A COMPANION TO VERGIL’S AENEID AND ITS TRADITION

Edited by Joseph Farrell and Michael C.J. Putnam

A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication

99781405175777_1_pretoc.indd781405175777_1_pretoc.indd iiiiii 22/9/2010/9/2010 11:07:1911:07:19 AMAM 99781405175777_6_index.indd781405175777_6_index.indd 556666 22/9/2010/9/2010 11:54:2011:54:20 AMAM A COMPANION TO VERGIL’S AENEID AND ITS TRADITION

99781405175777_1_pretoc.indd781405175777_1_pretoc.indd i 22/9/2010/9/2010 11:07:1911:07:19 AMAM BLACKWELL COMPANIONS TO THE ANCIENT WORLD

This series provides sophisticated and authoritative overviews of periods of ancient history, genres of classical literature, and the most important themes in ancient culture. Each volume comprises between twenty-five and forty concise essays written by individual scholars within their area of specialization. The essays are written in a clear, provocative, and lively manner, designed for an international audience of scholars, students, and general readers.

ANCIENT HISTORY A Companion to Greek Published Edited by Daniel Ogden A Companion to the Roman Army A Companion to the Classical Tradition Edited by Paul Erdkamp Edited by Craig W. Kallendorf A Companion to the Roman Republic A Companion to Roman Rhetoric Edited by Nathan Rosenstein and Robert Edited by William Dominik and Jon Hall Morstein-Marx A Companion to Greek Rhetoric A Companion to the Roman Empire Edited by Ian Worthington Edited by David S. Potter A Companion to Ancient Epic A Companion to the Classical Greek World Edited by John Miles Foley Edited by Konrad H. Kinzl A Companion to Greek Tragedy A Companion to the Ancient Near East Edited by Justina Gregory Edited by Daniel C. Snell A Companion to Latin Literature A Companion to the Hellenistic World Edited by Stephen Harrison Edited by Andrew Erskine A Companion to Greek and Roman Political Thought A Companion to Late Antiquity Edited by Ryan K. Balot Edited by Philip Rousseau A Companion to Ovid A Companion to Ancient History Edited by Peter E. Knox Edited by Andrew Erskine A Companion to the Ancient Greek Language A Companion to Archaic Greece Edited by Egbert Bakker Edited by Kurt A. Raaflaub and Hans van Wees A Companion to Hellenistic Literature A Companion to Julius Caesar Edited by Martine Cuypers and James J. Clauss Edited by Miriam Griffin A Companion to Vergil’s Aeneid and its Tradition A Companion to Byzantium Edited by Joseph Farrell and Michael C. J. Putnam Edited by Liz James A Companion to Horace A Companion to Ancient Egypt Edited by Gregson Davis Edited by Alan B. Lloyd In preparation In preparation A Companion to the Latin Language A Companion to Ancient Macedonia Edited by Jams Clackson Edited by Ian Worthington and Joseph Roisman A Companion to Classical Mythology A Companion to the Punic Wars Edited by Ken Dowden and Niall Livingstone Edited by Dexter Hoyos A Companion to Sophocles A Companion to Sparta Edited by Kirk Ormand Edited by Anton Powell A Companion to Aeschylus Edited by Peter Burian LITERATURE AND CULTURE A Companion to Greek Art Published Edited by Tyler Jo Smith and Dimitris Plantzos A Companion to Classical Receptions A Companion to Families in the Greek and Roman Edited by Lorna Hardwick and Christopher Stray World A Companion to Greek and Roman Historiography Edited by Beryl Rawson Edited by John Marincola A Companion to Tacitus A Companion to Catullus Edited by Victoria Pagán Edited by Marilyn B. Skinner A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near A Companion to Roman Religion East Edited by Jörg Rüpke Edited by Daniel Potts

99781405175777_1_pretoc.indd781405175777_1_pretoc.indd iiii 22/9/2010/9/2010 11:07:1911:07:19 AMAM A COMPANION TO VERGIL’S AENEID AND ITS TRADITION

Edited by Joseph Farrell and Michael C.J. Putnam

A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication

99781405175777_1_pretoc.indd781405175777_1_pretoc.indd iiiiii 22/9/2010/9/2010 11:07:1911:07:19 AMAM This edition first published 2010 © 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd except for editorial material and organization © 2010 Joseph Farrell and Michael C.J. Putnam Blackwell Publishing was acquired by John Wiley & Sons in February 2007. Blackwell’s publishing program has been merged with Wiley’s global Scientific, Technical, and Medical business to form Wiley-Blackwell. Registered Office John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, United Kingdom Editorial Offices 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148-5020, USA 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services, and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com/wiley- blackwell. The right of Joseph Farrell and Michael C.J. Putnam to be identified as the authors of the editorial material in this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or trans- mitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher. Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books. Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A companion to Vergil’s Aeneid and its tradition / edited by Joseph Farrell and Michael C.J. Putnam. p. cm. – (Blackwell companions to the ancient world) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4051-7577-7 (hardcover: alk. paper) 1. Vergil. Aeneis. 2. Vergil–Appreciation. 3. , Latin–History and criticism. 4. Aeneas (Legendary character) in literature. I. Farrell, Joseph. II. Putnam, Michael C.J. PA6825.C64 2010 873′.01–dc22 2009027225 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Set in 10/12.5pt Galliard by SPi Publisher Services, Pondicherry, India Printed in Singapore I 2010

9781405175777_1_pretoc.indd iv 2/9/2010 11:07:19 AM Contents

Illustrations viii Notes on Contributors x Preface xv Acknowledgments xvi Note on References xvii

Introduction 1 Joseph Farrell and Michael C.J. Putnam

PART I The Aeneid in Antiquity 11 1 Vergil’s Library 13 Damien P. Nelis 2 On First Looking into Vergil’s Homer 26 Ralph Hexter 3 The Development of the Aeneas Legend 37 Sergio Casali 4 Aeneas’ Sacral Authority 52 Vassiliki Panoussi 5 Vergil’s Roman 66 J.D. Reed 6 Vergil, Ovid, and the Poetry of Exile 80 Michael C.J. Putnam 7 The Unfinished Aeneid? 96 James J. O’Hara

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8 The Life of Vergil before Donatus 107 Fabio Stok

PART II Medieval and Renaissance Receptions 121 9 Vergil and St. Augustine 123 Garry Wills 10 Felix Casus: The Dares and Dictys Legends of Aeneas 133 Sarah Spence 11 Vergil in Dante 147 Rachel Jacoff 12 Marvelous Vergil in the Ferrarese Renaissance 158 Dennis Looney 13 Spenser’s Vergil: The Faerie Queene and the Aeneid 173 Philip Hardie 14 The Aeneid in the Age of Milton 186 Henry Power 15 Practicing What They Preach? Vergil and the Jesuits 203 Yasmin Haskell 16 The Aeneid from the Aztecs to the Dark Virgin: Vergil, Native Tradition, and Latin Poetry in Colonial Mexico from Sahagún’s Memoriales (1563) to Villerías’ Guadalupe (1724) 217 Andrew Laird 17 Vergil and Printed Books, 1500–1800 234 Craig Kallendorf

PART III The Aeneid in Music and the Visual Arts 251 18 Vergil and the Pamphili Family in Piazza Navona, Rome 253 Ingrid Rowland 19 Visual and Verbal Translation of Myth: Neptune in Vergil, Rubens, and Dryden 270 Reuben A. Brower 20 The Æneas of Vergil: A Dramatic Performance Presented in the Original Latin by John Ogilby 290 Kristi Eastin 21 Empire and Exile: Vergil in Romantic Art 311 David Blayney Brown

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22 Laocoons 325 Glenn W. Most 23 Vergil in Music 341 William Fitzgerald

PART IV The American Aeneid 353 24 Vergil and the Early American Republic 355 Carl J. Richard 25 Why Did American Women Read the Aeneid? 366 Caroline Winterer 26 Vergil in the Black American Experience 376 Michele Valerie Ronnick 27 Vergil and Founding Violence 391 Michèle Lowrie 28 Figuring the Founder: Vergil and the Challenge of Autocracy 404 Joy Connolly

PART V Modern Reactions to the Aeneid 419 29 Classic Vergil 421 Kenneth Haynes 30 Vergil’s Detractors 435 Joseph Farrell 31 Mind the Gap: On Foreignizing Translations of the Aeneid 449 Susanna Morton Braund 32 Vergil’s Aeneid and Contemporary Poetry 465 Karl Kirchwey

Bibliography 482 Index 531

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Figures

17.1 Le Plat (1807–8, 2.11), Wedding of Dido and Aeneas 238 17.2 Meyen (1616, 161), with marginalia of Rector Hesse 241 17.3 Perrin (1664), title page 242 17.4 Brant (1502, 407v), Death of Turnus 244 17.5 [Vergil] (1586, 221v), beginning of Aen. 11 245 17.6 Dryden (1716, vol. 2, following p. 454), Death of Dido (Aen. 4) 246 17.7 Bartoli (1780–2, nr. 37), Laocoon 247 17.8 Dryden (1803, vol. 1, following p. 160), Death of Dido 248 18.1 Pietro da Cortona, The Council of the Gods (Aen. 10). Galleria, Palazzo Pamphili, Rome 259 18.2 Pietro da Cortona, Aeolus Unleashes the Winds (Aen. 1). Galleria, Palazzo Pamphili, Rome 260 18.3 Pietro da Cortona, The Landing of Aeneas. Galleria, Palazzo Pamphili, Rome 261 18.4 Pietro da Cortona, Venus Receives the Arms of Aeneas from Vulcan. Galleria, Palazzo Pamphili, Rome 262 18.5 Pietro da Cortona, The Slaying of Turnus. Galleria, Palazzo Pamphili, Rome 263 18.6 Gian Lorenzo Bernini, with help from Athanasius Kircher, S.J., The Fountain of the Four Rivers 266 19.1 Marcantonio Raimondi, Neptune Quelling the Storm 279 19.2 Theodoor van Thulden (after Peter Paul Rubens), in Jean Gaspard Gevaerts (Gevartius), Pompa introitus honori Serenissimi Principis Ferdinandi Austriaci Hispaniarum Infantis… 281

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19.3 Franz Cleyn, Neptune and Venus 284 20.1 Francis Cleyn, Aeneas in the Storm (Aen. 1) 292 20.2 Francis Cleyn, Dido and Anna (Aen. 4) 296 20.3 Francis Cleyn, Aeneas and the Cumaean Sibyl (Aen. 6) 297 20.4 François Chauveau, Encounter with the Harpies (Aen. 3) 300 20.5 Francis Cleyn, Aeneas and Celaeno (Aen. 3) 301 20.6 Francis Cleyn, “We have eaten our tables!” (Aen. 7) 303 20.7 François Chauveau, Nisus’ Last Stand (Aen. 9) 304 20.8 Francis Cleyn, Nisus’ Last Stand (Aen. 9) 305 20.9 Wenceslaus Hollar, “Aeneae Troiani Navigatio” 306 21.1 Samuel Palmer, A Rustic Scene 321 22.1 Laocoon sculpture group from the Esquiline 330 22.2 Eva Hesse, Laocoon 337 22.3 Charles Addams, Laocoon Sausage 340 26.1a and b Howard University program, “The Bimillennium Vergilianum Celebration In Honor of the Two Thousandth Anniversary of Vergil’s Birth, April 23, 1930.” 387

Plates (between pages 302 and 303)

Plate 1 Pietro da Cortona and Francesco Borromini, Galleria, Palazzo Pamphili, Rome Plate 2 Peter Paul Rubens, Neptune Calming the Tempest Plate 3 J.M.W. Turner, Aeneas and the Sibyl, Lake Avernus Plate 4 J.M.W. Turner, Dido and Aeneas Plate 5 William Blake, The Inscription over Hell Gate Plate 6 El Greco, Laocoön Plate 7 Angelika Kauffmann, Vergil Reading the “Aeneid” to Augustus and Octavia Plate 8 J.-A.-D. Ingres, Auguste écoutant la lecture de l’Enéide/ Tu Marcellus eris

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Susanna Morton Braund moved to the where he is responsible for the Turner University of British Columbia in 2007 Collection. He has organized numerous to take up a Canada Research Chair in exhibitions and written and lectured Latin Poetry and its Reception after widely in Britain, Europe, the United teaching previously at Stanford, Yale, States, and Australia. His books include and the Universities of London, Bristol, Romanticism (2001). and Exeter. She has published exten- Sergio Casali is Associate Professor of sively on Roman satire and Latin epic Latin Language and Literature at the poetry and has translated Lucan for the University of Rome “Tor Vergata.” He is Oxford World’s Classics series and author of a commentary on one of Ovid’s Persius and Juvenal for the Loeb Classical Heroides and of numerous articles, notes, Library (2004). and reviews on Ovid, Vergil’s Aeneid, Reuben A. Brower (1908–75) was the Vergil’s ancient commentators, and the author and editor of many volumes of Roman epic tradition. He is currently criticism, including The Fields of Light working on a Cambridge “green and yel- (1951), Alexander Pope: The Poetry of low” commentary on Aeneid 4, and on a Allusion (1959), The Poetry of Robert commentary in Italian on Aeneid 2 for Frost: Constellations of Intention (1963), Carocci, Rome. and Hero and Saint: Shakespeare and the Joy Connolly is Associate Professor of Greco-Roman Heroic Tradition (1971), Classics at New York University; she has the Martin Classical Lectures for 1970. A also taught at the University of collection of his essays was published in Washington in Seattle and Stanford 1974 under the title Mirror on Mirrors: University. She is the author of The State Translation, Imitation, Parody. of Speech: Rhetoric and Political Thought David Blayney Brown is Curator of in and articles about polit- Eighteenth- and Nineteenth-Century ical theory, Latin poetry, education, and British Art at Tate Britain, London, cultural identity in antiquity. Her current

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work includes Talk About Virtue, a book Australia. She is author of Loyola’s Bees: about republicanism and its recuperation Ideology and Industry in Jesuit Latin in contemporary political theory, and Didactic Poetry (2003) and co-editor of articles on Sallust’s Bellum Jugurthinum, several collections, including, with J. Feros classical rhetoric in eighteenth-century Ruys, Latinity and Alterity in the Early America, and Pliny’s Panegyricus. Modern Period (forthcoming, Medieval and Renaissance Texts and Studies). She is Kristi Eastin is an Assistant Professor in currently writing a book about a cosmo- Classics and Humanities at California politan Dutch physician and Latin poet of State University, Fresno. She received her the eighteenth century: Prescribing Ovid: PhD in Comparative Literature from The Latin Works and Networks of the Brown University in 2009. She is cur- Enlightened Doctor Heerkens. rently examining the illustrative tradition of Vergil’s Georgics. Kenneth Haynes teaches in the depart- ments of Comparative Literature and Joseph Farrell is Professor of Classical Classics at Brown University. He is the Studies at the University of Pennsylvania. author of English Literature and Ancient He is the author of Vergil’s Georgics and Language (2003), the co-editor (with the Traditions of Ancient Epic (1991) and Peter France) of The Oxford History of Latin Language and Latin Culture from Literary Translation in English, vol. 4: Ancient to Modern Times (2001), and is 1790–1900 (2006), and he is currently working on a book entitled Juno’s Aeneid: editing The Oxford History of the Classical Narrative, Metapoetics, Dissent. Reception within English Literature, vol. William Fitzgerald is Professor of Latin 5: 1880–2000. at King’s College London. His most Ralph Hexter is President of Hampshire recent book is Martial: The World of the College. He is the author of Ovid and Epigram. Medieval Schooling (1986) and A Guide Philip Hardie is a Senior Research to the Odyssey (1993) and, with Daniel Fellow of Trinity College and Honorary Selden, co-editor of Innovations of Professor of Latin at Cambridge Univer- Antiquity (1992). His research centers sity. His books include the Cambridge on commentary, reception, and issues of Com panions to Lucretius (ed. with Stuart reading and resistance in the classical, Gillespie, 2007) and Ovid (ed., 2002), medieval, and modern periods. Ovid’s Poetics of Illusion (2002), a com- Rachel Jacoff is Margaret Deffenbaugh mentary on Vergil, Aeneid 9 (1994), The and LeRoy Carlson Professor of Epic Successors of (1993), and Comparative Literature and Italian Virgil’s Aeneid: Cosmos and Imperium Studies at Wellesley College. She is the (1986). His current research interests editor of The Cambridge Companion to include the history of rumor and renown Dante and co-editor of The Poetry of from Homer to Alexander Pope and the Allusion: Virgil and Ovid in Dante’s reception of ancient literature in the “Commedia” and The Poets’ Dante. Her English Renaissance. essays explore Dante’s relation to his clas- Yasmin Haskell is Professor of Latin sical and biblical models and to the visual Humanism at the University of Western arts of his time.

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Craig Kallendorf is Professor of English University of Pittsburgh, where he holds and Classics at Texas A&M University. a secondary appointment in Classics. His His most recent books are The Other publications include: Compromising the Virgil: Pessimistic Readings of the Aeneid Classics: Romance Epic Narrative in the in Early Modern Culture (2007), The Italian Renaissance (1996); co-editor, Virgilian Tradition: Book History and the Phaethon’s Children: The Este Court and History of Reading in Early Modern Europe Its Culture in Early Modern Ferrara (2007), and A Catalogue of the Junius (2005); editor and co-translator of Spencer Morgan Vergil in the Princeton Sergio Zatti, The Quest for Epic: From University Library (2009). Ariosto to Tasso (2006).

Karl Kirchwey is the author of five books Michèle Lowrie is Professor of Classics of poems, including most recently The and the College at the University of Happiness of This World: Poetry and Prose. Chicago. She is the author of Writing, His work has appeared in After Ovid: Performance, and Authority in Augustan New Metamorphoses (ed. James Lasdun Rome (Oxford, 2009) and Horace’s and Michael Hofmann, 1994) and in Narrative Odes (Oxford, 1997). She has Poets and Critics Read Vergil (ed. Sarah edited Oxford Readings in Classical Spence, 2001). His verse drama based on Studies: Horace’s Odes and Epodes the Alcestis of Euripides is called Airdales (Oxford, 2009) and has co-edited with & Cipher. Recipient of a Rome Prize in Sarah Spence The Aesthetics of Empire and Literature (1994–5), he is Associate the Reception of Vergil as a special issue of Professor of the Arts and Director of the Literary Imagination (2006). Creative Writing Program at . Glenn W. Most is Professor of Greek Philology at the Scuola Normale Andrew Laird is Professor in Classical Superiore di Pisa and also Professor on Literature at Warwick and is currently a the Committee on Social Thought at Leverhulme Major Research Fellow. He the University of Chicago. He has pub- has held visiting positions in Princeton, lished widely on ancient Greek and the University of Cincinnati, and the Roman poetry and philosophy, on the Institute for Research in the Humanities at reception of antiquity, on art history, the University of Wisconsin-Madison. His and on other subjects. His most recent publications include Powers of Expression, books are Doubting Thomas (2005), an Expressions of Power: Speech Presentation edition and translation of Sebastiano and Latin Literature (1999), Ancient Timpanaro’s Genesis of Lachmann’s Literary Criticism (2006), and The Epic of Method (2005), and a two-volume edi- America (2006). He is editor, with Ahuvia tion of the works of Hesiod in the Loeb Kahane, of A Companion to the Prologue of Classical Library (2006–7). He is also Apuleius’ Metamorphoses (2001) and, with co-editor, with Anthony Grafton and Carlo Caruso, of Italy and the Classical Salvatore Settis, of The Classical Tradition: Language,Thought and Poetry Tradition: A Guide. 1300–1600 (2009). Damien P. Nelis is Professor of Latin at Dennis Looney teaches in the the University of Geneva. He has pub- Department of French and Italian at the lished widely on Latin poetry and on

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Vergil in particular, and is author of Michael C.J. Putnam is MacMillan Vergil’s Aeneid and the Argonautica of Professor of Classics and Professor of Apollonius Rhodius (2001) and co-editor Comparative Literature at Brown (with David Levene) of Clio and the Poets: University. His books are largely con- Augustan Poetry and the Traditions of cerned with classical Latin poetry. The Ancient Historiography (2002). most recent is Poetic Interplay: Catullus and Horace (2006). He is a Trustee of James J. O’Hara is the George L. the as well Paddison Professor of Latin at the as Fellow of the American Academy of University of North Carolina, Chapel Arts and Sciences, and Member of the Hill. From 1986 until his 2001 arrival in American Philosophical Society. Chapel Hill, he taught at in Middletown, Connecticut. J.D. Reed is Professor of Classics at His research and teaching interests are in Brown University. His interests lie mainly Greek and especially Latin poetry, with in Hellenistic and Latin poetry, particu- special interests in the Augustan period larly in the poetic representation of cul- and in epic. He is the author of Death tural identity. He has recently published and the Optimistic Prophecy in Vergil’s Virgil’s Gaze: Nation and Poetry in the Aeneid (1990), True Names: Vergil and Aeneid, and has a commentary in progress the Alexandrian Tradition of Etymological on Ovid, Metamorphoses 10–12. He has Wordplay (1996), and Inconsistency in also published on the ancient cult and Roman Epic: Studies in Catullus, myth of Adonis. Lucretius, Vergil, Ovid and Lucan (2007), and is part of a team producing a school Carl J. Richard is Professor of History at commentary on the Aeneid for Focus the University of Louisiana at Lafayette. Press. His books include The Founders and the Classics: Greece, Rome, and the American Vassiliki Panoussi is Associate Professor Enlightenment (1994); Twelve Greeks and of Classical Studies at the College of Romans Who Changed the World (2003); William and Mary. She has published sev- The Battle for the American Mind: A Brief eral articles on Roman literature of the History of a Nation’s Thought (2004); late republic and early empire and is the Greeks and Romans Bearing Gifts: How author of a book, Greek Tragedy in Vergil’s the Ancients Inspired the Founding Fathers Aeneid (Cambridge 2009). She is cur- (2008); and The Golden Age of the Classics rently working on a book project on the in America: Greece, Rome, and the representations of women’s religious roles Antebellum United States (2009). in Latin literature. Michele Valerie Ronnick is Professor in Henry Power is Lecturer in English at the Department of Classical and Modern the University of Exeter, and the holder Languages, Literatures, and Cultures at of a Leverhulme Early Career Fellowship. Wayne State University in Detroit, He is the author of articles on Cowley, Michigan. Her books include Cicero’s Denham, and Fielding, and is currently Paradoxa Stoicorum (1991); The writing a book about the reception of Autobiography of William Sanders classical epic in the first half of the Scarborough (1852–1926): An American eighteenth century. Journey from Slavery to Scholarship

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(2005); and The Works of William Sanders Latin authors and their reception as well Scarborough: Black Classicist and Race as on ancient medicine, ethnography, and Leader (2006). In addition to interests in lexicography. He is co-editor (with neo-Latin and in the classical tradition, Giorgio Brugnoli) of Vitae Vergilianae she has written numerous short articles Antiquae, a critical edition of the ancient on the Latin prose of . She is Vergilian biography of Suetonius-Donatus currently the president of the Classical and of other medieval and Renaissance Association of the Middle West and lives (Rome 1997). Professor Stok is also South. one of the editors of Niccolò Perotti’s Cornu copiae (8 vols., 1989–2001), and Ingrid Rowland teaches history of archi- is working at present on several other tecture on the Rome campus of the humanist and neo-Latin authors. University of Notre Dame School of Architecture. She is working on a book Garry Wills is Professor of History on Athanasius Kircher. Emeritus at Northwestern University. Among his many books are six devoted Sarah Spence is Distinguished Research to Augustine. Professor of Classics and Comparative Literature at the University of Georgia. Caroline Winterer is Associate Professor She has published widely on medieval in the Department of History at Stanford adaptations of ancient literature, including University. She is the author of The Rhetorics of Reason and Desire (1988); Mirror of Antiquity: American Women Texts and the Self in the Twelfth Century and the Classical Tradition, 1750–1900 (1996); and Figuratively Speaking (2007). (2007) and The Culture of Classicism: Ancient Greece and Rome in American Fabio Stok teaches Latin literature at the Intellectual Life, 1780–1910 (2002; pbk. University of Rome “Tor Vergata.” He 2004), as well as numerous essays on the has published extensively on classical subject of American classicism.

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First and foremost the editors would like to thank the contributors to this collection for the enthusiasm that they have brought to the project and for the breadth of inter- est that has allowed it to offer a wide-ranging prospect over Vergil and his heritage. Alfred Bertrand of Wiley-Blackwell originally proposed a volume on the Aeneid and its tradition for its Companion series, and his support has continued from the start. Among his helpful colleagues have been Sophie Gibson, Haze Humbert, and Galen Smith, all readily available when assistance was needed. Special thanks to Brigitte Lee Messenger for her expert copy-editing and for her prompt and friendly attention to all queries sent her way. The editors would like also to acknowledge help freely offered by colleagues and staff in their respective departments at Brown University and the University of Pennsylvania. In particular we thank Carrie Mowbray of Penn for the care with which she has organized the bibliography as well as brought order and cohe- sion to the many practical details that adhere to such a varied enterprise. Additional thanks to Kelcy Sagstetter, Kevin Platt, and Ilya Vinitsky for their timely assistance with matters Slavic and Cyrillic. Finally, a word of gratitude to the libraries, museums, and publishing houses that supplied illustrative material, and granted reprint permis- sions. Their individual contributions are listed elsewhere. Joseph Farrell Michael C.J. Putnam

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The editors and publisher gratefully acknowledge the permission granted to repro- duce the copyright material in this book: Excerpts from “The Mediterranean” and “Aeneas at Washington” from Collected Poems 1919–1976 by Allen Tate. Copyright © 1977 by Allen Tate. Reprinted by permission of Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, LLC. “The Journey,” from Outside History: Selected Poems 1980–1990 by Eavan Boland. Copyright © 1990 by Eavan Boland. Used by permission of W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. and Carcanet Press Limited. “Poetry Reading,” “Turnus,” “Bonfires,” from Departure: Poems by Rosanna Warren. Copyright © 2003 by Rosanna Warren. Used by permission of W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. Excerpts from “The Queen of Carthage” (101), “The Golden Bough” (121), “Roman Study” (161), from Vita Nova by Louise Glück. Copyright © 1999 by Louise Glück. Reprinted by permission of HarperCollins Publishers and Carcanet Press Limited. “Falling Asleep over the Aeneid.” Excerpt from The Mills of the Kavanaughs, Copyright 1948 and renewed 1976 by Robert Lowell, reprinted by permission of Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. Excerpts from “Secondary Epic,” from Collected Poems by W.H. Auden. Copyright © 1976, 1991 by The Estate of W.H. Auden. Reprinted by permission of Faber and Faber Ltd. “Cento Virgilianus,” from The Continuous Life by , Copyright © 1990 by Mark Strand. Used by permission of Alfred A. Knopf, a division of Random House, Inc. “A Poet’s Alphabet,” from The Weather of Words: Poetic Invention by Mark Strand, Copyright © 2000 by Mark Strand. Used by permission of Alfred A. Knopf, a division of Random House, Inc. Every effort has been made to trace copyright holders and to obtain their permission for the use of copyright material. The publisher apologizes for any errors or omissions in the above list and would be grateful if notified of any corrections that should be incorporated in future reprints or editions of this book.

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The abbreviations used in this volume are in general those found in OCD3 (Oxford Classical Dictionary, ed. S. Hornblower and A. Spawforth, 3rd ed. 1996, rev. 2003: xxix–liv) and, where those are lacking, in either OLD (Oxford Latin Dictionary, ed. P.G.W. Glare, 1983: ix–xx) or LSJ (H.G. Liddell, R. Scott, and H. Stuart Jones, A Greek–English Lexicon, 9th ed. with a revised supplement 1996: xvi–xlv). Translations of Vergil’s works and standard editions of classical texts are cited in the usual form (e.g., Aen. 1.203) with the addition of the translator’s or the editor’s name where relevant (e.g., Aen. 1.203, trans. Dryden; schol. Ver. ad Aen. 2.717 Baschera). In the case of the ancient lives of Vergil the abbreviations used herein are those of Brugnoli and Stok (1997, 270); Latin quotations from the lives refer to the same edition, and English translations are those found in Ziolkowski and Putnam (2008) unless other- wise noted. Secondary sources are cited by the author’s last name and the date of publication, with page numbers where relevant. Abbreviations of journal titles are based on those used in L’Année philologique.

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Joseph Farrell and Michael C.J. Putnam

Companions, handbooks, and other forms of vade mecum have for some years been appearing with frequency and on an ever-greater range of subjects. In such circum- stances, an author such as Vergil and a poem like the Aeneid, both of which hold unshakable positions in any list of canonical authors or “great books,” will be well represented. Any additional volume of this sort thus bears a particular burden of self- justification. Our view is that a new Aeneid companion could be warranted only if it did not tread well-worn paths, and that, if it succeeded in illuminating unexpected avenues of approach, then it would more than validate its existence. This is the chal- lenge we hope to have met. Fortunately, the world of Vergilian studies is large and engagement with the Aeneid spans many communities. No single book could ever cover all possible topics of inter- est to all readers. The work that comes closest to doing so is the monumental Enciclopedia Virgiliana, but that is a work written mainly for specialists. Other, single- volume handbooks ably cover the main technical, literary, or pedagogical aspects of the poem and its tradition from their different points of view. But in practice, both serious and casual students of the poem are likely to have to consult more than one of the existing handbooks to find the particular kind of guidance that they require. For this reason a new companion presenting approaches to the poem not found in the several that already exist should be welcome. The present volume was designed around this assumption. Our first goal was to address issues that we regarded as likely to inter- est readers new to the Aeneid as well as experts, but ones that we did not find repre- sented in existing handbooks. In a few cases we have commissioned chapters that examine familiar topics from an unexpected angle. But beyond these specific issues, we have attempted to fashion a book of essays that collectively present a coherent, fresh, and distinctive perspective on the Aeneid and its reception, one that we hope will prove to be both illuminating for those who consult this book as an introduction to the poem and challenging to those who are themselves in a position to explore new avenues of research in Vergilian studies. What is this perspective?

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In the first place, we present this volume as a companion to the Aeneid but also to its tradition. Indeed, a glance at the titles of the individual chapters will suggest that this volume is devoted principally to reception studies. By conceiving of the volume in this way, we acknowledge the enormous influence that reception studies have exerted within Classics over the past two decades or so. Many would argue that the different stages of reception are ultimately inseparable from any interpretation; and our own view is that the Aeneid, perhaps not more than but certainly as much as any poem, has been defined by the tradition of which it is so central a part. But at the same time, no one interpretation actually is the poem, and we have tried to emphasize the rich diver- sity of the tradition that defines it. This seems to us a necessary intervention. The idea of the monumental Aeneid, the imperial epic par excellence, successor to the Iliad and the Odyssey, precursor to the Divine Comedy and Paradise Lost, keystone of the mas- sive structure that is the Western literary tradition, is very familiar. It is, like the notion of the “Messianic Eclogue,” a fundamental aspect of the poem’s reception, and in that sense it will always be with us. But the notion that Vergil’s poetry actually predicted the birth of Jesus Christ belongs to a far distant time. Knowledge of this tradition can inform our sense of what the poem has been thought to mean without playing an intrinsic role in our own interpretation. In contrast to earlier students of the poem, we are just now gaining enough chronological and cultural distance from the middle decades of the twentieth century to understand the extent to which the conception of the imperial Aeneid was a product of that time, or, if not actually a product, then an important measure of the extent to which that interpretation of the poem spoke to the needs of mid-century readers. One result of this episode in the poem’s reception was that such an interpretation – broadly speaking, the interpretation of Haecker, of Eliot, and in an idiosyncratic way, of Broch – came in the eyes of many to be mistaken for the poem itself. And consequently this interpretation is well represented in many existing guides to the poem. With these facts in mind, we have attempted to address the situation by emphasiz- ing the highly contingent nature of the Aeneid. This contingency reveals itself in the choices that Vergil faced in composing it, so many of which left their imprint upon the finished product. Whether the question has to do with Vergil’s sense of his poem as a reinterpretation of Homer, or with its relationship to earlier Greek and Roman litera- ture as a whole, or with the welter of diverse and bewildering Aeneas legends available to him, or with the conflicting roles – roles that are at different times mainly literary, mythic, political, or religious, and sometimes all of these at once – that Vergil’s hero is called upon to play, the pivotal fact is that the Aeneid is anything but a fixed and stable monument of unitary meaning. In many ways it is much more like the labyrinth of multiplying possibilities that its hero contemplates on the doors of Apollo’s temple at Cumae as he concludes his own circuitous wanderings and faces yet another laby- rinthine trial in the form of his descent into the world of the dead. These possibilities have played themselves out in readerly interpretation over centu- ries and have left their mark on all aspects of the poem’s critical reception, both favo- rable and not. Accordingly, this volume explores the varying fortunes of the Aeneid over time and among different groups of readers, emphasizing that the poem dubbed by Eliot “the classic of all Europe” was, perhaps surprisingly, in the Middle Ages held

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to represent a minority view of the fall of and one that was not very influential on the literature of that time. It presents a poem that has been praised but also blamed as the official epic of conformism, patriarchy, orthodoxy, and complacency, and yet as one that has nevertheless frequently found sympathetic audiences among the disen- franchised and the oppressed. The story of the triumphalist Aeneid has been told many times, but the story of this “other” Aeneid is no less real or important, and attention to its fortunes repays the effort by immeasurably enlarging one’s experience of what already is, for both editors and we dare say for all of the contributors as well, a cherished masterpiece. The interconnections among all of these essays are many, and no single order of presentation could bring all of them out. Accordingly, we have chosen to arrange them, so far as was possible, in a straightforwardly chronological order. The essays of Part I deal with the formation of the Aeneid and with important aspects of its ancient reception. Damien Nelis leads off by examining the question of Vergil’s library, both in the material sense of the books that he owned or to which he might have had access, and in the ideal sense of the poetry as a distillation of the poet’s wide and sympathetic reading. The Aeneid and its tradition thus signifies here the anterior tradition of Latin and (mainly) Greek literature that inspired so much of the form and content of Vergil’s masterpiece. The two essays that follow focus first on Vergil’s most important predecessor in epic poetry, and then on the poet’s sources for ways taken and not taken regarding the legend of Aeneas. Ralph Hexter considers Vergil’s relationship with Homer particu- larly in light of the scholarly resources available for the interpretation of the Iliad and Odyssey and suggests how these materials, and the interpretive habits that they encour- aged, influenced Vergil’s most important intertextual agon. Our knowledge of the ancient scholarship that was available to Vergil has grown significantly in recent years, and with it our sense of how the poet might have used this accumulated learning. The standard view has been that Vergil used Homeric scholarship chiefly as a means of avoiding “mistakes” that Homer’s critics felt he had made – those moments when “even Homer nods.” Hexter, agreeing here with some very recent work in this field, persuasively argues that the richness of Homeric exegetical scholarship must actually have encouraged the proliferation of interpretive possibilities in the minds of both Vergil and his most sophisticated readers. In the following chapter, Sergio Casali (who has previously contributed to our understanding of the exegetical traditions that Hexter explores) delves into a different aspect of ancient scholarship in the form of the mythographic and historiographical traditions to sketch in some detail the extraordinary uncertainty and variety that per- vaded the Aeneas legend before Vergil gave it (what is often taken for) its definitive form. (We return to this point in discussing Part II below.) What emerges from Casali’s survey is a keener awareness both of Vergil’s achievement in bringing order to this extremely heterogeneous tradition and his brilliance in allowing elements “excluded” from the main lines of his narrative to make their presence briefly and provocatively felt at crucial junctures. There follows a trio of chapters that speak to some of the poem’s most central Augustan themes, religion, national identity, and exile. In the first, Vassiliki Panoussi

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examines Vergil’s portrayal of Aeneas as a military and a religious leader against the background of the Roman Republican magistrate as one to whom both these roles regularly and necessarily fell, and also in terms of Augustus’ program of religious revival. In the following chapter, Joseph Reed considers Vergil’s “national epic” with reference to the idea of Roman national identity. He argues that the ethnic identity of the Roman state was open to question, partaking as it did in the characteristics of so many different ethnicities, both cognate and agnate, friend and enemy. These are the ingredients of national identity, the materials and processes of inclusion and absorp- tion that were a fundamental part of Roman character and that, proverbially, enabled a tiny settlement of the banks of the Tiber to grow into one of the largest and most successful world-states in history. Again, the watchword is flexibility and adaptability, not fixity or stability. Then, in the final chapter of this trio, Michael Putnam examines a motif that is the converse of Reed’s, that of exclusion in the form of exile as it is found in Vergil and then taken up by the poet who was among the first and certainly among the greatest of Vergil’s successors, Ovid. Recent years have seen Ovid make an ever-greater claim on the energy and attention of Latin studies, in some respects because of characteristics that differentiate him from Vergil, especially perhaps his “playfulness” (as opposed to Vergil’s “high seriousness”). Here Putnam, following up on previous work, explores a deep sympathy that he perceives between the two poets, one that revolves around a theme that so clearly permeates the poetry of both. Ovid’s Vergil takes us firmly into the area of “reception.” But with the two essays that round out this section we move back, in a sense, towards the poem, though with the motive of interrogating the grey area between the poem “itself” and the poem as it is defined by the circumstances of its reception. James O’Hara sounds a theme that will resonate throughout the rest of this volume, just as it does through Vergilian criticism of every stripe: the theme of the unfinished Aeneid. O’Hara shows that the idea of the poem’s unfinished condition decisively – and, as he argues, excessively – colors the critic’s perception of it. The implications of his argument are many. On the one hand, he raises important questions about the validity of certain lines of critical inquiry that are based on (what he shows to be) a much too radical set of assumptions about the “imperfect” state of the poem. On the other hand, he underlines the urgency of those questions that arise not from lack of finish but from authorial design. Of course, the notion of the “unfinished Aeneid” derives only minimally from the condition of the poem itself, and is mainly a creature of the ancient biographical tradi- tion. O’Hara’s interrogation thus leads directly into Fabio Stok’s reading of the layers of accretion that gradually built up our conception of Vergil’s biography. Our infor- mation about Vergil’s life, and especially his death, rests for the most part on no firm foundation; and yet this information has become inescapably a part of nearly every interpretation of the Aeneid, and still more (thanks to the efforts of imaginative writ- ers like Hermann Broch) of the general conception of Vergil that became common in the mid-twentieth century. Stok’s chapter reconstructs the stages by which the bio- graphical tradition most likely took shape. In the process, Stok not only comments on the relative proximity to Vergil’s own lifetime that is attested for any particular detail within the tradition, but he also shows that each detail, no matter how early it is attested or how plausible it appears, is embedded in its own contexts of production

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and of reception, and therefore seems anything but disinterested and so all the more likely to have been designed to serve some interpretive purpose. Part II of the volume deals with the Middle Ages and Renaissance. It begins with Garry Wills’ chapter on “Vergil and St. Augustine,” which examines Augustine’s familiar expression of skepticism about the value of the Aeneid in his own education, and proceeds to trace instances in which Augustine returns, almost obsessively, even in spite of himself, to Vergil as an intellectual touchstone throughout his career. Wills thereby offers a trenchant commentary both on Augustine’s protestations and on a countervailing tendency (represented, for instance, by Fr. Haecker) to regard Vergil and Augustine as naturally partners in the production of Western Civilization. The next chapter, by Sarah Spence, challenges another myth about the Aeneid by review- ing the history of the Trojan legend in the Middle Ages. Spence’s contribution on the Aeneas legend after Vergil demands to be read in conjunction with Casali’s chapter on the legend before Vergil. Read together, the two chapters show that Vergil did not succeed, or even aim to succeed, in reducing to order the myriad conflicting sources on his hero once and for all, thus establishing a definitive version that would be fol- lowed by all later writers, though he did in a sense construct an official, imperial ver- sion of the legend. Nevertheless, as Spence shows, this did not prevent medieval poets from following quite different, earlier traditions that were known to Vergil (as Casali argues) and only quite subtly acknowledged in the Aeneid itself, but that survived in prose accounts that travel under the names of Dictys of Crete and Dares of Phrygia. Vergil’s importance in the Middle Ages was great, but his Augustan rendition of the Trojan saga was, as Spence makes clear, not the only known version nor, to judge from the vernacular traditions, the most popular. Coming to terms with this fact would obviously involve some qualification of Eliot’s idea that the Aeneid is “the classic of all Europe.” Eliot’s idea certainly does receive support from the treatment of Vergil by Dante, a poet coupled with Vergil as often and in much the same way as Vergil is paired with Homer. As the next chapter by Rachel Jacoff shows, however, Dante’s Vergil (and here see again Nelis on Vergil’s library together with Hexter on Vergil’s Homer) is better understood as just one, even if primus inter pares, among many pagan influ- ences on the Divine Comedy. As recent research has shown, Horace, Ovid, Statius, and other classical poets mediate and in some sense compete with Vergil’s influence on Dante’s masterpiece. It is true that, for Dante, Vergil remains important in a way that other poets do not, the imperial poet par excellence and, crucially, proto-Christian as well, but proto-Christian only. This is a perspective on Vergil that is consummately well suited to serve Dante’s own interests, and perhaps those of Eliot as well, but one that by definition cannot give answer at all precisely to what we know of Vergil’s own horizon of expectations nor, we would venture to say, to our own. From Dante’s compelling and yet problematic perspective we move on to the pres- ence of Vergil in Renaissance literature. Like Dante’s Vergil, this is a well-worn topic, but the seven essays devoted to it in this volume, like Jacoff’s, approach it in fresh and illuminating ways. A standard approach to this theme would involve stressing the powerful connections between the Aeneid and the Latin epics of this period, such as Petrarch’s Africa (1343) and the various continuations of the Aeneid itself, of which

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Maffeo Vegio’s Aeneidos Liber XIII, or “Book 13 of the Aeneid” (1428), is only the best known example. With this background in mind, one might move on to consider Vergil’s influence on the vernacular epics along with the signal departures of those poems in the directions, say, of romance or of the novel. Instead, this section begins with vernacular romance and moves on to consider later manifestations of neo-Latin epic. In the first chapter, Dennis Looney examines the Aeneid as a model for three poets not of Rome but of Ferrara, and not of epic but of romance. The authors and works in question are Matteo Maria Boiardo’s Orlando innamorato (1486), Ludovico Ariosto’s Orlando furioso (1532), and Torquato Tasso’s Gerusalemme liberata (1574). Rather than regarding the element of the fantastic as an indication of how the vernacular epic departs from its classical model by incorporating elements characteristic of romance, Looney brings to bear compelling evidence that all three of these authors worked to find warrant for their departures within the Aeneid itself, effectively reinterpreting Vergil’s epic as precisely a masterpiece of romance. The two essays that follow likewise treat of familiar relationships in extraordinary ways. Philip Hardie enriches our understanding of how Spenser incorporated, and varied, the Vergilian career in the span of his own writing, especially of The Faerie Queen. Henry Power’s essay grounds the reader broadly in the English reception of Vergil in the century ending at the death of Dryden before turning back to view Paradise Lost in this same intellectual context. The following two chapters open up powerful new perspectives on Vergil in the Latin culture of the Renaissance. Yasmin Haskell illustrates the deep influence that Vergil’s poetic accomplishment, especially the Aeneid, exerted on Jesuit educational practice and on the extensive body of Latin poetry that the Order produced in the centuries after its foundation in 1540. The section continues with Andrew Laird’s chapter on the Latin epic poetry of colonial Mexico. Here again as in previous essays, especially those of Wills, Jacoff, and Haskell, the theme of Christianity crosses with other central Vergilian topics, particularly those of national identity (Reed) and exile (Putnam), in the process of making known an extraordinary body of literature that is, if anything, more recognizably Vergilian than, say, the vernacular epic romances that Looney shows to be explicitly modeled on the Aeneid. This section concludes with Craig Kallendorf’s chapter on the history of books about Vergil during the first three centuries of printing. His particular theme is to trace in depth the interplay of “optimistic” and “pessimistic” readings of Vergil’s epic as treated in major European editions of the poem. Kallendorf’s treatment of the material book as a factor in Vergilian reception stud- ies affords a direct means of transition to Part III, which focuses particularly on the Aeneid and the arts, especially the visual arts, in various forms. With Ingrid Rowland we concentrate on Rome of the seventeenth century. Her essay looks specifically, first, to the propagandistic purposes to which the Pamphili family put the Aeneid in the frescoes that Pietro da Cortona created for its Palazzo on the Piazza Navona, then, to the influence of the Jesuit scholar Athanasius Kircher on the invention of Bernini’s Fountain of the Four Rivers in the same piazza. The section continues with an essay by the late Reuben Brower, published originally in a venue little frequented by Vergilians and reprinted here in abbreviated form. Its consideration of the influence of the storm scene of Aeneid 1, as interpreted through Dryden’s powerful translation,

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on the work of Rubens is prescient of future work on the interplay of the verbal and visual arts fostered by the influence of Vergil. That interplay is the subject of the subsequent three chapters, as well. Kristi Eastin examines in detail one of the great examples of the relationship between text and image in the Vergilian tradition: John Ogilby’s first complete translation of the works of the Roman poet into English (1654) and the engravings by the Dutch artist Francis Cleyn that served to illustrate it. With David Brown’s essay we turn to nineteenth-century painting and to the parti- cular appeal of Vergil to the Romantic imagination as discovered in English and French painting. We move from a study of Turner across the Channel to Girodet, and then return again to England and a survey of the poet’s deep influence on Blake and Palmer. Next Glenn Most examines the Vergilian account of Laocoon as a hinge between earlier and later versions and between verbal and visual representations. In the person of Laocoon, spectacle and pain, prodigy and humanity, intersect at the very limit of what readers are willing to imagine and what viewers are desperate to see. The inevitable result is an aesthetic phenomenon that teeters on the edge of parody and humor, and more often than not falls in. In the last essay in this section William Fitzgerald presents an overview of the Vergilian presence in music from the Renaissance to the modern period, from Josquin Des Prez to Luigi Nono, with Purcell and Berlioz playing appropriately prominent parts. The French composer’s devotion to Vergil was lifelong, and Fitzgerald demonstrates how his interpretation of the Aeneid as a whole influenced his presentation of the two books of the epic that he chose to dramatize at length and brings out with great clarity the distinctiveness of Berlioz’s interpretation. Equally important is the evidence that Fitzgerald gives of how pervasive Vergil’s influ- ence has been at so many times in music history, a contribution that we hope will serve as an incentive to future research. Part IV, which focuses on Vergil in early American culture, we might entitle “American Aeneids” for the important strain of pluralism that it suggests. Carl Richard’s survey of Vergil’s impact on American education identifies peculiarly Vergilian resonances with early American agrarianism and republicanism. At the same time, as he shows, it was possible for skeptical critics to complain that Vergil had served an emperor and so was inimical to democratic ideals, and that his paganism and, especially, laxness in treating of sexual morality made the Aeneid an inappropriate object of study within a Christian society. (Here again see Wills, Jacoff, Haskell, and Laird.) But the commitment to Vergil shown by northern elite centers of learning, particularly Yale and Harvard, ensured that Vergil long retained a central place in the college curriculum and so in the habits of mind formed by the alumni of such institu- tions. It is only to be expected that we find Vergil in this milieu aligned with white male privilege; equally unsurprising is the role that he played among American intel- lectuals who sought to distance the culture of their new, revolutionary country from that of the specifically European world that they had left behind. More surprising, perhaps, are Caroline Winterer’s essay on the reception of Vergil among nineteenth-century American women and Michele Valerie Ronnick’s explora- tion of Vergil in African American culture and education. “Why,” Winterer asks, “did American women read the Aeneid?” If there were reasons for American men to find the Aeneid objectionable on political and religious grounds, there were still more

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reasons why it might not have found a receptive audience among women of any nationality. But Winterer, arguing that in fact texts like the Aeneid played a key role in American women’s efforts to “make themselves modern,” goes on to suggest that the bond that these readers formed with this literature “helps us to understand how and why classical antiquity found a new home in the modern world.” For Ronnick mean- while, why African American writers read and imitated the Aeneid, why some sympa- thetic white writers have regarded the experience of African Americans through a Vergilian lens, and why a number of African American intellectuals in the post-Civil War period devoted their careers to Vergilian studies and to Classics more generally, are less important as questions than is the mere fact that they did so. Continuing her earlier research into the reception of Classics by African American culture, Ronnick contributes a rich store of little-known information regarding this fascinating topic, indicating in the process a number of promising avenues for future research. The section concludes with a pair of more overtly political chapters. Here we reprint, for many of the same reasons as the essay by Reuben Brower, a condensed version of Michèle Lowrie’s “Vergil and Founding Violence,” which investigates Vergil’s depiction of violence against the backdrop of twentieth-century intellectual history, especially the work of Walter Benjamin and Hannah Arendt. The question of violence has of course loomed large in the poem’s critical and scholarly reception for decades; and to conclude this section, Joy Connolly addresses this critical legacy by considering the Aeneid in relation to Augustus’ rise to power. With explicit reference to points raised by Lowrie, Connolly examines the tension between clemency, as the proper finale to the use of violence necessary to establish order, and the exemplifica- tion of the hero’s personal anti-patriarchal wrath with which the poem ends. The tenor of the volume thus far will have prepared the reader for the concluding section, which examines various aspects of Vergil’s modern role as defined by Haecker, Eliot, and others. To open the section, Kenneth Haynes traces the meaning of the word “classic,” especially as applied to the Aeneid by comparison to Homer’s Iliad, over the last two and a half centuries. After looking closely at the work of Heyne and Sainte-Beuve, he ends by asking how, and of what, the Aeneid remains representative in the generations subsequent to Eliot and his influential essay, “What is a Classic?” Joseph Farrell discusses the pronounced tradition of anti-Vergilianism that has played a significant role in shaping the Vergilian tradition since even before the Aeneid was first made public. In the process, he examines a number of Vergil’s modern critics in the light of this ancient tradition, including some who are often taken as the poet’s champions. Vergil’s Aeneid is probably still the single ancient Greek or Latin text read in the original language, at least in part, by the greatest number of readers. For the majority of modern readers, though, the acquaintance is made even more often in translation. In her essay on translating the Aeneid, Susanna Morton Braund first distinguishes between “domesticating” and “foreignizing” renderings, then examines three exam- ples of the latter, Briusov’s into Russian (1933), the French version of Klossowski (1964), and Ahl’s recent English translation (2007). The variety of approaches repre- sented in this sample is immensely instructive, not only with regard to the meaning of Vergil’s text and to the craft of translation itself, but even more for the insight gained

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into what has been felt to be at stake in translating this poet and this poem. And in the final essay we turn to a very different kind of “translation” as Karl Kirchwey surveys the presence of Vergil in recent poetry in English, from Alan Tate to Rosanna Warren, with a particular bow to Mark Strand whose prose also reflects his deep sympathy with his Roman predecessor. As editors we feel fortunate to have enlisted such a protean group of collaborators. At the same time, we remain deeply conscious of how much more remains to be done. Our hope is that readers of this volume will put its essays to use, and act on the chal- lenges that they present, individually and collectively, so as further to illuminate impor- tant but under-explored aspects of Vergilian scholarship. In addition we hope to have communicated some sense of the abiding affection and admiration we ourselves feel for the poem and for the poet. It is perhaps not usual to speak of such things in aca- demic studies, particularly in a skeptical age when so much scholarly energy is spent in the service of demystifying the aura that traditionally surrounds canonical authors and great books. For that reason it may be all the more important for the editors to say that, over almost a century of combined experience with this poem and this poet, no amount of problematization, complication, contestation, or outright rejection of received wisdom has diminished our enthusiasm, but has only increased it. Vergil’s Aeneid has been and remains many things to many readers; its tradition is rich and various, not to say complex and contradictory. We hope this volume is a worthy effort at least to suggest something of the power and beauty that we have found in it.

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