Modulated Output
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Development of a Full-Field Time-of-Flight Range Imaging System A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Physics and Electronic Engineering at The University of Waikato by Andrew Dean Payne 2008 © 2008 Andrew Dean Payne Abstract A full-field, time-of-flight, image ranging system or “3D camera” has been developed from a proof-of-principle to a working prototype stage, capable of determining the intensity and range for every pixel in a scene. The system can be adapted to the requirements of various applications, producing high precision range measurements with sub-millimetre resolution, or high speed measurements at video frame rates. Parallel data acquisition at each pixel provides high spatial resolution independent of the operating speed. The range imaging system uses a heterodyne technique to indirectly measure time of flight. Laser diodes with highly diverging beams are intensity modulated at radio frequencies and used to illuminate the scene. Reflected light is focused on to an image intensifier used as a high speed optical shutter, which is modulated at a slightly different frequency to that of the laser source. The output from the shutter is a low frequency beat signal, which is sampled by a digital video camera. Optical propagation delay is encoded into the phase of the beat signal, hence from a captured time variant intensity sequence, the beat signal phase can be measured to determine range for every pixel in the scene. A direct digital synthesiser (DDS) is designed and constructed, capable of generating up to three outputs at frequencies beyond 100 MHz with the relative frequency stability in excess of nine orders of magnitude required to control the laser and shutter modulation. Driver circuits were also designed to modulate the image intensifier photocathode at 50 Vpp, and four laser diodes with a combined power output of 320 mW, both over a frequency range of 10–100 MHz. The DDS, laser, and image intensifier response are characterised. A unique method of measuring the image intensifier optical modulation response is developed, requiring the construction of a pico-second pulsed laser source. This characterisation revealed deficiencies in the measured responses, which were mitigated through hardware modifications where possible. The effects of remaining imperfections, such as modulation waveform harmonics and image intensifier irising, can be calibrated and removed from the range measurements during software processing using the characterisation data. iii iv Development of a Full-Field Time-of-Flight Range Imaging System Finally, a digital method of generating the high frequency modulation signals using a FPGA to replace the analogue DDS is developed, providing a highly integrated solution, reducing the complexity, and enhancing flexibility. In addition, a novel modulation coding technique is developed to remove the undesirable influence of waveform harmonics from the range measurement without extending the acquisition time. When combined with a proposed modification to the laser illumination source, the digital system can enhance range measurement precision and linearity. From this work, a flexible full-field image ranging system is successfully realised. The system is demonstrated operating in a high precision mode with sub-millimetre depth resolution, and also in a high speed mode operating at video update rates (25 fps), in both cases providing high (512×512) spatial resolution over distances of several metres. Acknowledgements I owe thanks to many people for providing academic and emotional support throughout the duration of this project. First and foremost I want to express my gratitude for the continual inspiration, motivation, help and support I have received from my supervisors. To Dale Carnegie, who encouraged me to continue my academic career and the challenge of undertaking a PhD, and to Michael Cree and Adrian Dorrington who took over the reins through the later stages of study. I have really enjoyed being part of the team in such an enthusiastic environment, where I am captivated by the continual generation of new ideas and advances, never quite knowing what to expect next! This work would not have been possible without the financial support provided by the Tertiary Education Commission (Top Achiever Doctoral Scholarship), and the University of Waikato (Waikato Doctoral Scholarship), or without the kind generosity of Geoff Austin and the guys in the Department of Physics at The University of Auckland who provided a stimulating place to work for the duration of my study. I would like to give special thanks to my parents, Dean and Wendy, who have always supported me in what I’ve done. Your valiant attempts to understand my work are highly commendable, and I appreciate all of the encouragement you have given me over the years. And last, but definitely not least, I want to acknowledge the support of my wife Jenny – look Jenny I finally made it! I dedicate this thesis to you, and your infinite patience and understanding as deadlines were extended, and my work was continuously “almost finished”. Without your support I would have never gotten this far. Thank you! To all others who have contributed but whose names I fail to mention here, thank you very much. v vi Development of a Full-Field Time-of-Flight Range Imaging System Table of Contents Abstract ...........................................................................................................iii Acknowledgements.......................................................................................... v Table of Contents ..........................................................................................vii List of Tables...................................................................................................xi List of Figures ...............................................................................................xiii 1. Introduction ................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Objectives .............................................................................................................. 3 1.2 Outline ................................................................................................................... 5 1.3 Publications Arising from this Thesis ................................................................... 7 2. Optical Range Measurement...................................................................... 9 2.1 Full-Field Range Measurement Techniques.......................................................... 9 2.1.1 Interferometric, Shading and Focusing Methods ........................................ 10 2.1.2 Geometric Range Measurements................................................................. 12 2.1.3 Time of Flight Range Measurements .......................................................... 14 2.1.4 Shuttered Light Pulse .................................................................................. 17 2.1.5 Time-Slicing (Range Gating Segmentation) ............................................... 22 2.1.6 AMCW Illumination ................................................................................... 25 2.1.7 Phase Stepped AMCW Homodyne ............................................................. 29 2.1.8 AMCW Heterodyne as used in the Waikato System................................... 34 2.1.9 FMCW / FSCW........................................................................................... 38 2.2 Demonstrated Systems ........................................................................................ 41 2.3 Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging........................................................................... 43 2.4 Summary.............................................................................................................. 44 vii viii Development of a Full-Field Time-of-Flight Range Imaging System 3. Heterodyne Measurement Accuracy and Precision...............................45 3.1 Heterodyne Measurement Precision....................................................................45 3.1.1 Frequency.................................................................................................... 46 3.1.2 Modulation Index........................................................................................ 46 3.1.3 Signal to Noise Ratio................................................................................... 48 3.2 Heterodyne Measurement Accuracy................................................................... 49 3.2.1 Range Measurement Aliasing ..................................................................... 50 3.2.2 Nonlinearity due to Harmonics ..................................................................