PICTOGRAPHS IN NORTHERN SASKATCHEWAN: VISION QUEST AND PAWAKAN A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for a Degree of Master of Arts in the Department of Anthropology and Archaeology University of Saskatchewan Saskatoon by Katherine A. Lipsett April, 1990 The author claims copyright. Use shall not be made of the material contained herein without proper acknowledgement, as indicated on the following page. The author has agreed that the Library, University of Saskatchewan, may make this thesis freely available for inspection. Moreover, the author has agreed that permission for extensive copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the professor or professors who supervised the thesis work recorded herein or, in their absence, by the Head of the Department or the Dean of the College in which the thesis work was done. It is understood that due recognition will be given to the author of this thesis and to the University of Saskatchewan in any use of the material in this thesis. Copying or publication or any other use of the thesis for financial gain without approval by the University of Saskatchewan and the author's written permission is prohibited. Requests for permission to copy or to make any other use of material in this thesis in whole or part should be addressed to: Head of the Department of Anthropology and Archaeology University of Saskatchewan Saskatoon, Saskatchewan Canada S7N OWO i ABSTRACT Pictographs in northern Saskatchewan have been linked to the vision quest ritual by Rocky Cree informants. The intent of this thesis is to examine the Rocky Cree religious belief system, through ethno-historic documentation and contemporary ethnography, in order to attribute meanings to pictographs. Elderly native informants in communities close to pictograph sites were interviewed concerning their knowledge of traditional religious beliefs, the vision quest and the cultural function of pictographs. By formulating an understanding of traditional Rocky Cree religious beliefs it is possible to discover what 'dreamers' were experiencing during the vision quest and what they dreamt of. The physical characteristics and psychological profile of the spirits, which might have appeared to the dreamer as his guardian spirit, must be reconstructed, since pictographs were visual representations of what was witnessed in the vision quest. Informant knowledge has allowed for the analysis of pictographs and a greater understanding of individual meanings and their cultural context in traditional Rocky Cree religion. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank my thesis advisor, Dr. Zenon S. Pohorecky, and the members of my committee, Dr. R.G. Williamson, Dr. David Meyer and Dr. E.G. Walker for their guidance, patience and encouragement during the fieldwork process and while this thesis was being prepared. Thanks also are due to Dr. Mary Marino, Graduate Advisor, and Dr. Urve Linnimae for making things easier. Tim Jones has answered all my questions, loaned me his books and slides, and been forthcoming with his knowledge. The Lac La Ronge Indian Band and the Peter Ballantyne Band is thanked for their support of this research. Gratitude is due to the native elders in northern Saskatchewan who allowed me into their homes and memories so this information could be gathered. Many who are not mentioned in the interviews were extremely helpful though they knew little about pictographs. Rosie S. McKenzie and Theresa McLeod deserve special mention for their dedication to this project. Annie Torrence deserves special credit for having translated and transcribed the interview tapes. The grants obtained by Dr. Pohorecky for this massive job helped her devote enough time to make available the data included in the appendix, and without which this thesis could not have been completed. Robert Nickerson in Stanley Mission allowed me to live in his home for long periods of time over two years, and I thank him for his generosity. Walter Kruzyk provided me with a place to stay in iii .e. Pelican Narrows while Lois Dalby and Alistar Hesketh-Jones let me visit them while in La Ronge. Much of the funding for this research was provided by the Northern Scientific Training Grant Program,College of Graduate Studies and Research, and the Board of Governors, College of Arts and Science University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon. I would also like to thank the Whyte Museum of the Canadian Rockies, Banff, for allowing me to use their computer to write this thesis. Lastly, I would like to thank my parents, John and Ellen Lipsett, for the faith they have shown in me and for their love, support and encouragement. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii LIST OF FIGURES viii LIST OF TABLES ix 1. INTRODUCTION TO PICTOGRAPH RESEARCH 1 Characteristics of Canadian Shield 2 Pictographs 1.2. History of Pictograph Research in Canada 8 Territorial Distribution of the Western 14 Woods Cree 1.4. Pigment and Pictograph Composition 20 1.5. Other Dating Methods 24 Dating Pictographs Ethnographically 25 2. THEORETICAL APPROACH TO PICTOGRAPH RESEARCH 30 3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 45 Interview Methodology 45 Fieldwork Area 50 Division of the Fieldwork Area 51 3.4. Fieldwork Activities 53 3.5. Analysis of Data 55 4. ETHNO-HISTORIC RECONSTRUCTION OF CREE RELIGIOUS BELIEFS AND PRACTICES 58 4.1. European Fur Traders 59 Historic Documents and their Limitations 62 v 4.3. Rocky Cree Religious Beliefs: The Historic Period 66 4.3.1. The Supreme Being 66 4.3.2. Maci Manito 71 4.3.4. Other Supernatural Beings 74 4.4. Dreaming and Pawakan 76 4.5. Pawakan and Pictographs 81 The Christianizing Period: 1850 to present 85 4.6.1. The Missionaries 90 4.6.2. Settlement and Agriculture 93 4.6.2. Cree Response 96 5. ETHNOGRAPHIC FIELDWORK AND PICTOGRAPHS 106 5.1. Pictographs and the Vision Quest 107 5.1.1 'Dreaming': The Vision Quest Ritual 113 5.1.2. The Spirit World 122 5.1.3. Power: Different Forms of Cree Medicine 132 5.2. Legend Analysis 141 5.3. Symbolic Analysis of Pictographs using Ethnographic Data 143 5.3.1. Pipe Symbols 144 5.3.2. Arm Gestures and Hands 146 5.3.3. Power Lines 153 5.4. Cross Cultural Comparisons 154 5.5. Classification Systems for Pictographs 164 Culture Change and Pictographs 167 5.6.1. Historical Pictographs 167 5.6.2. Regional Variation 169 vi 6. CONCLUSIONS 175 6.1. Pictographs and the Vision Quest 175 6.2. Cree Religion in the Twentieth Century 177 6.3. 'Contemporary' Cree Religion 180 7 • BIBLIOGRAPHY 184 vii LIST OF FIGURES 1. Map of Pictograph Sites in Northern Saskatchewan 4 2. Human Figure - Neyo Onikup Bay Site (GiNd-1) 4 3. Animal Figure - Stanley Rapids (detail), Face III 4 (GiNc-4) 4. Mixed Human/Animal Figure, Hickson-Maribelli (HbNc-1, Face XXVII) 6 5. Horned Humans, Hickson-Maribelli (HbNc-l, Face XVllla) 6 6. Humans with Pipes, Hickson-Maribelli (HbNc-1, Face XXVI) 7 7. Thunderbird, Hickson-Maribelli (HbNc-1, Face XXVIII) 9 8. Solid Human Figure, Hickson-Maribelli (HbNc-1, Face 111) 9 9. Outline Style Figure, Hickson-Maribelli (HbNc-l, Face XIV) 9 10. Figures Interacting, Hickson-Maribelli (HbNc-1. Face XVlb) 9 11. Map of Fieldwork Area and Communities 19 12. Pipe and Human, Hickson-Maribelli (HbNc-1, Face Vc) 145 13. Vision Quest with Pipe, Maple Leaf Rapids (GjMn-l) 145 14. Animal with Pipe, Uskik Lake, Face II (GiMu-1) 147 15. Cow Narrows (GjNd-1) 147 16. Stanley Rapids, (detail)Face III (GiNc-4) 150 17. Humans with Upraised Arms and No Fingers, Hickson- Maribelli (HbNc-l, Face XIII) 150 18. Non-human Figures with Upraised Arms and Defined Fingers, Hickson-Maribelli (HbNc-1, Face II) 152 19. Non-human Figures with Downcast Arms and No Fingers, Hickson-Maribelli (HbNc-1, Face II) 152 20. Shaking Tent Ritual - High Rock Narrows (GiNk-1) 159 21. 'Pinjigusan' at Foster River Mouth (GkNk-1) 162 viii TABLES 1. Interview Analysis - Pictographs 108 2. Interview Analysis - Pictographs (Continued) 109 3. Interview Analysis - Vision Quest 114 4. Interview Analysis - Vision Quest (Continued) 115 5. Interview Analysis - Forms of Power 133 6. Interview Analysis - Forms of Power (Continued) 134 7. Interview Analysis - Strange Events 155 8. Interview Analysis - Strange Events (Continued) 156 ix CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO PICTOGRAPH RESEARCH This study of pictographs was begun in 1983 as a means of responding to the more general question of why Man has a basic need to express himself visually. Aboriginal rock art is the oldest surviving form of visual expression, so it seemed that an in-depth study of pictographs would provide answers as to why Man would make non-functional visual representations when so much of his energy was required securing food. As the study progressed in northern Saskatchewan, it was found that pictographs had vital function within Rocky Cree culture, integrally linked to subsistence behaviour and religious belief. The lack of dates for pictographic images had inhibited efforts to identify meanings of specific imagese Further, the ritual connected with pictographs is no longer practiced and the people who performed it are long dead. Rocky Cree informants, descendants of the people responsible for making pictographs in northern Saskatchewan, were interviewed about their traditional religion, the vision quest and pictographs. Due to the lack of recorded information about the vision quest ritual, it is difficult to determine precisely when and why it ceased. It is clear that the Fur Trade and the arrival of Christian missionaries affected aspects of the Rocky Cree religious belief system and hunting patterns, resulting in the end of the vision quest ritual and the subsequent making of pictographs. 1 2. For many reasons, the usual methods for collecting data about archaeological phenomena fail in the case of pictographs.