 5 0 3 5 20 50 0.60
29-34 17 15 12 9 13 12 61 85 0.28
35-40 11 9 7 10 8 9 43 55 0.22
41-46 7 2 3 5 0 4 14 35 0.60
47-52 13 13 7 9 5 7 41 65 0.37
Total 65 56 38 37 35 44 160 325 0.51
Source: field survey
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Table 5: Composite Score of Women Empowerment Index
Women Power of Women workforce Level of decision freedom of Composite Age group participation satisfaction making index movement score (0 to 4) in agriculture index (0 to 1) (0 to 1) index (0 to 1) index (0 to 1)
17-22 0.89 0.80 0.74 0.69 3.12
23-28 0.32 0.42 0.50 0.60 1.84
29-34 0.42 0.66 0.34 0.28 1.70
35-40 0.20 0.25 0.27 0.22 0.94
41-46 0.34 0.49 0.46 0.60 1.89
47-52 0.43 0.49 0.85 0.37 2.14
Total 0.41 0.52 0.51 0.51 1.95
Source: field survey
PROSPECTS AND CHALLENGES OF ECOTOURISM: A CASE STUDY OF RUDRASAGAR LAKE IN TRIPURA
Pradip Debnath
Scholar, Department of Geography and Disaster Management, Tripura University, Suryamaninagar, Tripura, India
ABSTRACT:
Ecotourism is now emerging as one of the most fundamental sectors of tourism industry in the world. It is mainly nature based tourism where the tourists enjoy and appreciate scenic natural beauty, undisturbed natural area and promote conservation. Rudhhrasagar Lake is one of the
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 138 most prominent ecotourism spot for the tourists of the state of Tripura. It is situated at Melaghar RD Block, in Sepahijala district. It situated about 55 kms from the capital city of Agartala. This lake is famous for its rich natural environment and home to thousands of migratory birds along with historical monument. It is not only characterised by the blending of flora and fauna it is also extremely rich in bio-diversity. The famous water palace of Neermahal is located in the middle place of Rudrasagar Lake. The unique ecosystem combining with aquatic and terrestrial the phase is the natural habit of different species. But the unscientific and unplanned finishing and hunting of aquatic animals pose burning threats to the environment and ecological balance of the area. The present study tries to examine a representation of possible opportunities that the proposed ecotourism industry may provide to the protection and conservation of natural environment. In this context the paper is also to analyses the problems, emerging environmental issues and provide some suggestions to measure those problems of the study area. For the foundation of the research work primary data have been collected from villagers and tourists and secondary data has been also used for this study.
Keywords: Ecotourism, problems and prospects, Rudhrasagar Lake, Emerging issues.
Introduction
Tourism is one of the world’s fastest growing smokeless businesses and plays a vital role in accelerating the economic development and promotes conservation all around the world. Tourism industry contributes considerably to the society, economy and to the environment either man made or natural (Harrington, 2001).Ecotourism is entirely a new approach in tourism geographyemerged in the late 1980s as a direct outcome of the world’s acknowledgment and feedback to sustainable practices and global environmental practices (Diamantis, 1999). It is a very low cost pollution free and faster growing segment of the global tourism industry that is making significant positive contributions to the environmental, social, cultural and economic well-being of destinations and local communities around the world and which needs a few materials only its maintenances.
Tripura is a pioneer state in North Eastern region of India to introduce tourism activities in this state in 1987, when tourism was given the status of industry and various incentives were offered
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 139 and later on ecotourism section also added with general tourism. It is a new concept developed around the idea of travelling to places of natural beauty or ecological interest for the purpose of observing wildlife, learning about the environment and conserving them. Rudrasagar Lake is adorned with a large number of attractive tourist sites which include gorgeous landscapes, historical values, exotic flora and fauna, rich biodiversity, wetland, shrubs and herbs of medicinal importance, cultural heritage sites, etc. It is a tremendous destination for ecotourism having unique and magnificent creatures. So Rudrasagar Lake have undoubtedly been the crowing glories of the state in the view point of tourist sport.
Objectives
The paper is try to focus on three objectives
The present study tries to assess the existing and hidden potential for ecotourism industry in the study area
To analyses the major problems faced by Rudrasagar lake and emerging environmental issues
To propose some remedial measures or solutions that could help improve tourism of the study area.
Methodology
The present research work was conducted on the basis of empirical observations and quantitative methods. To fulfill the objectives of the study the whole work has been conducted in three stages i.e. in pre-field period comprises of having an idea about the study area and some literature concerned with the topic have been collected and reviewed. Location of Rudrasagar Lake identified from the Google earth. Field survey has been done with the help of scheduled survey through random sampling survey with 90 sample size.GPS survey of the surrounding Rudrasagar Lake to get the detail about the water cover areas. Tourist survey has been carried out at Rajghat and secondary data were collected from district census handbook, Website of Tripura tourism industry and available published and unpublished materials, internet, books and maps of
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Sepahijala District etc. In post field stage maps have been prepared by using GIS Platforms like Arc GIS 10.1 and Global mapper.Data and information is processes and analyses using various statistical and other techniques and represent by suitable diagrams and map and photograph were taken for interpreting the nature and the present condition of the Lake.
Significance of the study Ecotourism is a well-planned means for developing the economy of many underdeveloped as well as developing countries like India. As there is a strong co-relationship exist in between eco- tourism and preservation of natural environment of a country. Tourism has emerged as a dominant economic factor in Tripura. Due to increasing over population, brick field and demand of foods and its land converted into agricultural field therefore natural landscape of Rudrasagar Lake is degraded. As a result, the importance of Neermahal and Rudrasagar Lake is gradually decreased as a tourist sport. Under these circumstances the present study lies in identifying and highlighting the problems in the field of eco-tourism development in Tripura. Major aim of the research is to highlight the minimization of environmental and cultural damage and maximization of long-term sustainable growth for this region. So, the current study will hopefully unleash the necessity, opportunity and potentiality of ecotourism in the sustainable development of tourism industry of Tripura.
Location of the study area
The present study is restricted to Sepahijala District and is an administrative district in the state of Tripura. The District covers an area of about 1043.58 sq km. It shares its boundary internationally with Bangladesh in the west, and its neighboring districts within the state are West Tripura District in the north and East and South by Gomati, Khowai and South Tripura District. Rudrasagar is situated in Melaghar RD Block of Sonamura subdivision of Sepahijala district in Tripura. The location of the lake is 23030’N and 91020’E longitude. Its catchment falls within the sub Basin of Gumti River which is the largest river in Tripura. Rudrasagar Lake is about 55 Km. away from Agartala. It takes 1 and half hours by road from Agartala capital city of Tripura to Melaghar. Different mode of transport is available to reach Rudrasagar i.e., both the public and private vehicles is available. Total population of this block near about 18750 and 100
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 141 percentage literacy rate is the key content of development. Tourism potentiality is gradually increased with growing rate of literacy. Literacy of people easy to assimilate their culture with tourist and effortless understand their requirement.
Location of the study area
Figure 1: Location Map of study area Physical and historical background of Rudrasagar Lake as a tourist spot in Tripura
Tripura is blessed with a large number of natural and artificial lakes. Major lakes of the state are Dumboor Lake, Khowra Lake, Kamala Sagar and Rudrasagar Lake. Hydro-morphologically Rudrasagar Lake receives water from three perennial rivulets namely, Noacherra, Durlavnarayacherra and Kemtalicherra. The lake connected with major river (Gumti) through a connective rivulets namely Kachigang. Its bed has been formed by silt deposition. This area was a depression surrounded by small tillas (hillocks).The total area of the Rudrasagar catchment is about 240 hectare with water depth varies from 2 to 9 m. Neermahal is one of the oldest beautiful palace in Tripura built by Maharaja Bir Bikram Kishore Manikya in the middle of Rudrasagar lake, which served as summer resort to the king’s family. In every year a large number of migratory birds coming in this region and tourist can also enjoy boating facility in the lake. Its
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 142 outstanding scenic beauty and rich ecology can be source of attraction to different levels of people and is suitable for outdoor recreation.
Table 1: Study area at a glance
Geological structure Alluviam(Riverborne),Dupitilla(estuarine,clay)Tipam,Bokabil,Bhuban
Municipality, nearest Melaghar market & P.S
District Sepahijala
State Tripura
vegetation Orchards,Makhna,water hyacinth around the lake
Annual temperature Max:25-28 degree and min:21-18 degree Celsius
Annual rainfall 2500 mm
Rivers Gomati(Noacherra,Durlavanarayancherra,kemtalicherra, kacchacherra,)
Road connectivity Metalled and unmetalled road
Nearest railway station Agartala and airport
Visiting time During winter and spring season
Accommodation Sagar Mahal Tourist Lodge, Melaghar
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Major Tourism attraction in Rudrasagar Lake
Its scenic beauty and present environment:
It is naturally formed and developed. It is located in a village named “Rajghat” in Sepahijala district of Tripura. The Lake is gifted with its natural color, beautiful and scenic landscape and historical monument where the lake is surrounded by natural vegetation. Geographically, the lake is impressive, wide and very deep water bodies, with lotus, water-lily, variety of fishes, colourful migratory birds etc. Tourists are always attracted by such type of charming environment. .
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Neermahal Palace Neermahal palace is one of the famous water palace in India constructed by Bahadur Bir Bikram Kishore Manikya in the middle of the Rudrasagar Lake in 1938. It was the 2nd largest water palace in India after Jalmahal in Rajasthan. It was built as summer Residence for the Royal families of Tripura. The famous water palace is the
Plate 1:- View of Neermahal palace establishment of Maharaja’s great taste and his fascinating idea of bleeding Hindu and Muslim cultures and traditions in Tripura. It is divided into two parts or section. The western side of the palace was made for the royal family which is known as Andar Mahal. The eastern side is an open-air theatre where drama, theatre, dance and other cultural events were organised for the enjoyment of Maharajas and their royal families. During evening time the lighting of the Neermahal creates an exceptional artificial romantic flavor for tourist. Only Neermahal palace attracts more than thousands of tourists in this region.
Birds and fishes Rudrasagar Lake is a potential important Birds area and reservoir of the valuable indigenous endemic fishes. For tourist it is a dream land who loves birds and fishes. Migratory birds are additional attractions in this region. In different seasons, many migratory bird species arrive in Rudrasagar each year. Some of the important birds seen here are pelican,Ferruginous Duck, Siberian crane, adjutant stork and the whistling teal, cormorants, ducksetc. The lake is rich in its fisheries biodiversity and Plate 2: Migratory birds at Sepahijala the important freshwater fishes like Botiaspp, Notopteruschitala, Mystus spp., Ompokpabda, Labeobata, Mystusaor, Wallagoattu, Heterophneutesfossilis and freshwater scampi etc.
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As riverine Lake
Rudrasagar is riverine lake formed by three small tributary of river Gumti. It is the second largest riverine Lake in Tripura after by Dumboor Lake and having total geographical area of 2.5 km2. which has its own unique characteristic. Formation of lake, its geographical location, it’s pleasant Climate and physical environment, its local people and their life during flood and dry season etc. make the place is a veritable haven for many eco-tourists Plate 3:- people catching fishes from the riverine lake through the year after year.
Boat riding:
This Lake is very famous for its water trip and visiting tourists can enjoy boating and water sports facilities in the lake. Every year boat riding festival is organised in July/August. Rajghat is the main gateway of Rudrasagar Lake where lots of boats are available for riding and to reach the Nirmahal palace. It is a very exciting, sometimes scary also, but fully enjoyable. The main scenario is found after reaching the Nirmahal Palace. To complete this journey by paddle boat it takes 15-20 Minutes. Every single boat accommodates 5-6 people, charging 25 Rupees per head. Tourist can have Lake Plate 4: Boat riding festival Journey in motor boat than it will take about 7-8 minutes and at a time 35-40 tourist can go and charging 30 Rupees per head. Boat can also be available for a family or a single person.
VARIOUS TYPES OF PROBLEMS FACING BY RUDRASAGAR TOURIST SPORT
Rudrasagar Lake has immense potentialities of ecotourism which have been overlooked in true sense. Those are as followed:-
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Lack of transportation system
Transport facilities play an important role for any tourist place. The comfort and economy while moving towards the destination is prime consideration for selection of types of transport mode. Suitable transportation facilities are a big hindrance in the growth of tourism. There are some jeeps and some public bus services which are at a domestic standard for visiting tourist resort. Some of the major problems of transportation are lack of direct air and rail services connections with big cities of India, mostly roads are narrow, high transportation charges, mainly during the peak season due to absence of adequate rail transportation facilities, insufficient availability of transportation facilities etc.
Lack of accommodation Accommodation is pre requirement of any tourist when they visit the tourist resorts for spend leisure time. The Rudrasagar tourist resorts facing a problem of inadequate and lack of clean and hygienic accommodation facilities and absence of sufficient resort type accommodation. Rudrasagar tourist resort mainly suffer by lake of accommodation during the tourist season because of only one tourist lodge is available namely Sagar Mahal Tourist lodge,which is situated just beside the Rudrasagar Lake. This is the only place to stay close to the water body. Therefore accommodation charges are go high due to limited accommodation facilities so more tourist lodge are need. In some cases, tourist avoids staying at the tourist place due to high charges of rooms and they provide simple food, limited water supply etc., which cannot cater to the choice and taste of tourists.
Poor communication system Proper information and tourism publicity is regulating in development of tourism industry in any region. But Rudrasagar ecotourism resort is suffering lack of these facilities which poses an important for the tourism development. The official website of Tripura tourism is not up to required level so as to give detail information of state tourism. In the region Tourism Department does not provides suitable information for any tourist. Therefore tourists are not a take an advantage of this limited information. The tourist wants that all the necessary information like accommodation facilities, tourist guides, means of transport, shopping centers, roads maps, Guide map, other important information related to tourism, importance of any destination etc.
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 146 provide in individual center. This may save the time of tourist and they explore more in less time. But authority is not able to provide these facilities.
Absence of tourist guides Tripura virtually does not have any trained guides in important places of tourist attraction. It is very difficult to fulfill the inquisitiveness of the tourists in main tourist spots like Rudrasagar Lake. The department of tourism initiated a program to train tourist guides. But the effort did not yield well and adequate.
Lack of awareness Success of any ecotourism project mainly depends upon the participation of the local people in monitoring and implementation of that particular project. The states like Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Sikkim have evolved institutional arrangement of effective participation of the people in encouraging tourism, sharing the benefits among the people and developing a tourism friendly environment. But a few people of this riverine lake are aware of and have knowledge of ecotourism.
Other infrastructural facility Rudrasagar is a very remote area and geographically isolated. As a least populated district, people used to live in a great distance. So lack of medical services, hygiene sanitary facilities, tele-communication facilities, lack of internet connections are disturbing both domestic and foreign tourist.
REMEDIAL MEASURES OR SUGGESTIONS
For the well and healthy growth of Eco tourism in Rudrasagar Lake the following measures and remedial may be suggested by Local People Suggestions for The the local people and tourist:- Proper Development of Tourist Resort Furnished transportation system Remedial measures or Development of catching suggestions by the villagers: fishes 4% 3% Restroration of Rudrasagar 11% 31% lake Author surveyed 55 Accomodation facilities 13% household who have given Beautification of tourist 6% 12% 20% resort Improvement of Idealcommunication International system E- Publication Governmentwww.isca.co.in Policies
Other Infrastructure Source:Author field survey, 2017 facilities The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 147 different type of remedial measures and suggestions to improve the resort. The local people have different opinion and problems related to the tourist sport. According to extensive field surveyed 31 percent of local peoples said that introducing proper transport network system, 12 percent people suggested improving development of fishing ground and catching of fishes which will improve the scenic beauty. Due to unscientific catching of fishes is hampered on coming of migratory birds in different angles, 20 percent of local peoples had suggested that restoration of Rudrasagar Lake. They feel that if the digging of lake which effects rises the normal water level which will improve in fishing activity and scenic beauty of palace and also improve in boat facilities therefore boats can easily move, 6 percent people said that improvement of accommodation facilities due to lake of this facilities tourist did not stay here during night, 13 percent peoples said beatification of tourist sport because which attracts the local people and tourist,11 percent people suggested that to improve the modern communication system,4 percent of local people also needs proper implementation of Government policies and 3 percent responder suggest that improvement of other infrastructure facilities like safe drinking water, proper sanitation, supply of electricity etc. At the same time the peoples have also suggested for the development of palace that all efforts should be made to increase the awareness and knowledge of local people regarding ecotourism. 3 percent people had suggested that to improve others developmental activities like maintenance of cleanliness of the surrounding, increasing the rural employment opportunities, emphasis on environmental education at rural and remote areas and set up of park nearby the site etc.
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Remedial measures or suggestions by tourist
Author surveyed 35 tourists who have given different type of remedial measures Suggestion by Tourist for and suggestions to improve the Neermahal Development of Rudrasagar and Neermahal palace and Rudrasagar Lake. According to the view of the tourist on the development Modernised Boat of a place nearby the site setting up of park Constrnction of 10% 14% ring road and water level should be increased Construnction 12% 4% of park modernised boat facilities and other 16% Quality food 14% supply infrastructural facilities should be Clearnlinees of Lake introduced. On the basis of field survey 11% 6% 5% 8% Repairing of Palace author find 14 percent of the tourists Proper accomodation suggested that to improve the modern boat Available facilities to visit Neermahal palce. 16 vehical percent of tourist suggest that construction of ring road is necessary because in terms of transport and communication. 11 percent tourists suggested that set up the park nearby tourist sport which attracts children, local peoples and also tourists, about 8 percent tourist said about good quality of food supply for the Source:Author field survey, 2017 visitors. About 5 per cent of tourist said about the cleanliness in order to improve the tourist sport cleanliness should be properly maintained, Rudrasagar resort still remains a backward region, 6 percent tourist opinion that repairing the Neermahal palace, 8 percen tourist recommended that quality food supply is necessary because they did not provide good quality of food,6 percent people said that repairing of Neermahal is necessary,14 percent tourist need proper accommodation facilities because only one tourist lodge is there,10 percent tourist suggested that an arrangement of well informative and well educated tourist guides should be made. Tourist guides is also necessary due to the lack of organised effort of both the Government and the private agencies therefore tourist suffer in different way etc. 4 percent tourist recommended that other infrastructural facilities is necessary like sanitation facility, medical care, to provide environmental education etc.
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MAJOR FINDINGS
Water of the lake is polluted due to fishing, agricultural practiced, brick production, and human settlement on the bank of the lake. The navigation of the lake decreases gradually through due to the soil erosion and regular accumulation of silt in the bed of the lake. As the depth of the Rudrasagar lake is getting decreased, so boat competition is in a danger situation and lot of problem face by the boat racer during competition. Water of the lake polluted as a result migratory birds is getting lesser and lesser and it hampered eco tourist’s attraction. Removal and clearing of native vegetation due to the rapid unplanned developmental activity is not only reducing the native vegetation but also reduces fauna biodiversity therefore the loss of habitat for breeding, nesting, and feeding and increased competition for existing habitat areas.
CONCLUSION
From the above discussion it may conclude that Rudarasagar tourist spot provide the various potential to develop the state into a potent force through eco-tourism industry. Though is a very backward area in the State but it has a greatest opportunities to the tourists but if it is not properly managed then that will threat to all. Rudrasagar tourist resort needs lots of development activities that will increase different facilities for eco-tourists as a preferred tourist spot. Resources required developing included infrastructure development; skilled manpower etc. Ecotourism of the concern area may be considered as the best example of sustainable development if the Government takes some creative steps and made proper policy and Schemes.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author would like to thanks, Mr. Amit Bera, post graduate Student of Geography and Disaster Management, Tripura University for his priceless comments to the study. The author express his gratitude to the tourists of Neermahal palace and Rudrasagar as well as the villagers
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 150 for their kind help in providing information and data in the preparation of this research paper. The author is also grateful to all the respondents who kindly extended their cooperation.
REFERENCES Harrington, R. (2001). Environmental uncertainty within the hospitality industry: Exploring the measure of dynamism and complexity between restaurant segments. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 25(4), 386-398. Diamantis, D. (1999). The concept of ecotourism: Evolution and trends. Current Issues in Tourism, 2(2-3), 93-122.
Moinuddin, G., & Begum, H. (2004). Eco-Tourism: An Investigation into the Conceptual Framework and Policy Requirements for its Growth in Banglades.Jahangirnagar Planning Review, (2), 67-82.
Roy, S. (2013). Prospects and challenges of Ecotourism: An empirical Investigation of ‘Thenmala’ Tourism Destination in Kerala. International journal of Scientific Research, (2), 18- 21.
Shoeb-Ur-Rahman, Muhammad; Shahid, RokeyaBinte (….). A Growing Dilemma of Tourism Diffusion and Sustainability: Wows and Woes for Bangladesh Eco-Tourism!UTMS Journal of Economics.
T. Utarasakul, C. Lekprayoon, A. Pradatsundarasar and K. Thirakhupt. (2008). Integration of Environmental Management System for Ecotourism Development in Sri Nan National Park, Nan Province, Northern Thailand. Journal of Environmental Research and Development, (2) 448-456
David, A. Fennell. 2003. Ecotourism: An Introduction. London & New York: Routledge.
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LITERACY PATTERN AND LEVEL OF DEVELOPMENT OF THE TEA GARDEN WORKERS OF DOOARS REGION, WEST BENGAL
Surjapada Paul, Assistant Professor, Department of Geography, Siliguri College, Siliguri, Darjeeling,
Abstract: Tea industry is one of the oldest industries in India. It occupies a pivotal position in the country’s economy. The plantation labourers of Dooars of West Bengal were mostly from the weaker section of the society and were tortured and exploited by the local landlords. They have been kept or are forced to remain at the lowest rungs of the society due to lower rate of literacy level and unawareness. Education, being the major component of human resource development is one of the most important indicators of socio economic and political development of the tea workers. The depth of socio cultural heritage of this group is judged from the percentage of literacy and educational advancement. It is a powerful instrument to change the values and attitude of the people and to create in them the urge of the necessary motivation to achieve social mobility and social ascendancy. The main objectives of the present are to study the literacy pattern and level of development of the tea garden workers of Dooars region in West Bengal. Both primary and secondary data are used for the present study. For collecting the primary information from the workers of selected 30 tea garden of Dooars region, the stratified random sampling technique is used for the present study.Statistical measures including Standard score, Composite Z score are used to evaluate the literacy pattern and level of development of the workers and the results are presented in the form of relevant maps and diagrams by applying suitable cartographic techniques. The major finding of the present paper is that the vast numbers of people of the selected tea gardens of Dooars region are illiterate. It can be also observed that the percentage of female literacy rate is decreasing compare to the male counterpart with the advancement of education in the hierarchical level. Considering the factors responsible for educational backwardness, prompt measures for its improvement are considered and highly necessary.
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Keywords: Tea industry, labours, Dooars region, literacy pattern, level of development, social mobility, educational backwardness.
Introduction: Literacy is one of the major indicators of the development of a population. The rate of literacy is directly related to the quality of life. Literacy is the acid test of socio economic and cultural advancement of a community. Higher percentage of literacy is one of the best indicators of their intelligence and status consciousness in the society. It also reflects the socio economic background from which a particular community passes through.A person age 7 years and above whom can both read and write with understanding in any language is taken as literate. Section 14 of the Plantation Labour Act, 1951 states that where the children between the ages of six years and twelve years of the workers employed in any plantation exceed twenty five in number, the State Government may make rules requiring every employer to provide educational facilities through primary school for the children in such a manner and of such standard as may be prescribed.
Keeping this view in mind, it is necessary to analyze the literacy level among tea workers of Dooars region. It is well known that educational facilities provided by the government machinery after the annexation of Dooars from Bhutan in 1865 were poor. Obviously, the generations of the plantation workers in Dooars were deprived of getting primary education. To open a primary school in the most secluded area was mere a figment of imagination at that time. Even then, the literacy among the tea workers of the isolated plantation area in Dooars was negligible. With the passage of time, situation went on changing. There was also change in the attitude planters regarding opening of schools in the garden area. Earlier, the planters were less interested in the educational advancement of labour and their dependents. To many planters, the educated labour would create more labour problem than non-educated. The educated labour would assert his or her right as per law. At present, both the management and labourers are interested in educational advancement of the worker’s children. But still, the situation is gloomier among the tea gardens of Dooars region which are in sick and abandoned condition. As revealed by the data, generated from the field, an attempt has been made to have an idea about the level of education among the workers of Dooars tea gardens under investigation.
Research problems: The tea workers of the present study area are the weaker section of the society. They are settled in the remotely located areas which are away from the main stream of
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 153 society. Though they have been kept aloof, due to irony of fate, they represent a unique class of people who are really seemed to be most graceful in the environment as that of a child in his mother’s lap. From the beginning of First Five Year Plan the priority has been given for the development and welfare of the tea garden workers, but the educational level among them yet not reached to a satisfactory level that can improve their standard of living. As such, education is most important element in the development of this community. Due to ignorance, lack of educational institutions, language barrier, poverty etc. are the main problems towards their education that lead to their backwardness in every sphere of life.
Study area: The Dooars region which is located on the northern part of West Bengal along the foothills of the Himalayas is considered as study area for the present study which lying between 26016′N and 27000′N latitude and 88004′E and 89045′E longitudes. The Dooars consists of marshy land with huge forest cover. It represents a transitional belt of high plain between the Himalayas and the flat plain of North Bengal. The study was carried out among the 30 tea gardens in the Dooars region for studying the literacy pattern and level of development of the tea garden workers.
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Figure: 1: Location map of the study area
Objectives: The main objectives of the present paper are as follows- 1. To study the literacy pattern of the tea garden workers in Dooars region 2. To analyse the level of development of the workers of tea gardens of Dooars Hypothesis: The present work tries to assert the truth or falsity of the following proposition:
1. The level of literacy pattern, in general, is low and most specifically it is lower within female population than male population in the tea gardens of Dooars region.
Methodology: Methodology encompasses the overall planning that includes a proper knowledge of the techniques and means of data collection, systematic and meaningful analysis and drawing of the relevant conclusions for the same.The present study based on both primary and secondary data. For collecting the primary information from the workers of tea plantations of Dooars region, the stratified random sampling techniques will be used for the present study.Statistical measures including composite index, composite Z score are used to evaluate the literacy patternand the
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 155 level of development of the workers and the results are presented in the form of relevant maps and diagrams by applying GIS packages.
Results and Discussion:
Educational Attainment: Literacy level and educational attainment are vital indicators of development in a society. Attainment of universal primary education is one of the Millennium Development Goals of the United Nations to be achieved by the year 2015. Literacy level and educational development are considered to be key variables affecting demographic indicators like fertility, mortality (especially infant mortality) rate and migration11. It greatly contributes in improving quality of life, particularly with regard to life expectancy, infant mortality, learning levels and nutritional levels of children. Higher level of literacy and educational development leads to greater awareness on the one hand and help people in acquiring new skills on the other.
Average literacy rate of Jalpaiguri in 2011 were 73.79% compared to 62.85% of 2001. If things are looked out at gender wise, male and female literacy were 80.61% and 66.65% respectively. For 2001 census, same figures stood at 72.83% and 52.21% in Jalpaiguri District. Total literate in Jalpaiguri District were 2,527,018 of which male and female were 1,412,065 and 1,114,953 respectively. In 2001, Jalpaiguri District had 1,810,083 in its district. Here an attempt has been made to show the literacy rate by sex in Jalpaiguri district during 1951-2011. Table: 1 Literacy rate by sex in Jalpaiguri district during 1951-2011 Census Year T/R/U Persons Males Females
Total 14.3 20.4 6.6
1951 Rural 12.2 18.2 4.7
Urban 55.9 59.7 50.0
Total 23.2 32.2 12.3
1961 Rural 19.6 28.6 8.8
Urban 57.6 64.3 48.6
1971 Total 28.6 37.2 18.4
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Rural 24.7 33.6 14.2
Urban 63.2 68.6 56.6
Total 33.4 42.6 23.3
1981 Rural 28.0 37.5 17.5
Urban 65.7 72.2 58.2
Total 45.1 56.0 33.2
1991 Rural 39.7 51.4 27.0
Urban 71.1 78.1 63.3
Total 62.9 72.8 52.2
2001 Rural 58.9 69.9 47.2
Urban 80.0 85.5 74.1
Total 73.7 80.6 66.6
2011 Rural 62.0 78.3 62.4
Urban 74.1 86.6 77.7
Note: Up to 1971 Literacy rate was calculated excluding the 0-4 age population. From 1981 onwards Literacy rate is calculated excluding the 0-6 age group population.
It is revealed from the table (Table Number - 1) that during the decade 1991-2001 literacy rates in Jalpaiguri district has improved by 17.8 per cent points which is the highest for this district in the post-independence period. Similarly, rural literacy in Jalpaiguri has increased by 19.2 per cent points and urban literacy by 8.9 per cent points during the same period. Comparative analysis of improvement in literacy rate of the district with that of the State shows that except 1961 and 1981 Jalpaiguri overtakes the State percentage points until 2011. In 2011 the literacy rate in Jalpaiguri percentage point increase of 10.8 as against 8.4 points for the State is therefore very significant. The table (Table Number -2) shows the percentage of male and female literate and illiterate population in the selected tea gardens of Dooars region:
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Table: 2 Male and female literate and illiterate population in the selected tea gardens of Dooars
Sl. Name of the tea Literate population (in %) Illiterate population (in %) No. garden Total Male Female Male Female
1. Kumargram T.G. 36.10 47.66 24.38 52.34 75.62
2. Kohinoor T.G. 36.57 46.37 26.43 53.63 73.57
3. Kadambini T.G. 44.75 56.00 32.66 44.00 67.34
4. Muthura T.G. 42.87 54.77 30.86 45.23 69.14
5. Ellenbari T.G. 41.55 52.24 30.13 47.76 69.87
6. Washabari T.G. 51.40 61.94 41.30 38.06 58.70
7. Srinathpur T.G. 29.25 36.43 21.37 63.57 78.63
8. Damdim T.G. 29.19 37.54 20.82 62.46 79.18
9. Chulsa T.G. 40.76 52.57 28.62 47.43 71.38
10. Raidak T.G. 35.21 43.39 26.82 56.61 73.18
11. Atiabari T.G. 38.86 48.17 29.57 51.83 70.43
12. Bagrakote T.G. 57.12 67.59 46.97 32.41 53.03
13. Zurrantee T.G. 43.46 55.49 31.83 44.51 68.17
14. Chengmari T.G. 44.32 57.67 30.93 42.33 69.07
15. Mujnai T.G. 32.38 41.66 22.91 58.34 77.09
16. Banarhat T.G. 54.86 62.11 47.04 37.89 52.96
17. Telepara T.G. 71.33 80.05 56.44 19.95 43.56
18. Huldibari T.G. 37.61 47.57 27.54 52.43 72.46
19. Leesh River T.G. 48.95 59.33 38.05 40.67 61.95
20. Nagrakata T.G. 32.79 43.39 22.44 56.61 77.56
21. Madhu T.G. 45.66 56.49 34.85 43.51 65.15
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22. Mahua T.G. 33.25 44.12 21.56 55.82 78.44
23. Hilla T.G. 35.62 46.00 24.03 54.00 75.97
24. Gandrapara T.G. 36.83 49.82 23.89 50.18 76.11
25. Redbank T.G. 43.41 56.35 30.59 43.65 69.41
26. Surendranagar T.G. 37.11 48.21 21.09 51.79 78.91
27. Dharanipur T.G. 33.84 39.74 20.64 60.26 79.36
28. Manabarrie T.G. 30.54 41.21 23.60 58.79 76.40
29. Bandapani T.G. 36.79 46.14 26.98 53.86 73.02
30. Dheklapara T.G. 38.50 50.24 27.00 49.76 73.00 Source: Census of India, 2001.
Figure: 2 Literacy and illiteracy rate in the selected tea gardens of Dooars
From the table (Table Number-2) it can be seen that in the 30 surveyed tea gardens 61.79% males and 54.88% females are literate. The highest literacy rate confined in the Telepara tea garden i.e. 71.33 % but it was slightly lower than respective district average (73.7%) according to 2011 census. The percentage of literacy is comparatively higher in the Bagrakote T.G.
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(57.12%), Banarhat T.G. (54.86%), and Washabari T.G. (51.40%), LeeshRiver T.G. (48.95%) compare to the other tea gardens under study. Lowest percentage of literacy rate was in the Damdim T.G., Srinathpur T.G., where the literacy rate around 30 percent. Crude male literacy rate was observed highest also in the Telepara T.G. (80.05%) and lowest in the Damdim T.G. (37.54%). On the other hand, the highest and lowest crude female literacy rate confined in the Telepara .T.E (56.44%) and Dharanipur T.G. (20.64%) respectively.The table (Table Number- 3) shows the crude percentage of literacy, crude male literacy rate, and crude female literacy rate of the selected tea gardens in Dooars region.
Table: 3 Crude percentage of literacy, crude male literacy rate and crude female literacy rate of the selected tea gardens of Dooars Sl. Crude % of Crude Male Literacy Crude Female Literacy Name of the T.G. No. Literacy Rate Rate
1 Kumargram T.G. 69.69 83.67 56
2 Kohinoor T.G. 55.45 52.63 58.49
3 Kadambini T.G. 70.87 75 65.95
4 Muthura T.G. 74.31 85.71 62.26
5 Ellenbari T.G. 53.63 53.44 53.84
6 Washabari T.G. 65.34 68.51 61.70
7 Srinathpur T.G. 69 71.18 65.85
8 Damdim T.G. 55.10 48.27 65
9 Chulsa T.G. 54.63 52.72 57.14
10 Raidak T.G. 59.61 66.07 52.08
11 Atiabari T.G. 66.96 69.23 63.82
12 Bagrakote T.G. 72.72 70.96 75
13 Zurrantee T.G. 75.67 80.39 71.66
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14 Chengmari T.G. 61.76 63.63 59.57
15 Mujnai T.G. 61.38 62.96 59.57
16 Banarhat T.G. 55.45 57.40 53.57
17 Telepara T.G. 62.38 66.10 58
18 Huldibari T.G. 64.70 49.05 61.22
19 Leesh River T.G. 64.21 69.23 58.13
20 Nagrakata T.G. 60.21 60.37 60
21 Madhu T.G. 47.66 53.57 41.17
22 Mahua T.G. 48.51 67.34 30.76
23 Hilla T.G. 56.98 59.18 54.54
24 Gandrapara T.G. 51.45 44.64 59.57
25 Redbank T.G. 50.52 52.94 47.72
26 Surendranagar T.G. 41.58 40.81 42.30
27 Dharanipur T.G. 42.85 50.94 33.33
28 Manabarrie T.G. 48.03 44.68 50.90
29 Bandapani T.G. 46.15 61.90 32.65
30 Dheklapara T.G. 40.81 44.23 36.95
Source: Based on field survey.
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Figure: 3 Male and female literacy rate of the selected tea gardens of Dooars
The study conducted in the thirty selected tea gardens of Dooars reflects that (Table Number - 3) out of 3065 sampled households population 1001 (61.79%) males and 793 (54.88%) females are literate. From the table it can also be seen that the highest percentage of crude literacy rate confined in the Zurrantee T.G. (75.67%) and lowest in the Dheklapara T.G. (40.81%) among the surveyed tea gardens. The crude male literacy rate was higher in the Mathura T.G. and lower in the Dheklapara T.G. (44.23%). On the other hand the highest and lowest crude female literacy rate confined in the Bagrakote T.G. (75.00%) and Mahua T.G. (30.76%) respectively. But there is a much difference in case of percentage of literacy rate, crude male literacy and crude female literacy rate between the census data and collected primary data.
To testify the respective hypothesis the level of literacy pattern in the selected tea gardens of Dooars has been incorporated here:
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Table: 4 Level of literacy pattern of population in the selected tea gardens of Dooars
Level of education Male % of Male Female % of Female Total
Primary (Class I-V) 563 56.24 527 66.46 60.76
Upper primary (Class VI-VIII) 301 30.07 196 24.72 27.70
Secondary (Class IX-X) 106 10.59 61 7.69 9.31
Higher Secondary (Class XI-XII) 25 2.50 7 0.88 1.78
Under Graduate 6 0.60 2 0.25 0.45
Total 1001 100.00 793 100.00 100.00
Source: Based on field survey
Form the table (Table Number-4.14) among the 3065 household population of the thirty selected tea gardens in Dooars region 1794 (58.53%) persons are literate, of which 1001 persons (61.79%) are male and 793 (54.88%) are female. The average literacy level is lower than the respective district average which was 73.79% and the male and female literacy rate also lower than the district average if things are looked out at gender wise, male and female literacy were 80.61% and 66.65% respectively according to 2011 census.
The vast numbers of people of the selected tea gardens of Dooars region are illiterate (41.47%). The data reveals from the above table that on an average 60.76 percent of the people had education up to primary level, of which the percentage share of male and female 56.24 percent and 66.46 percent respectively. It can be also observed that the percentage of female literacy rate is comparatively lower that of male counterpart with the advancement of education in the hierarchical level. 27.70 percent of the female population has educated up to upper primary level followed by 9.31 percent with secondary, 1.78 percent with higher secondary and only 0.45 percent of them have qualification up to under graduate level whereas 30.07 percent of male educated up to upper primary level, 2.50 percent with higher secondary and only 0.60 percent up to the graduate level. Thus, it can be clear that the literacy level among the female comparatively lower than the male literacy rate in the selected tea gardens of Dooars region.
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The Plantation Labour Act, 1951 made it mandatory for all tea plantations to provide for primary education to the children of the workers. There were a number of reasons for the low level of literacy among the tea plantation worker. As the plantations were usually isolated and communications were not very good, the only source of education for most of the workers' children is the primary school which maintained by the garden management. These schools were badly maintained in most of the plantations. They did not have adequate rooms or teachers. Moreover, since most of the primary school teachers resided outside the plantations and they were irregular in their attendance. The general apathy of the employers and the government towards the educational needs of the workers and their families was mainly responsible for this situation. Along with the above reasons, the lower literacy levels of the women were caused by the additional burden of taking care of the needs of the family. In many cases the girls did not go to school or had to drop out because they had to take care of the younger children. This again was due to another violation of the Plantation Labour Act. The Act provides for crèches in all plantations employing 30 or more women but this was hardly enforced. With the result, younger girls had little time for school before they started working on the plantation or elsewhere in the vicinity.
Thus the hypothesis ‘The level of literacy pattern, in general, is low & most specifically it is lower within female workers than male workers in the tea gardens of Dooars region’ seems to be valid in the present study.
Children’s education: One of the most important questions of the tea plantation workers is that of education. The environment under which the workers had to live for more than a century during the British regime is so pathetic. The planters paid a very scanty attention to educate the workers and their children despite of the recommendations made by the Royal Commission on Labour in 1931. However, after attainment of Independence, the National Government through the Plantation Labour Act, 1951 made it compulsory to establish garden level schools for primary education at the cost of the management. But the position did not improve due to lack of encouragement from both the parents and the management. If the parents are not educated, how they can take initiative to educate their children or other family members? As a matter of fact, the parents did not take interest to educate their children for the wrong notion which they used to maintain. It was their strong believe that son of a worker would ultimately be a worker of the
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 164 garden, and as such, why they should be educated. Since the children are profitable both to planters and parents alike, they are deprived of even getting the primary education which is necessary for every walk of life12.
As per Plantation Labour Act, 1951, the schools were established, teachers were appointed but there was dearth of students in the schools as the parents were reluctant to send their children to schools for various reasons e.g., the older boys or girls had to take care of the children, go out in search of firewood and bringing drinking water, rations etc. As the plantations were usually isolated and communications were not very good, the only sour of education for most of the workers' children was the primary school in the plantation. These schools were badly maintained in most of the plantations. They did not have adequate rooms or teachers. Moreover, since most of the primary school teachers resided outside their plantations they were irregular in their attendance. The general apathy of the employers and the government towards the educational needs of the workers and their families was mainly responsible for this situation. Along with the above reasons, the lower literacy levels of the women were caused by the additional burden of taking care of the needs of the family. In many cases the girls did not go to school or had to drop out because they had to take care of the younger children. This again was due to another violation of the Plantation Labour Act. The Act provides for crèches in all plantations employing 30 or more women but this was hardly enforced. With the result, younger girls had little time for school before they started working on the plantation or elsewhere in the vicinity.
Table: 5 Educational facility in the selected tea gardens of Dooars Number of tea Number of Number of primary Number of upper gardens Angwanwaricentre school primary school
30 58 30 4
Source: Based on field survey
From the table (Table Number-5) it can be revealed that among the 30 selected tea gardens, 58 angwanwari centres are there and every tea garden has one primary school for worker children. Only 4 upper primary schools were observed in the Kumargram, Banarhat, Ellenbarrie, and Leesh River tea gardens. Since the tea gardens in the Dooars are located in the remotest corner of
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 165 this region and lack of availability of high school in the garden itself, the worker’s children are bound to stop the education after education up to primary level. Above all, most of the gardens have no transport facility for school going students. During the field survey in the selected tea gardens of the Dooars region the following problems are confined-
(i) The quality of the infrastructure is very poor. A majority of the tea gardens have only lower primary schools with the capacity to educate 100-250 students. (ii) Classes are held in dilapidated buildings that are not even equipped with adequate desks for the students. (iii) Usually, only one or at the most two teachers are available for four classes with 100- 250 students. (iv) In a majority of the schools, the teachers work half the time in the tea garden and the rest half of the time in the school. (v) A majority of schools are closed during the plucking time since both the teachers and students work in the tea garden during that time. (vi) As the teacher is paid by the management, the latter is liable for managing the school. (vii) With the prevalence of child labour being rampant in the tea gardens, most of the children leave school to work in the tea garden for earning a nominal amount of money. (viii) Teachers are paid very nominal salaries as they are not involved in the production process. Level of development by using composite Z score: The level of literacy pattern in the selected tea gardens has been determined by using the Standard Score. The table (Table Number - 6) shows the Composite Z-score value of different variables of the selected tea gardens in Dooars. The results of standard score obtained from the different indicators aggregated by Composite standard score. The value of the composite score has been determined to obtain the garden wise disparities in the Dooars. In this regard the value ranges from the minimum of +1.15 at Kumargram tea garden to the maximum of +7.67 atZurrantee tea garden. It appears that the all the tea garden have positive Z-Score values. Keeping in mind this range of 6.52 the level of literacy distribution has been grouped into three classes namely high (5.51-7.68) medium (3.33- 5.50) and low (1.15-3.32). Thus it appears that the Z-Score values of 20 tea gardens are under the high range and its pattern of distribution is confined more in the western part of the Dooars region. Among the different variables male literacy rate are determined by the Standard Score ranges from the minimum of -1.70 in Surendranagar tea garden to the maximum of +2.11 in
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Mathura tea garden. Thus it appears that the number of tea gardens in the Dooars region having positive and negative Z-Score values is evenly distributed. In case of female literacy rate the Z- Score values ranges from the minimum of -2.18 in Mahua tea garden to the maximum of +1.81 in Bagrakote tea garden.
The Z-score values of literacy variable in the selected tea garden of Dooars have been presented in the following table (Table Number – 6).
Table: 6 Z-Score values of literacy variable in the selected tea gardens of Dooars Sl. no. Name of Tea Garden Literacy rate Male literacy rate Female literacy rate
1. Kumargram 1.156602 1.937075 0.094033
2. Kohinoor 5.629478 -0.70238 0.319168
3. Kadambini 7.16479 1.19983 0.993671
4. Muthura 7.574207 2.110544 0.660036
5. Ellenbari 5.42477 -0.6335 -0.10127
6. Washabari 6.653019 0.647959 0.609403
7. Srinathpur 7.062436 0.875 0.984629
8. Damdim 5.629478 -1.07313 0.907776
9. Chulsa 5.527124 -0.69473 0.197107
10. Raidak 6.038895 0.440476 -0.2604
11. Atiabari 6.755374 0.709184 0.801085
12. Bagrakote 7.369498 0.856293 1.811935
13. Zurrantee 7.676561 1.658163 1.509946
14. Chengmari 6.243603 0.232993 0.416817
15. Mujnai 6.243603 0.17602 0.416817
16. Banarhat 5.629478 -0.29677 -0.12568
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17. Telepara 6.345957 0.443027 0.274864
18. Huldibari 6.550665 -1.0068 0.566004
19. Leesh River 6.550665 0.709184 0.286618
20. Nagrakata 6.141249 -0.04422 0.455696
21. Madhu 4.810645 -0.62245 -1.24684
22. Mahua 4.912999 0.548469 -2.18807
23. Hilla 5.731832 -0.14541 -0.03797
24. Gandrapara 5.220061 -1.3818 0.416817
25. Redbank 5.117707 -0.67602 -0.65461
26. Surendranagar 4.19652 -1.70748 -1.14467
27. Dharanipur 4.298874 -0.84609 -1.9557
28. Manabarrie 4.912999 -1.3784 -0.36709
29. Bandapani 4.708291 0.085884 -2.01718
30. Dheklapara 4.094166 -1.41667 -1.62839
**Computed Z score value on the basis of field data.
Major findings: It was found that the level of literacy of the workers in the selected tea gardens was very low which is well below the state as well as the district average. As the plantations were usually isolated and communications were not very good, the only sour of education for most of the workers' children was the primary school in the plantation. These schools were badly maintained in most of the plantations. They did not have adequate rooms or teachers. Moreover, since most of the primary school teachers resided outside their plantations they were irregular in their attendance. The lower literacy levels of the worker’s children were caused by the additional burden of taking care of the needs of the family. Lack of educational facilities keeps them illiterate; the absence of proper crèches at the workplace implies that the elder daughters, instead of going to school, have to take care of the children in the household. The female literacy rate iscomparatively lower than the male literacy rate in the selected tea gardens of Dooars region.The lower literacy levels of the women were caused by the additional burden of taking
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 168 care of the needs of the family. With the result the women have to devote all their available time to work and to the household. They thus have little time for the activities related to their development.The lower rate of literacy among the tea garden workers in Dooars region is negatively correlated with their overall development.
The above findings fulfill the objectives i.e. to study the literacy pattern and the level of development of the tea garden workers in Dooars region, of the present study.
Strategies for the development of education: The previous analysis has shown the educational backwardness among the workers of the sample tea gardens. Considering the factors responsible for educational backwardness, prompt measures for its improvement are considered highly necessary. Followings suggestions are put forward for implementation-
(i) The existing barrier in education at tea gardens can be removed to a great extent by introducing more schools beyond primary level in the garden areas. This will help to improve education among garden workers qualitatively and quantitatively. It is good that the state government has already initiated to introduce schools through SarbaSikshaAbhijan. However, the introduction of schools is limited to primary level only.
(ii) A striking event is found to occur in the development of high degree of consciousness and responsibility among the female workers in the tea plantations. It leads to establish the fact that female workers are sincere in their approaches and of much receptive to any change that is beneficial for them and the society at large. Thus, the women are the best agents for bringing about changes in the society and as such the education of women holds the key to all other elements on which the transformation of the societies depends. For instance, population control, family health, personal hygiene, nutrition and education to children are possible only when the women are educated.
Since the female workers constitute about 55% of the total workforce in the tea plantation of Dooars and they are mostly illiterate, ignorant and backward in a male dominated society, it would be quite fruitful to educate them on top priority basis for their advancement and progress of the society and the nation as a whole. Therefore, constant campaign on female education through the government agencies, NGOs and garden authorities to spread the awareness of female education among them is very important.
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(iii) To eradicate illiteracy, massive adult education programme should be introduced in the garden areas. For this purpose, night/evening schools may be established in the garden areas by the planters in co-operation with the concerned government departments and workers should be encouraged to attend to such schools. Naturally, the workers are disinterested to attend the night or evening school after their toiling for the whole day. In this circumstance, here lies the necessity and importance of responsible managerial staff to convince the workers to attend the class and enthuses their interest in this regard.
(iv) To encourage parents as well as children, special incentives should be introduced specially scholarship for girls in high or higher studies because of the fact that most of the illiterate parents do not appreciate the education of girl children. It should be borne by garden authority or the state government to provide pre-matric and post-matric scholarship to the students of the selected tea gardens of Dooars.
(v) Since most of the problems with obtaining higher education are related to economic backwardness of the garden workers, workers’ economic conditions should be raised. This can be done, among many measures, by proper wage policies, promotion schemes, pay incentives for skilled workers, incentives to those who obtain higher education etc.
Since the level of awareness and literacy status is very poor among the plantation workers, they are ignorant about what they should do for their children. Thus, in order to improve their living and economic conditions, a change in their social outlook is urgently needed. For the purpose, a training package on importance of child education, health and sanitation, family planning on their rights and responsibilities are highly desirable.
Conclusion:The workers of the Dooars tea plantations are largely illiterate, superstitious and untouched by the modern society. They are unable to afford school education for their children. They cannot think about their future due to illiteracy and lack of awareness. Mass poverty, ignorance and illiteracy are the major factors responsible for putting children to work instead of sending them to schools, abrupt stoppage through strict enforcement of law may create terrible implications and worsen the situation. The high rate of illiteracy, colossal ignorance and abject poverty are some of the factors which are standing as stumbling block on the way of advancement of the tea workers of the Dooars region. The existing barrier in education at tea
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 170 gardens can be removed to a great extent by introducing more schools beyond primary level in the garden areas. This will help to improve education among garden workers qualitatively and quantitatively. So, it is essential to give more stress on the functional literacy aspects of the tea workers for their all-round development. Till today no sincere efforts have been made by any corner say government or management to liberate these people from the clutches of feudalism by providing proper facilities for education. This has made them more and more dependent on the master rather than being independent.There is an urgent need to make efforts which working simultaneously on labour law and effective enforcement, awareness building, workers' education, skill and vocational training.
References: 1. Bhadra, R.K. and Bhadra, M. (1997). Plantation Labours in North East India, N.L.Publishers, Dibrugarh, Assam. 2. Bhowmik, Sharit. (1981). Class Formation in the Plantation System, Peoples Publishing House, New Delhi. 3. Bomjan, D.S., (2008). “Darjeeling – Dooars people and place under Bengals neo- colonial rule”, Darjeeling, Bikash Jana Sahitya Kendra. 4. Bora, M.L., (1981). “Socio –Cultural life of tea garden labor; problems of tea industry in North Eastern India,” proceeding of seminar organized by North East Council, ICSSR. 5. O’Malley, I.S.S., (1907). Bengal District Gazetteer ‘Darjeeling’, Alipore Government Printing Press, Calcutta. 6. Primary Census Abstract (Census of India, 2001). 7. Ray, B., (1964). Census of India1961, District Census Handbook: Jalpaiguri, Calcutta, p 85. 8. Sharma, Khemraj, (2000). The Himalayan Tea Plantation Workers, N.L.Publishers, Dibrugarh, Assam. 9. Singh, S.N. & Kumar, Purnendu, (2006). “Socio economic and political problems of tea garden workers – a study of Assam” New Delhi, Mittal publications. 10. Tea Statistics, 2005-06, Tea Board of India.
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Social Exclusion and impact on Dalits in India Dhiman Shil Guest Lecturer, Dept. of English SaheedKshudiram College, Kamakhyaguri Email : [email protected]
Abstract: Social exclusion, or social marginalization, is the social disadvantage and relegation to the fringeof society. Social exclusion is the process in which individuals or people are systematically blocked from (or denied full access to) various rights, opportunities and resources that are normally available to members of a different group, and which are fundamental to social integration within that particular group. The causes for exclusion can vary from country to country in different times; reflecting different situation such geographically, historically and politically but the results will be the same in the form of lack of people development and the country. The historical roots of the concept of social exclusion goes back as far as Aristotle. But the contemporary term emerged as a result of social unrest due to increasing unemployment and economical inequalities in France during 1960s and it was adopted particularly by the U.K new labor government elected in the late 1990s when the International Labour Organization also took a lead in driving the concept to less economically developed countries, but there was a lack of theoretical and empirical studies on the concept of social exclusion based on caste , religion ethnicity, the types of exclusion and the indicators of the exclusion and its impact on the excluded groups. This paper wants to discuss about the Dalits of India in the below mentioned frame work of social exclusion. Key words: Dalits, Exclusion, Fringe, Inequality, Marginalization. Introduction: Social exclusion is defined as social process which involves denial of fair and equal opportunities to certain social groups in multiple spheres in society, resulting in the inability of individuals from excluded groups to participate in the basic political, economic and social functioning of the society. Social Exclusion is mainly a group concept.AmartyaSen says the situation where some people are kept out, and where some people are being included and describes two situations as unfavorable exclusion and unfavorable inclusion. The acts of exclusion which excludes people from having an access and entitlement to certain social groups that are based on the recognized and accepted principles, rules, norms, practices of fairness can be considered as unfair exclusion, similarly the inclusions which provide access and entitlement to persons from certain social groups but on different terms and conditions can be termed as unfair inclusion. There is a differentiation in individual exclusion and group exclusion (1). The groups which are wholly or partially excluded on the base of their identity from full participation in society and having a two dimension as “societial relations” causing exclusion and their “out comes” causing deprivation. Adam Smith’s focus on the deprivation involved in not “being able to appear in public without shame” is a good example of a capability deprivation that takes the form of social exclusion.AmartyaSen defines active and passive exclusion. As the deliberate exclusion of people from opportunities through government policies or other means is called active exclusion, whereas the passive exclusion works through the social process in which there are no deliberate attempts to exclude, but never the less may result in exclusion of people from a
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 172 set of circumstances. The concept of social exclusion can be applied with the Indian context where caste and untouchability are been practiced from centuries ago and its changes from time to time.
1. IOSR Journal Of Humanities And Social Science (IOSR-JHSS) Volume 19, Issue 4, Ver. IV (Apr. 2014), PP 81-85
Objective of the study: The present paper is an attempt to analyze social exclusion and the status of Dalitsin the sphere of Indian society. The study develops a theoretical view on the multiple effects of social exclusion. The major objectives of this study are as follows: i. To find out the indicators of social exclusion. ii. To find out the impacts of exclusion on Dalits. Methodology: The present study is solely based on secondary sources of data. Discussion and Analysis: Social Exclusion in Indian context: In India social exclusion is the denial of the basic welfare rights which provide citizens positive freedom to participate in the social and economic life and which thereby render their meaningful fundamental negative freedoms. According to the ancient text the society of India is divided into four Varnas i.e. Chaturvarna. The hierarchy based the Brahmin should cultivate the knowledge, that the kshatriya should bear arms, the vaishya should trade and the shudra should serve all the above three classes.The Brahmin flattered the Kshatriya and both let the Vaishya live-in order to be able to live upon him. But the three agreed to beat down the Shudra. He was not allowed to acquire wealth lest he should be dependent of the three Varnas. He was prohibited from acquiring knowledge lest he should keep a steady vigil regarding his interests. He was prohibited from bearing arms lest he should have the means to rebel against their authority(2).Due to chaturvarnya the shudras could not receive education, they could not think out or know the way to their salvation they were condemned to be lowly and not knowing the way of escape and not having the means of escape they became reconciled to eternal servitude, which they accepted as their inescapable fate. Types of social exclusion: Dr.Ambedkar in his paper “Annihilation of caste” points out some indicators of social exclusion(3). These are caste based, untouchability based and economy based. These three aspects strongly lead to the barest condition of the society i.e. the societal inequality. Caste based exclusion: The caste system is based on the division of people in to social groups in which civil, cultural and economic rights of each individual caste are predetermined or ascribed by birth and made hereditary. The assignment of civil, and economic rights are unequal and hierarchical and the most important feature is it provides for regulatory mechanism to enforce social and economic organizations through the instruments of social ostracism and the caste system is reinforced further with justification and support from philosophical elements in the Hindu religion. Caste at the
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 173
top of the social order enjoys more rights at the expense of those located at the bottom of the caste hierarchy and have fewer economic and social rights. Untouchability based social exclusion: The untouchables who are at the bottom of the caste hierarchy suffered the most from unequal assignments and entitlements of rights. The untouchables suffered from social exclusion and discrimination involving certain rights which include civil, cultural, religious and economic rights. The untouchables are considered impure and unfit for social association and inter relation with castes above. Economy based exclusion: In the country like India the economy is the scale that defines the social status. Rather it will be more prominent to argue that the people who belong to the upper class have opportunity to earn lots of money and the lower class suffers from earning their bread and butter. And this inequality gives birth to social exclusion. Social exclusion in contemporary India: In this age of globalization the darkest side of India is that the practice of the varna system is still in existence which has a practice of discriminating the shudras.Today in contemporary Indian society the shudras are known as the dalits(4) which is a Marathi word means as “broken men” and presently there are 180 million Dalits categorized and classified as scheduled castes in the Indian constitution. However more than 180 million Dalits are subjected to social, economic, political and cultural exclusion deeply imbedded in social practices. Dalits are socially and physically separated. They most live in outside areas of the village in rural areas and in specified areas in cities. They are denied basic human rights not allowed to own property rights and to use public and common property such as the wells, tanks and temples. After India’s independence when India declared itself as a democratic nation having adopting a written constitution in which the practice of social exclusion in the form of untouchability is been eradicated and made it as a punishable offence under article 17 and 18 of the Indian constitution and have made several developmental provision for the Dalits. In spite of this the practice of social exclusion and discrimination has been practiced in a newer forms and strategies.
Exclusion of Dalits: Socially: The exclusion is based on caste, untouchability such as the excluded member of any Dalit community does not have the right to get entry into public places like temples, schools, hospitals, housings, etc. Restriction on entry into various educational institutions, leads to unequal treatment in teaching. The Dalits are made to practice some identifiable cultural practices separated from the society such that they have their separate gods, marriage system, the crimination system and different food culture from the other people of the society. In economic spheres : Denial of equal rights and opportunities to the low caste groups to have assets like agricultural lands and non-land assets, employments, social needs like education, health, housing and others leads to lower income and high poverty among the Dalits. Education: Discriminations in schools take the form of denial of access to education and the skill development among the Dalits children. This reduces the quality of human resources and reduces the employability for quality jobs. Denial of education leads to high rate in illiteracy, low functionally literacy and high dropout rates and limited skill development, discrimination in education may cause high representation in menial jobs, low wages, low income and ultimately high poverty(5).
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Health facilities: Dalits are often denied in the sphere of medical supervision. Denial of admission in the primary health centre, denial of visiting to Dalits’ home , denial of giving information about health facilities, lack of care lead to the medical exclusion on Dalits(6). Political sphere:In political sphere Dalits have a very poor representation. Though the constitution of India has made some provisions to make the Dalits politically empowered but the orthodox societal structure of India does not provide enough political representation to Dalits and that is how the Dalit community has been politically excluded.
2.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_exclusion#Community_exclusion 3.Ambedkar.B.R.(1944) Annihilation of caste. Dept.ofeducation.Govt. ofMaharastra 4. Sen, Amartya. (2000) Social Exclusion: Concept, Application and Scrutiny. Social Development Paper.o1 5. Thorat.S.K, and Sadhan Nidhi (2009) Caste and Social Exclusion Issues Related to Concept, indicators and Measurements. EPW.44. 6. Mathieson, Jane; Jennie Popay, Etheline Enoch, Sarah Escorel, Mario Hernandez, Heidi Johnston and Laetitia Rispel (2008). Social Exclusion Meaning, measurementetwork Background Paper 1, September, pp. 2 – 89.
Impact of exclusion on Dalits: The impact of exclusion has made the Dalits as vulnerable community since from the Vedic time. The practice of social exclusion system has made the Dalits dependable on the others, the so called upper communities. In the contemporary scenario due to the impact of exclusion of Dalits they are subjected to social, economic and political exclusion. A study of 2006 on rural untouchables in India covering 565 villages in 11states has revealed the extent to which untouchability and social exclusion is practiced in spite of officially banned by the constitution of India. The data given below gives us the scenario(7). In government services: 37.8% of the village Dalits students are made to sit separately in government schools. 27.6% of the village Dalits are prevented from entering police stations. 25.7%of the village Dalits are prevented from entering ration shops. 33% of the village public health workers refuse to visit Dalits homes. 14.4% of the village Dalits are not permitted to enter panchayat building. 12% of the village Dalits is forced to form separate lines at polling booths. 48.4% of the Dalits are denied to access to water sources. In market access 35% of village Dalits banned from selling produced in local market. 47% of village milk cooperatives prevent Dalits from selling milk and 25% from buying milk. In religion and rites 64% of Dalits restricted from entering Hindu temples. 50%of village Dalits prevented from accessing crimination grounds. In private spheres
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73% of village‟s Dalits not permitted to enter non-Dalits homes. 35.8% of Dalits denied entry in to village shop. Crimes against Dalits: According to official Indian crime statistics averaged over the period 2001-2005. 27 atrocities against Dalits every day. 13 Dalits murdered every week. 3 Dalits women raped every day. 11 Dalits beaten every hour and a crime committed against a Dalits every 18 minutes. Dalit dilemma in India reads like an entire data sheet of tragedies. According to a 2010 report by the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) on the Prevention of Atrocities against Scheduled Castes, a crime is committed against a Dalit every 18 minutes. Every day, on average, three Dalit women are raped, two Dalits murdered, and two Dalit houses burnt. According to the NHRC statistics put together by K.B. Saxena, a former additional chief secretary of Bihar, 37 % Dalits live below the poverty line, 54 % are undernourished, 83/ 1,000 children born in a Dalit household die before their first birthday, 12 % before their fifth birthday, and 45 % remain illiterate.
7. Parvathamma (1984): Scheduled Castes and Tribes: A Socio-Economic Survey, Ashish, Delhi. Report of the Commissions for SC/ST (1998): Commission for SC/ST, Gol, Delhi. The data also shows that Dalits are prevented from entering the police station in 28 % of Indian villages. Dalit children have been made to sit separately while eating in 39 % government schools. Dalits do not get mail delivered to their homes in 24 % of villages. And they are denied access to water sources in 48 % of our villages because untouchability remains a stark reality even though it was abolished in 1955(8).
Conclusion: The discussion shows that the concept of social exclusion is the process of blocking the development of India. One nation can reach its high position of development when equality prevails among the whole sector of the society. But in India there is discrimination based on caste, religionand economy and that is why the Dalits are the sufferer. This the ugliest thing that after the 68th republic day the Dalits in India are treated like untouchables, they are neglected. These discriminations lead a grudge to the government from Dalits’ side and our nation is being stepped backward though the so called flag of development is being hung high. The most affected population is Dalits who lag in all spheres of developmental activities. We should be of more responsibleto eradicate these mal-practices of discrimination and I wish our government would implement the constitutional provisions to secure the legal demands of the Dalits in true sense of the term.
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THE THREAT OF ARSENIC POLLUTION IN WEST BENGAL (INDIA) AND ITS IMPACT ON HUMAN HEALTH
Debnarayan Roy
Principal SBSS Mahavidyalaya Goaltore, Paschim Medinipur E-mail: [email protected]
Sanjit Kumar Shil Sharma Assistant Professor Department of Geography SBSS Mahavidyalaya, Goaltore, Paschim Medinipur E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
Arsenic is a chemical element. Historically it is known as a poison. Arsenic occurs in many minerals, usually in combination with sulfur and metals. Arsenic makes up 0.00058% of the total mass of the Earth’s crust. Concentration of arsenic in drinking water is 0.05 mg per litre is permissible. Above this permissible limit of arsenic concentration in drinking water is harmful to human health. Consumption of arsenic contaminated water beyond this limit may brings for diseases like cancer in the skin, lungs, bladder and kidney. It also brings hyper-pigmentation, keratosis on the palm of the hands and soles of the feet, black foot disease, cardiovascular disease, bone marrow, depression, cirrhosis of liver etc diseases. The arsenic poisoning is now world-wide problem. In West Bengal, arsenic poisoning from drinking tube well water was first reported in mid-1980. In West Bengal 12 district suffer from Arsenic poisoning. Among this 12 district 8 district suffer severe. This districts are Malda, Murshidabad, Nadia, North 24 Pargonas, South 24 Pargonas, Howra, Hoogly and Bardhaman. This problem occurs due to excessive irrigation from the deep underground arsenic prone deep aquifer. Nearly seven million people of seventy five blocks are affected of these 8 districts of West Bengal.
Key words: Arsenic, aquifer, arsenocosis, Blackfoot disease, keratosis.
Introduction
Arsenic is a chemical element with symbol ‘As’ and atomic number is 33 (Wikipedia,n.d., para 1)1. Historically arsenic is known as a poison. Arsenic poisoning or arsenicosis is a condition caused by the ingestion, absorption or inhalation of dangerous levels of arsenic. Arsenic is a natural semi-metallic chemical that is found all over the world in groundwater. Due to its use by the ruling class to murder one another and its potency and discreetness, arsenic has been called
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 177 the "poison of kings" and the "king of poisons". Arsenic comprises about 1.5 ppm (0.00015%) of the Earth's crust, and is the 53rd most abundant element. It exists in the earth’s crust at an average concentration of approximately 5 mg/kg (Garlick H, Jones H, Dybowska A,Valsami- Jones E,(2008), )2. In some areas of the world (Taiwan, Mexico, Argentina, Bangladesh, Cambodia, Thailand, Myanmar, Nepal, USA, Chili and India),(Chattopadhyaya 2010)3 natural levels of arsenic in the water are extremely dangerous and hard to detect as it has no flavour or odour. Arsenic can also be found in some industries, whether it be contained within a chemical used, or the byproduct of a certain process. The World Health Organisation (WHO) lists arsenic as one of the 10 chemicals of major public health concern. Long term consumption of drinking water contaminated with naturally occuring soluble inorganic arsenic leads to chronic arsenic poisoning is called arsenocosis. Arsenic contamination of ground water leading to adverse effects of human health and ecosystem (Shiv Shankar, Uma Shankar and Shikha, 2014)4. Arsenic poisoning can cause major health complications if not treated, including death. Because of the risks involved, some precautions are required to protect the populations and workers at risk of arsenic poisoning. The arsenic poisoning is now world wide problem. In West Bengal, arsenic poisoning from drinking tube well water was first reported in mid-1980. In West Bengal 12 district suffer from Arsenic poisoning. Amomng this twelve districts, eight districts suffer severe. This districts are Malda, Murshidabad, Nadia, North 24 Pargonas, South 24 Pargonas, Howra, Hoogly and Bardhaman. This problem occurs due to excessive irrigation from the deep underground arsenic prone deep aquifer. Nearly seven million people of seventy five blocks are affected of this eight districts of West Bengal.
Objectives
The major objectives of the present paper are -
To find out the main cause of arsenicosis.
To find out the arsenic prone areas of our state.
To find out the remedial measures from arsenicosis.
Methodology
The present paper deals with the primary as well as secondary sources of data. Secondary sourses of data collected from different books journals, news papers and different websites. Primary data collected by field survey from arsenic prone areas. Collected data processed and used as per needs.
Use of Arsenic
There are many use of arsenic today
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Agriculture: More than 75% use of arsenic is in the field of agriculture as pesticide and insecticide.
Animal husbandry: Arsenic is useful for the control of animal diseases and for algicide.
Medicine purpose: Arsenic is useful as medicine for certain diseases like amibiasis, sleeping sickness.
Alloy: Arsenic is useful for the production of lead and zink alloy.
Electric industry: Pure arsenic uses in electric industry.
Others: Arsenic also uses in ceramic, soap, glassware, solar cell, catalyst, electrophotography etc.
Source of Arsenic in the soil
Natural source: Soil forms from the parent materials of sedimentary rocks, basalt and from granite rocks. These rocks have magnetic sulfide and arsenic compounds. So arsenic compound found in soil. It occurs in more than two hundred minerals and widely dispered element in the Earth’s crust.
Human activity: Human activities are the main cause for the concentration of arsenic in soil. Use of pesticide, use of chemical fertilizer, burn of fossil fuel, excessive irrigation from under lying aquifer are the main cause of arsenic. Burning of coal in thermal power plant produce fly ash which contains with arsenic. This arsenic firstly go to the air and lastly to the soil.
Diagnose of Arsenic poisoning
It is very much important to monitor the levels of arsenic in the people at risk in arsenic prone area. Levels of arsenic can be measured by taking blood, hair, urine and finger nail samples. Urine tests would have to be carried out within 1-2 days of the initial exposure, making it an accurate indicator of when the arsenic poisoning occurred. These tests can also be used to help diagnose cases where symptoms of arsenic poisoning are apparent.
Signs and symptoms are associated with arsenic poisoning:
Signs and symptoms are associated with arsenic poisoning are rash, pallor, or swelling, metallic taste in the mouth, mouth produces excess saliva, problems swallowing, blood in the urine, cramping muscles, loss of hair, stomach cramps, convulsions, excessive sweating, breath smells like garlic, vomiting, diarrhea.
Effects of arsenic pollution
Arsenic pollution can bring diseases like cancer in the skin, lungs, bladder and kidney. It also brings hyper-pigmentation, keratosis on the palm of the hands and soles of the feet, black foot disease, cardiovascular disease, bone marrow, depression, cirrhosis of liver etc for human beings.
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Arsenic store in human skin, nail and forms white lines of discoloration across the nails of the fingers and toes. These white lines are colled Mees lines or Aldrich Mees lines or leukonychia (Karmakar, 2008)5. It also disturbances of the blood and circulation, enlarge the liver, color the skin, produce tingling and loss of sensation in the limbs, and cause damage to the nervous system and brain, and eventually death.
Arsenic pollution in West Bengal
Arsenic poisoning in some districts of West Bengal is a serious environmental problem and is affecting the health of millions of people in the State. The problem has been aggravated with increase in groundwater exploitation leading to leaching of arsenic located in upper layers of sediment down into the deep aquifers. According to NABARD the cause of arsenic pollution of ground water in West Bengal has been attributed to the hydro-lithological phenomena. In West Bengal, during 1980's, some cases of arsenical dermatosis in the districts of North 24 Parganas, South 24 Parganas, Nadia, Murshidabad and Burdwan were reported. The main arsenic prone districts of West Bengal are Malda, Murshidabad, Nadia, North 24 Pargonas, South 24 Pargonas, Howra, Hoogly and Bardhaman. By the end of December 2001, this problem spreads from few villages to 2065 villages of 75 blocks and 8 districts. About 10 % of the total population of the State is exposed to the above risk.
Arsenic affected area and population in West Bengal
Sl No. District No. of Blocks No. of Villages No. of Population affected affected affected
1 Malda 7 229 696822
2 Murshidabad 2 354 1343866
3 Nadia 17 541 1743889
4 North 24 Parganas 19 472 1884676
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5 South 24 Parganas 9 409 964431
6 Howrah 2 4 107951
7 Hooghly 1 18 37678
8 Bardhaman 2 38 101171
Total 75 2065 6970484
According to World Bank 1312 villages in West Bengal near the Ganga River are detrimentally affected by arsenic contaminated ground water. About 10 million people of this state including 2.5 million children were drinking arsenic contaminated ground water which containing above level of arsenic limits. As a result 3 million people in this state suffer from arsenic related diseases.
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Source: School of Environmental Sdtudies, Jadavpur (2015) from www.soesju.org/arsenic/wb.htm
Preventing Measures
Concentration of arsenic in drinking water is 0.05 mg per litre is permissible (Hazra Dr J & Das D,.2012-13)6. Above this permissible limit of arsenic concentration in drinking water is harmful to human health. Sofollowing measures can be taken to protect the people from arsenic pollution.
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1. Testing the water for traces of arsenic.
2. Households having arsenic removal systems until the arsenic contamination can be dealt with at the source.
3. Development of domestic filters to be fitted in hand pump with safe sludge disposal arrangements.
4. Well depth - the deeper a well is dug, the less arsenic its water is likely to have.
5. People awareness is the key factor for the prevention from the arsenic risks.
6. Regular health check up at arsenic affected areas may detect the early signs of arsenic poisoning.
7. Development of large scale Arsenic Removal Plants with sludge disposal arrangement.
8. Change of cropping pattern requiring less ground water for irrigation.
9. Epidemiological, clinical and therapeutic studies.
10. Study the effect of chronic arsenic toxicity in animals.
11. Study the impact of arsenic rich ground water in food chain.
12. Setting up of District and State Level Laboratories.
13. Research on exact cause of arsenic contamination of ground water.
14. Monitoring of ground water quality at least four times in a year.
15. Provide adequate fund and other supports for investigation of renal effects.
Conclusion
Arsenic pollution is a threat to the people of our state. Adopting above measures may reduce the burning problems of arsenicosis in our state. Already goverment has taken some measures to check the problems. Awareness generation and motivation of the people for testing their drinking water sources for arsenic are also important to prevent further exposure of arsenic to these people.Moreover, arsenic affected people are very poor and unable to bear sufferings from arsenicosis. These poor people live in distant villages where hospital facilities are not easily available. Free treatment of these patients and free transport facility from their villages to hospital could help them to take the treatment facility.
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References.
1. Wikipedia(n.d.). Arsenic from http://en.m.wikipedia.org>wiki> Arsenic 2. Garlick H, Jones H, Dybowska A,Valsami-Jones E,(2008).Arsenic Pollution Sources (Abstract) fromhttp://www.nabard.org.pdf 3. Chattopadhyaya, Dr. A. (2010). Paribesh, Kolkata, India: T.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. 4. Shiv Shankar, Uma Shankar and Shikha, (2014). Arsenic Contamination of Groundwater: A Review of Sources, Prevalence, Health Risks, and Strategies for Mitigation, retreived from https://www.hindawi.com 5. Karmakar, Dr. M.(2008). Adhunik Paribesh Vignaner Ruprekha, Kolkata, India, Ekal Prakashan 6. Hazra, J.& Das D.(2012-13). Adhunik Bhugol(XI-XII), (5th ed.),Kolkata, India: Book India. 7. School of Environmental Sdtudies, Jadavpur (2015).Ground Water arsenic contamination in West Bengal,from www.soesju.org/arsenic/wb.htm
A SOCIO ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF TEA-GARDEN AREA OF DALGAON TEA ESTATE OF DOOARS REGION: A CASE STUDY OF S.T. POPULATION Sanchayan Majumdar Alumnus, Dept. of Geography Saheed Kshudiram College Kamakhyaguri, Alipurduar, West Bengal, India Abstract Tea industry is one of the largest industries in India which produces about 31% of the global production. North Bengal and Assam are the main regions of Indian tea cultivation. North Bengal has about 450 tea gardens spreading out in the Darjeeling hills, Terai and Dooars region that are registered as sellers in the Siliguri Tea Auction Centre. Tea labours are the backbone of this industry but they lead a pathetic life. It is very sad to say that most of the times they can not fulfil their basic needs. It is hard time to think about their socio-economic condition.Keeping this in mind, I decide to highlight the state of their livelihood and their obstacles. As a sample I want to discuss the socio-economic condition of Dalgaon T.E. of Alipurduar district. Introduction India is the second largest producer of tea in the world after China branding the famous Assam tea and Darjeeling tea. Tea cultivation in India is a century old practice. The practice of Ayurveda has resulted in a long-standing tradition of herbal teas. Consumption of tea in India was first clearly documented in the Ramayana. For the next Twenty Centuries documentation of
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The Regional Dimensions of Social Development in India: Policy Perspectives 184 tea in India is long a story. Now India is one of the largest tea producers in the world with over 70% of the tea being consumed with in India itself. Commercial production of tea in India does not begin until the arrival of the British East India Company. They appointed a huge mob of tribe people as they were laborious than any other communities. From the beginning till now tea is a labour oriented industry. Plantation to production – each and every stage needs huge hard working labours. So labour is the heart and soul of tea industry. A single cup of tea has a past of long and hard toil. Unfortunately the backbone, labours live in worst condition. About a year ago the labours of North Bengal are making headlines by their starvation and death. Today the real picture of the tea gardens of North Bengal reflects only the delirious agony of tea labours. They are deprived from nutrition, health, water, sanitation and many more issues. Normally tea workers or tea tribes live in the village inside the tea estate. From the British rule to 21stcentury tea planters have been exploiting the tea labourers. Labour welfare office, funds, ration shop, hospitals, schools – every basic requirement can find in each and every garden but lack of good will makes them futile. Study area Alipurduar district of West Bengal is famous for3T (Tea, Tree and Tourism). For study we select the Dalgaon tea estate, which is one of the famous and reputed tea garden of this district. Dalgaon Tea Garden village is located in Falakata tehsil of Alipurduar district. It is situated 18.6 km away from sub district head quarter, Falakata. There are about 1112 houses in Dalgaon Tea Garden village and the location code or village code is 307367. Methodology Secondary information is not sufficient to fulfil the objectives of that study. The present study is a practical as well as theoretical work and is based on primary sources, although it would use secondary data wherever available. The primary data is collected from questioners to households and interviews from managerial, administrators, doctors and school in-charges. Objectives The study is concerned with the socio-economic condition of the labours of Dalgaon Tea Estate, mainly S.T. population. Foremost objectives of the study are –
To study the main problems related with their basic needs. To study the causes of economically weakness and illiteracy of S.T. workers in Dalgaon Tea Estate. To study the social backwardness of the proposed area.
Findings and discussion Name of the factory – Dalgaon Tea Estate. Total grant area of Dalgaon T.E. – 1069.04 hector. Total area under plantation (Dalgaon T.E.) – 613.96 hector. Table: 1
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Level Personal Functions a) Managerial Managers and Assistant Overall management Managers & Garden Assistants b) Staff Garden Assistants for garden (monthly wage) Head Clerk For factory Clerk For office c) Sub-staff Supervisors Record keeping(monthly wage) Watchman Operational supervisor Medicine carriers d) Workers Clearing, plucking, (daily wage) weeding, fencing etc.manual work Total number of labours 2077 where number of male labours is 699 and no. of female labours 1378. Number of temporary staff- 150 and number of office staff – 18. Total number of managerial staff – 13. Number of sub-staff – 125. Daily wages for labour has been mentioned below: Table: 2
Garden 132.5 Factory 141 Sick 88.33 Child 66.25 P.F. 12% Garden has its own factory. Also a good relation between managerial staff and workers. Boat tea leaf price is approximately 23 Rs. The factory produces 4 different tea qualities of different price – Table: 3
Quality → B.P. B.O.P. P.D. O.F. Price → 200 190 190 185 The labours of Dalgaon Tea Estate formed a club – Dalgaon Majdoor Club. Club has its own football team and also organises different football tournament. The garden has a labour union which conducts election after a proper time. Beside the factory there has a Govt. Primary Health Centre with 25 hospital beds run by one doctor, two health assistant and two nurse. Children of this tea garden village were properly vaccinated. An area declared as a Heritage Place where tea plantation began in 1986. Dalgaon Tea Garden mainly uses chemical pesticides besides they use a little amount of organic fertilizer. Total amount of labour welfare fund is approximately twenty five lacs. Four anganwadi centre, two primary school and two primary schools are there. For secondary level study children have to move 5 km away from the garden. Students studying at college travel 6.5 km away from the garden to Birpara College. Distance of nearby railway station is about 6 km.
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Although demonetaisation makes some difficulty for business but garden managerial clear all the payments of labours. Festivals arranged by the labours are – Durga Puja, Charak, Kali Puja, Christmas and some tribal festivals. Steps taken by managerial staff for labours welfare – free medicine, dress, shoes blanket etc. In this study we select the Dalgaon Tea Estate and we take only 50 samples randomly from the labourers family. There are 243 family members out of which 125 males and 118 females. Most of the tea garden labours of Dalgaon T.E. are tribal. In our study area all families belong to Adibasi Tribal. Besides that most of the people belong to Christian community, 47 out of 50 and rest three families belong to Hindu community. They celebrate mainly Durga Puja and Christmas with great enthusiasm. As their economic status is not well they cannot spend much enough for any other activity. Monthly income of the labour families never crosses the limit of Rs. 4000. So the livelihood and expenditures are limited. They cannot spend a pie for better treatment, education or any other purpose. In the study area 40 houses are Pucca but most of them are in bad condition, also other ten houses made of bamboo and clay. They have to depend on common tube wells but the worst thing is that between 2 common tube wells only one works properly. 78% of families have no personal water source. Like any other facts sanitation is a major problem. There has no latrine in 36 houses (72%). So lack of toilets forces men as well as women and children to go outside in the open fields or river bank. In those 50 houses only 26 has electricity connection and rest houses remains dark in the night as their life is. Literacy can be considered as acid testof socio-economic improvement. Education can improve the human resource and quality of life. In the study area most of the people i.e.- 61 persons are illiterate, 39 persons are able to read and write, 47 children in between P.P. to class 5, 43 children are in between class 6 to 9, 18 pupils are in higher secondary and only 2 students studying graduation. According to the teachers of both primary and upper primary – students are irregular in school and willing to study. There is no drop out problem but quality of education is not satisfactory. They mainly depend on fire wood for cooking. Most of them are not politically involve or aware about that, but all the persons who have their voting rights they usually use voting rights without thinking a bit or using their brain. This is very complicated to draw a conclusion from a limited resource. In spite of this we can say that the S.T. community of Dalgaon Tea estate is highly deprived of all the socio- economic and political aspects. Therefore the management as well as the government has to take proper steps to uplift the society. The indications are clear that there is something inappropriate in these tea gardens so all have to come forward and with proper negotiations they must solve their problems.
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References and Bibliography Behal, Rana P. (2006). Power Structure, Discipline, and Labour in Assam Tea Plantations under Colonial Rule, International Review of Social History, 51, pp. 143-172, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020859006002641 Sunder D.H.E.(1895). Survey and Settlement of the western Duars, in the district of Jalpaiguri, 1889-1895, Calcutta, Bengal Secretariat Press, Calcutta. Tamang S. and Chattopadhyay, G.P.(2014). The Socio-Economic Status and its Changing Pattern of the Tea Garden Workers of the Western Dooars Area of West Bengal, International Journal for Current Research and Techniques, Parth Earth & Environment Consultancy, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India pp.8-20. Chatterjee, Suranjan& Dasgupta, Ratan (1981). Tea Labour in Assam: Recruitment and GovernmentPolicy, 1840-80, Economic and Political Weekly, XVI(44-46), pp. 1861-1868. Talukdar, S.(2007). Tribal Turmoil, Frontline, 24(24), December, 8, 2007. Verghese, B.G.(1996). India's Northeast Resurgent, Konark Publishers, Delhi
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