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Rape and Run in Maluku: Exploitation of Living Marine Resources in Eastern Indonesia

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Rape and Run in Maluku: Exploitation of Living Marine Resources in Eastern Indonesia CAKALELE, VOL. 9, NO. 2 (1998): 85–97 © The authors Rape and Run in Maluku: Exploitation of Living Marine Resources in Eastern Indonesia SHAUN M. MOSS HAWAII PACIFIC UNIVERSITY MARK VAN DER WAL AIDENVIRONMENT, AMSTERDAM The islands of eastern Indonesia are projected to experience the most rapid human population growth in the Indonesian archipelago within the next few decades, and development associated with this growth will exert increased pressure on the living marine resources there. Unfortu- nately, rampant exploitation of many of these resources is already oc- curring, as short-term economic gain takes precedence over long-term sustainability. Living marine resources currently being exploited in- clude organisms that exhibit low fecundity or other life-history strate- gies that make them vulnerable to local extinction, such as dugongs and sea turtles. In addition, relatively prolific organisms are at risk because of the use of highly efficient, and often illegal, extraction techniques. Valuable coastal and marine habitats also are in jeopardy because of anthropogenic activities such as trawling and cyanide fishing. Rational and sustainable policies must be enacted and enforced if Indonesia is to protect and preserve its valuable marine resources. Introduction Indonesia is the world’s largest archipelago and is situated at the center of the most species-rich marine biogeographical region on earth. Indone- sia’s seas are home to more than 4,000 species of fish (Burgess and Ax- elrod 1972) and over 240 species of coral (Veron 1986), and inshore waters are rich in mangroves, seagrass beds, and coral reefs. In an effort to preserve their living marine resources, the Indonesian government has over the past several decades enacted legislation to protect both individ- ual species and specific habitats from anthropogenic exploitation and destruction. {PAGE PAGE } CAKALELE, VOL. 9, NO. 2 In 1979, Indonesia became party to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), and it has supported the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development action program (Agenda 21). Currently, Indonesian laws protect more than 17 marine mammals, 5 marine turtles, 3 marine arthropods, and 12 marine molluscs, as well as numerous freshwater and terrestrial species of flora and fauna (Ministry of Forestry 1991). In addition, there are presently 24 marine protected areas throughout the archipelago covering about 2.8 million hectares (Abdullah and Sumarna 1993), and plans to establish an additional 30 million hectares have been proposed. Despite this arsenal of laws and regulations, Indonesia is experiencing rampant exploitation of many living marine resources, as well as large-scale destruction of critical marine and coastal habitats. These activities rob Indonesia of her biological wealth and threaten the livelihood of her peoples. In this paper, we document the exploitation of living marine resources in Maluku Province in eastern Indonesia. This region is projected to experience the most rapid human population growth in Indonesia within the next few decades (Sugandhi 1993), and will likely play an increasingly important role in the nation’s economy. However, devel- opment associated with this growth will exert increased pressure on the living marine resources there, and may jeopardize vulnerable marine habitats. By documenting the exploitation of living marine resources in Maluku, we hope to bring attention to the need for rational, sustainable, and enforceable policies that will help guide development of this region into the 21st century. Dugong The dugong, Dugong dugon, is the only herbivorous mammal that is ex- clusively marine and typically inhabits shallow coastal waters where it feeds almost entirely on seagrasses. Dugongs were once common throughout eastern Indonesia and were hunted for their meat and oil by traditional harpoon methods (Compost 1980). Although accurate popu- lation estimates for dugongs in Maluku currently are lacking, interviews with fishermen and anecdotal information about dugong catch suggest that their numbers are declining to very low levels, despite protection by Indonesian and international laws. Compost (1980) estimated that the annual dugong catch from the main fishing areas of Aru (southeast Ma- luku) ranged from 545 to 1,020 individuals in the late 1970s, and noted EXPLOITATION OF MARINE RESOURCES IN MALUKU {PAGE PAGE } that dugongs were “still quite common in Aru.” More recently, however, Brasseur and de Jong (1991) reported that only 59–90 dugongs were caught in east Aru in 1989, and that these numbers dropped to 29–36 dugongs in 1990. Their estimates were obtained by interviewing people from 14 villages between Pulau Karawei and Pulau Workai, which con- stitutes almost a third of the east Aru coast. In central Maluku, research- ers observed 17 dugongs during an aerial survey over the islands of Am- bon, Haruku, Saparua, and Nusa Laut in 1990 (de Iongh et al. 1995). Two years later, they observed only 10 individuals inhabiting the same waters and estimated a minimum population size of 22–37 dugongs oc- curring in their study area. One of us (MW) now estimates that there are no more than 10 dugongs inhabiting the nearshore waters of these central Maluku islands. This estimate is based on observations of dugong feeding tracts in seagrass beds and interviews with local fishermen. Because of their low numbers, it is unlikely that dugongs are hunted deliberately now in Maluku. Instead, incidental capture by shark and turtle fishermen is the likely cause of declining dugong populations, al- though habitat destruction and coastal pollution may contribute. Adult dugongs are used mostly for their meat and long tusks, whereas young dugongs are reportedly used to obtain their tears (air mata duyong), which are believed to possess aphrodisiac qualities. Dugong tusks are fashioned into highly prized cigarette holders and sold openly by shop- keepers in Tual (Pulau Kei) and Ambon. A large dugong tusk can cost as much as Rp350,000, which is considerably more than the average monthly wage of an Indonesian fisherman. The high price for dugong tusks provides a strong economic incentive to continue harvesting du- gongs in eastern Indonesia, even if capture is incidental. This practice may ultimately lead to the local extinction of these rare mammals be- cause of their low population densities and the fact that they bear few young and are slow to reach reproductive age. Green turtle The green turtle, Chelonia mydas, is a circumtropical reptile that mi- grates between shallow feeding grounds and nesting beaches, a distance that may exceed 2,500 km. Green turtles have long been hunted both for subsistence and for commercial trade, and these activities have resulted in declining populations worldwide (Center for Marine Conservation 1993). In Maluku, the beaches on Enu, Jeh, and Karang in southeast Aru {PAGE PAGE } CAKALELE, VOL. 9, NO. 2 are considered to be the most important nesting areas for green turtles and have been the site of several census surveys. Compost (1980) re- ported that during a 1979 survey an average of 50–100 turtles nested on the beaches of Enu nightly. A decade later, researchers reported 30 nestings per night at Enu and Karang combined, while in 1991, only 14 nestings per night were observed on these same islands (Wenno et al. 1993). In the waters of Maluku, one conservative estimate is that 6,000– 8,000 green turtles are caught annually for the Balinese market (Schulz 1993). Bali, where turtle meat is used for traditional and religious cere- monies, is considered to be the center of the most intensive turtle slaughter worldwide (IUCN/WWF 1984). According to the Head of Re- ligious Affairs in Bali, 2,000–6,000 turtles are needed annually for these ceremonies. However, government statistics indicate that the number of turtles landed at Bali’s main harbor (Tanjung Benoa) was 24,357 in 1991, 19,297 in 1992, and 18,788 in 1993, and these are likely to be un- derestimates. Excess turtle meat is sold at foodstalls, markets, and res- taurants; shipped to Java; or exported abroad. Inedible turtle products, such as bone, skin from flippers, and dorsal scutes, also have commercial value, as do whole stuffed turtles, which are sold as curios to both domestic and overseas markets. One of the most disturbing observations we made during our stay in Maluku was the harvesting of adult turtles and the poaching of turtle eggs in the Aru Tenggara Marine Reserve. This reserve covers an esti- mated 114,000 hectares of island ecosystems in southeast Aru and was added to the list of protected marine national parks of Indonesia in 1991. In October 1993, we boarded a fishing boat anchored in the reserve that held 40 live adult green turtles. The boat’s captain informed us that he had been turtle hunting in these waters for about two weeks and had an additional 60 adults trapped in a bamboo pen nearby. Confiscated rec??ords revealed that this one boat had been involved in the trade of over 1,400 turtles over the last three years, all of which were destined for the Balinese market. It is likely that many such boats operate in the marine reserve with impunity because the Indonesian government lacks the resources or political will necessary to monitor this remote part of the archipelago. In addition to the harvesting of adult turtles, egg collecting is wide- spread throughout the reserve. Along the shores of Enu and Karang, we EXPLOITATION OF MARINE RESOURCES IN MALUKU {PAGE PAGE } observed the scattered remains of female turtles whose plasterons had been cut off to facilitate egg removal. Even if a female has the opportu- nity to lay her eggs, about 90% of the nests are ransacked by itinerant fishermen and crews of large fishing vessels who anchor on the lee side of these islands (Schulz 1993). The continued harvest of adult turtles and eggs, coupled with incidental capture by trawlers and a high natural mortality, may result in the extinction of green turtles from eastern In- donesia.
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