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The Contrivance of Neptune Downloaded from by DESY-Zentralbibliothek User on 27 November 2019 NEPTUNE The contrivance of Neptune Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/astrogeo/article-abstract/57/5/5.28/2738843 by DESY-Zentralbibliothek user on 27 November 2019 Davor Krajnović looks back 170 mid-19th century was, however, very dif- ferent from now. State observatories were years to the planetary discovery not research institutes in the present sense, that startled the world – an but primarily factories producing useful interplay of scientific triumph data, from time-keeping to charting the and human weakness. skies. The use of the observatory tele- scopes was at the discretion of the director and, as an assistant, Galle “ e planète, dont vous avez had to ask for permission to observe signalé la position, réellement for his own private research. Lexiste.” This is the opening The director of the Berlin sentence of an extraordinary letter Observatory, Encke, was aware sent by Johann Gottfried Galle from of Le Verrier’s theory that a more the Berlin Observatory to Jean Joseph distant planet perturbs the motion Urbain Le Verrier on 25 September of Uranus, and did not think much 1846: “The planet whose position you of it. But when Galle approached him predicted really exists.” One can only with the letter, he agreed that it presented imagine the emotions of Galle while a “moral commitment” to Galle to look writing it, or those of Le Verrier reading for the planet. The standard story (e.g. it three days later in Paris. This sentence Turner 1911, Grosser 1962, Standage 2000) announced the most remarkable confir- 1 This 2002 Hubble image of Neptune shows it in is that Encke reluctantly gave permission mation of a theoretical prediction in the detail unimaginable to the 19th-century scientists to Galle to observe that night, but Galle’s history of science. It heralded a triumph who first discovered it. (NASA, L Sromovsky & P Fry own account (Galle 1877) is different: while of Newtonian theory of gravity, astonish- [University of Wisconsin-Madison]) Encke had not been in favour of looking for ing mathematical work and masterfully the planet before, once the letter arrived he executed observations. Neither Galle nor quickly changed the topic to something did not object. He himself didn’t want to do Le Verrier could have imagined what a else: a suggestion to the “indefatigable it, maybe because it was his birthday, but he storm it would raise. observer” to look at a very particular place gave Galle permission immediately. on the sky, where a planet could be found. Their planning was overheard by The discovery He explained that this location was the another, younger assistant (a student in The showdown began on the morning result of his work on the irregular motion modern terms), Heinrich Louis d’Arrest, of 23 September when Galle, assistant of Uranus, and provided a who immediately asked Galle astronomer to observatory director Johann very clear location on the “The inside information if he could join in the observa- Encke, received a letter from Le Verrier. To sky, as well as a likely size and tip-off could tions. And so it was, while the receive a letter from the eminent French of the planet, which should secure fame for him director was celebrating with astronomer was surprising, but not totally be resolvable by a good and his institution” his family, that Galle and unexpected for Galle; it was just that it was telescope. d’Arrest started the search for about a year and a half late. In March 1845, The letter was exceptional in many ways. Le Verrier’s planet. As Galle later explained Galle defended a thesis presenting a new It transmitted a bold, but clear prediction (Galle 1877), the night was clear and they reduction of observations made by Ole of the location of a new planet, based on first attempted to look for an object with a Rømer in 1706, comprising 88 stars and Newton’s theory of gravity and a complex clear disc of about 3ʺ, but were not success- known planets. As Le Verrier was then try- and novel theory of planetary perturba- ful. It seemed that they would need to iden- ing to calculate the orbit of Mercury, Galle tions that had been presented some 20 days tify all the stars in the area. d’Arrest then sent him the dissertation knowing the earlier at a meeting of the Académie des suggested looking among the new charts value of such early observations. There was Sciences in Paris. It was a direct solicitation prepared by Carl Bremiker for the Royal no “thank you” or even an acknowledge- to search for the predicted planet, but it was Academy of Sciences in Berlin, to see if one ment from Le Verrier, perhaps because by addressed to an assistant at an observatory of them covered the area. Galle led the way that time his focus had shifted to another some 900 km away in a different country. to Encke’s office, where they searched the mystery in the solar system, the unpredict- On top of this, it arrived on the day of the charts and recognized that the bottom left able motion of Uranus. director’s 55th birthday! corner of a chart for the hour XXI covered Le Verrier’s letter started with a delayed Today this seems an amazing opportu- the region indicated by Le Verrier (figure 2). thank you, congratulations on the good nity: inside information and an unmissable Back in the dome, Galle was observing work and a promise to write in more detail tip-off that could secure fame for the recipi- and reading out the positions of stars, while about the Mercury issue. But the writer ent and his institution. Astronomy in the d’Arrest was checking against the chart, 5.28 A&G • October 2016 • Vol. 57 • aandg.org NEPTUNE to the longitudinal displacement), was also changing (Airy 1838). Alexis Bouvard assembled tables of Uranus’s motion and struggled to bring forward any resolu- tion, even after the influence of Jupiter and Saturn were taken into account. Such an interesting problem generated several possible solutions. Bouvard himself was of the opinion that something must be wrong with the “ancient” observations, that they were not as precise as the modern ones. Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/astrogeo/article-abstract/57/5/5.28/2738843 by DESY-Zentralbibliothek user on 27 November 2019 This idea was, however, quickly rejected as even the modern observations became dis- crepant from the predictions soon after the publication of the tables. A similar fate befell a more physical conjecture, that a comet hit Uranus around the time of the discovery, changing its orbit; the continuing changes to the orbit ruled that out, too. Other physical theories involved the existence of a medium through which Uranus moves and slows its motion, or the suggestion that 2 Part of the chart Hora XXI used by Galle and d’Arrest in their search for Neptune. It was produced by Uranus had a massive moon. Neither was Carl Bremiker at the Berlin Observatory for the Royal Academy of Sciences in Berlin. Bremiker produced compatible with data spanning more than a four other charts (Hora VI, IX, XIII and XVIII), more than any other astronomer in that series. In the lower left century. There were two final possibilities: corner there is a square and a circle, showing the predicted (“Neptun berechnet”) and observed (“Neptun either the law of gravity was not the same at beobachted”) positions of Neptune. (Library of Leibniz-Institut für Astrophysik, Potsdam) those huge distances from the Sun, or there might be another, unseen planet disturbing until an 8th magnitude star was found that star, by J Flamsteed, T Mayer, P C Lemon- the orbit of Uranus. was absent from the chart! One can imag- nier and J J Lalande; Lemonnier observed it Alternative theories of gravity were not ine the silence that followed, on that fresh 11 times over 21 years. These observations a novelty then, as they are not now, but the early autumn night, just after midnight: were important as they allowed the tracing Newtonian theory of gravity was with- the rechecking of the coordinates, d’Arrest of the planet’s motion over a significant standing all tests thrown at it. Le Verrier eager to see for himself, Galle double part of its orbit. By the start of the 19th was never in doubt that Newtonian gravity and triple checking the map, the last look century, it was clear that, while definitely was correct and that there could be only between the two astronomers, the first to a planet, there was something amiss with one cause for the anomalous motion of actually see the new planet, just under one Uranus. Its observed position on the sky Uranus: a new planet. minute of arc away from the predicted posi- was regularly not the same as the predicted The first paper dealing with the “Theory tion. Then they rushed to inform Encke and one: its behaviour was very peculiar. For of Uranus” was presented by Le Verrier on all three went back to the dome to continue example, if one used only “modern” obser- 5 November 1845 (Le Verrier 1845). It dealt observing until the object set. Encke agreed vations made after the dis- with existing data on the that the object had a resolved disc, although covery to determine the orbit “Either the law of anomalous motion of Ura- it was somewhat smaller than predicted. of the planet, one could not gravity was different nus, rejecting the claims of The short time left for observing, however, accommodate the “ancient” there, or there might Bouvard that the ancient data was not enough to detect its motion.
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