PRIZE LECTURES

Security, Insecurity, Paranoia and Quantum Mechanics ...... 46 New Antibiotics from the Sea Bed to the Hospital Bed ...... 64 100 Years of Radio Astronomy: Past, Present and Future ...... 69 Fuelling the Fire: On How Obesity Fuels D isease...... 74 Mind, Matter and Mathematics ...... 79

45 Review of the Session 2007-2008

James Scott Prize Lecture Security, Insecurity, Paranoia and Quantum Mechanics Stephen M. Barnett SUPA, Department of Physics, University of Strathclyde 4 February 2008

The James Scott Prize Lectureship was established in 1918 in memory of James Scott, a farmer at East Pittendreich, near Brechin, by the Trustees of his Bequest. This prize is awarded quadrennially for a lecture on the fundamental concepts of Natural Philosophy. This year’s award goes to Professor Stephen Barnett FRS FRSE, who is based in the Department of Physics at the University of Strathclyde. Professor Barnett is one of the world’s most eminent scientists in the field of Quantum Optics. A previous winner of the Institute of Physics’ Maxwell Medal, he is perhaps best known for his co-discovery of the Barnett-Pegg phase operator. This established the first formally correct approach for handling both angles and phase as descriptions within quantum systems. Still within quantum physics, Professor Barnett holds a number of patents relating to techniques for writing unbreakable codes. For a subject that is potentially beyond most people’s understanding, Professor Barnett is well known for presenting the counter-commonsense implications of quantum mechanics in an accessible and entertaining way, stripping the subject of its supporting mathematics and leaving only the essence of pure ideas.

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1. Preamble Nearly all of you will carry an ATM card and use it to access your money via a bank autoteller machine. To get at your money you require the card and a “secret” PIN (personal identification number) which is usually four digits long. This PIN protects the machine, in that it establishes your identity. The machine, of course, only gives you money. It is sobering to realise that ATM fraud netts thieves in excess of £100 million each year in the UK alone. Some of you attending this lecture will have been victims of this. We are all familiar with the concept of computer hacking, whereby individuals use the internet to obtain unauthorised access to computers. It may be some comfort to discover that even the greatest are not immune. The following excerpts are from an article by Damian Whitforth in The Times, February 16th 2000:

President Clinton had an astonishing confession to make. “Personally” he said, “I would like to see more porn on the internet”. … … Mr Clinton had given his first live online interview to CNN, which was confident that it had the technology to stop interference with its website for the duration. Instead, pranksters had a field day, posting ribald remarks that were attributed to Mr Clinton and asking impertinent questions.

2. Secure communications At the heart of information security is the communications problem. If we can live without communications then we can greatly increase security by physical isolation. On the other hand, if we can communicate securely then we can spend our (electronic) money and exchange information safely. The simplest and oldest method of secure communication is single key cryptography. The concept is to lock away our message in a strong box (too strong to break) and to send the box to our intended recipient. If they have a copy of the key used to lock the box then they can open it and retrieve the message. This is a good moment to introduce our cast of characters: the person transmitting a message is universally called “Alice” and her intended recipient is called “Bob”. The third character, whom we’ll meet shortly, is “Eve” the eavesdropper. The secrecy of single

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key cryptography relies crucially on the secrecy of the key, the only copies of which must be held by Alice and Bob and, of course, these two keys need to be identical. In practice there is no box but rather the message is enciphered using a secret key in the form of a piece of information. In the digital world, all messages are just a string of zeros and ones (… 00010010100100010001011 …) and so can be thought of simply as a (large) number. The key will be another number and the cipher text is produced by a mathematical operation on these two numbers. The vital question, of course: “is it secure?”. Perfect security can be achieved using the Vernam cipher, or one-time pad. For this to work we require Alice and Bob to share a secret key in the form of a random number that is the same length (has the same number of binary digits or bits) as the message they wish to share. The cryptogram, or ciphertext, is generated by bit- wise addition modulo 2, which we denote ⊕. This means that for each digit if the message and key bits are the same (both 0 or both 1) then the ciphertext is 0, but if they are different then it is 1. A simple example may clarify the point:

message 011010001 … key 101001001 … ⊕ ciphertext 110011000 …

All that Bob needs to do is to repeat the operation with his copy of the key:

ciphertext 110011000 … key 101001001 … ⊕ message 011010001 …

The method is completely secure if the key is truly secret and, crucially, is used only once. This secrecy is a consequence of the fact that the key is a random number and it necessarily follows, therefore, that the ciphertext is also a random number. There are two difficulties with the one-time pad: first we need to establish a secret key with our (distant) correspondent and second that we need to use large numbers of very long keys for even the most straightforward secure communications. Maybe there is a simpler way? Let us return to the locked-box concept and suppose

48 Prize and Bequest Lectures that the box has not one lock but two, one of which fits a key held only by Alice and the other that fits a key held only by Bob. Alice can put the message in the box, secure her lock and send the box to Bob who secures his lock and returns the box (now double-locked). Alice can undo her lock and return the box to Bob who can unlock it and retrieve the message (M). The box makes three journeys and is always closed, so surely it is secure? Let us see what happens if Alice and Bob each used their own key (KA and KB ) in an arrangement similar to the one-time pad.

Alice locks the case M ⊕ KA = C1

Bob locks the case C1 ⊕ KB = M ⊕ KA ⊕ KB = C2

Alice unlocks the case C2 ⊕ KA = M ⊕ K/ A ⊕ KB ⊕ K/ A = C3

Bob unlocks the case C3 ⊕ KB = M

At first sight these seems to be secure, as Eve has access only to the three random ciphertexts C1, C2 and C3. The modulo 2 sum of these three ciphertexts, however, reveals the original message without difficulty:

C1 ⊕ C2 ⊕ C3 = M and so Eve, who has access to the transmitted ciphertexts, can retrieve the message. The underlying problem with this scheme is the simplicity of the operation corresponding to modulo addition. A protocol, due to Diffie and Hellman, does indeed work with multiple exchanges in the way suggested but relies, for its security, on the subtleties of modulo arithmetic. We shall not discuss it here, but note that it is closely related to the RSA public key cryptosystem, which we shall discuss shortly. The second difficulty associated with the one-time pad was the large number of very long keys needed to achieve perfect security. What we need is a method for achieving practical security; something that is good enough. A published and officially approved method is the data encryption standard or DES (or better, the advanced encryption standard – AES). This combines our message and a very much shorter key, usually 56 or 128 bits, in a sequence of mathematical operations to produce a ciphertext. Bob can easily convert the ciphertext back into the original message by Bob, using his copy of the key. The DES scheme is not perfectly secure

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and can be broken by a determined Eve with access to lots of computer power. The question then is “how long will this take?”. We might try to break it using an exhaustive key search; try every possible key until we find a meaningful message. If we had a 40 bit key then the number of possible keys is 240 ≈1012. If we had a machine capable of a million decryption operations a second then this would take about 6 days. Better algorithms exist, however, and security agencies have admitted to being able to crack 40 bit DES in under one hour. If we increase the length of the key then we greatly increase the number of possible keys. If we use a 128 bit key then the number of possible keys jumps to 2128 =1038. An exhaustive search on the machine described above would then take about 1024 years. But better algorithms do exist so … A radically different idea is public-key cryptography, in which no pre- arranged secret key is required. We can understand the principle by considering again the analogy of a locked box. In public key cryptography the box has only one lock but the keys required to lock and unlock it are different. Alice can distribute as many locking keys as she likes as long as she keeps safe the only unlocking key. The simplest and most important method for achieving this is the RSA scheme, named after Rivest Shamir and Adleman, who were the first to publish it1. The RSA scheme relies on the properties of large numbers and of prime numbers in particular. The required inputs are the message, which is the number x, and two very large prime numbers p and q. The first task is to calculate the product of the prime numbers:

N = pq.

This is an easy task for even a simple computer. Next we find two numbers e and d such that

ed =1mod(p −1)(q −1) ,

where “mod” means divide by (p −1)(q −1) and keep the remainder. Finding e and d is also easy, if we know p and q, in that an efficient computer algorithm exists for this

1 It later transpired that a researcher at GCHQ had got there first, but that this had been kept secret.

50 Prize and Bequest Lectures task. Bob’s public key, which is freely published, consists of the two numbers N and e. His private key is the number d. Alice can encipher her message to Bob using his public key to generate the ciphertext

C = x e modN .

Bob can equally easily decode the message because he has the private key2:

d C d modN = (x e ) mod N = x.

The private key is mathematically related to the public key but no efficient method is known for finding it from N and e. The difficulty is thought to originate in the problem of factoring N into its component primes, p and q. Numbers up to about 1090 can be factored in less than a day so much bigger numbers are needed. If you would like to win $30,000 then you might try the smallest current RSA challenge and factor into its two component primes the 176 (decimal) digit number

RSA-704 = 74037563479561712828046796097429573142593188889231 28908493623263897276503402826627689199641962511784399 58943305021275853701189680982867331732731089309005525 05116877063299072396380786710086096962537934650563796 359.

Public key cryptography is computationally intensive and rather slow, while secret key cryptography is very fast. For this reason public key cryptography is generally used for distributing secret keys and for financial transactions (digital signatures). The first of these ideas is simply to use RSA to distribute secret keys for use in DES, AES or a one-time pad. The security of the secret key then relies on the security of the public-key communication. Digital signatures are used as a way to prove to a correspondent that you are who you say you are so that your instructions can safely be acted upon. They are used, for example, for financial transactions. If Bob wishes to prove to Alice that he is indeed Bob, then he encrypts his instruction

2 We require N to be larger than x so that the decryption process gives a unique text.

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using his private key. Alice can confirm that this was indeed prepared by Bob, simply by deciphering it using his published public key. Naturally, any one else can also read the message, but the idea here is that no one else could have written it. At the heart of modern secure communications, information security and indeed our financial system lies secure communications based on public-key cryptography. This, in turn, relies simply on the difficulty of factoring a large number into its component primes. A realistic method for performing this difficult mathematical task would present a real challenge to our banking system, even to the very existence of money!

3. Some quantum physics: polarised photons For readers with a background in physics, it might be comforting to have the following aside. (Other readers may safely pass over it.)

Aside: In quantum theory observables are represented by Hermitian operators, which act on a Hilbert space of states. These operators have eigenvalues and eigenstates related to the operator (Aˆ ) by the equation

ˆ A λn = λn λn .

Here the set of eigenvalues {λn} represents the possible results of a measurement of

our observable. If the system has been prepared in the eigenstate λn then the result

of the measurement will be λn . It is also possible, however, to prepare superposition states of the system of the general form

ψ = a λ . ∑n n n

For states of this form there is a fundamental uncertainty and we can only give a

probability for the measurement result to be λn :

2 P()λn = an .

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It is this unpredictability that we rely on for security in quantum key distribution. End of aside.

Light has a polarisation, corresponding to the direction, in the plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation, in which the electric field oscillates. We can associate two distinct states of the polarisation3 with the horizontal and vertical directions. All other possible polarisations can then be written as superpositions of these (see Fig. 1).

States of photon polarisation

Horizontal 0

Vertical 1

1 + 10 Diagonal up 2 ( )

1 − 10 Diagonal down 2 ( )

1 + i 10 Left circular 2 ( )

Right circular 1 − i 10 2 ( )

Fig. 1: Six possible polarisation states for a single photon.

If we have only one photon (single quantum or “particle” of light) then we can perform only one measurement and this does not allow us to determine the polarisation. We can chose to measure horizontal polarisation (to discriminate between the top two states in Fig. 1) or circular polarisation to distinguish between the bottom two, but we cannot do both. If we measure linear polarisation for a circularly polarised photon then we will get a probabilistic result as depicted in Fig. 2.

3 That is, eigenstates of linear polarisation.

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A single photon only gives one “click”

P = |α|2

α + β P = |β|2

You can measure one component of polarisation but CANNOT determine an unknown state of polarisation

Fig. 2: Measuring the linear polarisation of a superposition state (such as circular polarisation) necessarily gives a probabilistic answer.

It is impossible to determine in which of the six polarisation states, depicted in Fig. 1, our photon has been prepared. This information is known only to the person who prepared the photon. The secrecy of quantum cryptography, or quantum key distribution, is based on this fundamental physical principle.

4. Quantum key distribution The challenge in quantum key distribution is for Alice and Bob to prepare a secret key for use in DES, AES or a one-time pad. They must do so by communications that may have to take place in the presence of an eavesdropper. Quantum key distribution provides a method to determine whether or not Eve has been listening to the key exchange. If she hasn’t then the key produced may safely be used and if she has then Alice and Bob know to discard the key and to try again. A quantum key is generated by means of an agreed sequence of operations to be performed by Alice and Bob. There are a number of such sequences or protocols that have been demonstrated, but there is time here only to discuss the earliest and perhaps simplest of these. This protocol was suggested by Bennett and Brassard in 1984 (and hence is universally known as BB84); it formed the basis for much of our

54 Prize and Bequest Lectures theoretical and experimental work and, indeed, for that of the quantum information community. The first step in the BB84 protocol is for Alice to generate a random sequence of 0 and 1s. For each of these she randomly chooses to prepare a linearly polarised photon or a circularly polarised one (see Fig. 3) and sends this to Bob.

Quantum cryptography Š quantum key distribution

Alice is going to send a random bit stream to 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 . . . . Bob

She takes a single photon and prepares it in one of the four polarisation states chosen at random

OR OR OR

1 0 1 0

011010

Fig. 3: Alice prepares a random sequence of bits and from these generates a random sequence of polarised photons.

The problem for Eve is that she cannot determine which of the four polarisations was prepared but rather can only measure either linear or circular polarisation. If she measures linear polarisation on a circularly polarised photon then she will get a random answer. If she then uses this information to prepare a corresponding linearly polarised photon to send on to Bob then his measurement will give a result that is not correlated with Alice’s. In other words an error will appear in the Bob’s bit sequence. This idea is summarised in Fig. 4. The protocol has to be designed in such a way as to make the appearance of such errors inevitable if an eavesdropper has been monitoring the communication between Alice and Bob. It is easiest to follow, first, what happens when there is no eavesdropper activity. For this purpose, a short example of the protocol is given in

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Fig. 5. In each of the 14 time slots, Alice prepares a photon in one of four polarisation states as described above and transmits this to Bob.

Eavesdropping (Intercept & resend)

Alice Eve Bob

‘1’ ‘0’

50% probability 50% probability

⇒ Eve generates substantial bit-error rate ~ 25% and gets incomplete information

Fig. 4: If Eve measures the wrong type of polarisation then she can produce an error in Bob’s measurement.

1234567891011121314 Alice transmits random sequence of bits using 1 0000001 111110random coding scheme

X X X X

Bob receives photon and makes random choice of 1 0 10101 0 0001 measurement basis

Alice and Bob compare bases and 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 discard events where no photon was received and different bases were used

Fig. 5: A sample sequence of events in the Bennett Brassard protocol.

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Bob does not know, of course, the polarisation of each photon and so can only measure either its linear or its circular polarisation. The measurement will give a result and he can then use the scheme in Fig. 3 to turn these results back into 0s and 1s. There then follows a public discussion (not secret) between Alice and Bob in which Bob tells Alice for each time slot whether he measured circular or linear polarisation but not, of course, his measurement result. Alice then tells Bob which measurements are good, in the sense of matching the type of polarisation that she prepared, and which are bad. For example, in time slot 1 Alice prepared a circularly polarised photon and Bob measured linear polarisation so this is a bad measurement, but in time slot 2 Alice prepared a linearly polarised photon and Bob measured linear polarisation so that is a good measurement. Alice and Bob discard the results of the bad measurements and any other time slots (such as 4 and 10) in which Bob failed to find a photon. The resulting shorter sequence of bits (at the bottom of the figure) is a shared random sequence and can form the basis for a secret key known only to Alice and to Bob. It remains to see what effect Eve has on the protocol. Like Bob, Eve can only make a choice of measuring one property of each photon, linear or circular polarisation. In doing her measurement, however, the photon is absorbed and she needs to prepare a replacement. The only information available for this preparation is her measurement result and this may be incorrect. A sample sequence of events is given in Fig. 6. In each time slot, Eve measures one of the polarisation properties of the photon and prepares a corresponding replacement for sending on to Bob. Alice and Bob, who are not aware of the presence of Eve, follow the protocol as outlined above and generate a shared bit string formed, in the example given in the figure, from time slots 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 11, 12 and 14. At this stage, Alice and Bob need to check to see if there has been any eavesdropper activity. They do this by selecting a subset of the agreed string and publicly comparing their bit values. Any errors detected are indicative of the presence of an eavesdropper and the communication is regarded as unsafe. In our example, errors occur in time slots 2, 8 and 14. The probability that an

k 3 eavesdropper has been listening in and is not detected in this way is ()4 where k is the number of bits tested. By making N large, we can make this probability as small as we like. Naturally, the bits used in the test are now publicly known and must be

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discarded. If no errors are detected, then the remaining (private) bits may be used by Alice and Bob as a secret key.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

ALICE 1 0000001 111110ALICE

101000000 111 1 EVE X X X BOB 11 10101 100 0 D E D D E D D D E

BitBit positionspositions 1,3,4,9,101,3,4,9,10 andand 1313 areare discardeddiscarded BitBit positionspositions 2,82,8 andand 1414 leadlead toto anan errorerror causedcaused byby EveEve BitBit positionposition 1313 isis anan extraextra ‘null’‘null’ eventevent causedcaused byby EveEve

Fig. 6: The effects of intervention by Eve on quantum key distribution.

Real systems are a bit more complicated that suggested above, in that noise is always present and we have to be able to prepare a secret key even in the presence of some errors. This rather technical problem has been solved and practical schemes and devices do exist. The first quantum key distribution experiment was performed using free-space transmission over a distance of 30cm. Very quickly, however, optical fibre based systems were developed, with workers at BT being the early pioneers. These have reached a high degree of technical sophistication and one such system exists here in Scotland, in the Laboratory of my colleague Prof. Buller at Heriot-Watt University. Optical fibre is exceptionally transparent but, nevertheless, after several kilometres of propagation there will be little light left, especially when starting at single-photon light levels. For this reason fibre-based quantum key distribution is only realistic for local communications, such as between the financial institutions within the city of London. For longer-range communications satellite-based systems are under development. The idea here is that you exchange a key with a satellite while it is above you and the satellite can then exchange the same key with an 58 Prize and Bequest Lectures intended recipient, somewhere else in the world, when the satellite is above them. The scheme will be secure as long as nobody can break into the satellite or monitor its internal workings.

5. Quantum computers I trust that readers without a physics background will forgive a second unnecessary aside for the benefit of specialists.

Aside: A quantum computer works by first replacing each input bit by a two-state quantum system (or “qubit”) such as a polarised photon. For example the binary number 101101001 = 361 becomes

101101001→ 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1

The computational step is achieved by allowing this state to evolve within a “quantum processor” under the influence of a suitably tailored interaction. Finally, the output is obtained simply by measuring each system to determine whether it is in the state 0 or the state 1 . In general, our quantum processor will also require additional qubits in order to evaluate the most general of functions. The big advantage of a quantum processor derives directly from the superposition principle. This means that we do not have to give our single quantum processor one n-bit number to work on but rather we can give it a superposition of all possible numbers between 1 and 2n at the same time by preparing our input in the state

2−n /2()0 + 1 (0 + 1 )(0 + 1 ) . L

It is this, plus judicious exploitation of quantum interference, that underlies the dramatically enhanced (potential) performance of quantum computers. End of aside.

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The superposition principle, which allows us to make photons with polarisations other than horizontal and vertical, means that we can replace each bit from a classical computer (0 or 1) with a superposition of both values (0 and 1). A single processor with a string of n input bits can then work on all the numbers between 1 and 2n at the same time. For n = 100, for example, our single processor is effectively calculating in excess of a million, million output numbers at the same time. There is the potential here for a dramatic even revolutionary enhancement in our computational abilities if we can build and run a quantum computer. The set is realistically solvable problems depicted in Fig. 7. The smallest grouping is the set of all possible problems that can be solved by a conventional computer. Surprisingly, adding a bit of randomness to the operation of the computer can make it more powerful and the set of problems that can be solved on such a machine includes the larger set. Bigger still is the set of problems that have been shown to be solvable on a quantum computer.

P - solvable problems (computing time is polynomial in input size i.e. number of bits)

Classical Deterministic Algorithm Factoring Discrete logarithm Classical Quantum Probabilistic simulations Algorithm ...

Quantum Computing

Fig. 7: The types of problems realistically solvable with classical and quantum computers. Note the alarming appearance of “factoring”.

Solvability can be given a precise meaning by considering the way in which the required resources, for example computing time and memory, scale with the size 60 Prize and Bequest Lectures of the numbers being calculated. To this end let us suppose that our number of interest, N, can be written in binary as n digits ( N ~ 2n ). An important example problem is finding the period of a function (how far we have to go before it repeats itself). Classically, this requires a time that is proportional to N, but a quantum algorthim requires only a time proportional to log2 N = n 2 . To appreciate the difference, we might note that for n = 100, the quantum value is 10,000 but the classical value is approximately 1,000,000,000,000. The most dramatic boost for quantum computer science came with the publication of Shor’s algorithm for the efficient factoring of the product of two large primes. This exploits the speed up in the period-finding problem, mentioned above, to dramatically reduce the time taken to find the two prime factors, p and q, of any selected product, N. The in-principle time required for factoring in this way is

Naïve classical trial: T ~ N1/2 = 2n /2

3 2 Best known classical: T ~ 2 n log n Shor’s algorithm: T ~ polynomial(logN) = polynomial(n)

The complicated form of the behaviour of the best known (published) algorithm is indicative of the amount of effort that has gone into studying this problem. The change to polynomial scaling amounts to making factoring a solvable problem on a quantum computer. But if factoring is a solvable problem on a quantum computer and if we rely on the difficulty of factoring for our information and financial security, then what happens to money when quantum computers come along?

6. Conclusions It is natural to conclude this lecture by referring back to its title.

Security: In the modern world, money is a number stored in a computer file and it is spent by electronic communications. The security of all of this relies, ultimately, on the difficulty of certain mathematical operations (notably factoring).

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Insecurity: The more we communicate, the more we are under threat. Identity theft, ATM and internet fraud are becoming part of modern life.

Paranoia: Even if we can plug the gaps in current systems, quantum computers (when they become available) will render all current “secure” protocols insecure. Money will be worthless!

Quantum mechanics: Quantum key distribution offers a radically different approach in which security is assured by the laws of quantum physics. It is the only current candidate for security in a world with quantum computers. A prototype for quantum ATM transactions was announced by researchers at Bristol University late in 2007.

Acknowledgments I am grateful to the many friends and colleagues with whom I have enjoyed, and continue to enjoy, exploring the world of quantum communications and of quantum information. Among these, far too numerous to list here, I would especially like to mention my (former) students: Thomas Brougham, Tony Chefles, Sarah Croke, Kieran Hunter, Norbert Lütkenhaus and Lee Phillips. Also requiring special mention are the colleagues, then at BT laboratories, with whom I first started working on quantum cryptography nearly twenty years ago: Keith Blow, Simon Phoenix (who kindly provided me with material for this presentation) and Paul Townsend. Our work has been supported generously by a number of organisations: the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council, the Royal Society, the Wolfson Foundation, the British Council, BT, NTT, Scottish Enterprise and, of course, the Royal Society of Edinburgh.

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Suggestions for further reading Bouwmeester D, Ekert A and Zeilinger A eds., The physics of quantum information (Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 2000). Buchmann J A, Introduction to cryptography (Springer, New York, 2001). Gisin N, Robordy G, Tittel W and Zbinden H, Quantum cryptography Reviews of Modern Physics 74, 145 (2002). Lo H-K, Popescu S and Spiller T eds., Introduction to quantum computation and information (World Scientific, Singapore, 1998). Loepp S and Wootters W K, Protecting information: from classical error correction to quantum cryptography (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, (2006). Macchiavello C, Palma G M and Zeilinger A eds., Quantum computation and quantum information theory (World Scientific, Singapore, (2000). Phoenix S J D and Townsend P D, Quantum cryptography: how to beat the code breakers using quantum mechanics Contemporary Physics 36, 165 (1995). Piper F and Murphy S, Cryptography: a very short introduction (Oxford University Press, Oxford, (2002). Singh S, The code book (Fourth Estate, London, 1999). Singh S, The science of secrecy (Fourth Estate, London, 2000). Van Assche G, Quantum cryptography and secret-key distillation (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2006).

In addition to these there is also my own book Introduction to quantum information, which should be published by Oxford University Press in 2009.

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Gannochy Trust Innovation Award Prize Lecture New Antibiotics from the Sea Bed to the Hospital Bed Dr Andrew Mearns Spragg CEO, Aquapharm Bio-Discovery Ltd 3 March 2008 The Gannochy Trust Innovation Award of the Royal Society of Edinburgh is Scotland’s highest accolade for individual achievement in innovation. Carrying a prize of £50,000, it was first awarded in 2003. Established in partnership between The Gannochy Trust and The Royal Society of Edin- burgh, the purpose of the award is to encourage younger people to pursue careers in fields of research which promote Scotland’s inventiveness internationally, and to recognise outstanding individual achievement which contributes to the common good of Scotland. The prestigious award also seeks to promote Scotland’s research and development capability in new technologies and areas of social importance. Dr Andrew Mearns Spragg, winner of the 2007 Gannochy Trust Innovation Award, set up Aquapharm Bio-Discovery, one of the UK’s leading marine biotechnology companies. He describes how and why the world’s oceans are an exciting source of new drugs, including Obicin – a promising new antibiotic from a marine microbe found on the company’s Oban doorstep.

Man, according to Dr Andrew plained why the oceans have such Mearns Spragg, isn’t a very good potential and spoke about the chemist. Indeed, nature beats him company’s promising product hands down every time. So it is to pipe-line. nature that he and his colleagues Dr Mearns Spragg, (35), set up are turning, to find new drugs Aquapharm in 2001. From and compounds with the poten- modest beginnings, it now tial to become world-beaters. employs 17 people in its head- Specifically, they are looking at the quarters at the European Centre world’s oceans, to find ways of for Marine Biology near Oban in exploiting the vast, untapped Argyll. The company’s main focus natural resources of the under- is on developing novel anti- explored marine environment. infectives, including antibiotics, In the Gannochy Trust Innovation but is also looking at developing Award Lecture, winner Dr Mearns natural products for personal and Spragg described setting up consumer health care applications Aquapharm Bio-Diversity, ex- – all based on marine life. It has a

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library of thousands of marine and growth. But why should this microbes, which it makes available be? “The oceans are the cradle of to others, and has several ex- life,” said Dr Mearns Spragg, tremely promising compounds of explaining that life began in the its own. Its lead compound, oceans around four billion years P216cm, a pseudopeptide, is in ago. About 3.5 billion years later, pre-clinical trials for use as an only a small proportion of the antibiotic and its first major planet’s total biodiversity man- licence deal was signed in Decem- aged to evolve mechanisms to ber 2007 – what Dr Mearns cope with living out of water, Spragg called a great Christmas leaving a far greater proportion of present for the business. In life to evolve and diversify within addition, the company last the oceans. summer (2007) raised six million The life which remained in the euros in its second major funding ocean is of extraordinary diversity, round. capable of flourishing in incredi- The company started from a small bly varying environments, from base, against a background of the life-containing enzymes which live dot.com bubble, at a time when in the high temperatures of venture capitalists were shying volcanic vents to those which away from investing. After a “lot grow in the icy Arctic. These last, of eating baked beans” and some incidentally, are of interest to hard-fought fundraising, however, those who want to manufacture Dr Mearns Spragg won start-up washing powders which work at costs through SMART (a scheme very low temperatures. run by the Scottish Government, Modern exploration techniques, intended to help small businesses including deep sea submersibles, to improve their competitiveness mean that ocean life, even at by developing new, highly tremendous depth, is more innovative and commercially viable accessible than ever before. And products or processes to the it’s well-worth exploring, said Dr benefit of the national economy), Mearns Spragg, pointing out that the National Endowment for the number of rare and new Science, Technology and the Arts compounds from the oceans is (NESTA), Scottish Enterprise and growing exponentially, with more some private money. That biodiversity even than the rain £200,000 meant he was in forests. Natural products, he said, business. tend to win out when looking for A strong belief in the potential of new drug leads, especially when marine biotechnology has compared to man’s efforts. underpinned the company’s birth “Nature is the best chemist,” he

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admitted, adding that 40 per cent Aquapharm’s library of around of the top-selling pharmaceuticals 7,000 marine microbes is at the today are derived from natural heart of the business, he says. As products. Over the past 25 years, well as finding its own product marine plants, invertebrates and leads, the company also makes its micro-organisms have proved to library – and innovative screening be an excellent source of natural methods (patent applied for) – products, possibly because of the available to other organisations. mechanisms they have developed Promising discoveries from to survive in hostile and competi- Aquapharm so far include a tive environments. More than compound with anti-ageing 30,000 natural products have properties, which has attracted been reported from marine serious interest from the beauty organisms in the last two decades industry, and a small molecule, and Aquapharm itself has identi- isolated from a new deep sea fied (from its screening) alkaloids, organism, which acts against the peptides, macrolides and cause of dandruff. There have also polyketides. been promising leads in finding Aquapharm is not alone. Other anti-inflammatory drugs, which companies across the world have could help in the treatment of been and are developing products diseases including rheumatoid from marine life. One example is arthritis and diabetes. Salinosporamide, an anti-cancer However, Aquapharm’s main focus agent currently in human trials, is on antibiotics, partly because which was discovered in California there is a worldwide need for by the US company Nereus effective new antibiotics as Pharmaceuticals Inc. and another bacteria grow increasingly is the product Yondelis, a product resistant to those which are derived from sea squirts for soft already available. “There is a tissue sarcoma, which received massive opportunity here,” says authorisation for use by Phar- Dr Mearns Spragg, outlining the mamar in November 2007 from major challenges of healthcare the European Medicines Agency associated infections, particularly (EMEA). Methicillin-resistant Staphylococ- Where there is biological diversity cus aureus (MRSA), including there is also chemical diversity, those developing resistance to the says Dr Mearns Spragg, adding current battery of drugs. “There that less than one per cent of all aren’t enough compounds to marine micro-organisms have keep up with drug-resistance,” he been cultured to date. says. “A huge number of current antibiotics will be less valuable

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than the plastic bottle they are library. On top of that, the kept in by 2010.” funding is there to drive Aquap- He described the costs – in human harm forward and more positive and commercial terms – of MRSA announcements are imminent. and other drug-resistant bacteria, “We have good investors, with which are a growing problem in deep pockets and long arms,” he communities, as well as hospitals. smiled. “Look out for some interesting press releases coming Worldwide there are a number of out.” new antibiotics both in develop- ment and in use, with billions of Questions dollars in potential and actual He was asked how samples from sales. Aquapharm is well placed to the deep ocean were cultured and tap into that market. In January if they didn’t simply explode when 2008, its compound, P216cm, brought to the surface. Dr Mearns known as Obicin (after Oban), Spragg responded that while entered full pre-clinical trials. some certainly did – and these Research so far has shown it is were too expensive to bother with active against a variety of MRSAs – there were new techniques to and Vancomycin-resistant entero- bring others up slowly and keep coccus (VREs) and has potent them viable. activity against drug-resistant Asked about the biggest chal- bacteria. The compound has also lenge in starting his business, he shown antifungal activity. said it was getting ‘angels’ or Another compound, which is investors to take him seriously. showing real promise for Aquap- Receiving an RSE Enterprise harm, is P211E, which appears to Fellowship was his ‘first break’, he act against gram negative bacteria said, because it gave him credibili- and so is a potential treatment for ty. bacteria including Pseudomonas One member of the audience aeruginosa and Klebsiella pneu- asked whether the oceans and moniae. “It’s really very exciting marine life were environmentally and we’re ramping it up the protected. Dr Mearns Spragg said priority list,” he says. that some countries, including Fiji, Dr Mearns Spragg summed up the were more protective than others company as one with a strong and insisted on companies team in place, with lead com- signing up to ‘conventions’ to pounds moving into ensure that the impact on the development, out-licensing marine environment was minimal. agreements on technology and Asked if man could invent fast products and a valuable microbial enough to cope with the rate of

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bacteria adapting to current The vote of thanks was given by drugs, he said it was an ongoing Dr Russell Leather, the Chairman battle. Better husbandry in of the Gannochy Trust, who prescribing antibiotics, cleaner praised Dr Mearns Spragg’s hospitals and multi-drug thera- ‘remarkable achievements’ and pies would all help. tenacity. On a more personal note, Asked how he knew which he described his own childhood microbes to look at, he said the delight at looking in rock pools targets were those which were and marvelling at the marine life, high in DNA content because they without realising what hidden had ‘more chemistry’, although treasure lay there. He also singled other microbes also had potential. out the company name, Aquap- harm, for praise. “It’s a gem – clear, simple and wholly appropri- ate,” he said.

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Robert Cormack Bequest Lecture 100 Years of Radio Astronomy: Past, Present and Future Professor Mike Garrett Director of ASTRON 28 April 2008 On 28 April a packed audience in to solve some long-standing the Royal Society of Edinburgh’s problems with Einstein’s theory of main lecture theatre was privi- General Relativity. leged to hear a fascinating talk on Two prizes were awarded: Garry the history of Radio Astronomy. Angus of St Andrews University This year’s Robert Cormack won the Postgraduate Prize for a Bequest lecture was given by talk entitled On the proof of dark Professor Mike Garrett, Director of matter, the law of gravity and the ASTRON, the Netherlands Institute mass of neutrinos and the for Radio Astronomy, which Undergraduate Prize was won by collaborates extensively with Laura Porter of Glasgow Universi- observatories and universities in ty, for her talk Cometary Impacts Britain. with the Sun. Professor Garrett’s lecture formed Professor Garrett’s Cormack the finale of the annual Cormack Lecture was entitled One Hundred Meeting, organised for and Years of Radio Astronomy: Past attended by astronomers from Present and Future. He began with across Scotland. The meeting itself the startling news that, although was crammed with high-quality he was born in Scotland and is a talks, the majority given by graduate of Glasgow University, students. The topics covered he had never given a talk in included observational and Scotland and indeed had never theoretical work on the Sun and before delivered a public lecture. the Solar System, the discovery of 0ne would never have guessed a planetary system similar to our the latter, for his talk was fascinat- own, the gas between the stars, ing, accessible and rich with the nearby Andromeda galaxy, history: he brought the past to life gravitational lenses (light can be with whimsical details of the focused by gravitational fields), landmark events and dramatis and surveys on how galaxies personae, told of radio astrono- cluster together and what that my’s most exciting discoveries, and implies for cosmology. Those even touched on the possibility of present even heard about work on detecting radio signals from other alternative descriptions and intelligent species. theories of gravity, which attempt

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Professor Garrett introduced his When the electronics engineer topic by setting out the scale of and amateur radio enthusiast the Universe, from the Solar Grote Reber heard about Jansky’s System to the most distant things discovery, he built the world’s first that can be observed. He pointed radio telescope, in 1937. He out that the travel time of light (of realised that to understand the which radio radiation is a form) mechanisms producing the signal means that the further away we detected by Jansky, one must look look, the more deeply we reach at different frequencies. He built a into the past. The relatively long detector that could look at very wavelength of radio waves also low frequency (long wavelength), means we are looking at very large and to his shock he found that structures (rather than at atoms or instead of getting ever weaker as molecules), material at tempera- the frequency dropped (as it tures close to absolute zero, and would in a thermal object such as objects that are radiating by the Sun), the radio signal coming exotic, high-energy mechanisms from the Galaxy got much utterly unlike the ‘thermal’ stronger. This was the birth of a radiation coming from our own whole new area of astrophysics, Sun. Radio astronomy has which has led to dramatic discov- provided a unique and very eries about the Universe. Radio different view of the Universe. astronomy has been the topic of He began with a look at the roots six Nobel Prizes. of radio astronomy, which was an Professor Garrett mentioned some outgrowth of the desire to of Reber’s other projects, which understand and abolish various made him something of an mysterious sorts of static that eccentric in his day, but which we might interfere with the new would now say were visionary. For technologies of radio and tele- example, he built one of the communications. In 1932 Karl world’s first solar-heated houses, Jansky, working at the Bell and also designed, built and Telephone Labs in New Jersey, drove an electric car known as discovered a signal that repeated Pixie. once every 24 hours. He quickly Shortly before World War II, the realised it must originate beyond British astronomer Bernard Lovell the Earth – and probably from the began working on cosmic rays in centre of the Galaxy – and the atmosphere. But having taken reassured us that it was not likely his detector to a hilltop one day, to come from an intelligence he was picked up by the Ministry trying to communicate! of Defence and commandeered to develop radar for the detection of

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enemy aircraft. After the War he In the event of an ICBM launch moved to Jodrell Bank, near towards the UK, it could have Manchester, where he built a fixed provided a seven-minute warning, radio telescope with which, in saving millions of lives. 1949, Robert Hanbury Brown Radio astronomy was advancing obtained the first radio map of at a meteoric pace, and observers another galaxy – the Andromeda were seeking ways of seeing finer spiral. Later, Lovell built the now- detail in astronomical objects. famous steerable radio telescope How small a feature can be made at Jodrell Bank, still the third- out in an image is governed by largest steerable dish in the world. the size of the telescope. But the By the late 1950s, financial Jodrell Bank dish was already as support for Jodrell Bank had large and heavy as engineering sharply declined. But it was about could make it and the need to to do its bit for the Cold War. A make a larger telescope stimulat- transfusion of new funds flooded ed British astronomer Martin Ryle in when the Soviet Sputnik – by a brilliant piece of lateral satellite was launched in 1957, thinking – to invent the technique sparking fears in the West about of aperture synthesis, for which he possible missile attacks and won a Nobel Prize. galvanising Western governments By placing two or more telescopes into ensuring they could detect some distance apart, and then them, if launched. The telescope adding their received signals in a was rapidly adapted and was able computer, a much larger telescope to detect Sputnik’s booster rocket. can be simulated, which can then Bernard Lovell went on to detect measure the size and shape of the Moon landings of two Soviet very small structures. This was satellites. The telescope even done at Jodrell Bank by driving a intercepted the first-ever picture second, mobile telescope around transmitted from the surface of the Cheshire countryside, and it the Moon while it was being was found that pub car parks transmitted from Luna 9. proved as good a place as any to In those days of distrust and perform observations! Aperture suspicion, Professor Garrett told synthesis is a form of interferom- us that Jodrell staff with Commu- etry, so named because of the way nist sympathies were carefully the signals are added together to monitored by MI5. During the create a picture. Cuban Missile Crisis of October Interferometry led to the discovery 1962, the telescope was again of some tiny, very bright astro- diverted from its astronomical nomical radio sources, but no-one observations to point eastwards. knew what or how far away they were: were they truly small and 71 Review of the Session 2007-2008

nearby or enormous and very the energy observed in the distant? By a remarkable coinci- Universe is released from strong dence, shortly afterwards, the gravitational fields rather than by passage of one of these sources nuclear fusion that lights the Sun behind the Moon allowed it to be and the stars. The central parts of identified as a faint blue star. active galaxies are often powered When this star was observed with by gravity, not nuclear fusion. an optical telescope, one of the Professor Garrett closed by talking most exciting discoveries in the briefly about some of the exciting history of astronomy was made: new radio telescopes now being that these star-like radio sources designed or constructed: LOFAR were immensely distant and (the LOw Frequency ARray), based extremely powerful objects of in the Netherlands, and SKA (the unknown kind. They were soon Square Kilometre Array), to be dubbed ‘quasi-stellar objects’, for built in Australia and South Africa. they could not possibly be stars. It LOFAR is an interferometer, but it is now known that these quasars is one unlike any other. It is an are powered by super-massive array not of individual telescopes, black holes. but of simple antennae. Because Another new class of astronomical an antenna is relatively cheap, a object came to light in 1968, great many of them can be during observations to find out bought and distributed over a very whether quasars twinkle like stars. large area, simulating a much Tony Hewish and research student bigger telescope, as before. Jocelyn Bell found an object that Construction of the LOFAR array, beamed radio waves in pulses, with a diameter of 350 kilometres, and wondered at first whether is well under way; it will eventually they’d detected a signal from an have 25000 antennae. LOFAR is alien intelligence! These are the also set to expand across Europe, now-famous ‘pulsars’, the dead with stations in the UK, Germany, remnants of exploding stars, Sweden, France and Italy expected rotating like abandoned, gradual- to be built in the next few years. ly-slowing lighthouses as they SKA is still in the design phase. It cool and fade. Mike let us hear will probably be a hybrid array of the recording of a very young individual antennae and conven- pulsar, spinning so fast that when tional radio telescopes, with a translated into audio form its total area of one square kilometre signal sounds like a high-pitched – 50 times larger than anything squeal. we have today. SKA is expected to One of the most exciting discover- be operating in about seven years’ ies of radio astronomy is the time. realisation that a large fraction of

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Both of these new telescopes will severely impact Britain’s participa- be able to look at extremely fine tion in SKA and its reputation as details in radio sources, and are a world leader in astronomical expected to reveal features never research. seen before. SKA will be able to How common is life in the detect the ‘leakage radiation’ Universe? This simple but pro- (from television and telecommuni- found question launched cations) emitted by any Earth-like Professor Garrett on a fascinating civilisations in the Sun’s vicinity. mini-talk. He pointed out that But more importantly, they will be more than 10% of stars have able to see the dawn of the planets, so in our Galaxy alone we Universe, the time when hydrogen can expect perhaps ten billion first started to condense into the solar systems. Predicting how structures from which galaxies many have life (let alone intelli- were formed. They promise to gent life) is much more difficult, as reveal secrets about the form and first realised by the astronomer evolution of the Universe, and to Frank Drake almost 50 years ago. cast light on some of astronomy’s It is perplexing that we haven’t greatest puzzles. The next decade detected signals from any intelli- will be an exciting time for radio gent species, who presumably are astronomers! also trying to contact other Professor Garrett’s talk stimulated civilisations. Professor Garrett said lots of questions. How do you he thinks microbial life is probably synthesise a circular aperture common, but intelligent life rare. when all you have is two tele- Alternatively it could be that scopes? He explained that the civilisations are transient, or their imaginary line joining the tele- technological phase short-lived. scopes sweeps out a circle on the He talked about SETI, the Search sky as the Earth rotates. Are China for Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence, and India doing radio astronomy? saying how important it is to Professor Garrett replied that both ensure it continues to be funded. countries are involved with SKA. Are we sending signals? Professor China is building its own tele- Garrett replied that we are not, in scope, FAST, and is sending lots of general, although occasionally high-quality research students to this is done as a public relations study in UK universities. Astrono- exercise to stimulate funding. my is excellent at attracting young However, other civilisations would people all over the world into be able to detect our ‘leakage’ science. He said he considered it radiation from television signals very important not to close down and military radar operations. the recently-upgraded Jodrell Bank telescope, which would

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Caledonian Research Foundation Prize Lecture Fuelling the Fire: On How Obesity Fuels Disease Professor Steven Shoelson, MD, PhD Joslin Diabetes Center, Boston, USA; Professor of Medicine, Harvard Medical School 26 May 2008 - The Royal Society of Edinburgh 28 May 2008 - The University of Dundee

In 1990, as part of an agreement with the Caledonian Research Founda- tion, the Society created an annual Prize Lectureship in Biomedical Science. In 1994 it was agreed that the Prize Lectureship would alternate annually between Biomedical Sciences and Arts & Letters subjects. Prize Lecturers are expected to be of the highest international repute and this years’ recipient is certainly no exception to that rule. Steve Shoelson, MD, PhD, received his PhD in chemistry and MD degrees from the University of Chicago. After training in internal medicine at the Brigham and Women’s Hospital, he joined the faculty at the Joslin Diabetes Center in 1988. He currently heads the Section of Cellular and Molecular Physiology and is Professor of Medicine at Harvard Medical School. He has received numerous awards and honours, including a Burroughs-Wellcome Fund Scholar Award in Experimental Therapeutics, the Excellence in Diabe- tes Research Award of the Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation and Boehringer Mannheim Corporation, and a MERIT award from the National Institutes of Health. Dr. Shoelson holds the Helen and Morton Adler Chair at the Joslin Diabetes Center.

The Western World is facing an also suggested a remarkably obesity epidemic and a dramatic simple possible solution. increase in rates of serious illness, Over the last two decades, obesity including diabetes and cardiovas- rates have rocketed. In the USA in cular disease. But why should 1985, only a small number of weight gain be so unhealthy? States had obesity levels of 10–14 Professor Shoelson looked at per cent. By 2005, all States had what is happening in our bodies surpassed that figure, with the at a molecular level as we pile on majority showing rates of be- the pounds – and suggested that tween 15 and 29 per cent. inflammation and our own Shockingly, in three States more immune systems could be contrib- than 30 per cent of adults were uting to the growing burden of ill obese. Hardly surprisingly, the health. In a fascinating lecture, he States with the lowest rates of

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obesity also had the highest life ered the insulin signalling expectancy. pathways, but found little joy. Obesity is associated with a “There are lots of pathways,” said number of serious illnesses, Professor Shoelson, showing a including hypertension, dyslipi- bewildering array on slide, “But demia (high cholesterol), coronary they don’t give us the answers.” heart disease, non-alcoholic fatty They considered genetics – liver disease, insulin resistance fortuitously several genes have and Type 2 diabetes (T2D) as well been discovered which are as some cancers and other apparently implicated in T2D. But conditions including osteoarthri- again, there was nothing to tis. Many of these illnesses are explain fully the recent upward characterised as being part of swing in cases of diabetes and metabolic syndrome. As obesity metabolic syndrome. “We knew rates have soared, so have that it couldn’t be just genetics – numbers of individuals with we have the same genes as our diabetes, which is, in itself, a risk parents and grandparents”, he factor for atherosclerosis (where said. “the rise [in cases] has been plaque builds up on the inside of too rapid.” the arteries), or cardiovascular He also considered lipid (fat) events such as stroke or heart deposits in the liver and muscle, attacks. A combination of the which causes insulin resistance. Western diet, obesity and a Again, however, it doesn’t explain sedentary lifestyle has conse- today’s disease patterns. In quences, leading to insulin wondering what else could be resistance and metabolic syn- involved, thoughts turned to drome. But what is it which causes inflammation. There were a insulin resistance in people who number of clues that this was fall victim to obesity? involved. Epidemiologically, there We know that individuals can take were several markers in patients action so that their bodies are resistant to insulin which are sensitive, rather than resistant, to commonly seen in inflammatory insulin. Weight loss, exercise and diseases. These include elevated a healthy diet are known to white blood cell counts and CRP improve health outcomes, but (C-reactive protein). Cell biology that doesn’t mean people find it provided clues too. Proinflamma- easy to do. So Professor Shoelson tory cytokines such as TNF-alpha and colleagues have been explor- could create insulin resistance. ing the molecular mechanisms Interestingly – and this, said which lead to insulin resistance – Professor Shoelson, was where with varying success. They consid- the real breakthrough came in,

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there was also a history of old no sugar in his urine, despite clinical literature which suggested taking nothing but aspirin. that salicylates – anti-inflammato- Salicylic acid, originally derived ry drugs of the same type as from willow bark, had been aspirin – had an effect on patients suggested for centuries to be with diabetes. useful in treating pain and fever. Professor Shoelson pointed to a By the beginning of the 20th paper from late 19th Century century, the pharmaceutical Berlin which showed how high company Bayer was marketing a doses of salicylate were effective form of salicylate, acetylsalicylic in reducing the blood sugar levels acid, which it called aspirin. By of a man with ‘the lighter type’ 1910, it was the most used drug (what would now be called Type 2) in the world. Later in the 20th of diabetes. The man had not century it became popular as an responded to the standard anti-clotting agent and is used treatments of the time, which widely to prevent heart attacks would have been a potatoes and and stroke. milk diet. The doctor had rea- But at the start of the 21st soned that salicylic acid, which Century, Professor Shoelson and was similar to carbolic acid, might colleagues began looking serious- be used to treat diabetes. The ly at the effect of salicylate initial treatment of 10g per day treatment on inflammation. Their was cut by half when side-effects, research has been both lab-based, including tinnitus, were intolera- in animal models, and on humans ble. After 12 days the patient was in clinical trials. One thing that discharged. has been discovered was that diet- That was in June 1876. Fast induced obesity promotes forward several decades to inflammation in fat. Why should November 1957 and the BMJ this be? published a paper based on The team discovered that a research in Glasgow. It showed pathway important to the immune that aspirin reduced blood sugar system, NF-kappaB, was activated levels in patients with Diabetes by obesity. This caused inflamma- mellitus, but that levels rose again tion in fat and liver cells and led to once the patients stopped taking insulin resistance. At a molecular the aspirin. The doctors had been level, the researchers found that inspired to do the research after a while fatty tissue contains cells patient with diabetes, who was which are activated during the taking salicylate treatment for immune process (macrophages), rheumatism, was found to have the cells which generally regulate

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the immune response (Tregs) safer. Small trials on patients have decrease where there is obesity. So shown some signs of success and there is a combination of obesity the results are due to be pub- activating the immune response lished soon. Professor Shoelson or inflammation, while the cells said, however, that much larger that would normally keep the studies were needed. “The immune system under control are problem is that phase II and phase diminished. The idea that insulin III trials are expensive – and resistance can be caused by pharmaceutical companies aren’t inflammation opens up the real interested in funding trials on possibility that anti-inflammatory generic drugs which are dirt agents might make good drugs cheap. So I approached the for prevention and treatment of federal government.” metabolic syndrome. His application for funding was Back to salicylates. If they do lower eventually successful and larger blood glucose, does this provide scale trials have started. The first clues to a better understanding of stage looks promising and the molecular process which leads suggests that the treatment is safe to insulin resistance, T2D and (although it did carry a risk of low cardiovascular disease? Does it blood sugar, which, as Professor provide leads for new drug targets Shoelson said, is remarkable in a and, importantly, new drugs for diabetes trial). The second stage, T2D and CVD? Professor Shoelson due to start in September 2008, described how mice on a Western will involve 280 patients with diet would develop different diabetes, at 20 sites in the US, aspects of metabolic syndrome, who will be randomly assigned to including atherosclerosis. This, receive salsalate or a placebo for however, was reversed by sali- six months. A separate study is cylate. There was, however, a being initiated this month to problem with testing the theory in determine the effects of salsalate humans. High-dose aspirin has on coronary heart disease. 900 distressing and potentially fatal patients with metabolic syndrome side-effects, including severe and documented heart disease, at gastrointestinal upsets and several centres, will be randomly bleeding – the latter could make a assigned to receive salsalate, deadly combination with aspirin’s placebo or lifestyle modification clot-reducing activity. for 30 months. They are being Another salicylate compound, closely monitored with many tests, called salsalate (disalcid), does including CT scans, to show away with many of these side- whether they have atherosclerosis. effects, however, making it much

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Professor Shoelson is optimistic. effects. “If you’re dosing in the He has concluded that salicylate range where there are no side- treatment inhibits obesity-induced effects then there won’t be inflammation and the activation efficacy either,” he said. “3g, no, of the immune response via NF- 4g pretty good!” kappaB. He was asked about the culpabili- “We are hopeful that Salicylates ty of the fast food industry on represent a potential new method obesity. “It’s pretty easy to point for treating patients with diabetes fingers. The food industry is one and the metabolic syndrome,” he culprit, but we’re culprits too. said. “And they may decrease risk Society has to change”. of other disease associated with He was also asked about the obesity-induced inflammation, importance of marketing such a including CVD and possibly simple and cheap solution – certain cancers.” salicylate – when it wouldn’t make Questions pharmaceutical companies any At the Edinburgh event, Professor money. Professor Shoelson said Shoelson was asked several that was a major challenge, but questions. These included that getting physicians involved in whether salicylate treatment could trials was a good start. be used for other inflammatory The vote of thanks was delivered disease, such as rheumatoid by Professor Jonathan Seckl, who arthritis. He said the problem was particularly praised Professor that rheumatologists followed the Shoelson’s focus on translational pack instructions and dosed at a medicine – of taking the discover- maximum of 3g, which was ies from bench to bedside and ineffective. His personal feeling back again. His lecture was a was that they would have more “tour de force, full of novel success if they dosed to the point thinking”, said Professor Seckl. that the patient developed side-

78 Prize and Bequest Lectures

Presidential Address Mind, Matter and Mathematics Sir Michael Atiyah OM 2 October 2008

A Presidential address should be So I am treading very familiar one of general interest to a wide territory, where the basic ques- audience, and in the spirit of the tions are: Scottish Enlightenment which 1.What is physical reality? gave birth to the Royal Society of Edinburgh. 2.Is knowledge innate or derived from experience? The topic of my lecture today has always been central to philosophy, 3.What is mathematics? but my contribution is to include 4.What is the relation between mathematics in the title. There are mathematics and physics? good reasons for this, both 5.Where does the human mind fit historical and philosophical. As a in to all this? philosopher I am an amateur and there are many in this room who Of course, as with all deep will be much more expert on the philosophical questions, there are subject than me, but I am a no permanent and final answers. mathematician and here I speak But we learn by asking questions. from a life-time of experience. We can also review our under- standing in the light of progress In early centuries many philoso- in natural science (physics, phers were interested in mathematics, evolution, psycholo- mathematics. Notable among gy, neurophysiology …). them were Plato, Descartes, Leibniz, Kant and Bertrand Russell. I will address these questions in In fact, until quite recent times, turn. natural philosophy, as contrasted What is physical reality? with moral philosophy, was often synonymous with applied mathe- The human understanding of the matics. When I was a student in physical world proceeds through Cambridge almost fifty years ago various stages. First there is our examination papers came in human perception, where we two sets: one labelled ‘Pure receive stimuli from the senses Mathematics’ and the other providing mental pictures and labelled ‘Natural Philosophy’. then our brain interprets these as objects with mutual interactions.

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This is a much more complex Finally there is the ultimate operation than it seems, as question. What is reality with modern science has shown. Vision human observation removed? For is the sense which has been most those of a religious disposition thoroughly explored and we now there is no problem, as exempli- realise that, literally, there is much fied in the well-known limerick by more to seeing than meets the Monsignor Ronald Knox. eye. The raw data has to be given There once was a man who said structure and meaning. The brain God has to guess what lies behind Must think it exceedingly odd appearances and then it has to If he finds that this tree test and modify its conclusions, as Continues to be with optical illusions. All this leads When there’s no-one around in to what we may call subjective the Quad † reality: the world as it seems to us, based on our past experience. Sir, your astonishment is odd I am always around in the Quad But science tells us that things are And that is why this tree not what they seem. Extending Continues to be our sensory input by artificial Observed by yours faithfully, God means, using instruments such as microscopes, reveals a very There is also an exchange purport- different world. A solid stone is ed to have taken place between seen to have an intricate compos- Napoleon and Laplace, à propos ite structure. Beyond that, modern of La Mecanique Celeste. Napole- scientific theories tell us of on observed that the book molecular and atomic structure. contained no reference to God. The solid stone consists mainly of Laplace replied “I had no need of empty space and the fluctuating this hypothesis”. When Lagrange waves of quantum mechanics. So heard this story his response was which is the “real stone”? “but what a beautiful hypothesis, it explains so much!” We conclude that there are various levels of ‘reality’ The irony is that the more knowl- edge we acquire, the further a) the human perception of reality down we dig into the scientific b)the scientific description of foundations, the more the reality (of increasing complexity ultimate mystery deepens. as we scale down in size) c) the mathematical form of reality, when everything is described in terms of equations (as in quantum mechanics)

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Is knowledge innate or derived selection. Innate knowledge, from experience? from this biological perspective, This was the question examined at has been ‘learnt’ from experience, length by philosophers such as not of the individual, but of the David Hume and Immanuel Kant. human species. In a sense there- Hume came down firmly on the fore, there is little fundamental side of experience. In his view we difference between the two sides learn everything through our of the philosophical debate. senses and our interaction with For an evolutionary biologist there the external world. Kant was more is no contradiction between subtle and tried to have it both ‘innate knowledge’ ignoring non- ways. Eventually he concluded Euclidean geometry and Einstein. that some knowledge is innate, In their struggle for survival our though most is acquired through ancestors never encountered experience. ‘black holes’. Flat space, as The nature of space, as formalised embodied in Euclidean geometry, in Euclidean geometry, was a was all that was needed to escape favourite battle ground. To Kant the clutches of lions and tigers. our understanding of space was Perhaps I can add a personal innate, while Hume claimed it was anecdote on Kant and his theories learnt by experience. As mathe- of space. When I was a student in matics and physics progressed, Cambridge, our mathematical particularly with the discovery of society invited a distinguished non-Euclidean geometry and later professor of philosophy, C D with Einstein’s theory of General Broad, to give us an evening Relativity, many scientists assert lecture. He chose to talk on a that Kant has been proved wrong. problem which had much exer- In my view this is too shallow an cised Kant, the difference between understanding of the issues. It right-handed gloves and left- also shows that we need to think handed gloves. After the lecture, more carefully about ‘innate over dinner, I diffidently suggest- knowledge’ and where it comes ed to Broad that, since Kant’s from. In Kant’s day few would time, we mathematicians had a dispute openly that man was much better understanding of created by God and innate ‘handedness’, or chirality as knowledge was part of God’s gift. scientists call it. We could even Nowadays, in the light of Darwini- envisage a universe in which a an evolution, we see man as left-handed glove could wander having evolved in the tree of life around to distant regions and by a long process of natural return to fit your right-hand. Broad would have no truck with

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this nonsense, who was I a mere stumble on them. This is the student to question the great world in which theorems are Immanuel Kant? Suitably chas- discovered. tised I retreated from the battle, All practising mathematicians but now fifty years later, I still believe in this platonic view to think I was right and philosophy some degree. As we work to find has to respond to advances in our the truth we sometimes feel as scientific understanding. It is a though a door has opened and pity that the term ‘Natural Philoso- we see displayed before us what phy’ has fallen into disuse. was previously hidden. The What is mathematics? beautiful scene was waiting for us Mathematics and philosophy have to discover. been closely intertwined from the As an example, consider the very beginning, their common celebrated theorem of Pythagoras ground being logic and reason. relating the lengths of the sides of Natural philosophy, or science as a right-angled triangle: c2 = we now call it, arrived from the a2+b2. As a pragmatic fact this marriage between the two was known to the Babylonians disciplines. The most fundamental who had long tables of such question that faces the mathemat- Pythagorean numbers starting ical philosopher is: with 3, 4, 5 and 5, 12, 13. These What is mathematics? were no doubt found experimen- tally – a vision into the ideal world In its most concrete form it can be of the Platonists – although the formulated as: notion of proof did not emerge Are theorems discovered or till much later with the Greeks. It invented? is hard to dispute that this theorem was a discovery. According to Plato, mathematics lives in an ideal world, in which There are eminent mathematicians dimensionless points, perfect such as Alain Connes and Roger straight lines and circles exist and Penrose who are fervid Platonists, obey Euclid’s laws. What we draw for whom the ideal world of on paper and see in the world mathematics has an enduring around us are approximate existence, independent of human- imitations of these ideal objects. ity. Mathematics, according to For a Platonist, mathematics has them, existed before human an existence independent of the beings appeared on the scene and real world, its truths or theorems will continue to exist after human- are already in existence just ity is extinct. For them waiting for us mathematicians to mathematics has some of the

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attributes of God: existence had led to higher intelligence outside time. emerging not in human beings But an example of a mathematical but in vast jelly-fish that filled idea which, to my mind, repre- oceans. For such beings, which did not meet individual objects, sents an invention is √-1, the the integers would have no square root of minus one. Since relevance. But real numbers the square of any number (posi- describing things like water tive or negative) is always positive, pressure, velocity, temperature, there is no number whose square would be vital. So one could is -1. However, over the centuries, imagine their mathematics being mathematicians found themselves sophisticated in fluid mechanics using the fictional number √-1 but ignorant of number theory. In with great success, so much so fact evolution (or God) created that they eventually admitted such man and so the integers. The ‘imaginary’ numbers into their distinction made by Kronecker world. A good claim can be made evaporates. that this was the most inventive step taken in the history of Being myself a mathematician I mankind. It opened entirely new cannot shirk this question of doors in mathematics and in the invention versus discovery; what is 20th Century it was found to be my view? To be succinct I will essential in the formulation of simplify and answer by making quantum mechanics. two statements. Familiarity breeds contempt and (1) Mathematics lives in the today’s students take √-1 in their collective mind of mankind. stride, but the great Gauss said (2) Many theorems exist but we that “the true metaphysics of √-1 select those we like. is not easy”. It is hard to dispute (1). It is an There are other famous quota- empirical statement. A librarian tions by mathematicians. might say that mathematics is Kronecker believed that contained in all books and articles, but if all libraries suffered God created the integers, all else the fate of the famous one at is made by man Alexandria, mathematical knowl- and most mathematicians put edge would survive in the forward the integers and their collective human mind. When properties as prime examples of humanity becomes extinct there is the ideal world. But, in a jeu no one left to ask the question, so d’esprit [1], I speculated on what a strict follower of Wittgenstein would have happened if evolution

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would say the question becomes summarise it by the following meaningless. diagram: In respect of (2), my view of theorems is that all correct mathematical statements pre-exist our observation of them. In Newton’s famous phrase they are like pebbles on the beach and we just pick up one or two because they appeal to us. In other words the raw material is there to be discovered, but we exercise our The top row encapsulates the use free will in making a choice – this of mathematics to record and is where invention enters. Of organise observations of the course this vastly oversimplifies. natural world, for example, the Invention often entails a major process by which Kepler took reorganisation; we don’t just astronomical observations of the select pebbles but we put them planets and deduced the plane- together to build castles. In tary orbits and the laws. The next principle all such possible castles stage is internal to the world of also exist in advance and we mathematics and where sophisti- choose which one to build. The cated mathematical ideas beach analogy breaks down at transform our initial data, for this point, and we have to instance Newton’s calculus and his continue the argument at a more laws of motion explained and abstract level. extended Kepler’s observational What is the relation of mathe- laws. The new mathematical matics to physics? understanding is then turned into physical theory, as with the There is the famous statement of inverse-square law of gravitation. Galileo This is represented in the diagram The book of nature is written in by the bottom horizontal arrow. the language of mathematics Finally the physical theory is applied back to the real world, as and it is certainly true that, since with the discovery of Neptune. his time, mathematics has increas- ingly become the only way to But the relation between mathe- understand physics. I shall return matics and physics cannot ignore to this story later. But the relation the role of biology and in particu- between mathematics and physics lar of evolution. Mathematics is rather complicated. I can try to takes place in the human mind and one can argue that both the

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content and the format have been So, what is our driving force? conditioned by the nature of the What are the principles that guide human brain. us? Where do we get our “master- Even logic, based on the principle plan”? Utility and immediate of implication (A implies B), is practical need are only modest derived from the causality that we incentives, they deal with the observe in the natural world (A short term. They are like the causes B). When our ancestors choice of stone that the builder saw a tiger lurking in the bushes employs. For the grand architec- they knew that its next step would tural scheme, the vision in the be to pounce on them – a fact mind of Michelangelo, we have to learnt the hard way! The origin seek elsewhere. and development of mathematics Throughout history the aim of by mankind has, to a considerable science has been for man to extent, been driven by evolution. understand nature, to acquire the In a sense mathematics has been deepest possible insight into its the secret weapon of mankind in workings and structure. The key its struggle for survival. There is here lies in the word ‘understand’. little doubt that, so far, it has been What is understanding? It is a tremendous success, though we certainly much more than a now have to worry that its mechanical accumulation of facts. consequences do not get out of Poincaré put this well when he hand and, through one catastro- said that science is no more a phe or another, lead to our collection of facts than a house is extinction. a collection of bricks. The human dimension But whatever understanding is, it The biological comments I have is a human attribute. We are not just made lead on to a closer electronic computers that organ- examination of science and ize and handle vast quantities of mathematics as human activities. data at breathtaking speed. Not only in the evolutionary Perhaps a computer may be said struggle for survival but also in to understand a problem but it is the higher realms of intellectual very different from human endeavour, it is the human mind understanding. that is in charge. It is we who Science as we know it is definitely decide what to study, how to a human enterprise, based on our organise knowledge and how to kind of understanding. It is a erect the great architectural cultural activity like art and it is structure that we know as science. driven by the human search for simplicity and beauty. When we

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find a simple explanation for a even talk about the waves of complex phenomenon, such as cheers in a football crowd. the rainbow, we claim to have Perhaps the most fundamental understood it. A simple proof of and widely-used analogy relates Pythagoras’s theorem enables us to vision, the most complex to understand all the Babylonian process taking place in the brain. triangles. The inverse square law When a student, confronted by a explains the elliptical planetary difficult problem, finally exclaims orbits. “I see”, vision is being used as a If simplicity and beauty are the synonym for understanding. To a hallmark of understanding, how great extent mental pictures are does the mind actually achieve its the key to understanding. This objectives in the field of mathe- applies very closely to patterns, matics? On the one hand there is where a basic unit or cell, gets the formal apparatus of logic, repeated many times. Such proof and computation, the patterns may actually describe standard tools of the working visual phenomena, but they can mathematician. These are like the also be abstract patterns, where pencil, paper and laptop of the the cell is a sound, a phrase or just writer, but what is going on an idea. behind the scenes in the mind of The use of analogies, pictures or the writer or of the mathemati- patterns is fundamental to how cian? we think, both in mathematics Frequently, when asked to and in life. Mathematicians, at all describe a piece of mathematics to levels, think in these ways and not a lay audience, we avoid technical- in the formal language of logic ities and resort to analogies, as in and proof. This is important in the use of architecture to indicate teaching: we have to help stu- structure. We tend to do this dents to use their imagination not apologetically as a poor imitation just their computer. of the real thing. In fact I believe Modern physics that analogy is one of the most powerful tools to help achieve All the questions I have been understanding. Mathematicians discussing relating to mathemat- have for instance adopted ‘waves’ ics, physics and philosophy have as the term to describe oscillatory become even more relevant in the behaviour of everything, not just 20th and now the 21st Century. water in the sea. Electro-magnetic Problems which were considered waves, quantum wave-functions, archaic dead-ends, about which seismic waves are familiar exam- nothing new could be said have, ples and sports commentators on the contrary, been brought

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back to life and are now more mechanism was found unaccepta- relevant than ever. The deeper we ble by the followers of Descartes. dig the more pertinent we find Maxwell’s introduction of fields of the classical questions, which is force in empty space appeared why I have chosen my topic today. equally revolutionary. Einstein’s I want to review very rapidly the General Relativity presented great main developments in physics conceptual difficulties, resting as over the past century or so and it did on the earlier Special see where this is leading us. As Relativity which had combined will become clearer, the role of space and time. Quantum Me- mathematics has become more chanics and Quantum Field Theory and more central to the whole entered a totally new and bizarre story and this has profound world which Lewis Carroll would philosophical implications. have loved to exploit. The most recent era in which string theory For simplicity I list below the main attempts to combine Quantum developments in physics, along Mechanics with Gravitation moves with the names of the most into totally new territory where prominent physicists associated space-time has 10 or 11 dimen- with them. The list is in chrono- sions (not just the customary four) logical order, and ends with the and strings (one dimensional uncertain present and future. objects) rather than point-particles Newton Gravity are the starting point. Maxwell Electro-magnetism The second historical observation is that, at each step, the theory Heisenberg Quantum becomes mathematically more mechanics sophisticated. In fact the histories Dirac Quantum of mathematics and physics, over field theory this whole period, are closely Witten String theory intertwined, even though there have been periods when they ?? seemed to drift about. As we move down the list, The present era, that of strings or following the historical order, we their successors, involves mathe- should note two persistent trends. matics of incredible In the first place every step sophistication, much of it beyond involved a new paradigm, a new our present understanding. In fact concept or point of view, which Edward Witten said that string encountered much initial opposi- theory was a 21st Century idea tion. Newton’s ‘action at a that was accidentally discovered in distance’ without any direct the 20th Century. In other words,

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we may need to wait a long while physicists is that they no longer before the full mathematical aim to ‘explain’, they just ‘de- implications of string theory are scribe’. That in a nutshell is the properly understood. lost battle of the philosophers. Throughout the development of Moreover, mathematicians appear physics which I have been review- as the villains in the play. They ing, there has been a conflict have taken the place of the between the philosophy, the philosophers and equations physics and the mathematics. Each become the ultimate reality. new theory presented fundamen- The conclusion seems to be that tal philosophical problems which the physical models of the were appreciated by their propo- universe, with their history of nents and pounced on by the experimental success, have opposition. The answer of the become totally mathematical. You physicists was always pragmatic: it might think that, as a mathemati- works. The new theories were fully cian, I would welcome this vindicated by experiments. They ultimate triumph of my subject, were also mathematical triumphs; but perversely I am unhappy with the equations took charge and in the situation and I share Einstein’s a sense ejected the philosophers. misgivings. It is undoubtedly true Not everyone was happy with this that the physical models we now outcome. Einstein remained a have provide incredibly accurate radical on quantum mechanics, descriptions of most physical refusing to accept it as an ultimate phenomena, though the ultimate theory. He had implicit support unification being sought by string from Richard Feynman who theory remains elusive. It is just confessed that “no one really possible that a new and more understands quantum mechan- refined physical model will be ics”, though Feynman was himself produced which will explain all one of the leaders of the quantum physical phenomenon and be revolution. more Einsteinian in spirit. We should remember that the It is also interesting to recall that ultimate goal of science is to Clerk Maxwell first discovered his understand nature, and while famous equations from a mecha- mathematics might be the nistic model, an ‘explanation’ preferred tool we should also aim which he subsequently discarded. at more acceptable philosophical I once sat next to the famous foundations. Austrian logician and friend of At various stages in my lecture I Einstein, Kurt Gödel, who said to have alluded to God, but these me that the trouble with modern remarks have been made in a

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slightly humorous way and I did thing, and Ronald Knox encapsu- not stress their theological lated it all in a Limerick. content. But let me now extract Mathematical physicists believe from them some tentative remarks that there are indeed simple and of a more serious nature concern- beautiful mathematical equations ing faith. Many physicists like that govern the universe, and that Laplace and Einstein put their the task of the scientist is to faith in mathematics as providing search for them. This is an article the ultimate explanatory basis for of faith. the workings of the universe. Mathematicians like Connes and An alternative faith is to believe in Penrose, with their Platonic view a God who created the universe of mathematics as existing outside and kindly provided us with laws space and time, seem to share this or equations that we would be faith. On the other hand La- able to understand. grange, perhaps tongue in cheek, There is no conflict between these pointed to God as a “beautiful two faiths, both have their hypothesis” explaining every- mysteries.

References [1] Atiyah, M.F. Book Review of Conversations on Mind, Matter and Mathematics by Jean-Pierre Changeux and Alain Connes, Times Higher Educational Supplement, 29 September 1995 † In Oxford a quad is the quadrangular courtyard of a College

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LECTURES

A Discussion and Illustrated Lecture on the exhibition Plant Memory ...... 92 The Science of Improvement: Why Scotland Needs its Public Intellectuals ... 105 Classical Music and the Subject of Modernity...... 109 Does God Play Dice? ...... 129\187 Cellular Clocks...... 130 Wobbling on the Shoulders of Giants ...... 134 Science, Innovation, Education: The Challenge to Society ...... 137 The Commandos from Arbroath – Famous Campaigns ...... 142 Optos: The Design Challenges and Business Tribulations ...... 146 The Red Lichties and their Impact on the Rest of the World ...... 149 Architectural Politics in Renaissance Venice ...... 153 The EU: Does it Have a Future? Don’t Blame the Fault Lines ...... 159 Exploring the Mysteries of the Universe with the large Hadron Collider ...... 162 Blurring the Boundaries from Classical to Contemporary Music ...... 166 Electropalatography in the Analysis of Tongue Dynamics during Normal and Disordered Speech ...... 170 The Black Hole War: The War That Made the World Safe for Quantum Mechanics ...... 174 Maps, Mapping and Map History ...... 176 Structures and Granular Solids ...... 180 Statues in Modern Cities ...... 184 A Code in the Nose ...... 190 The Challenges of Road Pricing ...... 191 Availability of Drugs for the Elderly ...... 194

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Victoria Crowe OBE, RSA, Painter Professor David Ingram OBE, VMH, FRSE, Botanist 8 October 2007 A Discussion and Illustrated Lecture on the exhibition Plant Memory

What follows is a commentary And she had spent long hours in prepared by Professor Ingram and my study, reading my books and Ms Crowe. writings. Professor Ingram opens: During the sittings for the portrait we talked frequently about our It began with a portrait work. First, we established that as Artists and scientists rarely have artist and scientist we shared a the opportunity to sit down common goal: to interpret and, together for long periods of time ultimately, to try to understand, to talk about their methods and the world about us better. This the philosophies that underlie process is analysed most elegantly their work. The painting of a and perceptively from the portrait offers such an opportuni- standpoint of the scientist by the ty, and so it was that Victoria botanist and philosopher Agnes Crowe, artist, and I, sitter/botanist, Arber in The Mind and the Eye came together in Cambridge for (Cambridge University Press, about a week during the early 1954). Moreover, in the begin- summer of 2003 following a nings of our journeys of discovery commission from St Catharine’s we followed common patterns: College, Cambridge, to paint my the close and careful observation official portrait as Master. This and recording of the natural was not the first time we had world in all its manifestations. talked, however, for before the Thereafter, our paths diverged. As formal sittings, Victoria and I had a scientist I used my observations, met in Edinburgh and Cambridge, together with previous scientific where we had talked endlessly as knowledge and experience, and she worked to understand the some insight, as a basis for asking mind and the scientific work of questions and formulating her sitter. I had sent her transpar- hypotheses which were then encies and photographs relating tested by experiment. Depending to my studies as a plant patholo- on the results, further hypotheses gist, botanist and horticulturist. would be formulated and tested, and so on. Progress would be slow, generally forward, but in a

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crabwise manner, since the beauty, yet they must always be an unexpected, and therefore more accurate ‘record’ of the specimens, interesting, experimental results the very antithesis of the ‘transfor- would often change the direction mation’ that occurs in the artist’s of movement to one side or mind. another, or even backwards. This When complete, the portrait was a process is, however, both satisfy- masterpiece of acute observation ing and indeed beautiful in its and understanding of me as a own way. It is telling, for example, person and a scientist, interpreted that scientists use the word in paint; not simply a portrait, but ‘elegant’ to describe the very best an image of the sitter transformed of their experimental designs. into a painting of great beauty For Victoria, the artist, the and sensitivity, its structure observations would be interna- profound and the use of colour lised and then combined with subtle yet immensely rich. countless other visual, sensory But something more than a and emotional experiences to re- sharing of ideas and a fine emerge, having undergone a ‘sea portrait emerged from the change’, as paint or printer’s ink sittings; we also initiated a new on canvas or paper. I am remind- train of thought that would find ed of Ariel’s song in The Tempest: its expression in this exhibition, in “Full fathom five thy Father lies, which, to my eye, the theme of Of his bones are corrall made, ‘transformation’ is developed at Those are pearles that were his every level. To understand how eies, this occurred it is necessary to go Nothing of him that doth fade, back to images from my work as a But doth suffer a Sea change plant scientist which Victoria Into something rich and strange.” studied during her preparation for painting the portrait. Many were So it is with Victoria’s paintings, in incorporated, in a transformed which her observations are state, into the background to the transformed into pictures of figure, adding a further layer of infinite complexity and richness. complexity and meaning. These This process might be contrasted included: the delicate internal with the work of a botanical membranes of a chloroplast, one illustrator, who observes and of the microscopic disc-like records plants accurately, as a structures in which plants capture scientific record. The images may the energy of sunlight; surrealistic be drawn or painted to create impressions of the microscopic pictures of great sensitivity and pathogens of plants and the

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symptoms of the diseases they It was, however, perhaps the most cause, the basis of much of my unpromising of the images teaching and research in Cam- incorporated into the portrait that bridge; a divided leaf of the was responsible for our new train ancient Chinese tree Ginkgo of thought. This was of a biloba, the maidenhair tree, that ‘herbarium sheet’ with a pressed grows against the wall of my and dried specimen of the tiny former laboratory; an experiment creeping perennial plant Sibbaldia to extract DNA from plant cells procumbens, a member of the that was part of a project I rose family. It is hard to believe initiated called ‘Science and Plants that it is related, albeit distantly, to for Schools’ that continues to the blooming roses of a cottage excite many young people about garden, for its flowers are small plants and their importance; the and inconspicuous, and the plant impressionistic ‘shadows’ of the grows only in the harsh environ- branches of one of the two great ment of the mountain tops of the blue Atlas cedars (Cedrus atlantica Scottish Highlands. Its signifi- ‘Glauca’) that dominate the cance for me is that it is named garden of the Master’s Lodge at St after Dr Robert Sibbald, co- Catharine’s College, Cambridge; founder in 1670 of the Royal and a beautiful mauve pasque Botanic Garden Edinburgh, the flower (Pulsatilla) which I had garden of which I was Regius planted in the Lodge garden in Keeper from 1990 to 1998. A 2000 when I first became Master, stylised version of Sibbaldia forms because it was especially associat- the Garden’s logo. But the ed with John Ray, once an significance of this herbarium undergraduate at St Catharine’s specimen in the development of and author of the floras of Victoria Crowe’s painting was, I Cambridgeshire (1660) and believe, that she found embodied England (1670), the first largely in it that same tension between vernacular, rather than Latin, floras timelessness and fragility which is to be written. A ‘flora’ is a the hallmark of her work as an sophisticated scientific and artist, and the reason for her diagnostic catalogue of all the fascination with the timeless, plants growing in a region, as fragile beauty of Venice. compared with a ‘herbal’, an early Herbaria: the tension between type of catalogue limited to plants fragility and timelessness of medicinal importance. We shall return to John Ray later, for one of Botanic gardens base their the pages from his 1670 flora also scientific, educational and appears in the present exhibition. conservation work on ‘collections’ of plants. All, almost by defini-

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tion, have a ‘living collection’ of teaching students about plants of plants. Although primarily a importance as medicines. In such scientific resource, the living circumstances, accurate naming collections are displayed in the and classification was, quite gardens for the enjoyment of literally, of ‘vital’ importance, and visitors. Most botanic gardens it was not until the late nine- also have, associated with the teenth century that an additional, living collection, a much larger experimental strand was intro- collection of pressed and dried duced into botanical research. plants kept in special cabinets in a As the portrait progressed, we herbarium. These collections are developed a plan for Victoria to carefully documented, and the have access to the Herbarium of plants in them accurately identi- the Department of Plant Sciences fied and labelled. Together they at Cambridge, rich in specimens constitute a remarkable resource collected by Charles Darwin and for studies of the naming, his mentor and teacher John classification and evolution of Henslow, to study the collection of plants, work that underpins all pressed plants and see where this other research in plant science might lead her as an artist. As will and conservation. The living and become apparent below, she soon herbarium collections are further discovered the fragile Iris speci- augmented by a collection of mens in the Cambridge books about plants - floras, Herbarium, gradually fading as herbals, monographs - in a library they went further back in time, and sometimes by associated and realised she had found a new collections of other kinds, such as source of artistic inspiration. fossilised plants, or wood Following the delivery of the specimens or microscopic fungi portrait in 2004 she was elected and algae. to a Visiting Scholarship at St The reason why botanic gardens Catharine’s College for three have traditionally focused their years, and the work which research on the naming and resulted in the present exhibition classification of plants, their commenced. ‘taxonomy’ or ‘systematics’, is Victoria Crowe takes up the because in the seventeenth story: century the earliest such gardens – at Pisa, Padova, Leiden, Oxford I had been using plant imagery in and Edinburgh, for example – my work, really as ciphers and were established as adjuncts to symbols within a greater whole. medical faculties in their respec- Initial information gathering was tive universities, as a resource for in David Ingram’s own library, then

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the Plant Sciences and Herbarium The fifth stanza sums up the libraries at Cambridge, and the underlying concerns of many of library of John Parker (Director of my paintings: the Cambridge Botanic Garden). “The sun that rises Subsequently I went further afield: Upon one earth to the Royal Botanic Gardens of Sets on another. Edinburgh and Padua, the Swiftly the flowers Marciana library in Venice, and to Are waxing and waning, the Fortuny, and Mocenigo The tall yellow iris collections. After visiting the Unfolds its corolla Sedgwick Museum of the As primroses wither, Department of Earth Sciences in Scrolls of fern Cambridge, I started the work on Unroll and midges fossil plants which has come to Dance for an hour fruition in paintings, prints and In the evening air, the hand made artists book. The brown moth There were two parallel ideas in From its pupa emerges my mind before I started working And the lark’s bones in the Herbarium at Cambridge. Fall apart in the grass.” First, the Hugo van der Goes’ (From Kathleen Raine Collected Portinari altar piece, (Uffizi, Poems 1935 – 1980, published by Florence) where the traditional Allen and Unwin, 1981). vase of lilies in honour of the Virgin and Child includes iris - So, the things I first began black and white ones; lily symbol- looking at in the Cambridge ism is associated with the Herbarium were the vast Iris annunciation, signifying purity, collections. Gradually, the but why the iris? Perhaps specimens ‘selected themselves’ muddled translation is the reason: by virtue primarily of their visual iris in German was known as beauty, abstract arrangement and ‘spear lily’, linking biblical contrasting scale. There was an prophecy ‘....a spear will pierce element of poetry of nomencla- your heart’. Second, the poem of ture and description that drew me Kathleen Raine, a former botany to certain ones. I decided to student at Cambridge, entitled ‘draw’ the selected specimens ‘The Moment’, which has stayed purely with watercolour, not using with me for many years, and was a pencil outline but just building used in the background of my up the structure with thin washes, portrait of Kathleen in the trying to understand the layering National Portrait Gallery, London. that had occurred and to limit a

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literal rendition. The watercolours yaks and horses; as a purgative, work, for me, as abstract, very when steeped in ale; as sources of meditative experiences. black dye and ink; and as a coffee substitute. (See The Plant-Book by Professor Ingram continues: D.J. Mabberly, 2nd edn, 1997, The specimens that Victoria CUP.) painted and drew are the On later visits to the Cambridge following: Iris halophylla (a Herbarium, she painted images Henslow specimen); Iris sibirica engendered by the Great Fen (1956 specimen); Iris germanica; Project: Liparis loeselii, fen orchid Iris arenaria; Iris sisyrinchium (specimens 1836); Senecio (1890 specimen & classification; paludosus, fen ragwort (three now a member of the genus contrasting specimens - before Sisyrinchium); Iris albicans Lange; 1830, 1852 Babington and recent Iris scorpioides (Kingdom of Murrell & P.D. Sell); and the violets Naples 1839 Prof. Gasparini); Iris Viola stagnina,Viola canina and verna (1810 specimen, visually Viola persicifolia. beautiful ; ‘…gathered on the plains of Leontine, where The ‘Great Fen Project’ aims to frequent’); Iris kochii Kerner; Iris recreate in Cambridgeshire orientalis Mill. (garden of 54 thousands of hectares of wash Cambridge Road, Impington, reed beds and wet grassland - Cambs, collected by P.D. Sell.) once the home to rare species of plants, birds, butterflies, dragon- Iris, which was so attractive to flies and other insects - which Victoria, is a fascinating genus have gradually been drained with complex winged flowers (‘improved’) by merchant adven- specially constructed to promote turers and farmers over the past cross-fertilisation rather than self- 400 years. It is worth noting at fertilisation. The flowers of violet this point that Victoria was (Viola), which she also painted are undoubtedly influenced by the similarly constructed. Iris species fact that it is a transformed and hybrids have been used, landscape. One cannot but be variously, as: garden plants; to moved by the knowledge that decorate the Sphinx (known to these great tracts of fertile Thutmose III, 1501-1447 BC); to agricultural land producing make the violet-scented powder potatoes, carrots and grain, lie ‘orris root’; as a fixative in pot below sea level and were once pourri, and for powdering wigs home to Hereward the Wake and and hair in the eighteenth his kinsmen, productive of eels century; to decorate Muslim and and other fish, teeming with Christian graveyards; as fodder for wildlife, and also home to ague,

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the fenman’s malaria. Even the eventually starting to disintegrate. newly drained farmland is fragile, In addition, they had been however, and subject to change: attached with strips of gummed erosion of the peat by shrinkage, paper to the herbarium ‘sheet’ of oxidation and windblow; or special paper, and often artistically restoration as wetlands through arranged, for many botanists have the enthusiasm and drive of an artist’s eye. A label will have naturalists and conservationists. been attached to the sheet, often But through all this change, the beautifully handwritten or herbarium specimens of the great perhaps typed on an eccentric fen orchid slumber on in the machine from a bygone age, Herbarium at Cambridge, always giving the date and place of the there to stimulate botanists, collection and the name of the conservationists and artists alike. collector. The collector will probably have added notes about Transformation: another the plant community in which the continuing theme specimen was found and its The herbarium specimens ‘drawn’ colour. Thus context and colour by Victoria had already passed will have been restored to the through a series of transforma- plant, albeit in words, sometimes tions, even before their images of poetic beauty, for botanists love entered her artist’s mind. The the plants they study and care plants had been removed from greatly for them. Those who their natural context by the studied the specimen subsequent- collector, so were no longer part ly may also have added their of a diverse community, but had notes, comments and conclusions. to stand alone. They had then The specimen will thereby have been pressed and dried, a process been continually enriched as years which almost but not completely went by. transformed them from three The plant will have been named dimensional to two dimensional and classified, to the best of the objects, thereby altering the ability of the collector and the relative positions and orientation current botanical knowledge of the plant and flower parts. available to him or her. It may Moreover, much of their colour have been identified as ‘new’ to would have been lost, leaving only science, in which case it will have soft, subtle, muted but often been used as the basis for the exquisite background colours, published Latin description of that dominated by brownish shades. species, and designated a ‘type This process would have contin- specimen’. The name of the ued as the specimens aged, some botanist first describing the

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species will have been appended, examined often, or only once in a in abbreviated form, as will the lifetime, but will always have been names of others who may there, as a record, and will subsequently have proposed continue to be there long, long reclassification and/or a new into the future. name. And here it is important to Modern plant science has made note that the language used by one more transformation botanists for naming and possible. The word ‘transforma- describing new species is Latin: to tion’ has a very precise, technical all but the classicist and biologist meaning for a biologist: the a dead language, but for the latter insertion of a piece of DNA from a language that is truly interna- one organism into the nucleus of tional, often exquisitely poetic and another, where its genes are then of immense value as a descriptive expressed, using the technique of tool (see the classic book Botani- ‘genetic manipulation’ (GM). cal Latin by W.T. Stearn, 3rd edn Herbarium specimens are, in a rev., 1990, CUP). For the artist it biological (but not artistic) sense adds an exotic dimension and is a ‘dead’, yet some contain DNA that further example of the creative has not completely decayed. This tension between fragility and can be extracted and analysed. timelessness. Finally, the herbari- Such analysis has given the um sheet will have been placed in modern botanist another tool for a folder, designated by a special refining the naming and classifica- colour such as red if the specimen tion of plants, and of was a type specimen, and placed understanding their evolution. in a cabinet in an appropriate part Moreover, it is theoretically of the herbarium for that species, possible for the DNA to be used or Family of plants. It will not to transform another plant: a new have been alone in its cabinet, for plant would not be re-created by with it and about it will have been this process, but a small part of it countless other specimens would be given new life. demonstrating the great diversity of species within a Family and the As the work progressed, Victoria great, but more subtle genetic also began to work in the diversity within the species. And Herbarium of the Royal Botanic there the specimen will have Garden Edinburgh. The collection remained, slowly changing and of some two million specimens is ageing over the years, until it was housed in a white, Italianate removed by a botanist for study, building just off Inverleith Row. or perhaps by an artist wishing to She painted two species and paint it. It may have been made: six watercolour studies of

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Lilium candidum (over two pages subgroup of flowering plants, the 40.5 x 100 cm), the ‘Madonna lily’ Monocotyledonae, which have which grows wild in the Balkans, only one seed leaf (cotyledon), Israel and Lebanon; and five flowers lacking outer bud leaves watercolour studies of Polygona- (sepals) and somewhat lanceolate tum (= P. odoratum; P. x hybridum; leaves with parallel veins. This over two pages, 40.5 x 100 cm), a group compares with the form of ‘Solomon’s seal’ which is Dicotyledonae, which have two said to have healing properties, cotyledons, flowers with sepals especially in the treatment of and usually leaves with reticulate bruises. veination. Also, most of her chosen plants were ‘geophytes’, Victoria comments, “ I made the vulnerable to extremes of weather Lilium candidum studies to record yet possessing an underground forms of this flower in addition to storage structure such as a the art historical lily and the ‘real’ rhizome or bulb that enables three -dimensional plant. The them to survive adverse conditions specimens I chose were unexpect- to re-emerge, transformed, to ed in that the information about grow and flower again. leaf structure, the grouping and the faded brown flowers of the Victoria Crowe takes up the specimens made the impact and story again: strangeness more telling. In art The paintings these lilies are used as symbols of purity and peace in association Iridaceous sequence with the Virgin Mary, but before I developed three mixed media that they were symbols of the pieces from the Iris studies: in goddess Isis, and subsequently Iridaceous Sequence, thinking of the Black Madonnas. The the black/white reference in the Polygonatum is again a Marian Portinari Altarpiece, I wanted to symbol. It’s a plant I have used in create a flow of images fairly many still life paintings in its three monochromatic yet very rich - dimensional dried form, now dense dark areas butted against colourless, and I wanted to find flows of transparent neutral some refreshed imagery.” colour and silver leaf providing a Before moving on to the paintings dramatic tonal contrast. I’ve themselves it is interesting to note played around with scale too: the that, either by subconscious tiny Iris sisyrinchium becomes the selection or by chance, almost all large dark flower against the silver the subjects Victoria chose to and the Iris orientalis is greatly study were members of the great enlarged to show its structure.

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The labels and descriptions are extinct in the fens: fen orchid, fen used as a column of concrete ragwort and fen violets. Visually, poetry. I wanted the amalgam- the fen orchid, Liparis loeselii, had ation of these aspects to animate all the intimations of fragility, all the long horizontal format so that the questions of permanence that the viewer would scan the surface, the other works have. I used the be drawn in by scale or word or beautiful 1836 sheet from the surface, look again and have to Herbarium to develop the look again. painting In Great Plenty. There were many sheets which left just Arcobaleno relates to the flows of an acid stain where the plant had translucent colour and the many been - the material of the leaves hued petals of the iris group. In as thin as a wash of watercolour. Greek mythology a messenger, Notes speak of plentiful collecting Iris, came to earth via a rainbow - in the Victorian age. The title of hence arcobaleno - an arch this work comes from a chilling between earth and the heavens, quote from Swaffham Prior man and gods. I’ve reassembled Naturalists’ Society in 1835: the herbarium Iris sisyrinchium ‘Liparis…found in great plenty… pages to present a long line of 400 to 500 specimens were tiny images with intricate differ- brought home… the bulbs ences, and contrasted them with I. scarcely in the ground… we albicans and I. orientalis which picked them out with our has assumed a sinister silhouette fingers…’. against a pitted gold paper. In the painting Sign and Symbol - Iris Traces, contrasts the beautiful- Herbarium Pages I’ve used a ly elegant Henslow specimen of collage of paper, applied linen Iris halophylla which has lost all and thickened the primer with colour, with colourful /blowsy Iris pumice powder to split up and albicans. For me the greatest, distress the surface, making some lasting, most satisfying image of areas very absorbent, others very Iris is the blown, fragile, broken crisp. I used the iris watercolours Henslow specimen - qualities of as a basis, treating each individual the image transcending the actual image very differently - sometimes plant - rather like the ‘poem’ - i.e. drawn, or as a thin stain on an label description - which now absorbent part, scratched with seems to exist independently of its gold leaf like Byzantine paintings, starting point. made into a linear pattern or silk I spent a week in the Herbarium screen printed. Scraps of labels, looking at plants which were descriptions, a book’s frontispiece, becoming, or were thought to be, botanical cross-section are all

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there. They have become a kind of scratched in black ink over silver poetic subtext and the plants, far ground. Some leaves remain from ‘reality’ now, have become linear; others are solid according ciphers or hieroglyphs. to the paintings abstract, compo- sitional needs. On the last visits to the Cam- bridge Herbarium I painted the The Mixed Media ‘Open Book’ following specimens collected by works Charles Darwin on the Galapagos The exhibition includes twenty islands during his voyage on the mixed media pieces. Each is Beagle: Sicyos villosa Hooker fil.; formed as an open sketchbook, and Desmocephalum inelegans - the cover and spine of which are holding something world extinct etched. The ‘pages’ are all unique, in my hands was a powerful drawings, watercolours, paintings feeling. In World Extinct I the or collages. In each work, the Sicyos villosa is juxtaposed with plants have been ‘seen’ in a the image of the world from the different way, sometimes classical- Mappa Mundi, the thirteenth ly presented, sometimes ironically, century map of the world owned as with …Very Common. One of by Hereford Cathedral. In World the pieces based on the Madonna Extinct II I’ve used fragments, of lilies includes the annunciation Desmocephalum inelegans - root angel, lily in hand, and Isis system, leaves, tissue stains and Madonna refers to the lily in label all contained within a single Egyptian art. Two pieces, Fossil drawn circle, representing maybe leaves and Preserved – Skeleton the world, the moon, or a Leaf and Fossil, came from studies microscope field. at the Sedgewick Museum, I made two paintings from the Cambridge. Two other pieces are Edinburgh Herbarium - Lilium based on medieval artefacts: Candidum I” and Lilium Candi- Outside Eden, the stained glass dum II. Both are mixed media window showing Adam after the pieces, similar to the large Iris Fall, against sharply defined pieces in their assemblies of ideas. leaves, and Medieval Mind, based In the first, the leaf clusters and on a drawing of the Chatsworth structures are juxtaposed with a Hunt tapestries in the Victoria and Renaissance drawing of a lily, and Albert Museum, London; ‘… the a medieval image complete with medieval mind saw Nature as a bulb. In the second work, the great forest of symbols…’ Others same components are arranged in the series are comments about with rather more emphasis on the my own fascination with, and joy flower head. This time the in perusing, medieval manuscripts Renaissance lily, is drawn/ and later herbals in Venice,

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Cambridge and Edinburgh. A Victoria’s piece. John Ray, having wonderful exhibition in the first studied at St Catharine’s Marciana Library, Venice, high- College, became a Fellow of Trinity lighted the history of the Lazzerati College, with a brilliant academic or Plague Islands, and included career ahead of him. He was a examples of herbal medical books deeply religious man, his sympa- and lists of curative plants. This thies being with the Puritans provided the stimulus for rather than the Cavalier Parlia- Antidotes, Bitten by Venomous ment. In 1662 the ‘Act of Creatures, To Ease Snake Bite & Uniformity’ was passed, to which Scorpion Sting (showing an evil Ray could not subscribe. He looking black leaf) and Lay the resigned from the College at the Leaves Down (a direction to relieve age of 35 and returned to the ‘those that piss with payne’). village of his birth, Black Notley in Essex, apparently a failure and Professor Ingram again: dependent ‘upon Providence and All these pieces have tremendous good friends’. One such, Francis vitality, and for me as a botanist Willughby, a friend from Trinity conjure up a lost world of myth days with a common interest in and magic, of superstition and the study of plants and animals, earthy humour, rather than came to his rescue and enabled science. The fossil pieces stand him to continue his work as a out as being different, of course, botanist in exile. Amidst all these and return to the theme of the images, then, is a message of tension between fragility, here hope, a reference to a botanist of preserved in stone, and survival. conviction who suffered for his (See also the painting Stone beliefs, but rose above adversity to Poem.) Another piece, Marked continue with his work as a Pages, has a special resonance for scholar. me and takes us back to the start This brings us to a work which is of this project. It shows on the the summation of many of the left hand ‘page’ the title page of a issues raised in this project: first edition of John Ray’s flora of England (Catalogus Plantarum Victoria Crowe once more: Angliae et Insularum Adjacien- The Hand Made Artist’s Book tum, MDCLXX), once the property of ‘Abr: Pryme’, who paid four My book exists as an object shillings for it in 1694, and now somewhere between a diary, a in my own library, thanks to the missal, a sketchbook and a book generosity of a colleague. It is, of hours. There is no didactic however, in much better condition logic to it – it evolves and is held than the much ‘aged’ depiction in by visual and symbolic links, not

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by information. It’s a tactile drawn, silkscreen printed, experience made with about collaged or etched, each book twenty handmade papers ranging subtly different. from fine tissue through to deeply Professor Ingram concludes: embossed. It has been assembled using conservation grade glue This is a rare and precious work and acid free papers, and hand (only ten copies exist) that draws bound in Venice. It is meant to be not only on what I have described precious - to be a contemplative above, but on Victoria Crowe’s experience - an antidote to the lifetime of experience as an artist. form of knowledge presented There is nothing more to say - it through a plastic screen and a must be seen and enjoyed for the cold text. Its images are, hand unique visual and tactile feast that it is.

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Professor C Duncan Rice FRSE Principal and Vice-Chancellor, University of Aberdeen 1 November 2007 The Science of Improvement: Why Scotland Needs its Public Intellectuals

Scotland’s universities have been they need to compete on a world both home to and the embodi- stage when Government cannot ment of the public intellectual possibly fund them at that level since the time of the Scottish with so many other competing Enlightenment. Indeed, Professor demands on the public purse? Rice argues, he couldn’t talk These are some of the questions about public intellectuals without which Professor C Duncan Rice examining the wider questions of attempts to address under the what our universities are for. umbrella of a lecture on public Whilst seeking the answers in this intellectuals. That’s not to say he RSE lecture, he outlines doesn’t make a good attempt at stimulating ideas for creating defining ‘public intellectualism’ environments where public and, indeed, name a few candi- intellectualism thrives, to the dates, both in universities and benefit of Scotland as a whole. outwith academia. But his talk What sort of graduates should takes in much broader territory our universities be sending out? than that. Indeed, he says he Should they be well-trained wouldn’t be able to talk about individuals, able to compete in the public intellectuals ‘without jobs market and meet the needs straying into the wider question of industry? Or should they also of what Scotland’s universities are be prepared for citizenship, as for’. ready to grapple with the ethical Professor Rice defines ‘public issues of the day as they are to intellectuals’ in several ways. There appreciate a fine piece of writing are the individual public intellec- or beautiful music? tuals - the Noam Chomskys of this And how should these universities world, who are well-known be funded? By the state, by fees or cultural commentators and through the benevolence of influencers. They are those, he philanthropists – or in an entirely said, to whom “society looks to new business-inspired way? And bring intellectual leadership and how, just how, will Scottish criticism to the political process”. universities garner the finances His view, however, is that public

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intellectualism is a broader church because the Professoriate can help than that. Just as in the Scottish inform public debate – ideally Enlightenment, where highly helping discussion on important literate citizens considered issues not to descend into themselves to be working on the ‘popular spats’. In other words, science of improvement for the universities are a good source of benefit of society, the modern public intellectuals. But as well as public intellectual isn’t to be being considered the natural found solely in universities. home of public intellectuals, universities share their fundamen- Having said that, his talk concen- tal role of creating and trated on university-based public transferring knowledge. intellectuals, whose reach extends beyond teaching and research, He believes the success of important though these activities universities defines the health of are. He can name several, some society, but that in order to do with strong links to Aberdeen, this, it is essential to understand such as the microbiologist Hugh what a university does and how it Pennington, who not only is best able to function. Successive comments regularly in the media governments in Scotland have on issues such as E.coli but has shared broad aims for universities, also advised government on the including achieving excellence, same. widening access and driving the social and economic enrichment Or Tom Devine, the eminent of Scotland. While Professor Rice historian and well-known writer sees these aims as excellent, he who was previously at Aberdeen has concerns about how universi- but has now moved to Edinburgh ties are supposed to achieve them. University. In Professor Rice’s view, He also has concerns about it would matter a great deal if whether we appreciate what university-based public intellectu- makes a ‘great’ university and the als disappeared and he went so extent of the challenge from far as to say they were essential to around the world. He fears that the functioning of democratic our concept of universities is society. overly utilitarian and that many Public intellectuals are also one of valuable characteristics – such as the reasons that universities the public intellectual role – can themselves matter. Universities are be lost. important to Scotland, he says, Research is, of course, important, not only because they provide and Professor Rice believes the competent technicians and up- Research Assessment Exercise, to-date scientific advice, but which attempts to measure the

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output of university departments, tions are dominated by America, has helped to increase scholarly where there is a fees regime and a output. But the RAE has, he culture of philanthropic giving. believes, focused academic “There is simply more money scholarship towards the specialist around to create quality,” he says, journals, whilstnot rewarding adding that the rise of universities what could be called public in the Far East, Middle East and intellectual activity. Indeed, he China is also striking. To compete, finds it sad that academics have Scottish universities must be able less space and incentives to create to recruit and retain the best staff and think - and fulfil the functions and the best students from of public intellectuals. around the world, offer top-class facilities, great teaching and Professor Rice believes that being research and pay academics a corporate public intellectual and competitively. Getting to that a home for individual public point will, he believes, require intellectuals is one of the most rethinking our approach to fundamental roles of a university. universities in Scotland. He argues that the transfer of knowledge must include cultural Funding is important and contributions. “Our fixation on Professor Rice believes that this technological and economic must come from a number of output confuses our fundamental sources, including the state and role, just as the desire for job- private philanthropy. He also ready graduates risks overlooking believes that the issue of charging the fact that what really matters is fees cannot be ignored but that graduates have the capacity accepts there is no political to learn new skills when the support for this in Scotland.He technology or particular industry also wants a greater differentia- moves on, quite apart from the tion between Scottish universities analytic capacity needed for as it is not realistic to expect that citizenship.” He would also like to all can be internationally competi- see graduates given broader skills tive in the same ways. in analysis, in arts appreciation Universities are autonomous and in dealing with the ethical institutions, not arms of the state, issues of the day. In other words, and he has often thought that universities should be looking at lessons could be taken from the the whole student for the benefit business world. For example, of the society they will be part of. Boeing has contracts stipulating Scottish universities are operating obligations (within statute) to the in a competitive world, where the US Government, but is otherwise top 50 higher education institu- free to go about its business as it

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sees fit. If universities followed and a Professor of Linguistics) to a this model, they would be free to representative of UNESCO, a attract as many students as they politician, a recent graduate from wanted and to take on borrowing Aberdeen University and a self- as appropriate. He also wants confessed ‘punter’. better leadership, saying that the Questions covered topics includ- work of colleagues who are public ing Professor Rice’s overhaul of intellectuals should be encour- the Aberdeen University curricu- aged. This means supporting blue lum. He made the point that skies research and teaching of the universities should not rest on liberal arts, not because the state their laurels but should gives incentives to do so but re-examine all they do at regular because these are the things that intervals. He also regretted the great universities do. passing of the Scottish general In summary, Professor Rice MA, saying it was a comprehen- believes that, along with their sive and magnificent degree utilitarian function, the capacity of which had been the model for the universities to provide wisdom for American system. Sadly the rush Scotland, through research, to specialisation had robbed us of education and the outreach of its this ‘jewel in the crown’. public intellectuals, provides an There was some debate around overwhelming case for every the benefits of different ap- Scottish citizen to support proaches to university funding funding for universities. How that across the world. In particular, the is achieved, he says, is an argu- former Labour MEP, now Solidarity ment for another day. politician, Hugh Kerr praised the The event attracted a distin- Scandinavian model. Professor guished audience. At least one of Rice said he had been successful the ‘public intellectuals’ men- in attracting academics from tioned by Professor Rice attended universities across the world, (Sunday Herald journalist Alan including some in Scandinavia Taylor) and questioners ranged and concluded that every system from academia (including a former probably had its benefits and Principal of Strathclyde University disadvantages.

108 Lectures

Professor John Butt FRSE Professor of Music, University of Glasgow 12 November 2007 Classical Music and the Subject of Modernity Aspects of Art Lecture for the British Academy

On the last day of 2006, The we bear in mind that it had much Observer published an article to do with the development of reporting Julian Lloyd Webber’s notation and the tonal system. plea that classical music be And, if we were to consider the restored to its former privileged history of world music, this too place in the classrooms of Britain. has seldom engaged with western As he told The Observer, “You classical music, even when it has have to be able to walk before you had any exposure to it. Of course, can run…Classical music is the it might well be that Lloyd grammar of music; it is the Webber’s point works far better in harmony, the melody, the reverse: classical music has often notation…It is wrong for teachers absorbed many other forms of to focus on “youth music” such music into its vocabulary and as R&B instead of the likes of performative gestures, somehow Mozart and Shostakovich… transforming them into a music because classical music is the root that is quite distinct from the sum of all other styles.” of its parts. In this way, classical Now, as much as we might music may have something of the sympathise with at least some of quality of an enzyme — to borrow Lloyd Webber’s general intentions, a metaphor from Stephen there is, I believe, a fundamental Greenblatt — perhaps it is a misunderstanding of classical practice that absorbs many music, if it is seen as ‘the grammar elements (including those of music’ or ‘the root of all other indigenous to its own traditions), styles’. Much as one might hear but somehow changes their some rock and pop superstars — meaning and content in ways that from The Beatles to Tenacious D cannot necessarily be predicted in — as occasionally playing off, advance. Perhaps, then, we should debasing, or even purposely be viewing classical music as contradicting classical practice, something exceptional rather than surely one cannot say that classical as the norm. But would such music stands as their root, even if exceptionality necessarily be something that defines it as a

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universal, transcending all other aims as, for instance, the redress- forms of music, or is it rather an ing of historic inequalities, the exception in the sense of being a eradication of poverty, or even, temporary deviation from the necessarily, the sort of progress in general cultures of world music? science that unequivocally brings This is one of the main questions I an improvement in the human will be trying to address here. condition. As Fredric Jameson has recently noted in relation to Oskar What about the voices opposed to Lafontaine’s memoir of his fate Lloyd Webber in the article from under Schroeder in Germany, The Observer? Tina Redford, “modernizers today understand project manager at MusicLeader little other than the economic and North West (an organisation social adaptation to the supposed addressing the professional constraints of the global market development of music teachers), … Modernity has simply become a states that “Music education and word for the conformity to such teaching methods have to economic constraints — the modernise… A music leader in a question of how we want to live classroom has to have an intrinsic together and what kind of society sense of liking and valuing young we want has become a completely people, listening to their ideas unmodern question and is no and responding to them. The only longer posed at all.” Indeed, as way to do that is to engage with Jameson suggests, “people like the kind of music they want to Lafontaine are unmodern because make, not what others want to they are still modernists — it is prescribe to them. We are trying modernism that is unmodern — to get away from a didactic ‘modernity’ however, in the newly teaching style and classical music approved positive sense, is good is seen as didactic.” because it is postmodern.” Again, one may agree with some That Tina Redford is using the of the sentiments here, such as term ‘modernise’ in a postmodern the desirability of a diversity of sense is perhaps substantiated by music within the educational the implication that schoolchil- environment. But there are surely dren are essentially customers, some things here that send the with their pre-given interests and fingernails of our ears screeching desires. This is part of a trend in down the blackboard of our education towards an insipid sort minds: ‘modernisation’ is a of naturalism that sees each particular word that has assaulted person or group as a ready-made us over the last decades. Seldom particular, best left unscarred by does it now refer to such laudable any didactic universals. It further

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suggests that everything good terms of general effort and time about music is fundamentally than most other forms of music. If natural, pre-given in all its it is left to take its place, equally, dimensions within the human beside the other forms of music, it psyche. If there is some symmetry follows that the personal choice between the pre-modern and the to indulge in classical music post-modern, one might wonder becomes increasingly expensive. whether this represents a return The claim that classical music is to the old scholastic prohibition essentially elitist and therefore against curiosity in the unknown does not belong to the ordinary or unfamiliar, against changing person, becomes a self-fulfilling the order at hand and violating prophecy. In an environment our inborn place within that order. where the only generally agreed But the religious order previously index of value is that which can be protected against violation is now quantified – this is the essential reoccupied by that of the global assumption lying behind John market, posing as an ideal Carey’s recent polemic, What democratic principle. If this sort of Good are the Arts? – there is no attitude is hardly conducive to the way that anyone can unarguably cultivation of classical music, it is claim that classical music has any surely barely any better for the particular value at all, especially if health of popular music, since it the only way to find out is for tends to efface the abrasive or everyone to fill in an endless chain oppositional elements of any of questionnaires. music whatsoever. Most significantly – and this is Given that what we call ‘classical’ perhaps the factor that has music has seldom generated changed most over the last few profits, even at the times of its decades – the classical music greatest influence, it does not fit culture has traditionally involved so naturally into our world where, substantial amateur participation increasingly, everything must have in music making, whether this be an economic cost (again, the same in large, choral societies, amateur might be said of much other instrumental groups, or simply music besides). Therefore, it is performance alone at home. difficult to cultivate as an art Roland Barthes and Edward Said, available to all, whether in terms as ardent amateur classical of its audience or its creation, if it musicians, stood out as part of a is not afforded some degree of dying breed of intellectuals who privilege in education and the felt that their hobby developed allocation of public or charitable their thought and perception in resources; it requires far more in ways that could not otherwise

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have been acquired. But nowa- ous. Funding was never straight- days it is clear that many capable forward or even ubiquitous, nor people – outstanding intellectuals was universal education in the art, included – get by perfectly well whether for composers, perform- without any encounter with ers or listeners. Indeed, many of classical music; that the demise of the inherited traditions within civilization so often predicated on classical music, at least in the UK the advent of rock and roll still and US – such as its place in seems yet to materialise; and, education or the public provision most tellingly, that august of orchestras – were the product journals such as the LRB are more of a particular modernist mindset likely to review books about Bob that reached its highpoint only in Dylan than Mozart. the middle of twentieth century. What I am edging towards then, is Does this all suggest that classical the notion that any strength the music somehow belongs only to classical music tradition has had the past? This will be another lies in the way it sits between the question underlying much of establishment – confirming the what I have to say, but at this status quo in sound, as it were – stage my provisional answer is, and that which opposes or frustratingly perhaps, yes and no. subverts it, or at least propels it To begin with, we do need to beyond its secure assumptions. If I guard against the assumption understand it aright, it is an art that all was somehow rosy for that takes inherited orders as its classical music over the last two starting point for a critique of all centuries; that scores of respect- our assumptions. I am beginning able, decent citizens queued up in to suggest, then, that classical an orderly fashion for endless music is of a piece with the concerts and operas. Moreover, if fundamental attitudes and classical music were indeed to reflexes of modernity itself. My have been so directly complicit in argument now needs to proceed oiling the wheels of the industria- by trying to define what both lised West we might indeed be classical music and modernity correct in seeing it as of its time might be, in order ultimately to and now to be superseded by give more flesh to that ‘yes and music more conducive to our age no’ answer. After that, the of diversity and equality. Whilst question would then be, does classical music clearly has to carry classical music still belong to us the burden of a few threads of and do we still belong to moder- respectability in its genealogy – don’t we all? – its history is surely much more varied and ambigu-

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nity? Inevitably, much of this latter classicise a popular one. More question will have to remain challenging is the fact that a piece unanswered here. of unadulterated classical music can take on an entirely different Is there anything substantial that ethos if it is used in a way outside can unequivocally identify classical its customary home in the concert music as more than merely an hall: Vivaldi’s Four Seasons example of ‘music’ in the more becomes a different, not always general sense? After all, it is hard welcome, animal when a company to dispute that there is much that switchboard puts us on hold for classical music and most other half an hour, and Wagner’s Ride forms of western music have in of the Valkeries is somehow common in terms of melody, translated into another language mode, rhythm and harmony. when heard as part of the sound Greenday’s ‘Basketcase’ is a song track to Apocalypse Now. that in its essential harmonic frame is almost identical to Perhaps, then, the safest way of Pachelbel’s Canon. Whether or distinguishing classical music not this latter is a genuine from competing musical languag- example of the Lloyd-Webberish es is to suggest that it tends to flow from the classical to the more display a combination of certain popular, surely what is more tendencies or attitudes rather striking is that the similarities than essential qualities: e.g. it between these two pieces lies in tends towards more complexity the basics of the tonal system that than most surrounding music; it is common to both genres. The usually requires the cultivation of bass line of Pachelbel’s Canon is a specific, and somewhat abstract, one of the generic expansions of method – performance technique the perfect cadence (V-I), which is, or compositional theory – before as it were, the most fundamental it can be created; it displays a dynamic impulse of the tonal degree of ‘written-ness’, that is, system. It is not surprising then, the development of a sort of that this crops up in a variety of sound structure that is sometimes music – indeed, precisely the same best created and recorded in pattern underlies Puff the Magic notation; it has a tendency to Dragon as well. Given that much subsume diverse musical gestures classical and virtually all popular within a broader, dialogic and traditional music share argument. But it is surely best not common tonal underpinnings, it to identify it solely in terms of its does not take much to turn a specific musical substance. We classical piece into one that surely have to take into account at sounds more popular, and to least some of the attitudes and

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tendencies of the cultures that conclusion of Karol Berger’s very accompany it. These might include recent searching study of musical the ideal of listening to the music modernity, where he identifies the in dedicated spaces where the classical style specifically with a listener’s attention is as fully new form of human autonomy, engaged as possible, and usually distinct from the order of the without direct physical participa- cosmos, in which God becomes a tion; a culture in which the metaphor for harmony rather musical practices termed as than, as before, harmony a classical are seen as beneficial in metaphor for God. But, if this terms of education and continu- account is correct, Pachelbel’s ing personal development – Canon, Vivaldi’s Four Seasons and again, a specific method is often the entire works of Bach and cultivated and practised, prior to Handel would then have to count the music-making proper. It also as pre-classical (as indeed they do presupposes a society in which in traditional historical categories there is a sufficiently numerous of western music, where the term paying public to finance both the ‘classical’ tends to be more strictly space and the performances. In reserved for the generation of other words, classical music is a Haydn to Beethoven). One way particular historical construct that out of the problem of excluding includes a menu of performative music predating the ‘classical’ era and receptive practices as much as is somehow to ‘retrofit’ it as compositional structures; it’s an classical music. The obvious ensemble of things that came example of this is Bach’s St together at a specific historical Matthew Passion, which was juncture and therefore could ‘rediscovered’ by Mendelssohn in equally dissolve when the 1829 and received by the German historical conditions that accom- public as one of the greatest of all panied its emergence begin to classical works, a sort of ‘Old’ dissipate. Already you might be Testament to the ‘New’ of thinking up problematic ques- Beethoven and his followers. tions as to when classical music Another strategy might be to note actually emerged. If it is essentially how earlier music may provide to be connected with concert-hall one or more of the vital strands practice and that sense of moral that contributed to an eventual self-improvement that the ‘full-blown’ culture of classical Germans termed Bildung, then its music: the development of an emergence would unequivocally official ‘canon’ of music within the have to belong to the late plainchant repertory; the succes- eighteenth century. This is the sive emergence of modality,

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polyphony and rhythmic complexi- direct connection with a specific ty; the implications of using text did not seem as secure as the notation. The place of music in reformers might initially have the Middle Ages as one of the imagined: for, by developing some scholastic seven liberal arts of the techniques of musical (indeed on the more prestigious, construction that had been theoretical side: the quadrivium) inherited from the sixteenth meant that music retained the century, music seemed capable of aura of its Pythagorean links to pursuing a life of its own, certainly the essential proportions of the paralleling human emotion and cosmos. The eventual emergence the implications of text, but not of classical music might well be a necessarily confining itself to sort of reoccupation of the these. In other words, however prestigious position music had much humanist reformers at the retained throughout the Middle end of the sixteenth century Ages, both in terms of cosmic (together with many later music theory and its ubiquity in liturgy, critics) might have prized music for court and civic life; this gave the its supposedly ‘natural’ qualities, music concerned a sense of what was becoming increasingly canonic identity. Therefore, there effective was precisely its artificial is no obvious point at which ‘early quality, its deviation and modifica- music’ ceased and ‘classical music’ tion of supposed natural began: as one model moved to principles. With this potential for the other, strands of the older and autonomy came the sense that newer conceptions lay side by musical works were individuals, side. following their own implications and potentials, and thus almost of Some aspects of classical music a piece with the individuality of culture may have been partly those who created it. Discrete accidental, in any case. At the musical works also began to outset of the seventeenth century, adopt a series of internal laws, music that was specifically geared checks and balances that paral- towards human emotion and leled Hobbes’s theory of the expression was very much in artificially structured state – in vogue: a product of humanism other words, something that that seemed to forsake lofty eschewed the immediate dictates cosmic ideals yet remained naïve of nature in order to mediate in its naturalism. This idiom was between the competing forms of soon to be heard in church, court power and authority. and the newly emerging public venues, particularly those associated with opera. Yet music’s

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Perhaps the most dynamic aspect about the western modernity that of this developing musical culture I propose is of a piece with was the tension between a sense classical music. First, modernity of the universal and the particular: itself is — in the wider course of music could articulate, represent, humanity — the exception rather or even actualise both a more than the rule, however much we conservative sense of an estab- might today use terms like lished order – that which ‘modern’ and ‘modernise’ as corresponds to pedagogic normative categories of unlimited method - and a radical sense of progress. The concept of moderni- individuality. It could develop a ty, which I am trying both to feeling of alienation, resistance or define and co-opt, might seem even opposition to the surround- unorthodox to some in the field ing orders. In other words, it of musicology, which has tended works dialectically in the way it to avoid the term as a broad seems to have an inbuilt contra- historical category and generally dictory nature, one which leads to associates the ‘modern’ with the results that can never quite specific stylistic category of accurately be predicted. If this ‘modernism’. This is applied to thumbnail sketch is accurate, it progressive music from the late describes a world of music utterly nineteenth century to the last remote from that of the suppos- decades of the twentieth. It may edly ‘modernised’ classroom, well be that musicologists have which mirrors the choices of its avoided engagement with students or engages them in a ‘modernity’ and all the broader range of practices cleansed of cultural issues that this implies didactic, methodical content. The because of the autonomy that idea of a music that has to do western music seems to have with human, spiritual or moral acquired through that very order and that – simultaneously – modernity, and specifically challenges, subverts or utterly through the intensified ideology opposes such orders, seems to be of modernism; namely, a sense an ontological category entirely that music stands apart from all foreign to a conception of music other considerations. that expresses the self with the Historians, on the other hand, apparent spontaneity of an have long used the broad unmediated bodily function. categorisation by which the Having looked at the way classical Ancient World is separated from music developed within specific the Modern World by the Middle historical parameters, what do Ages. Modernity thus has its these same conditions tell us beginnings in the era of the

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Renaissance and Reformation and were inaugurated within earlier is fed by the scientific revolution traditions, their eventual effect of the sixteenth and seventeenth being entirely unanticipated when centuries. Culturally, it surely has they first arose. Some theoretical some real presence in Montaigne, traditions usefully define moder- Shakepeare and Cervantes, the nity as a qualitative category — a philosophy of Locke, Hobbes, sort of attitude — rather than as Descartes and Spinoza. It reaches chronologically bounded, thus both a peak and a crisis at the allowing that elements of it might time of the Enlightenment and well appear in periods long before the French Revolution and the ‘post-Medieval’ age. This also thereafter forges ahead with the allows that there can be consider- industrial revolution and the able strength in ‘non-modern’ increasing dominance of capital- traditions within the age when ism. It is thus tempting to divide it modernity seems to dominate. into three historical phrases: the Indeed, it may be that modernity first dating from the sixteenth is healthiest when it interacts with century to the end of the eigh- traditions that it is either trying to teenth; the second, from the time surpass or that, in turn, challenge of the French Revolution to the it. This sort of modernity thus late nineteenth century; and the retains a dynamic quality which final phase characterised by could become ossified if that modernism. By this model, the which is modern finds no second phase would neatly resistance. In all, the precise coincide with Karol Berger’s bounds of modernity are depen- conception of ‘our’ modern music, dent on the sort of narrative one that which is traditionally termed adopts to explain it, as if it ‘classical’ and ‘romantic’ music. contains the seeds of a story that However, it is impossible to give can be unfolded in several ways. the concept of modernity hard Well-worn theories associate and fast chronological markers. modernity with various develop- While the Renaissance, with its ments in the way the cosmos was restoration of a lost antiquity, believed to cohere: foremost is could not be considered ‘modern’ perhaps the concept of ‘disen- in itself, its oppositional mecha- chantment’ (Max Weber’s famous nism could well have been term), a retreat from the magical significant, since this was indeed significance of the world and something that was soon to be human practices, the ‘extirpation engaged against the very antiquity of animism’ (Horkheimer and it previously envied. In other Adorno). With this came the view words, many aspects of modernity that the cosmos was not necessar-

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ily constructed entirely for almost always something which mankind’s benefit, so that a new works in counterpoint with non- form of human initiative is modern elements, the interaction required to render the natural often resulting in a change on world amenable to human both sides, an unpredictable purposes. This is what Hans synthesis that is itself rarely stable. Blumenberg terms the ‘burden of Roughly simultaneous with the self- assertion’. With the develop- beginnings of self assertion in the ment of the new scientific Renaissance and Reformation was method, it became necessary to the breakdown of the medieval adapt man to the impersonal chivalric tradition and the complex reality uncovered by repeatable customs and interactions of experimentation. But this various classes, dominated by distinction between reality and aristocratic and military etiquette. the human condition also Cervantes’ satire on the old order, brought with it the contrary Don Quixote, clearly demonstrates tendency: to adapt that reality to that this had irrevocably declined the needs and purposes of man. by the early seventeenth century. The most positive aspect to arise What is less certain is what the from this is the potential to see disintegration in this order reality as that which is most actual actually led to, although it clearly and immanent, rather than as left a space for new ways of something spreading well beyond defining the self. Some commen- our immediate experience; this is tators point to the steady what might give modernity its breakdown of the assumption of restless and ongoing energy. Yet, resemblance and interconnected- this supercharged sense of reality ness between all facets and often required a re-invention of dimensions of the world and the transcendent hidden reality to universe (something also central give it support and justification. to Cervantes’ satire). This has been While the birth of the nation state most famously theorised by is one of the most palpable Foucault in recent years, but was inventions of modernity, deriving already openly articulated by from its tendency to divide Descartes: “it is a frequent habit phenomena into manageable when we discover several resem- units, which are then rationally blances between two things, to governed as efficiently as possible, attribute to both equally, even on such units are invariably buoyed points in which they are in reality up by the reinvention of myths different, that which we have relating to their identity and recognised to be true of only one cohesion. Again, modernity is of them.” The concept of

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resemblance has undergone many of 1620. One gets the sense of forms of revival within even the the possibility of breaking out of strongest eras of modernity, most an enchanted circle of intercon- significantly in the various forms nected elements and that, having of musical Romanticism. Thus, chosen a direction in which to sail, again, modernity cannot be the journey could be potentially thought of as a monolithic endless. Pragmatically, separation movement, not inflected by could also be exercised in the survivals from the past and name of efficiency, something restorations in the present. Older most obviously demonstrated in elements often become spheres of the concept of division of labour knowledge and practice devel- necessary for industrialised oped along their own trajectories. societies. It was precisely this same Moreover, the inevitable tensions division of labour which facilitated between the various practices, the development of the modern ancient and modern, generate a symphony orchestra, where every sense of movement, whether player has a specific place and a positive and progressive or single instrument to perfect to the negative and alienating. highest possible level, through methodical practice of an If Descartes’ views reflect a approved pedagogical system. broader state of affairs in the mid- seventeenth century, this If, in one sense modernity led, breakdown in the system of through the division of labour, to resemblance may well have led to alienation for the individual, in the increasing autonomy of another way it led to a consolida- different activities and practices tion of the individual. Given that developed more for their own reality has to be constructed, as sense of coherence than for the much as it is duplicated or way they might automatically mirrored, the question of how it is relate to other things. The represented from each individual development of different activities viewpoint becomes more press- independently of one another ing, something obvious in the could, technically, be infinite and development of perspective in ongoing, thus engendering a painting. Modernity is thus sense of openness in terms of frequently related to the develop- both reality and the human mind. ment of instrumentalised Something of the excitement at rationality, the ability to adapt the opening of new horizons is rational principles from one captured by the print of the Pillars situation and apply them in of Hercules on the title page of another, thus progressing the Francis Bacon’s Instauratio Magna material comforts of humankind.

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Max Weber’s conception of equal are by definition good (like Plato’s temperament in music as an cosmos). Descartes’ move was to essential element of rationalisa- make such moral sources internal tion is, of course, particularly to the individual. This by no telling here. means excluded the divine origin of such internal moral sources, The standard accounts of the but made these independent of development of the human the order of the external world subject within modernity tend to and cosmos. Thus the essence of stress its sense of autonomy and modern ethical and political freedom from the constraint of thought was to lie in the subject’s the inherited orders into which it sense of his or her own dignity, was born; yet this has to negotiate something to be enhanced and with other subjects in order to developed over and above the achieve a society that is both disenchanted matter of the world. harmonious and progressive. This This was seeded in Descartes’ approach immediately risks a level conception of the subject and of generalisation, though: after later developed much more overtly all, were there not recognisable in the moral system of Kant. This human subjects before the is not to say that the modern mythical dividing line between subject is to take a reckless modernity and pre-modernity? Is attitude to the external world as not the variety of subjecthood something that is merely the within modernity so extremely plaything of subjectivity, but great as to render the concept of a rather that the orders of nature do ‘modern subject’ meaningless? not automatically determine our Charles Taylor links the growing inner nature, that our rationality sense of internalisation with the demands that we accept the turn against an external, pre- outside world in relation to the existent order that is ‘found’ and evidence it offers, our models for that determines our station and understanding it always being role in life, towards a form or subject to modification and order that is made with our own improvement. Rationality is thus minds; this is something made procedural rather than a substan- overt in Descartes’ work on tive, ready-perfected vision of subjectivity. reality. Of course, something of this Before turning more directly to inward turn was evident in the way that music might relate to Augustine, but there it was this sense of modern subjectivity, I coupled with a sense of the moral will briefly suggest another sources as lying outside us, which contextual element that arose at

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precisely the same time that represent actual people. This sort classical music came into being. I of internalisation is not necessarily would suggest that the sort of the direct identification that many music emerging with modernity critics of the bourgeois sensibility acquired much of its apparent of the novel have assumed, but power precisely through doing something much more open and musically what the modern novel flexible, enabling the reader to was doing textually, in other reflect on his or her own unfath- words, as a sort of fiction that omability in contrast to the brought its own, new form of knowability of the novelistic ‘truth’. Catherine Gallagher character. It is thus more an relates the development of the exercise in flexible self-creation ‘true’ fiction of the novel specifi- than one of recognising a cally to modernity, to that attitude completed model of oneself of speculation and scepticism behind the text. Moreover, as which led the reader of novels to Descartes tried to show in Le entertain speculations about the Monde, the notion of fictional believability of the characters and worlds becomes the prototype for actions, to hypothesise about the way we gain our knowledge motives and outcomes. This sort of the real world, as if we were of fictionality exercised the reader imitating God’s creative capabili- in gauging the likelihood of ties, trying them out on a fictional possible outcomes, something world in order to adapt them to vital in negotiating new forms of the real world. The representation commerce and enterprise. As she of the world becomes a form of perceptively puts it, ordinary metaphor, a representation of people had to exercise the ability what things ideally should look to suspend literal truth claims in like, rather than something order to accept paper money. Thus essentially of a piece with nature, most of the developments as metonymy. associated with modernity Having brought up the relation of required precisely the kind of music, not only to modernity as a ‘cognitive provisionality’ devel- broad cultural attitude, but also to oped in the novel, a sort of fiction the novel, I am perhaps beginning that was accepted and fostered to fall victim to a very common for some sort of practical conve- problem in recent music scholar- nience. The characters of novelistic ship. That is the tendency to fiction are open, inviting the translate music into other reader to bring them to life, phenomena, to reduce it to more internalised in a way that would concrete and readable models, be impossible were they to particularly the verbal. However,

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having used such models as exercising a form of consciousness analogies in order to bring music over time. And what is specifically out of its habitually autonomous significant about this form of territory, I now suggest that the consciousness is that it is pur- type of music I am addressing is posely artificial, based on fictional specifically important because it musical events. also helps to constitute modernity Let me suggest that ways in which in the very process of reflecting it. this form of artificial conscious- Taking the novelistic analogy as a ness is different from that of a starting point, it is clear that most premodern experience. One of the forms of music imply some sort of most perceptive accounts of narrative and also some sort of experience of the self in time from voice. Indeed, the latter can, as in the ancient world is Augustine’s novels, be quite multiple, but, self analysis of the recitation of a given the way lines and gestures psalm – thus something that can be combined simultaneously could well have been a musical in music, this can present multiple experience as much as verbal. He voices and associated viewpoints overcomes the problem of the in a way that is entirely unique. pinpoint subjectivity of the While some forms of musical present by noting the persistence narrative can come closer to the of the mind’s attention and how it novelistic than others — sonata is through this that the expected form for instance — what is passes into the memory. Before significant is that a narrative beginning a psalm, his faculty of element is palpable in music expectation engages the whole, precisely because it is performed but as he begins to recite, this in time. A listener will try to piece future expectation pours through together elements of narrative in the consciousness into the any music which contains a memory rather like the sand in an plethora of events and gestures. egg-timer. From the experience of Indeed, it is this stronger form of reciting a psalm, Augustine listenership – akin to the reader of abstracts the way we encounter a novel — that makes classical both small durations and longer, music so significant in the including life itself and the whole development of the modern history of mankind. Music, in this subject. In hearing relationships sort of consciousness, thus helps both between figure and ground to attune us to a greater reality – if the music profiles a specific that is entirely pre-given and to melodic line – and between events which the state of attention aligns passing in time, one is not just us. There are of course, many testing out a possible world, as other ways in which music can one might in reading a novel, but exercise our sense of being: dance

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music can regulate a predictable we are a symptom. Yet, in practice, flow of physical movements in the results can be entirely space as well as time; music can surprising. When Jesus speaks also be used to express precisely only three lines in the long second the feelings we are experiencing half of the St Matthew Passion, at any particular time, the type of we hardly notice his absence, person we believe ourselves to be since the large number of or the cultural group to which we emotionally-charged arias, sung belong or wish to belong. None by personages constructed in our of these modes — and more — present rather than in the past of are necessarily excluded in the the story, together point to him in culture of classical music, as I have their varied ways. Following been outlining it; rather I would Hobbes, we might infer that the suggest its crucial element is that monarch is constructed through of fictionality, of the construction the very authority of his free of a form of consciousness that is subjects, who together ‘authorise’ not merely an amplification or him through their own intensified confirmation of what is already subjectivity. Moreover, in the arias given or expected. themselves, there is a constant dialectic between the singers as I do not have time to do anything personages entirely dependent on more than sketch out what I mean the material of the music that by this relationship between brings them to presence and their classical music and modern melodic independence from this subjectivity. My current work web of musical connections. specifically addresses the passions of Bach, which are significant in And, as listeners, we hear these this regard since so much about abstract but emotionally-charged the intention lying behind them is personages emerge in the course surely of a pre-modern mindset: of their ariosos and arias, as texts concerning the universal musical characters who are built sinfulness of mankind, as a state up through conformity to a dating back to the beginnings of pattern, or deviation and repeti- human time; or the sovereignty of tion. Sometimes, these characters Jesus as something wound into acquire a sense of themselves the very fabric of the word and all through a subject–object duality, creation. Musically, too, the by which we hear an emotion or textures tend towards a consistent flow of tears represented in the web of harmonic certainty, music music, but viewed at a distance by which is so technically confident the singer. This same subject– that it might reflect the very object relationship can work at unseen structure of the cosmos the level of listening: we can that surrounds us and of which observe the construction of a

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musical subjectivity in time as an now directed towards a level of object from our own position, or synthesis and resolution, precisely we can make the same musical in the way many novels might be event part of our own subjectivity. structured. Again, it is not the Following the musical events of a ‘truth’ of the individual elements Bach aria can have a sense of that counts, but the way they directional narrative, although this relate, both combining and is much more a feature of later inflecting one another in a music, as Berger has shown. But, process we can both view in the way so much of the music is objectively and map as subjects in the manipulation and creative time. This is precisely the type of elaboration of an initial body of music which can absorb other sound, there is almost the sense musical influences and snatches that our expectation is exercised of song and which thereby through an increasing enlarge- become something entirely ment of our initial experience. The different within the course of the progress of the piece both musical fiction. In typically confirms and expands an initial ‘modern’ fashion, this music strips burst of musical consciousness, elements of folk music, dance, or deepening our experience as if in even ancient church polyphony, of concentric circles. This form of their supposedly natural ‘truth’ subjective consciousness is quite and constructs something that is a different from that performed by new type of fiction. As we map coordinating oneself with a given this music with our consciousness, reality, like Augustine’s recitation we might find ourselves facing of a psalm. Neither does it particular moral quandaries. How necessarily have a specific aim in are we to take it, for instance, mind, such as the anticipated when Mozart writes some of his resolution of opposing elements: most ravishingly beautiful music it is a sort of exercise in conscious- in his operas for characters we ness in and for itself. know are being flattering, dishonest or downright evil? Does Of course, my study of Bach the beauty of the music represent relates to what I would call the some sort of truth that belongs to earlier stages of musical moderni- us as listeners and which the ty. But similar issues would singer does not directly hear? Or emerge for the study of ‘classical does the music teach us that music’ proper and later types. The fiction is all we have, but it is up period of the later eighteenth to us whether we use it for good century brings in the obvious or ill? The crucial thing is that this linear features of sonata form, by music might encourage us to ask which the free and open dialecti- questions, feel ambiguities, try cal elements of earlier music are

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out characters, ones that we corrective. But, one could ask, might not otherwise have been might we also have lost a sort of able to experience. productive tension between different types of culture? Later music might radicalise the subject–object relations by My thesis that classical music is rendering the music quite alien to something exceptional, invented our own feelings or sensations, an within modernity, is substantiated independent entity that is neither by the fact that its canons belong the continuous cosmos of pre- largely to periods when modernity modernity nor the idealised has been most in the ascendant. bourgeois subject of the early Other western arts and intellectual nineteenth century. But there are traditions, on the other hand, countless ways in which this comprise a canon that stretches process might work; what they all back into antiquity. However much have in common is the tendency music was cultivated in the for the music concerned not to ancient world, even as something take its elements at face value, as with striking affective powers, it a form of truth continuous with never in any sense developed as a the rest of existence. They all body of exemplary works, and mostly presuppose a form of definitely none that went beyond attention that is bounded by a monophony. If we do accept my time frame. Many within the thesis of classical music as not modernist mindset tend to only reflective of modernity but assume that supremely autono- also part of its very constitution, mous music’s fictional truth is so we then have to accept that it also refined and honest in its own brings with it both the positive integrity that it in fact outdoes any and negative elements of that other kind of truth. It is supremely modernity. Human autonomy as true because it is so distanced something cultivated away from from the messy ambiguity of the what seems to be naturally rest of reality. With this in mind, it inherited is both wonderfully is easy to see how the later culture liberating and fulfilling, but also of classical music has so contribut- potentially oppressive and cruel. ed to its own sense of Artificiality enables us to escape exceptionality, the modernist naturalising prejudices and outlook assumed to apply to the achieve things in technology, art whole of this art of modernity, as I and thought that we might never might call it. From this point of have believed possible; yet it can view, the advent of a postmodern also take us so far away from our mindset, which undoes the necessary grounding in the world dichotomy of high and low that we are in danger of destroy- culture, has provided a healthy ing the environment that grounds

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our existence in the first place. content, since this would be to Universality, in the sense of read a meaning into something bringing differences together and that can carry no stable meaning. synthesising them into something Rather it is the mechanism that is new can both surpass the best the central issue: music in qualities of the contributing modernity combines elements, factions or intensify the worst; plays them off one another within moreover, it is very easy for a an artificial construction in such a dominant faction to claim way that the listener is invited, as successful synthesis of all the never before, to hear meanings, others and exterminate anything resonances and significance. This that remains, the cultural equiva- is music that seems positively to lent of colonialism, perhaps. I encourage a diversity of reception, would claim that it is classical since it can work in both rhetorical music that expresses, represents and dialectical relation to virtually and even constitutes all these anything we bring to it. In a things in musical time. One can rhetorical mode of listening it will easily think of examples where confirm our assumptions, beliefs classical music seemed to be co- or prejudices with remarkable opted as a force for the good — conviction and certainty; in the Beethoven’s evocation of the free dialectical it will put everything we human subject free from hierarchy assumed into question. If what is or domination, the various forms powerful about this music is of musical resistance to Stalinist essentially its mechanism, oppression — or for the worst — something similar to the thought the co-option of Wagner and processes of modernity, one can Bruckner by the Nazi regime. In its begin to understand how such historical use, then, classical music mechanism can be put to a variety might bring as many dangers as of uses. advantages, although it belongs So what is the fate of this culture to a modernity that is — we might in our own time? First, it is agree — ultimately more success- impossible that the conditions of, ful than not. If it were entirely a say, the early nineteenth century ‘safe’ sort of art, I doubt if it can be recreated in such a way would have the importance that I that the music has exactly the am trying to attribute to it. But, if same, seemingly beneficial, effects we are to believe that classical and cultural aura that it suppos- music contains a specific kernel of edly had then. The notion of cruelty — its origins in barbarism, ‘restoration’ is a sterile one if it is as Horkheimer and Adorno would believed to take us back to exactly have said — this could hardly refer where we were once before. On to specific aspects of musical the other hand, as I have argued

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elsewhere, the concept of potential to inflect whatever restoration in the present is presuppositions we bring towards considerably more promising if it it in new stages of reception. In becomes a part of our own this sense, it is not necessarily creative practice. There’s also a worn out as historical conditions sense in which restoration of past change, since its counterpoint of practices, values or ideas, helps to elements render it always already ground us in a feeling of historical something that is changing continuum that replaces some of whenever it is sounded. Thus, the the roots that the more aggressive presentation of existing classical forms of postmodernism have music in ways that may borrow tended to efface. Such roots from popular or non-western might be entirely false, or for musical practices is not necessarily some people, entirely alien to to be condemned wholesale. The their actual genealogy. But in same goes for new composition, many ways these roots are all we which can also benefit from have, synthesised as they are in interaction with other genres. But the wake of the alienation here the sense of the demise of a resulting from late modernity’s particular trajectory within purposive erasure of the past. modernity is particularly acute: Putting this more positively, until, say, the 1960s there was still historical roots of this kind are the sense that classical music had there for all to share, particularly gone through a sense of progress for those who have benefited stretching back to the late directly from some of the inclusive sixteenth-century. The tonal processes of western modernity harmonic language seemed to and can now claim a stake in a develop in ways that built upon cultural inheritance to which they gestures of the previous genera- were formerly denied access. Thus, tion, but broke certain rules in if there is any time to break with order to push the musical the truism that classical music is language forward towards more essentially a bourgeois phenome- complexity and expressive nuance. non, now is that time. To Schoenberg and his circle, the development of tonality towards Another point to consider is that free and, later, structured atonality what I have called ‘classical music’ was an historical inevitability. If we has always had the tendency to can still admire certain composers absorb and transform gestures — say Tchaikovsky and Elgar, or and vocabularies from other types those in the Italian opera tradition of music. The dialectical nature of from Rossini to Puccini — partly this music as a process heard in because they remained purposely real time means that it has the resistant to certain aspects of

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musical progress, and thus quite If classical music’s integrative modern in their own oppositional tendencies somehow survive in way, today it is exceptionally our time, even without its original difficult to tell whether a contem- sense of historical trajectory, we porary composer is progressive, might also reconsider its tradition- conservative, reactionary or avant- al forms of resistance to the garde. Ironically, composers who societal norm of its time (the same adopt the technical complexities could be said of popular music, of 1950s high modernism, or which is perhaps only in danger of indeed the aleatoric procedures of becoming ‘too popular’ to experimental music, might seem preserve its counter-cultural curiously old-fashioned, while credentials). Learning to play an some of those who write music in instrument, applying this tech- a simple, modal or neo-tonal style nique to a sometimes alien can seem up-to-date. With the repertory, developing a coordina- demise of its specific trajectories, tion of the physical and the then, the culture of classical music intellectual are all somewhat has clearly changed; but this is counter to much of the culture we something it shares with most of currently experience; none of the arts. Creative restoration of these activities has an immediate past practices together with purpose in our world of targets interaction with other forms of and measurable goals. But music are not merely options in bringing up a new generation ensuring its survival, they are that works towards ends that absolutely imperative. Perhaps, cannot, by definition, be mea- like modernity itself, classical sured, might perhaps help us music is not going to endure creatively to restore one particular- without some form of positive ly crucial strand of modernity: its effort. Contrary to the Lloyd striving for a world that tran- Webber view, its universality is scends inherited prejudices and hardly self-evident and definitely subverts the literalism of conve- not self-sufficient. nient, unthinking beliefs.

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Professor Miles Padgett 26 November 2007 Does God Play Dice?

This lecture took place at Wallacetown, Primary School, Falkirk as part of an RSE Roadshow, organised by the RSE’s Education Team. Professor Padgett also delivered this lecture at the Society on 1 September 2008 and a report is printed on page 187.

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Professor Ole Laerum CorrFRSE President, Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters and Professor of Experimental Pathology and Oncology, University of Bergen 3 December 2007 Cellular Clocks

Professor Laerum began by saying slowly start to drift. Exposure to that since there has been life on daylight is necessary to maintain earth, organisms have had to equilibrium in the rest of the adapt to variations in light, body. Light is, however, not the temperature and the changing only factor, as genetic and seasons. For many years it was environmental factors, such as observed that plants, animals and temperature, also influence these humans responded to changes in processes. light and temperature, but the Every organ in the body has its reason for this was unknown. own way of regulating time. The Then, around 10–15 years ago, it needs of the liver, for example, are was discovered that every single totally different from the needs of cell, not only in insects and higher the brain. Individual responses are animals, but also in the human thus required, but they all have to body, has a clockwork mechanism be co-ordinated with the rest of that can keep the time. The the body. The result is that each process is controlled by specific single cell in the body is co- genes. This led to an explosion in ordinated with the others. Social research and it was found that behaviour can also influence the cellular clocks can be found in all workings of this clock. Professor types of organisms. This is an Laerum said it is a very complex evolutionary development that mechanism, but the end result is a dates back 700 million years. person who is in equilibrium with There are nerve cells in the middle the outer world and all the cues to of the brain – the suprachiasmatic which he/she is exposed. nucleii – that Professor Laerum Melatonin, which is secreted by described as the ‘master clock’ the pineal gland during the night, which controls time regulation in plays an important role in this the body. This master clock is re- regulatory process. Production of set every day by pulses received melatonin results in, amongst from the retina of the eye in other effects, a reduction in blood response to daylight. Without this pressure and pulse rate and light stimulus, the cyclical processes within the body would

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feelings of drowsiness. Its main study of biological functions function is to prepare the body for related to time, in its broadest renewal during sleep. sense. Practically all the functions of the The gene suppression, stimulation body operate in different time or modification within cells means phases. For the heartbeat, it is a there are both negative and rhythmic process repeated every positive elements controlling second, whilst others follow a day/ functions in the cell. Professor night pattern and some are Laerum considered why this seasonal. So-called circadian should be important. He said cells rhythms are governed by cellular are complex systems with more clocks through specific genes. than 5,000–10,000 different There are eight main genes chemical process taking place, all involved which act by either of which need to be co-ordinated. suppressing, stimulating or Most of the time regulation that modifying circadian functions in takes place is for the internal use the cell. Around 10% of the of cells. nearly 30,000 genes in each He illustrated the variation that human cell are directly controlled can happen over time by examin- by these ‘clock’ genes, whilst ing changes in body temperature many others are under less direct throughout the day. It is at its secondary control. Cellular clocks lowest between 3 am and 5 am, act in most tissues and their main starts to increase as we wake up function is to help the body adjust and reaches a peak between 6 pm to the external environment. and 8 pm. There is a difference of There are two types of main time 0.6 degrees centigrade between function in the body – cyclic time, the maximum and minimum, where processes are repeated which he described as quite a periodically, and linear time, substantial variation. These where activity is induced but then variations are important, as there is halted, such as the growth are many daily functions that are phase at adolescence. Professor dependant on temperature. Laerum said his talk would However, experiments that have concentrate on cyclic variations. involved raising body temperature This has developed into an to try to influence certain func- extensive area of research which is tions have proved unsuccessful, as now called chronobiology – the these variations only occur in a restricted temperature range. Research has shown substantial circadian variations in many

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functions, including feelings of the world and may be connected well-being and happiness. A to changes in blood pressure and group of psychologists have even heart rate that occur around that examined when humans are at time. Resistance to pain is lower their happiest and have concluded throughout the night and doctors that it is at 3.20 in the afternoon! and nurses need to be aware of this, said Professor Laerum. Professor Laerum went on to Asthma is worst during the night describe the different cyclic and peaks in the summer months. variations of a number of Most children are born through- hormones in the human body out the night, as the onset of which rise and fall at various times labour most commonly occurs at of the day and night. His own that time. Most people also die research has involved trying to during the night, although the discover if stem cells vary in the reasons for this are not entirely same way as other cells. This has clear. People who are deprived of found that cell division in the normal cues provided by exposure bone marrow does vary through- to daylight can also suffer out the day and night and follows symptoms such as depression, a similar pattern to body tempera- sleep disorders and stress. This ture. Professor’s Laerum’s team can occur in people who are has also shown that it is possible exposed to continuous daylight in to induce clock gene activity in summer and continuous darkness stem cells which, he said, may be in winter. important for the treatment of various diseases. There is evidence In conclusion, Professor Laerum that clock gene activity can also be said traditional rural life was much influenced in cancer cells. This is more in tune with cyclic variations important, as it has been shown in nature. People started work that clock function is disturbed in when it got light and finished malignant cells, which may be why when darkness fell. Now modern they divide in an uncontrolled society had turned this upside fashion rather than at defined down. People today are becoming time periods. more and more dependent on electronic communication and Most diseases also have a periodic losing touch with the traditional component. They are not constant pattern of living. This may be a throughout the day or the year. disadvantage, but it may also have Cardiac infarction and angina, for advantages and Professor Laerum example, mostly occur at around said that discussion would be best ten o’clock in the morning. This left to the audience. has been observed throughout

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A short question session followed on an individual’s perception of in which Professor Laerum was the environment. Regular habits asked about the potential to give can also help. chemotherapy at specific time Professor Laerum was asked if periods to maximise its benefit. He there is a connection between said a large European trial of circadian rhythms and epileptic colon cancer has shown that such seizures. He said that there is a strategy delivered substantial some evidence that strong light improvements compared with stimulates the brain and can conventional therapy. However, induce epileptic seizures. In since then, new drugs have been addition, manic depressive illness developed and the question is more common in summer would have to be re-tested before months when light is strong. a final answer was produced. Another question asked how The next question related to the complex organisms have to be to implications for blind people have these clock functions. whose brains do not receive any Professor Laerum said clock genes cues from exposure to daylight. have been found in uni-cellular Professor Laerum said people who organisms. It seems to be a are totally blind usually get universal system in all types of disturbances. However, light is not cells, he concluded. the only factor, as variations in temperature can have an impact

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Johnny Ball 17 December 2007 Wobbling on the Shoulders of Giants

Johnny Ball started his public “demonised” carbon dioxide, that career as a stand-up comedian Al Gore has exaggerated rising and went on to become one of sea levels and that politicians Britain’s best-known TV present- should get out of science. He also ers, making science fun for argued strongly for nuclear power children. and asserted that wind power will not come close to the targets the The title of his RSE Christmas government recently set, describ- Lecture, supported by the ing the UK’s energy policy over the University of Edinburgh, was last few years as “a farce.” Wobbling on the Shoulders of Giants, and argued that too many Ball kicked off the evening by people today focus on “worry describing how most major science” rather than “wow breakthroughs in science are not science” – blaming science for achieved by individual geniuses, creating problems rather than but by successive generations who solving them... stand on the shoulders of others. To illustrate this, Ball used Newton Many in the audience had grown as the primary example – building up watching Johnny Ball on on the theories of Galileo and children’s television, and had been Kepler to reach his own conclu- inspired by him to study science. sions on gravitational motion. And after igniting a lively debate on global warming, Johnny came The use of props and volunteers under “friendly fire” from some to illustrate Newton’s achievement of his audience who had clearly made the lecture seem more like a been doing their homework. game show at times, and that is what gets Ball excited: “Science is Ball is an evangelist for science, supposed to be difficult,” he said, who declared at the start of his “but it’s so easy and so beauti- lecture that the most important ful.” subject you can learn at school is maths, and that maths will open Science also has the potential to doors to any future career. By the transform our everyday lives, Ball end of his talk, he had also suggested, but sometimes more declared that the “greens” have effort goes into Formula 1 than

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chemical formulae. “There is not Al Gore’s film An Inconvenient enough application of science in Truth predicted an imminent 20- areas that matter, like medicine,” feet rise in sea levels, but does this he said. take account of plate tectonics, Ball asked, adding that London Ball is also concerned about the has been sinking at a rate of 3mm way that science is depicted in the per year since the time of the media and has been “hijacked” Romans – or about 20 feet. by politicians. While “radiation has been our salvation,” accord- Wind power has been held up as ing to Ball, providing energy and the answer to most of our energy helping in medical treatment, the problems, said Ball. But according media portray it as a danger and to recent research, no wind farm the green lobby flatly rejects it. He has ever produced energy at even also said that nuclear waste is a 25 per cent of its potential, which much smaller problem than critics means that Britain’s target of 50 suggest, and lamented that France per cent may end up more like 10 now provides us with as much as per cent of total requirements. 10 per cent of our power, most of The new generation of nuclear it from nuclear reactors. reactors, said Ball, is eight times More controversially, Ball also more efficient than the first talked about climate change, generation, producing 10 per cent claiming that the merchants of of the waste that it used to “doom and gloom” were produce. The reactors are also harming the image of science. four times smaller than they used “Greenpeace have demonised to be and quicker to build. “So carbon dioxide,” he said, adding why wind not nuclear?” Ball that CO2 is only one 3,000th of asked. the atmosphere and is a tempera- Scotland also came under attack, ture retardant, not a warmer. with Ball suggesting that over the He also questioned how we last year, instead of providing the measure temperature changes to south with five per cent of its start with, pointing out that cities power requirements, we now are hot spots which may distort import power from England. readings. Then he claimed that The efficiency of power stations recent floods in Bangladesh were using fossil fuels has improved by probably caused by geographical over 60 per cent over the last 12 factors, rather than by rising sea years, claimed Ball, adding that levels as a result of global providing cheap electricity to warming, as some people claim. developing countries would lift them out of poverty faster than financial aid. 135 Review of the Session 2007-2008

“If we use technology, and turn critics. At the end of his lecture, one child in 20 into a scientist, he patiently debated the issues then we would achieve much with a number of people who had more than energy cuts,” Ball stayed behind to comment – both continued, saying that seven out for and against. of ten experiments in classrooms Several audience members were today are “worry science, not wow concerned that Ball was advocat- science.” ing points of view based on “bad “Climate change has been science,” while others said that he outrageously overstated, especial- was right to criticise the bad ly by politicians,” Ball concluded. science used by the greens, and “But the future is brilliant!” raise important questions that are sometimes ignored in the frenzy Even though he may have ruffled for “end is nigh” headlines. a few people’s feathers, no-one could accuse Ball of dodging his

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Professor Geoffrey Boulton, OBE FRS FRSE Vice-Principal and Regius Professor of Geology and Mineralogy, University of Edinburgh 12 February 2008 Science, Innovation, Education: The Challenge to Society Edinburgh Consortium for Rural Research (ECRR) Peter Wilson Lecture

The Enlightenment has posed hitherto incurable diseases humankind with a dilemma. The emerge, to computers capable of scientific knowledge we gained as undertaking calculations in a result of the Enlightenment fractions of a second that just 20 empowered our species, but that years ago would have taken in turn has brought us to the months. The communications brink of overexploiting our planet. revolution is currently changing In a wide-ranging lecture, global perception and awareness. Professor Boulton argued that the While some hope this new world Enlightenment also equipped us of information will foster with the means to resolve the tolerance and understanding, dilemma and that universities others are more pessimistic, should play a central role in claiming it is actually increasing meeting the challenge. disparities of wealth and is ill- matched to our political structures It was technology that saved our and cultural assumptions. hominid ancestors from the Professor Boulton said: “It is uncompromising tread of certainly a world where moral, evolutionary extinction. But it is social and political progress has only in recent years that the levers not kept pace with our mastery by which humankind has over the physical world.” attempted to move the earth have been underpinned by science. Predicting future technology is a Today, from communications to dangerous pursuit, he said. For biotechnology, the endeavour is this reason, planning a national overwhelmingly based on science base by picking winners is scientific knowledge, driven, a disastrously bad strategy. Much Professor Boulton argued, by the better, he advised, to place a wide same rational, emperically-based range of bets by funding a broad approaches to understanding that spectrum of activity. Scotland has fuelled the Enlightenment. an excellent research base in its institutes and universities – first, Much had been achieved, from a in the world of citations of deep knowledge of the chemical published papers in relation to basis of life from which cures for

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gross domestic product, secondly we make on our planet seem to for the impact of that research be approaching its sustainable and thirdly for productivity. And in capacity. Fifty per cent of all the some respects, those same primary productivity of the institutes and universities have continents is being sequestered become better than even those in for our use, along with sixty five the US at licensing intellectual per cent of all usable fresh water. property and spin-out companies. Humankind is now a major geologic agent, each year moving “Nevertheless”, Professor Boulton as much mass of the Earth as the observed: “that strength is a ice sheets, rivers and oceans. necessary but sadly not sufficient “Some suppose that we have basis for knowledge-based entered a new geological epoch economic growth,” and he which we might call the labelled Scotland’s performance in Anthropocene,” he said. commercially exploiting such strengths as “quite lamentable”. Professor Boulton noted that this Even in the most research- “engineering of the planet” over intensive industries, Scottish the last century or so has been companies spend less on research based on ignorance. But with a and development than their global population of 6.5 billion, counterparts elsewhere in the UK. projected to rise to nine billion by He suggested that the process of 2050, there is no turning back. public procurement can stimulate “We have, in my view, no option the demand for the products of but to continue with that research and development in engineering, but with knowledge industry. But there is another side and wisdom.” The key is to break to this coin. “The application of down the popular but dangerous science, fired no doubt by distinction between the natural Enlightenment ideals of progress, Earth, of which humankind is has eaten seriously into the Earth’s somehow not a part, and our accumulated capital.” own, unnatural Earth. “We are now a fundamental agency in Technology now permits people nature and we have to to utilise on average twenty times concentrate ourselves on some of the amount of power than was the profound political, available to the fittest of our philosophical, social and scientific hunter-gatherer ancestors. issues that that understanding Humankind used ten times more requires us to address,” he said. energy in the 20th century than in Scientists and others have to make the preceding 100 centuries. their understanding of such While we are healthier and better matters clear to both the public fed than ever before, the demands and politicians. To do so requires

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an end to the tribal differences Analysing complex systems such between scientists and social as climate requires a new, more scientists so they can work holistic approach to science. But together at the interface between scientists have already developed public policy and scientific the technology required to do this understanding. – the computer model. The importance of the model is now The most profound issue is on a par with the experiment and climate. “I believe that we can theory that have constituted the currently say that the probability scientific method since the of severe climate change with Enlightenment. “In my view, there massive impacts is uncomfortably has been an almost unnoticed high,” Professor Boulton said. scientific revolution in the last 20– “And there’s a high probability 30 years. For the first time, we can that these changes are driven by analyse coupled, nonlinear, human action, by our emissions of complex systems, which are the greenhouse gases.” The evidence open systems of everyday reality.” is compelling and the latest data The situation has created an shows that the increase in interdisciplinary imperative that is emissions is greater than the most overwhelming. But he said that pessimistic scenario explored by society had been very slow in the Intergovernmental Panel on finding ways to embrace this. Climate Change. “The implication of this is clear – although the The universities, with their great mitigation of change by pulling breadth of knowledge, are ideally back our emissions is crucially suited to respond to this important, we must now think challenge. “They have the seriously about adaptation. In potential to reconfigure the way addition, there is also the in which they work, to put teams possibility of a sudden shift in together to address the many climate”. transdisciplinary issues that now face us.” “We have to recognise that the more the Earth moves into But they have been held back by unknown territory, the less our the principal sources of their science will be able to forecast the funding that keep everything in future,” Professor Boulton said. clearly defined silos, as well as by “It is unwise to poke a potentially the conservatism of academic dangerous animal with a stick, institutions. “One might say that which is effectively what we are changing a university is like doing.” moving a graveyard – you get very little help from the people inside.”

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The impact of science on society of many government agendas makes it vital that science be more around the world, they are of a public and less of a private increasingly being guided by the enterprise. This makes it crucial for conditions attached to their scientists to engage more. funding towards producing specific marketable commodities But there were widespread public for their customers, be they misapprehensions about science, students, businesses or the state. such as the uncertainty involved in scientific knowledge. This causes This is a mistake. Professor problems when the science is Boulton said that universities difficult, the stakes high and the could only be one, possibly decisions urgent – as was the case catalytic, part of the process of with BSE. producing a successful knowledge economy. Furthermore, there is distrust surrounding some of the Rather, their central role should powerful impacts that science remain the task of making might have on society, such as the generation after generation of issues thrown up by the cloning students think, giving them the of a single sheep. ability to reduce chaotic information down to identifiable Professor Boulton said he problems that might be resolved disagreed with those scientists through rational argument who believed that if they could supported by evidence. “The only make the public understand point is to direct a student’s the science, they would support attention to that which, at first, its proponents. exceeds their grasp but whose “If the Scottish government is to compelling fascination draws make some of the difficult them after it. A combination of decisions that it needs to make, deep personal understanding and such as, for example, in relation to technical skills is a powerful climate change and energy alchemy that sustains a creative generation, it will need to engage and innovative society,” he said. with the public to achieve public The immediate demands of today consent – and the scientific are inevitably myopic, often research community must be ephemeral and give little thought willing agents of that for tomorrow. Universities at their engagement,” he said. most creative provide a vital Universities have a central role to resource for that future as well as play. But while they have moved an insurance against it. Professor from the periphery to the centre Boulton said that the freethinking

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university is being confronted by a maintaining a functioning new fundamentalism that finds democracy capable of taking the questioning of rational inquiry decisions as the old habits of less comfortable than the certainty command and control fade. “We of dogma and revelation. are moving into a world where decisions are going to be required But he believes it is important not and a society that is unable to to become too defensive and take them is likely to be a think ourselves into a conflict of derivative society unable to cope civilisations. Instead, it is necessary with the challenges of the to reassert our commitment to a future.” common European ideal that fair and open societies can resolve Sir Michael Atiyah, President of legitimate competition between the RSE, asked whether the individuals and groups. “I believe Enlightenment could be that one of the few things that transplanted into other cultures. stand between us and an He suggested that different accelerated descent into darkness models might be needed. is the set of values inherited from Professor Boulton responded that the Enlightenment. It is the only the West should not be too foundation for the aspiration to prescriptive and there were other build societies for all human routes being sought towards beings to live anywhere on this development. Nevertheless, he Earth for the common efforts to insisted: “If you detach some of sustain that life and for the the principles of Enlightenment assertion and defence of their thinking from the cultural base, I human rights as persons.” think there is an echo.” In answer to questions from the floor, Professor Boulton noted that one of the great challenges our society now faces is

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Captain Chris Air and Lance Corporal Jason Hare 45 Commando Royal Marines 27 February 2008 Arbroath High School The Commandos from Arbroath – Famous Campaigns

From the frozen wastes of Norway “It was six miles from the railway to the deserts of Afghanistan, this station at Spean Bridge to the two-part lecture looked at the base. They got off the train in history and present-day reality of boots and carrying full kit and had one of the most famous units in exactly one hour to run to the Britain’s armed forces. Capt Air base. After 60 minutes the gates and LCpl Hare provided a vivid were shut and anyone arriving account of the role that the after that time would be denied Arbroath-based 45 Commando access,” said Capt Air. has played in many parts of the Members of the unit, known as world. In some cases they have ‘4-5 Commando’, rapidly earned a played a crucial part in fighting reputation for personal courage wars, at other times they have as well as toughness. One been peace-keepers, or brought example was from Monforterbeek, relief in the wake of natural in Holland, in 1945, when medical disasters. orderly LCpl H E Harden was The brainchild of Winston awarded a posthumous Victoria Churchill, 45 Commando began Cross after crawling 120 yards life in1943 as a unit designed for through the snow to dress the raiding the Nazi-occupied ports of wounds of three comrades, and Continental Europe. carrying one of them back under heavy mortar fire. Capt Air described many of the conflicts with which they had Throughout the second half of been involved from World War II the 20th century there were through to the Troubles in deployments in many of the Northern Ireland and more world’s trouble spots. These recently in Iraq. included conflicts that shaped the political map of the world such as Their reputation as an elite force Korea and Suez. was established from the very start, when those who wanted to Since 1972, each tour of duty has join faced a major challenge to meant a return to home base in even get inside the Commando Arbroath, a town from where the training base at Achnacarry.

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captain said they drew enormous said Capt Air. In the years since tremendous strength and the 11 September attack on the support. World Trade Center, 45 Comman- do have been closely involved with During the Cold War 45 Com- the UK’s anti-terrorism operations. mando became renowned as Members of the unit were Arctic Warfare specialists, with all involved in the Second Gulf War members undergoing extensive and contributed to the swift training in the mountains of defeat of Saddam Hussein’s Norway. This tradition is main- forces. tained to the present day as superb preparation for anything They were also active in Kosovo, at else a Royal Marine is likely to that time a province of Serbia, encounter. where they helped keep peace between rival Albanian and Capt Air said: “We still train there Serbian factions. In Nicaragua and because it is so demanding and Honduras they were able to bring prepares you for extreme condi- aid to the victims of Hurricane tions anywhere in the world. It Mitch. teaches you to survive anywhere and gives you that mental “We don’t just fight wars. We toughness that you need.” provide help and support in many different situations, whether it’s This was displayed in 1982 when peacekeeping in areas of human 45 Commando were pivotal in the conflict or relief work after natural liberation of the Falkland Islands. disasters,” said Capt Air. After a long march through a hostile environment they took key In the second part of the lecture Argentinean positions on high LCpl Hare described his own ground known as the Two Sisters experiences during two tours of during a rapid night attack. Soon duty in Afghanistan. afterwards they were welcomed by This was accompanied by footage islanders as they marched of comrades on patrol, in bases, victorious into the capital of Port enjoying meals with local people, Stanley. In the 1990s, following and under enemy fire. In 2002 45 the first Gulf War, they found Commando conducted Operation themselves in very different Jacana, which was designed to circumstances, when they force out Taleban and Al Qaeda protected Iraqi Kurds. “We were fighters and destroy their part of Operation Safe Haven, weapons caches. providing a safety zone in Northern Iraq for the Kurds when “The type of work involved going Saddam Hussein’s police were into villages, having a sit down slaughtering all the refugees,” with the local warlords and tribal

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leaders; we also gave medical with the Afghan National Army. treatment, and were gathering a We were showing them how to bit of intelligence at the same patrol and police so they can learn time. to handle these problems for themselves. And then we were “It was harsh terrain and a harsh giving them a bit of advice on climate that we were soldiering in how to handle the enemy.” as we searched for the Taleban, who had basically done a runner Apologising in advance for the into the mountains of Pakistan,” language used by some of the said Cpl Hare. troops in a recording of engage- ments with the Taleban, Cpl Hare The unit’s training in Scandinavia said: “We are boys, and we do get proved enormously valuable in a bit excited. But this shows the Afghanistan, as did its experience nitty gritty of it, out there taking in presenting itself as a force for the fight to the enemy.” peace. He again emphasised that modern Past experience in politically tense conflict situations are highly areas such as Northern Ireland has complex and are as much about provided a vital understanding of supporting local populations and the need to win hearts and minds rebuilding infrastructure as they – especially among people living are about fighting. “We have to in fear of reprisals from the other be prepared for anything, any side. kind of incident at any time. The “Most of the Afghans welcomed situation you find yourself in can us, they wanted us there. But they change completely from day to were afraid, especially after all day.” The Lance Corporal also those years living under the highlighted the importance of Taleban, and with all the propa- relationships between 45 ganda and not knowing who to Commando and the people of believe,” said Cpl Hare. Arbroath as vital to troops’ morale. More recently, he has served as part of Operation Herrick in “When we came home there were Helmund Province, where 45 no big parades through the town Commando has been engaged in or anything. But we felt our heavy fighting to oust the Taleban efforts were appreciated. People and help the democratically sometimes stop you in the street, elected government establish shake your hand and say ‘well control. “The tasks we had saw done Royals’, or even do what we groups of our lads in Military like the best and buy us a pint,” Operation Liaison Teams working said LCpl Hare.

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Following the lecture there was a experience of previous genera- vote of thanks by the Rector of tions. He added that working in Arbroath High School and an Northern Ireland, and other open question and answer places, had taught them the value session. Asked if they had learned of trying to earn the trust of anything from the tactics of civilians. Taleban and Al Qaeda, LCpl Hare On the issue of equipment levels said British forces have been for front line troops the soldiers involved in conflicts in Afghani- said that these are improving. And stan a number of times and were they added that the way the always aware that Afghans are British Army operates relies as hard and resilient fighters. much on high-quality intelligence, The Royal Marines responded to a and superb training as on having question about whether the local the latest equipment. community could do more to Final thanks to the speakers was support them by thanking people offered by Sue Black OBE, for their efforts and saying they Professor of Anatomy and felt highly valued – which was why Forensic Anthropology at the so many chose to settle in the University of Dundee, who had town after returning to civilian chaired the lecture. life. She added that her own experi- Asked about the reaction they got ence of working in Iraq had from ordinary Afghans, LCpl Hare shown her just how accomplished said it tended to be very positive British forces are at winning the and supportive, with most confidence of local people. wanting peace, stability and Professor Black expressed reconstruction rather than a appreciation for the work 45 return to Taleban rule. Questioned Commando does on behalf of the about how Northern Ireland had British people saying LCpl Hare’s contributed to 45 Commando’s modest comments were “among skills, Capt Air said that the unit the greatest understatements” always tried to learn from she had heard at an RSE lecture.

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Mr Douglas Anderson Founder, Optos plc 10 March 2008 Optos: The Design Challenges and Business Tribulations Joint Lecture with the Royal Academy of Engineering

Optomap® is a totally new (and Un-dilated retinal exams are by disruptive) eye imaging technolo- their nature of low sensitivity gy aimed to improve preventative causing a large number of diagnosis of eye and general patients to be referred unneces- health problems. Based upon his sarily (60%) into secondary care at personal experience of observing considerable inconvenience and difficult manual eye exams cost to all concerned (cost per undertaken on his five-year-old initial referral to the PCT typically son, Douglas Anderson will £100+). The high level of false describe the history and the positive referrals adds very secrets of the whole Optos story significantly to waiting lists, which from sceptics originally saying “it can be in excess of 22 weeks for is impossible and not needed non-urgent cases. anyway” right through the 15 Equally, because of the low year innovation and entrepreneur- sensitivity of un-dilated manual ial processes. exams, many cases of clinical Today Optos (now LSE list plc) significance go undetected until have 3000 users and over 13 the patient’s vision is badly million patients have benefited affected. Late detection and from this new type of eye exam. referral in many cases, for example, Diabetic Retinopathy Examination of the retina is (DR), Age Related Macular normally conducted manually in Degeneration (AMD), Inter Ocular one of two ways. tumours etc, will often result in Either without dilating the pupil - poor outcomes for the patients, this is normally the standard in with high quality of life impact primary eyecare (optometry), or and cost to the community. In after dilating the pupil - in the UK many other developed healthcare this is normally only done within systems, for instance, the US and the hospital setting by an Germany, dilated exams are the ophthalmologist. norm for practitioners in the primary care setting. Today there are many emerging advances in treatment possibilities (some

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driven by Optos technology) that the patient after findings of no use new pharmacological (such as clinical significance. It is worth anti - VEGF) or less dramatic noting that the diagnostic skills of surgical interventions (focal laser). Optomap® users accelerate These treatment possibilities are quickly, and clear referral most effective when the condition thresholds are greatly helped is identified early. Optos technolo- when practitioners have on-screen gy makes it possible for a image content to work with. practitioner in primary eye care to There is an unjustified fear from consistently and comprehensively some UK ophthalmologists that capture early indicators of retinal Optomap® technology will and systemic diseases evidenced actually increase referrals. While in the retina (without the need to early users find much more dilate the patient’s pupil) at a level pathology, they quickly learn of sensitivity that would normally those of low clinical significance only be accessible to a fully skilled (Optos provides online and other ophthalmologist or retinal diagnostic support for this specialist conducting an advanced purpose). In a limited trial in the (dilated) manual examination. Scottish borders the rate of For Optos technology to be used physical referral was down 40%. to its greatest effectiveness Optomap® technology is clinically (and with cost benefit to intended to be placed in primary the NHS) in detecting early disease eyecare locations (high street and reducing false referral rates, opticians, Diabetic screening its output (known as an centres) where patients have easy Optomap® - essentially a high access, either as walk-ins with detailed picture of 80%+ of the symptoms or because they are total retinal surface), needs referred by GPs or, most often, adequate interpretation skills to because they are going for routine be available. Sometimes these are annual Optomap® exams as part present in the primary eyecare of Optos’ partners ‘Wellness’ location and sometimes not. programme. Under Optos’ Where the skills are not adequate, protocol of annual retinal an internet link to the secondary examination, practitioners look for care ophthalmology setting is early eye and general health hugely effective in obtaining fast disease indicators. When signifi- diagnostic support; examples of cant pathology is found, the which might be to (a) send the patient may be referred immedi- patient for urgent attention, or (b) ately (electronically) for a second hold the patient and examine opinion from a local or geograph- again in six months, or (c) release ically remote secondary care

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specialist, and a decision made as Cancer, Inter Ocular tumours, to the necessity and urgency of Leukaemia, Stroke Risk and many physical referral. The second others. opinion can generally be obtained Because the Optomap® Retinal the same day. This compares with Exam is accessible, fast, non - the conventional route via a letter intrusive and does not require posted to their GP, often contain- pupil dilation, annual compliance ing little diagnostic information, is high. It is part of the annual requesting referral to a consultant Wellness protocol that clinicians ophthalmologist that may result also invest time in helping in a protracted waiting period for patients understand the conse- the patient to be seen. quences of the disease they may The Optomap® retinal exam is have or the fact that they are in designed to be a fast and very fact healthy, using the on-screen patient-friendly experience, even Optomap® image. This for young children. It is capable of educational experience is univer- detecting a huge range of eye and sally embraced by patients and systemic diseases that present greatly improves their sense of indicators in the eye often while being well cared for. The fact that the disease is otherwise totally the practitioner also has a datum asymptomatic. These include for future comparison is hugely Diabetic Retinopathy, AMD, helpful for long-term patient Glaucoma, Hypertension, management. Cardiovascular disease, Bowel

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The Rt Hon Lord Fraser of Carmyllie QC Formerly MP for Angus, Minister of State at the Scottish Office, Minister for Energy and Shadow Leader of the House of Lords Currently a Privy Councillor, Honorary Visiting Professor of Law at Dundee University, Honorary Bencher of Lincoln’s Inn, London and member of the Scottish Broadcasting Commission 25 March 2008 The Red Lichties and their Impact on the Rest of the World

The American Declaration of guished his furnace fire. The Independence, lawn tennis – and workmen’s spirit of determination even the adhesive postage stamp left its mark on history. – all owe much to Red Lichties. So too did the efforts of the The Arbroath area has produced Reverend Patrick Bell, 19th century more than its fair share of great minister of Carmyllie who, men and women across the witnessing the backbreaking centuries. Lord Fraser offered an efforts of agricultural labourers, informative and entertaining was inspired to invent the reaping insight into the lives and work of machine. “When you next see an some of them, from the 18th American movie with a massive century to the present day. Not all combine harvester working its way are widely known, but each across vast prairie-like fields, it’s helped shape the modern world. worth remembering that the basic Whether their names are celebrat- principles on which it operates ed or forgotten, Red Lichties have have changed very little from the long displayed a gift for inventive- days of Bell,” said Lord Fraser. ness and hard work. Lord Fraser The audience had been welcomed underlined the point by choosing into the lecture theatre to the the oldest sea-washed lighthouse sound of Bob Dylan’s From a Buick in the world – at Bell Rock – as the 6, a song that could never have backdrop to his lecture. Thanks to been written had it not been for a the fine workmanship of the Red Lichtie. David Dunbar Buick stonecutters of Arbroath, it has was described by Lord Fraser as withstood the fury of the North the maker of “the finest and most Sea for two centuries. The beautiful motor cars the world has blacksmith whose metalwork was ever seen” and was founding equally vital to its strength had father of General Motors. He just six hours day in which to work reflected that the $10 million that before the rising tides extin- Buick was worth in 1920 meant his fortune was greater than that

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of 21st Century Microsoft for the academic world: “He was billionaire Bill Gates. Regrettably, so brilliant in all that he did that like some other Red Lichties, his all the foundations of modern capacity for inventiveness was not university teaching are probably matched by business sense and attributable to him.” Yet this was Buick died poor. just one aspect of his influence. Before applying his talents to the Among Small’s students was motor industry, he had worked future American President and co- out how to attach enamel to cast author of the Declaration of iron. The technique was applied Independence Thomas Jefferson. to everything from typewriters to Jefferson praised Small as the man the once-ubiquitous enamelled “who probably fixed the destinies baths that, after being eclipsed by of my life”. plastic, are now back in fashion as More than this, he stands behind expensive and sought-after the founding vision of a nation as, features for period bathrooms. according to Lord Fraser, it was the “Most of us would have been ideas that he developed in the perfectly satisfied if we had just intellectual foment of Enlighten- done that much for humanity, but ment Scotland that were the basis to have also been the founder of of the Declaration of Indepen- the greatest automotive company dence. “I always thought that this that ever existed seems to me to document broke new ground, not have been quite, quite remark- only in its beauty and simplicity of able.” expression, but also in its Shifting from the realm of profundity of intellectual thought. manufacturing to moral philoso- But I later realised that I was phy, the next in what Lord Fraser wrong. There is nothing new in described as a “personal and that declaration. It was all from idiosyncratic” selection of great Scotland. It had all been thought figures from Arbroath was William about and argued about many Small. As a young man of 24 he years before Small went across.” crossed the seas for a post at the Another man who allowed others William and Mary College in to fulfil his dreams was engineer Britain’s American colony of James Shanks, whose lawnmow- Virginia where, despite malaria, he ers included a roller, so they blossomed. The insanity of the flattened as well as cut the grass. head of the college and indiffer- This innovation made possible the ence of its deputy meant that development of the smooth Small was forced to take up the playing surfaces needed for the reins. Fraser claimed this daunting emergence of lawn tennis. task yielded an invaluable legacy Displaying an early machine,

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around 120 years old, Lord Fraser fascination for astronomy and said that without Shanks there religion – ultimately being would be no Wimbledon and granted a pension by Queen Roger Federer may have grown up Victoria for his contribution to as an Alpine goatherd rather than science. a sporting champion. The idea And the town’s fame continues was a winner, but the business into the modern age. ultimately failed. This may partly have been because the first Lord Fraser cited the Arbroath Shanks mowers were so good Smokie as a culinary dish so they never needed to be replaced. excellent the French have just about adopted it as their own. Just as revolutionary was the contribution of James Chalmers, It also has a famous daughter to whom Lord Fraser lauded as the celebrate in Professor Anne man behind the sticky postage Glover, Scotland’s Chief Scientific stamp, ahead of rival claimant Sir Advisor, who also has a Chair in Rowland Hill. molecular and cell biology at the University of Aberdeen. Paying Another Red Lichtie who has tribute to her trailblazing career tended to be eclipsed by the fame Lord Fraser said: “She is a leading- of another was James Bowman edge scientist who was born and Lindsay. He was the first person to bred in this place, and she is discover how to create light by simply mega-brilliant. And it is putting electricity through a wonderful to think that we have vacuum – and publicly demon- someone like her to carry forward strated how it worked at the the great Red Lichtie traditions.” Thistle Hall, Dundee. Despite being in a position to revolution- Following the lecture there was a ise the world with the light bulb, vote of thanks by Principal of he failed to patent the idea. It was Angus College, John Burt OBE, thus left to American Thomas followed by an open question and Edison to bring electric light to answer session chaired by the world. With little obvious Professor Jan MacDonald, Vice- interest in commercial possibilities President of the RSE. Lindsay, who Lord Fraser describes Asked if Arbroath was still as a “man of unbelievable producing as many figures of such genius” instead devoted some 34 scientific note as in the past, Lord years to compiling a now- Fraser said he believed people of forgotten dictionary in 50 the same abilities were still out languages. Nonetheless he is still there. However, the efforts of the remembered as a pioneer of individual are often not as telegraphy and also had a

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obvious as in the past because the BBC’s Jeremy Paxman that the people work in teams and their Scots are set on running England, careers tend to be in highly adding “and nae bad thing specialised areas. either!” On the subject of the influence of Asked which of the figures, or the Shanks lawnmower overseas, inventions, he had spoken about Lord Fraser agreed that they were he would most like with him on a popular in places such as the desert island, Lord Fraser opted Indian region of Assam and even for either Small or Buick. Round- in the Middle East. ing off the evening, Professor MacDonald said she believed that Lord Fraser was questioned on while his intellect opted for the whether great Scots often seemed philosopher, his heart was with to be poor in enterprise. He the Buick 6. agreed that this often seemed to be the case, but cited the claim by

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Professor Deborah Howard University of Cambridge 21 April 2008 Architectural Politics in Renaissance Venice

When we visit Venice and marvel idea that states use the magnifi- at some of her most beautiful cence of their public buildings to buildings, we may assume that help communicate their political they were planned and built in a ideals to the public and the wider measured and coherent way. But world – and that the nobles this is not necessarily the case, apparently making the building says Professor Deborah Howard, decisions are selfless individuals, who, in a fascinating lecture to dedicated to the state. The Royal Society of Edinburgh, Seeking to scrutinise these ideas, described the ‘messy’ and using the example of later 16th ‘intricate’ processes which led to century Venice, Professor Howard some of the city’s most famous showed how other influences landmarks, exploding some myths were brought to bear on the in the process. building process. These included Venice in the 16th century was the factors such as religious feeling, a scene of some of the most growing admiration for technical ambitious public building advances over traditional classical programmes in early modern erudition and, importantly, the Europe. What is more, there are workings of democracy, including contemporary parallels. Professor lengthy consultations. Howard’s Edinburgh audience Professor Howard used four case winced, for example, when she studies. These were the building asked if public confidence could of the Redentore, a votive church be sustained by elaborate built as a result of a vow taken building projects or sapped by during the plague of 1575-76; their failure. This, of course, is a the restoration of the Doge’s question which has particular Palace after the fire of 1577; the resonance in a country still rebuilding of procurators’ smarting from the over-budget lodgings in St Mark’s Square; and Scottish Parliament building. the rebuilding of the Rialto Many myths and ideas have Bridge. All illustrated how political grown up around the politics of processes and changing ideas architecture. These include the could lead to outcomes widely at

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odds with initial visions. They also leading Professor Howard to draw showed how the classical comparisons with the rising costs influences brought to bear by the of the Scottish Parliament architect and proto (building building. The church was built at a supervisor) Sansovino (responsible time, however, where natural and for many great Venetian buildings) other disasters such as floods, in the earlier part of the century fires and, of course, the plague, were to fade away. made the ‘wrath of God’ some- thing to be feared. It was, said The Redentore Professor Howard, difficult to The plague of 1575–76 wiped out question expenditure in these a third of the population of circumstances. Venice. At its height, the Senate Rebuilding the Palazzo Ducale vowed that it would build a votive church to Christ the Redeemer, Palladio was less successful in which the Doge would attend winning support for his proposed annually to mark the end of the radical rebuilding to the Palazzo plague. But there was huge Ducale or Doge’s Palace, following debate over where it should be the fire of 1577. Proposals for a and how it should be built. grandly classical new building were thrown aside in favour of a There were two main opposing simpler – and much cheaper – factions: the politically radical reconstruction of the existing Giovani (literally youth), who were medieval palace. Many technical nevertheless culturally conserva- experts were consulted and tive and the Vecchi (old), who were Palladio had powerful advocates, politically conservative but had particularly Marc’Antonio Barbaro, broader cultural horizons and a prominent patrician, who, aspirations. according to a contemporary Debate raged over such issues as diarist, spoke for days in his whether a magnificent design by favour. Despite this filibustering, the famous classical architect he failed to win support. This, said Palladio should be chosen to Professor Howard, was partly ‘reflect the dignity of the Republic’ because of the urgency of finding or whether a more austere somewhere for 2,000 nobles to approach should be taken. meet every Sunday. A restoration Eventually it was decided to build project would be quicker and Palladio’s design, but at a site easier than a rebuild. But it was associated with the highly ascetic also because of the outcome of Capuchin friars. The church was the consultation of technical supposed to cost 10,000 ducats experts, in which a majority but cost seven times that amount, favoured restoration.

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Procurators’ houses on the resigned more than once and south side of Piazza San Marco seems to have been reluctant to take responsibility. In Venice, the Procurators de supra were essentially in charge of the In the event it was the young buildings of Piazza San Marco (St procurators, Contarini and Dolfin, Mark’s Square), with the exception particularly the former, who were of the Doge’s Palace. Theirs was a to take charge (and also resign). wealthy organisation, richly But again there was much endowed and with lucrative rents. consultation and argument The procurators themselves were throughout the process of the elderly patricians who generally form that the project should take got the job (for life) because of and whether, for example, a third long service to Venice. Sometimes, storey should be added to however, to replenish the coffers, Sansovino’s neighbouring library. people were ‘elected’ after paying Scamozzi, a renowned ‘scholar donations, such as Federico architect’ was appointed to design Contarini in 1571, who was 33 the work, but a local proto, and, two years later, Andrea Sorella, was made the building Dolfin, who was 32. Both paid superintendant, thus separating 20,000 ducats. the roles which had been This particular case study shows combined in Sansovino. Still there the difference between the elderly was huge debate and many patricians and the young blood, people were consulted. which ‘bought’ its way on to the Eventually the Senate stepped in august body. Or, as Professor to tell them to get on with it and Howard put it, exposes the myth the first stage (offices) was of the “erudite and selfless body completed, but again, when work of men dedicated to the state” on the housing began, there were and shows the “value of youth concerns about incompetent site and energy”. supervision and poor accounts. The idea of this project was to According to Professor Howard, renew the accommodation for the the whole story illustrates that procurators themselves on the although the procurators were the south side of the square. The elite, the internal disagreement process began in 1581 and and reluctant management Barbaro was supposed to be characterised their patronage in supervising it. He was chosen in the late 16th century. In addition, his absence, however, which leads their independence was reined in Professor Howard to believe he by the elected assemblies. was reluctant. Certainly he

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The Rialto Bridge favoured three arches and Alviso Zorzi, a puritanical man, with poor The process of consultation was eyesight, who wanted one arch. extended still further during the Over 30 technical experts, design and building of the new including 17 proti, were consult- Rialto Bridge. Not only were ed. Following much debate – in technical experts asked their which Barbaro spoke long and opinion on factors such as how vigorously in favour of three safe competing designs would be arches – a design with one arch relative to their beauty, but the was chosen. Eventually he got just public was questioned too. eight votes and the decision was Bystanders, including sausage taken to base the decision of the makers and brandy sellers, were views of experts – which were asked their opinions on the pretty contradictory. soundness of the pile-driving techniques being used by the In the end, a design by the 78- workmen, for example. year-old, practically illiterate Antonio da Ponte was chosen – The full Senate had taken the partly because it was the most decision to rebuild the old economical bid – and he was put wooden Rialto Bridge – an idea in charge. which had been discussed since 1507. But it was 80 years later The controversy did not end there, that planning began in earnest, however, as questions were raised starting with an argument over about the nature of the design whether it should have one arch and whether the construction or three. would be sound. The three magistrates continued to have an Even the idea of replacing it in uneasy relationship and Barbaro stone raised some objection, in particular was often absent, notably from Leonardo Donà (later with Zorzi giving most day-to-day Doge) who provocatively said that support. it should be rebuilt in wood to save money for the defence In the end, the bridge (incorporat- budget. Architects including ing elements from many Palladio (before his death in 1580) influences, such as balustrades and Scamozzi submitted elegant from Scamozzi’s design and designs. rustication from the Roman arena in Verona) was a success. The Three magistrates were elected to senate even granted da Ponte a be in charge of the project: patent. But this was only after a Foscarini and Barbaro, who process which Professor Howard called “dynamic and erratic”. The

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image of the republic was off by noble magistrates – therefore portrayed by technical although sometimes the final innovation rather than classical result, particularly in detail, could erudition. vary from the original design. Professor Howard concluded that She was asked, with particular towards the end of the 16th reference to the Arsenal, if there century, attempts to refine the were rival projects going on at the Roman identity set in motion by time of the four case studies Sansovino under Gritti had faded outlined in the lecture. She replied beneath the more pragmatic, that there were, but not on the technologically orientated cultural scale of these four. Nevertheless, programme of the Giovani. there would have been competi- tion for materials, particularly She also said that the contribution wood, which was scarce and also of prominent individuals such as needed for ships – vital for Barbaro had been overestimated. defence and in times of war. It was perhaps surprising, that in a patrician oligarchy, the views of The final questioner asked about ‘mere proti’, and even members of the differences in decision making the public, were held in such high between the late 16th century and regard. the 1530s, and whether it was over-simplistic to ascribe this to She added that the lengthy the personality of the Doge consultation processes could have (Gritti). been paralysing, but “played a crucial role in winning political Professor Howard said that in her acceptance for extravagant view Gritti’s role had been adventures in public building”. exaggerated and that circumstanc- es had been different generally. In Professor Howard was asked how the late 16th century Venice had the building industry was been shaken by factors such as organised in Renaissance Venice. the Plague, whereas in the 1530s She responded that each building there was more a sense of site had its own proto, who would triumphalism; of wishing to make up briefs for each task and restate Venice’s magnificence. invite tenders from tradesmen, such as stone masons, who were The vote of thanks was delivered organised into guilds and who by Professor Charles McKean of provided their own materials. The the University of Dundee, who proto would then supervise the made particular reference to the work according to the brief – valid comparisons between which would have to be signed Renaissance Venice and Scotland. Lessons which he felt that

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politicians could heed included architect as grand, all-powerful the notion that the one who master of the design, replaced in spoke the longest (Barbaro) these instances by the power of gleaned the fewest votes. He also technical innovation. appreciated the debunking of the

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Sir John Grant, KCMG Former UK Permanent Representative (Ambassador) to the EU 8 May 2008 The EU: Does it Have aFuture? Don’t Blame the Fault Lines ….. The RSE European Lecture

The ‘fault lines’ which divide the be a new balance of power that UK from the rest of Europe are takes account of the growing more than geological, but the EU influence of the emerging is our best bet for the future, economies. The EU has the despite all its flaws, according to potential weight and influence in Britain’s former ambassador to the the world to play a decisive role in EU, Sir John Grant. In a world that process, while the medium- which will be dominated by sized economies of Europe regional superpowers, the EU will (including the UK) do not. And not only give us a stronger and because of the EU’s position in the more influential voice but also world, the way it represents a set provide the global leadership of values and its leadership in needed to establish common areas such as climate change can principles and values, and play a positive part in this process. promote effective action to deal The UK’s uncomfortable with the major challenges of relationship with the EU globalisation… Even though it is not uniform “The EU – what is it good for?” throughout the country, the UK was the main theme of Sir John often feels uncomfortable about Grant’s recent RSE lecture. As well Europe, across the political as focusing on Europe’s past spectrum. There is a general achievements and future poten- perception that the EU is “a place tial, he also discussed what was where people muddle and bad about the EU, and the compromise in order to reach “grumpy acquiescence inter- unsatisfactory conclusions.” And spersed with bitter controversy” perhaps this has something to do of the UK’s relations with Brussels, with the fact that the UK was over the last ten years. reluctant to join in the first place, Sir John’s core argument was that and therefore played no part in the maintenance of international shaping its early development. peace and stability in the 21st Weak leadership and fears about century will depend on a system a European superstate are among of global governance and the most common complaints. collective action. There will have to

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“One sound you never hear in system, based on common law Brussels is the smack of firm rather than the Napoleonic Code, government,” Sir John said. On also sets us apart. We are the contrary, he added, there is an determined to get the fine print exhaustive process designed to right – while our European reflect the interests of all the partners are often more relaxed participants, including minority about trusting the “spirit” of the voices, as a result of which law. We also have different negotiations often get bogged employment laws, economic down in “waffle” and finish with structures and agricultural “fudge.” traditions. The UK is often depicted as In Sir John’s own experience, the batting against all the odds to UK’s representatives also have defend itself from Brussels, and tougher instructions to follow while this is exaggerated by the when it comes to talks in Brussels, media and exploited by politi- and therefore less room to cians, these negative attitudes do manoeuvre. But there is also have roots in reality – in what Sir room for optimism, according to John described as the “fault Sir John, not just in the UK’s lines” which divide us from improving relations with Europe Europe. Our position in Europe and our growing influence on has to be understood, said Sir policy, but also in the way the EU John, because our long-term learns from its experience, future will depend on the success developing a set of common (or failure) of the EU and its place values which will have an impact in a fast-changing, potentially on the rest of the world. unstable world. Is the EU fit for purpose? What are the fault lines? Many people say the EU is “a Unlike the UK, most EU member good idea in principle, but a bad states have not had a history of one in practice.” Sir John stable, democratic, long-estab- conceded that EU processes were lished political institutions, for “complex, chronically inefficient, instance because of the traumas and prone to fudge, muddle and of Nazi and Communist rule. It compromise,” and described the has been easier for those coun- decision-making process of the EU tries to allow the transfer of as “like operating a three- power to the supranational dimensional coalition institutions of Brussels. In government.” But there are addition, the UK is an island, with reasons for that, he explained. a particularly close relationship with the United States. Our legal

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The EU is designed by a series of of energy, water and food. There treaties which not only reflect the is also a crisis of values, while “the divergent views and interests of all emergence of new forms of of its members, but also provide capitalism do not sit comfortably the checks and balances needed with our own,” said Sir John. The to protect smaller nations from challenge for the EU is to help the big ones. Minorities, pressure world establish mutual values and groups, NGOs and individuals work much more closely together. cannot be easily bullied, and We can no longer rest our hopes power blocs cannot dictate the on a benevolent “world police- agenda. Sir John believes the EU man” like the US, and we long could be much more efficient, but ago rejected the imperial model. the price would be the creation of The balance of power will be a superstate. More constitutional decided by regional superpowers, reform is not what’s needed at the and Europe has a key role to play. moment, he added. The challenge Sir John said: “The EU offers is not how to change the EU but leadership to the world not only to make it work better. on issues of principle, but also in The EU has much to be proud of. the thornier area of application It is the world’s largest single and implementation.” And the UK market, with a strong and stable will do better as part of an EU-led currency, and a leader in environ- “superpower” than a small (and mental policy. It is a global getting relatively smaller) nation regulator and setter of standards. state. It has a key peacekeeping role and In response to a question from is also a trailblazer in supranation- the farming community, criticising al cooperation. The EU has always the “dead hand” of the EU, Sir had vision, but rather than focus John agreed that UK farmers were on what it has done in the past, often critical of the Common Sir John sees it having a much Agricultural Policy (CAP), and bigger role in the future, far agreed that it was desirable to beyond Europe itself, offering reform it further. But, he suggest- leadership not just on issues of ed, the EU was more than just the principle but also in practical CAP. action. Sir John concluded by saying that Europe – what is it good for? despite its imperfections, the EU In Sir John’s view, the major was our best hope for the future. problems facing the world are “It may look muddled,” he sustainability, globalisation and explained, “but the alternative is climate change, terrorism, worse.” regional conflicts, and shortages

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Professor Fabiola Gianotti Research Physicist, Deputy Spokesperson of the ATLAS Experiment 12 May 2008 Exploring the Mysteries of the Universe with the large Hadron Collider

How many infinities are there? will revolutionise our understand- ing of the basic constituents of People sometimes joke that matter and the mysteries of the Switzerland’s greatest contribu- universe, and rewrite the physics tion to the world is the invention text books.” We may not get the of the cuckoo clock, but a group “theory of everything,” she of physicists from all over the added, but we should make world working in Geneva are significant breakthroughs. about to have the last laugh as they set off on a “great scientific Based at CERN (the European adventure” which could take us Organisation for Nuclear Re- back in time to the birth of the search), the LHC will continue the cosmos and in the process prove ground-breaking work which the existence of the “God began in 1954, when the world’s particle” – and what makes the largest particle physics lab set out universe tick… to “decipher the structure and evolution of the universe, from “We don’t know what we will the infinitely small to the infinitely find,” said Professor Fabiola big” – or what Professor Gianotti Gianotti, describing some of the calls the “two infinities.” most important experiments ever attempted in science, “but we Particle accelerators (one of the may see strange phenomena. Our first was developed in Glasgow in discoveries may be a big sur- the early 1950s) are used in high- prise…” energy physics research. The way they work is relatively simple – Professor Gianotti was in Edin- they accelerate two beams of burgh to talk about the Large particles around a special tunnel, Hadron Collider (LHC), the world’s close to the speed of light, using largest and most advanced powerful electrical fields and particle accelerator, which will superconducting magnets, to see start operations this summer at what happens when the particles CERN in Geneva. And she spelled collide. The high-energy collision out the challenge as follows: “It’s produces a stream of new a great scientific adventure which particles, including things called

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quarks (the heaviest one weighs With 1,232 superconducting as much as 344,000 electrons), magnets, 7,600km of supercon- and the higher the energy, the ducting cables, temperatures of heavier the particles. minus 270 degrees (colder than space) and 40 million collisions LHC: Facts & Figures per second, each producing 1,000 CERN’s latest particle accelerator is particles, you begin to appreciate the LHC – 100 metres under- just how spectacular the LHC is. ground and 27km long. It will be One of the detectors, for a project built at a total cost of £3.5 billion, called ATLAS, is as high as a five- and CERN as a whole has an storey building. Professor David annual budget of about £500 Saxon FRSE described it as million, with the UK contributing “cathedral-like,” while Professor about £78 million a year – the Gianotti said it weighs almost as equivalent of one cup of coffee much as the Eiffel Tower. per person, according to Professor Gianotti. The different detectors are like giant digital cameras, capable of The LHC will use massive instru- taking 100 pictures per second. ments to detect what is Using pattern recognition happening during collisions and software, scientists will then be identify the products of collisions, able to reconstruct the trajectories using a massive network of of the particles produced by the 100,000 computers distributed in collisions, so they can study the 250 sites in 50 countries – the origin of the events – and solve a largest infrastructure of its kind in few conundrums in the process. the world. Professor Gianotti said the data generated by the ATLAS Scotland’s role experiment will be about 10Pb per As well as being home to some of annum, the equivalent of 20 the pioneers of particle physics, million DVDs (enough to build a Scotland will play a significant role stack 20km high). And 2,100 in the LHC experiments. Out of physicists from 167 universities the 10,000 computers which the will study the data. UK will provide for the “GRID”, Scotland will contribute 10 per The energy involved in the cent of the total. Scientists at the experiments will be the equivalent Universities of Edinburgh and of 20 volts for every single star in Glasgow have also been involved the cosmos, but Professor in the development of new Gianotti reassured a questioner detectors. Glasgow also hosted a after the lecture that this will not major conference last year to lead to a giant explosion which discuss the ATLAS experiment. blows up the world (at least not according to theory).

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Some theory of everything Another quest is to discover ‘dark Ultimately, asked Professor matter’ – the invisible stuff that Gianotti, why invest so much in accounts for 25 per cent of the the new project? According to cosmos. That may not seem very her, the LHC will help us answer much, but matter as we know it lots of big questions, including: only accounts for about five per cent of the cosmos. “The LHC will 1.What is the origin of particle be a dark matter factory,” masses? Professor Gianotti said. 2.What is the nature and compo- The LHC will also enable scientists sition of dark matter? to “navigate back in time to the 3.Why is there so much matter origin of the universe,” producing and so little anti-matter? the same amount of energy present immediately after the Big 4.What happened in the first few Bang. “We are seeking answers moments after the Big Bang? to the fundamental questions According to modern physicists, about elementary particles and the standard model of particle the universe,” Professor Gianotti physics cannot explain everything. explained, “and advancing the There must be new particles, as frontiers of science.” yet undiscovered, and the LHC As well as other big questions could play a key role in advancing such as proving the existence of our knowledge of these unusual brand new dimensions, and particles and their interactions. exploring supersymmetry and For example, a lot of attention will forces we can’t even imagine yet, be focused on the search for the CERN has stimulated development Higgs boson (or ‘God particle’) of innovative concepts and first predicted in 1964 by RSE technologies, and lead to useful Fellow and Royal Medal recipient, by-products and spin-offs in areas Professor Peter Higgs of Edin- such as medical imaging, cancer burgh University. To detect this therapy, materials science, security elusive particle would be a major scanners, food sterilisation and breakthrough in physics, because nuclear waste transmutation. In no-one has so far been able to addition to creating massive prove its existence, yet without it, networks of computers, one of things would simply fall apart – CERN’s most famous spin-offs was we would have no mass, no the worldwide web. The LHC will hydrogen, no chemistry, etc. also help to train a new genera- tion of physicists, bringing them

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together in a neutral environment The LHC will clearly answer lots of which promotes cooperation big questions in science and take among different countries. us faraway through space and time, but for those attending the As Professor David Saxon echoed, lecture, the big question is: When in his warm vote of thanks at the will the popular Professor Gianotti end of the lecture, the LHC come back to the RSE to tell us the experiments remind us of results of the experiments? Columbus setting off for the Indies and discovering America – science sometimes takes us to some very strange and unexpected places.

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Professor John Wallace OBE, FRSE Principal of the Royal Scottish Academy of Music and Drama 21 May 2008 Arbroath High School Blurring the Boundaries from Classical to Contemporary Music

Music frees the human spirit. It immensely important, written has the power to uplift the during the period of resurgence in individual and transform nations. Italian national pride and identity Professor Wallace argued that a called the Risorgimento, he society which encourages music, argued that all forms of music can and the other performing arts, allow the listener to transcend the paves the way for wider intellectu- mundane. al, scientific and economic “There are no boundaries. Music achievement. As well as being speaks to us whether it is good, among Scotland’s most respected bad or indifferent, whether it’s figures in arts education, the classical, contemporary, tradition- Professor is a renowned trumpet al, jazz, rock, pop, garage, indie, player – performing solo at the dance rap, all the different genre, wedding of Prince Charles and because it is all to do with how it Lady Diana Spencer. His wide- affects you. It’s in your head, your ranging lecture encompassed heart, that funny thing we call a everything from a performance on soul, in your gut, and in your a replica Renaissance serpentine instincts that you feel music. The trumpet to insights on how we boundaries become very blurred can recover the energy of the 18th and after a couple of seconds our century Scottish Enlightenment. minds are free from this terrible This, he suggested, is important thing we are locked in, our for a country that is good at many bodies, and our minds are free to things, but has dropped far roam wherever they want to go. behind many international We move into a boundary-free competitors. zone.” The enjoyment of music is deeply Indeed, music is hard-wired into personal, but it can also bind humans and other species at a whole peoples together in a sense genetic level. While birds may get of common purpose. Professor practical evolutionary benefits Wallace opened his lecture by from song, such as finding mates playing a brief excerpt from a and marking territory, the recording of Verdi’s Nabucco. Professor said that research Describing the overture as suggests they also do it for sheer

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enjoyment. The urge to make The capacity of music to bring a music is not confined to creatures sense of freedom even in the face of the land and air, but is common of tyranny was something the to whales and dolphins. It may Professor learned from Timothy even stretch back to our common Dokshizer, one of the finest ancestors – with the Professor trumpet players in the Russian speculating that dinosaurs might tradition. Born in the Ukraine in have sung as they trundled across 1921, his family walked to the Earth. Moscow to escape the famine caused by Stalin’s reforms. Aged Humans experience music in the 12, Dokshizer joined the army as a womb, said Professor Wallace, mounted bugler and managed to and enter the world with precious work his way up to become a well- talents that can all too easily be known conductor and a trumpet squandered. “We are all born player in the Bolshoi. There were with perfect pitch. But we have to times when he looked up from use it or we lose it.” In China, the orchestra pit to see Stalin as perhaps because pitch and tone the guest of honour in the play an important part in speech, equivalent of the royal box. And a far higher percentage of adults yet, rock and roll, jeans and baked seem to retain perfect pitch. At beans helped bring down the Iron the same time there are now 80 Curtain. “Oppressive regimes million pianists in China, five tend to ban certain kinds of million at Grade 8 or above. music. They fear it because they In 19th century Britain there had know it has the power to modern- also been an immense appetite to ise.” play music, closely linked with a According to Professor Wallace, desire to break free from toil. the story of the trumpet in Three months after the Nabucco western culture underlines the overture’s premiere at La Scala, power of music to affect people Milan, it was being performed by individually and collectively, and a working men’s band in Merthyr its connection with our deepest Tydfil. “The music of Verdi says motivations. “The trumpet, for something universal. It brought me, sets music free. From the freedom to the newly industria- earliest times it has been a military lised men with their 12-hour and a religious instrument.” An shifts, six days a week in the ancient Carnyx, now in the mines. By the end of the century National Museum of Scotland, there were 30,000 such bands up was a priestly instrument carried and down Britain and a million into battle by our ancient Celtic players, around one in 30 of the ancestors. In the Renaissance the population.”

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Italians became the first to emotionally-committed patriot, a translate the heroism of the freedom fighter through his trumpet into art music. Professor music. All of his operas before Wallace played an example of an Aida were written in the shadow early 17th century sonata by of war and revolution. The fervour Girolamo Fantini on a replica of Verdi’s melodies and the serpentine trumpet. By the end of irresistible tidal surge of his the 17th century the French had underlying rhythms had the learned from the Italians. Profes- power to generate mass emo- sor Wallace played from a Te tion.” Deum by Marc-Antoine Charpen- The Professor argued that the tier written to celebrate a victory performing arts are a vital of King Louis XIV. “War, battle and instrument of education – music is religion again. You can see it is freedom, drama is liberation and French: aristocratic, haughty dance a continuum in time and heroism.” It is also familiar today space. “They also expand a as the theme to the Eurovision society’s consciousness and raise a Song Contest. nation’s game. And wherever the In the 18th century the British, full performing arts flourish, modern of confidence from the union of economies flourish.” Scotland and England, was Scotland has a great tradition as a producing its own magnificent centre for the performing arts and trumpet music celebrating its self- remains an international influence image as a land of heroes. A new – as is emphasised by the national dimension was introduced by the theatre’s success on Broadway French Revolution when the with Black Watch. But recent trumpet shifted from being an decades have often seen a decline aristocratic to a universal instru- in the value placed on the ment. And with that came the encouragement of the performing Marseillaise, originally a trumpet arts. This contrasts with Professor tune, which celebrated the Wallace’s own experience of being heroism of ordinary men and sent to a junior band at the age of women. seven, moving to the senior one at Beethoven then took up the cause eight, and being able to learn by of the universality of humankind – doing and enjoying. Later, the giving us the Ode to Joy in his 9th passion for opera among his symphony. From there it was a teachers at Buckhaven High short step to the music of Verdi, School provided a fun-filled and Garibaldi’s struggle to win learning experience which helped Italian independence from the launch his career. Austrian Empire. “Verdi was an

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Professor Wallace argued the turning out a generation of young performing arts are not just an people who know how to coax end in themselves, but benefit their own potential to its opti- every area of education, including mum will this young country of the sciences, by engendering a Scotland fulfill its own potential.” sense of fun, a striving for high Questions standards and the capacity for self-expression. The promotion of Asked what could be done to the performing arts in education encourage more young people to breeds an adult generation able join choirs, Professor Wallace to imagine beyond the bounds of called again for the performing the everyday, as the great figures arts to be given a more important of the Scottish Enlightenment had role in schools. He added that done. “Back in the 1960s my following an initiative by Jack school was a sort of opera factory. McConnell in 2003, the National I saw that the performing arts Youth Orchestras of Scotland had could give a school the ability to done a tremendous job in reviving be anything it wanted to be. It music and singing among was that experience that put schoolchildren. music and freedom on the same Questioned on the origins of his page for me.” replica trumpet he said an Professor Wallace called for the American musicologist had performing arts to be given a identified one like it in a picture place in the nation’s Curriculum from the 1580s and that there are for Excellence. “Music works, a number of surviving examples in drama works, dance works. They museums, including in Verona. liberate the consciousness to Similar ones were created in think the unthinkable and to Nuremberg by a maker called make the future a better place Haas. than the present. And it’s my A vote of thanks was offered by feeling that music, drama and Willie Payne, director of Hospi- dance can work for Scotland. We talfield House, a residential arts happen to be very good at all centre in Arbroath. three. They work through play; they are all fun. Only when we are

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Professor William J Hardcastle, FBA FRSE Director, Speech Science Research Centre, Queen Margaret University 9 June 2008 Electropalatography in the Analysis of Tongue Dynamics during Normal and Disordered Speech

Speaking of tongues involve a variety of problems including how we make sounds It’s no coincidence that languages and the way we use language, are also known as tongues, and as well as congenital because the way that we control problems (Down’s Syndrome, cleft our tongues determines the palate, etc.), they can also result sound of our speech. Researchers from a stroke (e.g. aphasia and at Queen Margaret University near apraxia). Hardcastle also explained Edinburgh, led by Professor that speech impairment can have William Hardcastle, have devel- a negative impact on anyone’s life, oped an innovative electronic causing psychological and social instrument to ‘map’ the patterns difficulties, as well as bad effects of contact between the tongue on education and employment. and palate during speech. This not only helps to diagnose Hardcastle’s research focuses on problems but also helps speech speech output or articulation – therapy… the quest to understand the inner mechanics of speech, or how we It’s not very often the audience make sounds with our tongues sees what is happening inside the and the roofs of our mouths. He mouth of the speaker at one of described the different methods the RSE’s lectures, but Professor used to analyse problems with William Hardcastle is no ordinary speech, demonstrating how every speaker – his specialist subject is method has minus and plus the science of speech, and the points. For example, he explained, development of a revolutionary transcription of sounds can be new device which improves highly subjective and unreliable, diagnosis and treatment of and “encourages categorised speech disorders. judgements.” Most importantly, it According to Hardcastle, at least does not produce precise 2.7 per cent of the UK population information on the speech organs (about 1.6 million people) have a themselves. “moderate communications problem” – a speech or a language disorder. This may

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Speech is very complex, Hardcastle probe, can also be costly and explained, involving the coordina- awkward, while EMA is invasive tion of a number of cylinders, and often unpleasant because it pistons and valves – i.e. the lungs, involves the attachment of coils to larynx, glottis and velum, as well the tongue. as the lips and tongue. The The breakthrough by researchers tongue (particularly the tip) is the at Queen Margaret University key to the process, but we know (QMU) is a new method called very little about it, said Hardcastle. electropalatography (EPG). This The challenge is how to record involves developing an artificial and analyse what is going on palate made of acrylic, with a inside the mouth during speech, chequerboard of 64 electrodes capturing the partly hidden, very (and a tiny electrical current) which rapid movements of the tongue, detect the precise place the an organ with a unique anatomy tongue meets the roof of the and physiology which Hardcastle mouth during speech. Every compared to an elephant’s trunk individual subject has a custom- or an octopus tentacle. made palate which moulds to the Professor Hardcastle then showed roof of the mouth, and Hardcastle four films of the tongue during then demonstrated the method by speech, using four different plugging himself in and carrying methods: x-rays, MRI (Magnetic on with his lecture, displaying his Resonance Imaging), ultrasound “tongue patterns” in real time so and EMA (Electro Magnetic the audience could monitor the Articulography). These instru- different shapes of different ment-based methods help to sounds while he spoke. analyse the physical impairment of Every sound has a characteristic the organs more objectively, and “quasi-static” pattern of contact, this in turn can lead to better he explained – e.g. the horseshoe- evidence-based therapies. shaped pattern of “te.” EPG All the methods work by showing enables researchers to see this movement while the subject pattern, as if the tongue is pronounces particular sounds, “printing” sounds onto the e.g. te, ke or ss, or a short string palate like old-fashioned typeface of words. X-rays show what’s on paper. When the pattern is happening inside the mouth very displayed on a computer screen, it clearly, but can also be harmful to provides instant feedback not only health. MRI is better for research for researchers and speech but is very expensive and can be therapists but also the subjects claustrophobic for many subjects. themselves. By displaying an Ultrasound, using a helmet and idealised model pattern for

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particular sounds alongside this – the typical signs of a certain real-time display, subjects can condition which can respond to then try to reproduce the same therapy. shape in their own speech by The therapeutic benefits of EPG adjusting the sound that they are currently being researched in a make so the pattern resembles the project which will finish at the end model displayed on the screen. of this year, funded by the Medical For detailed analysis, researchers Research Council, in conjunction need a permanent record, so with the University of Edinburgh. Hardcastle and his team at QMU Thirty children with Down’s produce a cine film using the EPG Syndrome will take part in the method to capture frames at controlled study, with ten of them intervals of 10 milliseconds which receiving no speech therapy, ten show the gradual changes in the receiving conventional therapy patterns of a sequence of sounds. and the other ten receiving EPG- The tongue moves all the time based therapy. After the end of and subtly changes its configura- the project, the team has received tion every few milliseconds, and additional funding so that the the films prove that the visual children not receiving any therapy representation of sound, using will also get the benefits of EPG. the EPG method, is much more According to Hardcastle, many accurate than listening, using our subjects – especially children – ears. Hardcastle then demonstrat- respond very well to the biofeed- ed this by comparing the ‘films’ of back they get from the graphics a clear, normal speaker and one they see on the screen as they with rapid, colloquial speech. speak. The initial results from the While the auditory sounds study are promising, and Hardcas- seemed almost identical, the tle hopes this will lead to the visual patterns were clearly quite creation of a network of centres different. where EPG will be made much The EPG films can also reveal the more widely available, not just in characteristic patterns of certain Scotland but wherever speech conditions like aphasia, and this is disorders affect peoples’ lives. what helps diagnosis and During the Q&A, Professor treatment. For example, in some Hardcastle also explained that cases, people appear to be most children respond very well to forming the sound of a “te” the EPG palate being placed in instead of a “ge,” then realise their mouths, and very few resist their mistake and adjust their it. Most of them also like interact- tongue to make the correct sound ing with computers.

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The Principal of QMU, Professor device which would change Anthony Cohen, said after the people’s lives and help them to lecture that Professor Hardcastle participate more widely in society. and his team of researchers Many mysteries remain in our deserve congratulation for the understanding of speech disor- “elegance of the new method” ders, said Professor Hardcastle. For and its practical efficacy. EPG not example, many people who only provides us with a profound stammer can speak a foreign understanding of speech disor- language very fluently, or sing ders but “a simple diagnostic well. But if EPG continues to device whose genius is its advance our understanding, many simplicity and ease of use,” he of those mysteries may soon be continued, adding that the new solved, and many people lead invention was a “life-enhancing” more ‘normal’ lives.

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Professor Leonard Susskind Felix Bloch Professor of Theoretical Physics at Stanford University 16 June 2008 The Black Hole War: The War That Made the World Safe for Quantum Mechanics Lecture organised by the International Centre for Mathematical Sciences

Chaired by RSE President Sir wasn’t holding. Hawking’s claim Michael Atiyah, this lecture, set in motion a controversy that organised by ICMS with the eventually radically changed the support of the RSE, complement- way we think about space, time, ed a week-long international matter, and information – a war of workshop at Edinburgh University, ideas between Susskind, Hawking supported by the Engineering and and Dutch theoretical physicist Physical Sciences Research Council Gerard ‘t Hooft, co-recipient of (EPSRC), the London Mathematical the 1999 Physics Nobel Prize – Society, the Edinburgh Mathemat- although not in the way Hawking ical Society and the Institute of imagined. Instead of “A World Physics. Without Law,” the new paradigm Professor Susskind invited the has become “The World as a audience to consider that in 1976 Hologram.” Stephen Hawking imagined The edifice of modern physics has throwing a bit of information, a been built upon the foundations book, a computer, or even an of quantum mechanics, whose elementary particle, into a black fundamental dynamical principle hole. Black holes, Hawking enshrines what Susskind called believed, were the ultimate traps, the conservation of information. and the bit of information would Therefore the suggestion, borne be irretrievably lost to the outside out of Hawking’s calculations world. This apparently innocent about the dynamics of black observation was hardly as inno- holes, that information could be cent as it sounds; it threatened to lost in a black hole would – if true undermine and topple the entire – be capable of undermining our edifice of modern physics. present approach to Physics. Something was terribly ‘out of Susskind and ‘t Hooft believe that whack’; the most basic law of this could not be the case. nature – the conservation of Susskind explained the nature of information was seriously at risk. information in Physics, the notion To those who paid attention, of a black hole and of its horizon, either Hawking was wrong, or the and used a fish-pond and sink 300-year-old centre of physics

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analogy as an example. He an external observer, or as nothing explained that around the sink extraordinary to ‘Alice’, who is there is an imaginary circle such actually falling into the black hole. that if a fish crossed it, it would be Susskind did not explain how unable to swim back out, but quantum mechanics, and hence nevertheless the fish would notice he and ‘t Hooft, won the war, but nothing extraordinary when referred the audience instead to crossing it. By further analogy, his forthcoming book, THE BLACK Susskind also explained how the HOLE WAR: My battle with horizon of a black hole can Stephen Hawking to make the appear, depending on the world safe for quantum mechan- observer, as a singularity to ‘Bob’, ics published in 2008.

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Professor Charles W J Withers FBA FRSE Professor of Historical Geography, University of Edinburgh 23 June 2008 Maps, Mapping and Map History

Maps of the mind create it. As well as providing a guide to the world, maps provide The first maps were created long a snapshot of the age when they before the written word, but are made. “People are increasingly today they are no longer secret cartographically literate, and maps documents or precious posses- are now taken for granted,” said sions, but part of our everyday Withers. “But even though most lives. In a recent lecture, jointly people understand maps, they organised by the RSE, the Royal don’t understand mapping in Scottish Geographical Society and detail, and even less so map the National Library of Scotland history.” (NLS) to mark the 50th anniversary of the founding of the Map Right from the start, Withers Library at the NLS, Professor declared that “maps do not Charles Withers traced the history correspond to the real world.” At of maps from ancient Anatolia to the end of his lecture, he even SatNav, and explained how said: “All maps deceive.” Maps cartography says a lot more about are abstract objects which give us people than the planet we live what we want to know or what on... the map-maker wants us to know. They not only show us where Is mapping an art or a science? things are located but are also Are maps a mirror of the world or used as evidence or propaganda – a reflection of what we believe – for example, when “America’s more politics than geography? geographer,” Jedediah Morse, According to Professor Withers, placed the prime meridian in maps do not merely help us get Philadelphia, rather than Green- from A to B (and in the process wich, to declare the geographical lead to endless arguments) they independence of the United also trace the path of human States. history. Accuracy is always relative and is not the only important Maps have been around since dimension of maps. Even in the 6,500 years before the Christian age of computers, every map is era, when a town plan of Catal- coloured by the views and hoyuk in Anatolia was inscribed intentions of the people who on a wall. There have been many

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technological advances since then, accurate data on distances. and from 1800 onwards, mathe- Topography shows features in matical precision has led to much relief, including buildings and more ‘accurate’ mapping, but mountains. Thematic mapping Withers questioned whether this focuses on subjects such as means ‘better’ maps. Often what wildlife or human activities, is not shown on the map says simplifying geographical features. more about reality than what is on Withers rejected the linear view of the map – for example, when the history of maps, believing it is rivers are shown to flow uphill in more important to understand the order to camouflage launch sites different modes and how they for nuclear missiles. have evolved – as well as why they “Maps are not mirrors but social have evolved. He then focused on and political documents,” said several key “moments” in the Withers. “They may be accurate history of maps: the Mercator but they are also instruments of Projection (1570), John Ogilby’s authority.” Brittania (1675), elements of the work of Thomas Jeffreys and Maps also vary greatly in terms of Jedediah Morse (in mapping late their practical value. While some eighteenth-century America), maps, such as William Smith’s thematic maps (1830s onward) Geological Map of Great Britain and the Peters Projection (1974). “revolutionised our conception of the world beneath our feet,” The breakthrough of Gerardus others such as Google Earth are Mercator’s map was to “flatten” also “cartographically dreadful,” the earth by creating a “cylindrical he added. projection” which took account of the fact that the world is a globe According to Withers, there are not a flat piece of paper, using four “cartographic modes” in the basic mathematics to reduce the history of modern maps: chorog- distortions of previous maps raphy, charting, topography and (which tended to increase the thematic mapping. Chorography scale the further you travelled), describes a place or area, depict- based on a grid of intersecting ing basic features such as lines. Its prime use was to help mountains, towns and rivers, etc., with navigation and, despite the which travellers meet on their limitations faced by Mercator – no journey, and may include historical chronometer, logarithms or comments – e.g. Timothy Pont’s calculus – it proved an effective maps of late sixteenth- and early solution. seventeenth-century Scotland. Charting was designed to help navigation, including more

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Withers then explained how John Withers, the BBC News weather Ogilby created the world’s first map in use today continues to national road map in 1675 when reflect the social and cultural bias he published Britannia, the work which has always affected showing routes as a series of cartography. strips, with major features at the Returning in conclusion to edges, measured using a dimen- Mercator’s Projection, Withers surator or ‘way-wiser’. then discussed the map of the As well as helping to create “a world created by Dr Arno Peters in new American geographical 1974, designed to counteract the culture” with his contemporary supposed Eurocentric view of the Jedediah Morse, Thomas Jeffreys planet. Backed by West German also had a playful side, said Chancellor Willy Brandt and since Withers, and some of his ‘rude’ adopted widely by numerous maps were banned, including one Third World charities, this “equal which showed ‘the road of love,’ area map” tries to restore a steering a perilous course realistic perspective but in the between the islands of money, process also distorts the propor- lust and virtue. tions of several countries. The 1830s were the start of the Withers also meditated on the age of specialisation, including “innate impossibility” of depict- large-scale trigonometrical ing the globe on a screen without surveys, as well as thematic maps distorting reality. “Maps are not showing subjects such as the mirrors,” he said, “but objects worldwide distribution of plants. which reflect the purpose they In 1832, the Scottish map-maker serve. Accuracy is always some- John Thomson published his Atlas body’s accuracy. Maps have an of Scotland, including a plate enduring place in our lives comparing the view of the relative because they don’t agree with the heights of the mountains of real world they purport to Scotland, with Arthur’s Seat represent.” providing the reference point, at Finally, Professor Withers paid the foot of the picture. The tribute to the founders of the visualisation of scientific phenom- Map Library, William Beattie and ena gathered momentum, and in John Bartholomew, drawing 1863, Francis Galton published attention to a new project called Meteorographica – weather maps the Bartholomew Archive, based on data gathered in involving the cataloguing of the Europe, showing barometric material created by John Bartho- pressure, wind & rain and lomew & Son. Withers also temperature. According to mentioned the number of ‘hits’

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on the NLS web site, with ten Withers concluded by wondering million people a year viewing what would change during the maps online – a big change since next 50 years: “I predict the the Map Library opened in 1958, modes of mapping will be largely and evidence of people’s enduring the same,” he said. “The fascination with maps. technology will be transformed, but maps will be doing the same job they’re doing today.”

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Professor J. Michael Rotter, FREng, FRSE, FICE, FIStructE, FASCE, FIEAust 30 June 2008 Structures and Granular Solids

Grains of truth form of small particles – powders or granular solids. Huge quanti- You may think that pouring grain ties of these materials, including into a silo then getting the grain plastic pellets, coal, mineral ores, out is not exactly rocket science, maize, barley and sugar, are stored but you would be wrong. Not in different types of silos, and the only do the problems of structures containers suffer structural and granular solids have much in failures much too frequently. common with the challenges faced by designers in the aero- Rotter’s ultimate aim is to improve space industry, but the the design of containers to make mathematics are so complex that them both safe and economic, but the world’s most powerful the problem is that neither computers have not yet come up engineers nor scientists properly with the answers… understand the behaviour of granular solids when they flow In his free time, Professor Michael out of a silo, or their interaction Rotter goes on “buckle hunts” to with the structures used to store search for examples of damage to them. “Solids are anisotropic and silos. He may spot only a slight inhomogeneous,” he said – in dent or what looks like a small other words, even a single type of crack, but in the wrong place and granular solid (e.g. coal) can vary of the wrong shape, the damage in shape, size and texture, leading may indicate impending disaster to radical changes in the way it for the structure. In turn this has flows. Fluids, by comparison, are implications for human safety and relatively simple to understand, may involve huge sums of money mainly because they are homoge- when the industrial process being neous and uniform. fed by the silo is arrested. The simple fact, said Rotter, is that According to Professor Rotter, when it comes to storage, the more than 60 per cent of all the containers must be able to survive materials used in industrial the most extreme conditions and processes (e.g. food processing, events in their lifetimes, including steel making, cement, plastics and wind, earthquake and storing pharmaceuticals) comes in the

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sticky solids. Quite simply, they long way to go. The simplest must not fall down, buckle or route for computers to model this burst when subjected to complex dynamic process is the develop- patterns of internal or external ment of a satisfactory “continuum pressure, and especially under the theory of the flow of solids”, so frictional drag of the solids sliding that the huge number of particles against the wall. Moreover, the involved do not pose a major granular solids must flow out problem. However, such a smoothly when required. continuum theory remains elusive at the present time and is one of Rotter has had a passion for the big challenges for applied applied mathematics and physics mathematics. throughout his career, and takes what he calls an “holistic view” of Perhaps the fact that Rotter’s structural collapse, recognising grandfather invented the high that the individual parts of each explosive RDX explains his structure affect each other fascination with the dynamics of strongly, so that a strength collapsing containers filled with assessment based on looking at powder, but he also explained one part at a time is often quite how his studies and career have misleading. His research focuses steered him into this specialist on problems such as plastic area, via subjects such as plasticity collapse and the effects of in soil mechanics, his Thesis on unsymmetrical pressures in silos. ‘Continuous composite columns’ These pressures cannot yet be and many industrial problems predicted using computational involving steel and concrete models because the appropriate structures, collapse, material equations to describe granular failure and buckling. solid flow (like salt pouring out of Rotter uses colourful and esoteric a salt pot) have not yet been language such as ‘biaxial bend- successfully formulated – it is not ing’, ‘elastic flexural restraint’, just the behaviour of the solid and ‘flow zone geometry’, ‘axial the structure individually that compression’ and ‘elephant’s foot’ must be modelled, but also the buckling, but the simple purpose complex interactions between of these unfamiliar concepts is to them. For example, said Rotter, gain understanding of what goes the most powerful computers are wrong in each individual case capable of analysing the mechani- when a structure falls down, and cal behaviour of about 106 to prevent that problem from particles inside a silo, but a typical happening again. In Australia, 9 silo contains between 10 and where he did research after his 13 10 particles, so we still have a studies in Cambridge, he analysed

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many real-life disasters, beginning The research on shell structures with the bursting of a grain silo always finds new applications, the when the grain swelled with latest of which are two Scottish moisture uptake, fatigue cracks in projects. One concerns a wind a coal silo, and stress analysis of tower climbing device called the beer fermentation tanks. Industry ‘Orangutan’; the other a new was queuing up for practical pipeline structure called the advice. ‘Helipipe’ – a super high-strength steel, helically- wrapped pipeline, As Rotter explained, it is hard to with a stainless steel liner for observe what is happening when maximum strength and flexibility. silos burst or fall down, because the problems tend to appear very The questions facing the designer suddenly and the moment of of silos are not only how to failure is always a shock. You design a better structure but also usually see the results of disasters how to fill the silo and empty it. when it’s much too late to stop How will the material flow inside them and working out what the structure? Where will the happened just before the pressure be greatest, and where collapse, when all that is left is lowest? How will the structure be broken pieces on the ground stressed by complex pressure under a huge pile of grain, is patterns? What conditions will often real detective work. cause catastrophic buckling failures? The design of silos used to be based on ‘rules of thumb’ but Even though he has been able to Rotter not only applied mathe- transform his experiments into a matics and physics but also the set of design rules, in pursuit of knowledge developed by the “a conceptual framework for all aerospace industry, and then went types of structural systems”, on to draw up a series of interna- Rotter says that “neither the tional industry standards, first in experiments nor the current Australia and later in Europe and theories are even close to correct” the USA, turning academic when it comes to real-world research into practical guidelines. answers to the problems of Later this year, for example, the granular solids and structures, European Convention for despite all the statistical analysis Constructional Steelwork will and computational models publish its new design recommen- devised by researchers. The dations on the buckling of shells reasons lie in scale effects and under his chairmanship. instrumentation difficulties in experiments, and misunderstand-

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ings in most theoretical models. discharge. The first ‘silo’ emptied Engineers and applied scientists its sand through an outlet like Rotter have advanced our beneath its centre, with internal understanding of structural flow and a relatively even pressure failure, but he himself admits that pattern, producing an uneventful phenomena such as ‘shell and safe outcome. By contrast, buckling’ are still tricky to analyse the other three silos were emptied because very small deviations in from outlets that were slightly or different forms can either radically severely off-centre, and each weaken the structure, leading to produced a catastrophic and disaster, or have little effect, disastrous collapse, shedding the depending on the circumstances. sand contents all over the floor! For the climax of his lecture, Rotter’s final silo experiment may Professor Rotter brought together have gone slightly wrong, as the his different themes of granular collapse of one silo appeared to solids flow, complex pressures on cause some damage to its the structure and buckling neighbour, possibly making it behaviour of shells, to do a ‘live’ more likely to collapse. But after experiment that demonstrated the listening to his lecture, the way complex and unpredictable nature this happened seemed to confirm of silos. Using four transparent that the real world may long model silos filled with sand, each continue to defy the predictions about one metre high, Rotter of mathematical models of perfect proceeded to empty them in systems, especially when it comes sequence to observe the effects of to structures and granular solids. symmetrical or unsymmetrical

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Professor Alexander Stoddart 5 August 2008 Statues in Modern Cities Presented as part of the Edinburgh International Book Festival

Larger (and smaller) than life Stoddart set the tone at the start of his lecture, when he posed the Alexander Stoddart is well known question: “Why do statues have for his classical sculptures, small penises?” And as many including statues of David Hume people giggled, he launched into and Adam Smith, and will soon a serious discussion of perspective unveil his latest public monument and cultural values, analysing the in Edinburgh’s George Street – a impact of statues in public and statue of James Clerk Maxwell, why they command our attention commissioned by the Royal (and make people giggle). Society of Edinburgh. But judging by his recent performance at the Classicism, Stoddart said, has Edinburgh International Book certain laws and principles which Festival, he would also be a big hit all of us can recognise. For at the Comedy Festival… example, most classical statues have eyes without pupils, and are Scottish sculptor Alexander covered in drapery rather than Stoddart has something in wearing contemporary costumes. common with the work he creates And the nude males have penises – like many of his statues, he is smaller than life-size to conform larger than life. to the classical “rules.” In the course of his lecture, Even though they are otherwise Stoddart covered everything from larger than life, monumental Triumph of the will to Oor Wullie, classical statues are often the ancient Greeks to modern positioned in places which make it Philistines, in the process decon- hard to see such modest details, structing beards, genitalia, tea unless we use opera glasses – for cosies, shellsuits and togas. But example, the statue of Henry even though he knocked our Dundas, which stands on the top modern “laugh-a-minute of a column which presides over culture,” his audience never St Andrew’s Square in Edinburgh. stopped smiling. People may protest they cannot see them, but such statues are

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designed to transcend history and In his sculpture of Adam Smith, “outlive our species,” said which stands on Edinburgh’s Stoddart. “No touching allowed!” Royal Mile, one side of the figure shows the Scottish economist’s Contrast this, said Stoddart, with buttons, to represent his worldli- The Fair Maid of Perth, a contem- ness, while the other side has porary life-size bronze figure drapery to remind us of his which sits on a bench in the High spirituality. Some works, like the Street in Perth – “an awful thing “heroic realist” statues in with chewing gum stuck on its Stoddart’s monument to Robert nose.” Instead of making people Louis Stevenson, do suit contem- stand in awe before it, this statue porary costume, but Stoddart represents for Stoddart the worst tends to lean towards the purity of our “democratic, box-ticking and timelessness of classical culture.” And ironically, even forms. though the public are being invited to sit down beside it, most Like the unseeing eyes of the people seem too embarrassed to statue without any pupils, a do so. classical sculpture also obliterates the world of the viewer, said Drapery, for Stoddart, is also a Stoddart, speaking to the dead critical factor in classical statues – and people still to be born, rather and even has a metaphysical than those who inhabit the world significance. Statues tell serious that we live in today. Sculpture stories which will always survive, also has a transcendental quality and drapery is timeless, lending that goes far beyond other art gravity even in the way that it forms like painting, he added. hangs from the figure. When “The statue ignores you,” he said, Stoddart sculpted David Hume “while the painting says ‘hi’ and wearing a toga, rather than the eyes follow you all round the wearing his contemporary 18th room.” century costume, some critics were appalled, but Stoddart says you When Stoddart moved on to may as well have Cicero wearing a discuss philosophy, his ‘realistic’ shell suit – fashions come and go approach to sculpture started to but drapery reminds us of eternity. make even more sense. Even though he joked about his statue “Civilised people seek the of the great Emmanuel Kant, transcendental to get away from describing it as “the ultimate carnality, but the landlubbers are garden gnome,” he regards the obsessed with the now,” Stoddart statue as one of his most impor- declared. “Drapery signifies tant works – and admires Kant as nobility and immortality.”

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a serious thinker who believed public image of peace (e.g. the that “words are not enough” to swastika), while seeking to impose communicate truth. “Pessimism their will, behind the scenes. leads to compassion,” he said, Unfortunately, Stoddart added, adding with a smile that he has Modernism is sometimes por- spent his own life “in contempla- trayed as a rejection of the art of tion of misery.” the Nazis, even though the Another great thinker, Arthur Modernists owe much more to Schopenhauer, has also greatly the “true, brutalist, ugly and influenced Stoddart, especially his despotic image” of the Nazis than book The World as Will and they’d care to admit. Another of Representation, in which he says Stoddart’s targets is conceptual art that will is the cause of all which “depends on the power of problems. For Stoddart, his chief words” – for example, the work of aim in life is to “conquer the Ian Hamilton Findlay and other will,” with the help of his art. “word-borne Philistines” like Tracey Emin. Developing this theme, Stoddart then declared that “the classical Rather than contemporary, drains the will,” and that during ephemeral impact, Stoddart is times when “the will” is strong, attracted to immortal aspirations. classicism goes out of fashion. “Statues are mysterious,” he “While modern art tends to added. “They also tell the truth – stimulate people, classical art grim reality not entertainment.” tends to calm,” he said. Explain- But even though Stoddart may ing this later, Stoddart said that frown upon some of the “jokes” even though “the arts of peace of contemporary art, he certainly have sometimes been associated knows how to tell them – and with some of the cruellest regimes never shies away from taking on in history,” this was because those the Philistines. regimes – ironically – projected a

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Professor Miles Padgett, FRSE 1 September 2008 Does God Play Dice?

Shedding light on light… some of the most difficult subjects in physics by shedding light on Albert Einstein would have had light… some tricky questions to ask at the recent RSE lecture on the wonders One question that scientists have of quantum mechanics by asked over the years is whether Professor Miles Padgett of the light is particles or waves. And University of Glasgow. And he the answer appears to be “both.” may even have conceded that he Padgett explained that when two got it wrong about one of the beams of light overlap, we see most mind-boggling issues in interference effects, the same as physics… with waves made of water. When As Professor Padgett himself said two crests meet, the lightwave at the start of his lecture, if you gets bigger. When troughs meet, think you understand quantum the lightwave gets smaller. And mechanics, you clearly do not. when crests and troughs meet, The greatest minds in physics have they cancel each other out. Thus, been grappling with some of the light appears to travel in waves. basics for decades, and often However, Einstein won the Nobel come to opposite conclusions, but Prize (and in the process fuelled that is just part of the fun. the birth of quantum mechanics) According to Ockham’s Razor, by proving that light, under quoted by Padgett at the end of certain conditions, also behaves his lecture, scientists should seek like streams of particles – concen- the simplest explanation for what trated “packets” of what we call they observe, but even the sub- photons. topics in Padgett’s talk sounded Although it is “bizarre,” most scary: wave–particle duality, wave physicists are happy to accept this interference for single particles, wave-particle duality, and Padgett and the role of the observer in suggested that the answer determining outcomes. And depends on the question you ask Professor Padgett’s challenge was – whether you emphasise the to help his audience understand wave-like or the particle properties of light. In addition, said Padgett,

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the two “opposing” theories are Einstein and the the Danish simply the models we use to physicist Neils Bohr had two rival describe the behaviour of light. theories to explain where the The truth lies much deeper… photon would land. Einstein said the outcome was predetermined To explore the question further, by “subtleties in the initial state of physicists have set up variations the photon hidden from the on an experiment which Padgett observer,” or what is called the presented as a kind of “video “hidden variable” theory, while umpire” in cricket, except that Bohr claimed that the outcome is instead of bowling a ball at a only determined at the moment of wicket, you fire a single photon at observation. Einstein therefore a photon detector. The challenge leaned towards “predetermina- is how to predict where the tion” and Bohr to “random photon will land, just like the chance,” leading to Einstein’s projection of a cricket ball which famous remark that “God does tells you if the ball would hit the not play dice with nature” – and wicket or not, based on measur- inspiring the title of Padgett’s ing speed and angle of rotation, lecture. etc. “When does the photon decide where to land – as it leaves Modern experiments with the source or when it is ob- polarisation have started to settle served?” And what constitutes an the argument, Padgett explained. observation? Is the outcome Every photon seems to “flip a determined by observation – like coin” to decide its polarisation – some kind of telekinesis? Is the for example, vertical or horizontal, outcome undecided until the or an angle of 45º (left or right). system is observed? “What polarisation should I be?” asks the photon. “And when do I In Padgett’s words, the photon decide?” When the photon says either: “I know where I’m passes through a polarised filter, it going but the answer will be either passes through the filter, hidden from you till I get there.” changing its angle of polarisation, Or: “I don’t know where I’m or it doesn’t pass through at all. going but I will decide when you observe me.” In one experiment, two photons are fired off simultaneously in Does this mean the photon can opposite directions, begging the think for itself and determine the questions: What is their polarisa- outcome – like some kind of tion? How does one photon intelligent cricket ball? Do the relate to another, and how do photons somehow communicate they affect each other’s polarisa- with each other, to deceive the tion? observer?

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According to the work of French microscopic systems. “Is there a physicist Alain Aspect, the chance,” he asked, “to show orientation is only decided at the quantum entanglement with moment we measure it. Further- living systems?” more, the measurement of either During the Q&A session that photon instantaneously deter- followed, Padgett had to wrestle mines the state of the other – with some challenging questions. something called “quantum For example, instead of measuring entanglement” or “spooky action photons which are vertical or at a distance.” horizontal, or 45º (left or right), So Einstein was wrong… what about the other angles? Padgett thought for a moment Turning to his own research, then revealed that in fact the most Padgett also talked about interesting photons had an angle “angular momentum,” and of 22.5º or 67.5º – the angles of introduced a wholly new dimen- greatest divergence. Another sion to the argument by question touched upon the issue describing how shining a light on of “long photons,” and whether a wall both moves the wall back the photon reached the detector and rotates it. He concluded: “We while still being linked to its have shown that measuring the source, thus interfering with the angular position of one photon “twin” photon opposite. How defines the angular momentum of would this affect results? Is the the other. It seems as if God does entanglement between the indeed play dice with angles.” photons themselves or between What it all comes down to, the source and the detector? Padgett suggested, is the quest Finally, one member of the for understanding. If we can audience asked how all this understand the photon and the affects our daily lives. Padgett way it behaves, we can begin to said he had a stock answer to this understand the other mysteries of – secure communications, based physics, much like The restaurant on “quantum cryptography,” or at the end of the universe, when the properties of photons and author Douglas Adams suggested their complex interactions, which that from “one small piece of fairy guarantee security by telling us cake,” we can extrapolate the when someone is listening in. whole of creation. So next time you turn on the light, In addition, said Padgett, if think about quantum entangle- photons “throw dice” to decide ment. It may be a brilliant idea… what will happen, the same may also be true when it comes to

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Professor Rodney M Goodman Carnegie Trust Centenary Professor, University of Edinburgh 3 September 2008 A Code in the Nose

From the incense of ancient In this lecture Professor Goodman Mesopotamia in 3000BC, to the gave an entertaining and accessi- foul Black Death “miasmas” of the ble lecture at the popular science Closes of 17th century Edinburgh, level on biological and artificial people have been delighted and olfaction. nauseated by smells. Only recently, The lecture covered the neurobiol- however, has science revealed how ogy of the mammalian olfaction our brains process odours, and system, the design of artificial this understanding has led us to “electronic noses”, which develop electronic nose chips Professor Goodman demonstrat- capable of learning and recognis- ed, and the use of these noses in ing odours. tracking robots. As part of his tenure as Carnegie Trust Centenary Professor, Professor Rodney Goodman delivered a public lecture at the Royal Society of Edinburgh.

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Professor Frank Kelly, FRS, Master, Christ’s College Cambridge 22 September 2008 The Challenges of Road Pricing

Forecasts using the UK National congestion on a road in terms of Transport Model suggest that a the amount of traffic. The increas- well-targeted national road ing delays on road networks have pricing scheme could achieve £10 moved the issue of congestion up billion-worth of time savings a the political agenda in the face of year in Great Britain alone. Road a perhaps naive assumption that pricing has had strong theoretical somehow the traffic flow will find support over many decades. So its own benign equilibrium; that what is the problem with imple- people won’t drive if they expect a menting road pricing? route to be congested and will instead take alternative times or Professor Kelly set out to explain routes, thus creating a self- some of the challenges, the limiting mechanism. technological background, the economic and social framework, To indicate the counter-intuitive and the network modelling issues. nature of road traffic equilibria, Professor Kelly described Braess’ First and foremost a mathemati- Paradox: in a congested network cian, Professor Kelly began by where each driver selects a route setting out the correlation to minimise that driver’s individual between his own academic delay, it is quite possible that discipline and the challenges of adding a road to a network will road networks for the next twenty increase the delay for every user of to thirty years. There is, he the network. An example of postulates, a common underlying Braess’ Paradox was described abstract theory concerning where the delay for everyone mathematical models of networks, increased from 83 to 92 when a whether they be communication, road was added to the network. power or transport networks, although the technology, eco- Behind these models lie basic nomics and social issues will differ mathematical theories that collate between application areas. sources, routes, linkages and destinations and allow for choice Professor Kelly set out the standar- of routes. The Wardrop Equilibri- dised traffic modelling graphs um describes the pattern of flows that measure the degree of

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that emerges when each driver While we learn to live with makes a self-interested choice of congestion, its impact on our route. A Wardrop Equilibrium behaviour is difficult to measure. captures the phenomenon that The amount of travelling we do is drivers will choose the routes that influenced by fundamental work best to meet their specific aspects of human behaviour as needs ignoring, or not being well as by technology or advertis- aware of, the consequences for ing techniques. Interestingly, other drivers. across the world the time spent travelling, averaged amongst a According to Professor Kelly, our country’s population, comes out intuition misleads because we are at a fairly steady level. The prone to assuming that the differences between an African addition of capacity must improve tribal village and a modern delay. It may not. The system is industrial society are surprisingly efficiently minimised, an objective, minimal, nor does the percentage but the wrong objective. In fact, of income spent on travel show the objective we would prefer to much variance (Schafer and Victor, minimise is a different one 2000). We are, argues Professor (Beckmann, McGuire and Winsten Kelly, constrained by time and 1956). To put it a different way, money when we choose where to the system self-regulates, but it work, our leisure activities, schools does not self-regulate to the and so on. Even the shifts in equilibrium we want it to. technologies - from horses to air At this point, Professor Kelly filled travel, roads to trains - do not in some of the historical detail so reveal the kinds of dramatic shifts as to explain the progression of one might expect. The average theories and their impact. There distance travelled per individual were, he explained, economists increases at around a fairly steady between the 1920s and the 2.7 per cent a year. 1960s who examined the As we make our travel choices, are theories, leading to Barbara we mindful of the impact upon Castle’s Transport White Paper of the infrastructure? Although 1966 which began to look at road disposable income has more than pricing as a solution to the doubled since 1974, the cost to a problems of congestion. As early driver of driving a car has not as 1959, the Columbia University increased at anything like the economist William Vickrey was a same rate. The UK remains one of leading advocate for electronic the worst two or three countries road tolling. His influence has in Europe in terms of the amount been extensive. of time spent in congested

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travelling situations. The contribu- what would happen in London. tion of road traffic to congestion The variety of technologies costs us as a society, according to available worldwide ranges from fairly robust cost/benefit analyses, tariffs based on registration plates far more than its contribution to to those that use sophisticated accidents, air pollution, noise or technologies based on transpon- climate change. ders and GPS. A feasibility study of road pricing Technology is undoubtedly raising in the UK came out in 2004. The issues around privacy and trust Department for Transport but it should not deflect us from suggested then that a well- the central reasoning around road targeted national road pricing charging. We need to be aware of scheme had the potential to the trade-offs between privacy, achieve some £20 billion worth of convenience and personalisation time savings a year at 2010 traffic implicit in our use of emerging levels in Great Britain alone - but technologies. A topic also there is a price. touched upon was who should set the rates and position of The introduction of the conges- cordons and with what con- tion charge in London used a straints? fairly unsophisticated tolling mechanism, but was a good In conclusion, Professor Kelly choice in a democracy where the expressed his belief that road benefits would need to be pricing looks inevitable for those apparent before the Mayor cities which hope to position sought re-election. The scale of themselves as global centres. It is, the political and social experiment he feels, a matter of when rather resulted in worldwide interest in than if.

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Lecture 30 September 2008 Availability of Drugs for the Elderly Joint event supported by The Edinburgh Drug Absorption Foundation and the Ewan & Christine Brown’s Charitable Trust

The meeting was held against a such as demand, need, cost and background of rising drug costs affordability are not taken into and tightening NHS resources. Its account in the licensing process. aim was to encourage public Every country is struggling to debate about how we decide deliver, with finite budgets set what drugs should be available against near infinite demand, in and whether this has a particular populations resistant to raising impact on the elderly. The taxes. The aim has been to make speakers included those who new medicines available and avoid make decisions of this nature at a postcode lotteries, he confirmed, national and local level and also but the question is how to achieve one of the UK’s foremost health this. ‘There are some who believe economists. it’s better to spend the money buying drugs, than in inventing a Chaired by Dr David Lawson new bureaucracy’, he said CBE, Honorary Professor of provocatively. Medicine and Therapeutics, University of Glasgow. Professor David Webb Christison Professor of Therapeu- As founding Chairman of the tics and Clinical Pharmacology, Scottish Medicines Consortium Queen’s Medical Research and a former Chairman of the UK Institute, University of Edinburgh. Medicines Commission, Professor Lawson, was well-placed to chair Scottish Medicines Consortium; the evening. He began with a principles and process, elderly- short explanation of the current relevant medicines accepted position. Briefly, the UK, as with and rejected. the rest of the world, is struggling As a former Chairman of the to pay its drug bill. This is Scottish Medicines Consortium particularly the case when (SMC), Professor Webb ran expensive new treatments, such as through the processes by which biological therapies, come on the organisation assesses newly stream. While products will receive licensed drugs. He spoke of the a licence if they are safe, of good benefits of SMC, which include its quality and efficacious, issues

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fast decision making and the fact tical Industries (ABPI) (represent- that it was created and is owned ing industry). ‘The main by the NHS. committee revisits the scientific evidence and takes a broader He cited an Audit Scotland report societal perspective,’ he said. from 1997 (The Bitterest Pill) There is also an opportunity for which focused on the year-on-year patient groups to submit evi- rise in drugs costs within the NHS. dence. At that time, said Professor Webb, Scotland’s four large and 11 There are three potential out- smaller health boards were each comes: the drug is accepted; doing their own thing, with accepted with restrictions; or, not varying levels of expertise. This recommended. Re-submissions meant duplication of effort and, are encouraged and there is an crucially, led to so-called ‘postcode appeals process. prescribing’ because different Acceptance does not necessarily boards came to different deci- mean the drug will go into health sions. board formularies (the list of The SMC was set up to look at all drugs which can be prescribed in newly licensed medicines – each NHS board area). If the Area around 100 products per year – Drugs and Therapeutics Commit- and advise health boards and area tee does not feel it will be of use – drugs and therapeutics commit- for example, if it is the fourth or tees whether they should be fifth ‘me too’ drug and they available on the NHS in Scotland. already have others in use – then it might not go in the local The SMC makes decisions quickly formulary. (within 14 weeks), based on a submission from the licence Around a third of submissions are holder, which is a novel method. rejected. In general, the cheaper Essentially the SMC makes a the drug is, in terms of cost per decision on whether the new QALY (quality adjusted life-year – a product will provide value for term used to judge how many money for the NHS, based on cost years of good quality life a and efficacy. The assessment product will ‘buy’ for a patient), process is two-tier and involves a the more likely it is to be accepted. scientific committee of about 20 If cost per QALY is under £20,000, people, whose findings go to the there is an 80 per cent chance that main committee, which has 30 it will be accepted, whereas the members, including lay members SMC rejects around 50 per cent of and representatives from the those where the cost per QALY is Association of British Pharmaceu- between £20,000 and £30,000. If

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the cost per QALY is £40,000, value one gets from them. He also then the chance of rejection is pointed out that drugs are priced ‘high’, he said. with the US market in mind, because that’s where half the These criteria are similar to those global sales are. used by NICE, but are still well above what health economists In conclusion, he said that the tend to say we can afford, which SMC avoids duplication, is not would be more like £10,000 per influenced by affordability and QALY. (To add context, he said that makes early decisions. ‘It is open, beta interferon for multiple transparent, consistent and NHS- sclerosis costs £174,000 per led.’ QALY). Dr Ken Paterson The strengths of the SMC are that Diabetes Centre, Glasgow Royal it has a bottom-up approach; is Infirmary and Chairman of the owned and was created by the SMC NHS; is flexible; engages with Clinical Effectiveness: Sources industry; has a single consultation and quality of data available to stage; and, makes decisions the Scottish Medicines Consor- rapidly. It is also fully supported by tium the Scottish Government. He pointed out that of the 63 drugs Dr Paterson discussed the looked at by both NICE and the complexity and limitations of the SMC, the same decision was health economics modelling reached in 83 per cent of cases. which underlies the decision- Scottish patients get the advan- making over whether a new tage of getting drugs substantially treatment should be available in earlier. The SMC had offered to the NHS in Scotland. He looked in work more closely with NICE but particular at the impact which had been rebuffed. He accepted economic modelling has on drugs that the SMC takes an NHS for elderly people. perspective and doesn’t look, for Starting with the concept of ‘cost- example, at the carer cost effectiveness’ he pointed out that implications of rejecting or it is not as simple as it seems. Cost accepting a drug. doesn’t refer only to buying the He also said there is a need to drug, but also to how much it make sure that there is room for costs to give it, monitor it and genuinely innovative drugs and treat any side-effects. ‘What cited the view of the Office of Fair matters is the overall cost,’ he Trading (OFT), that it might be said. better to price drugs based on the

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Effectiveness is also tricky, result in getting money back. especially when trying to place When all the factors are not clinical trial data in a real world known, judgment calls come into context. There can be problems play. with extrapolating short-term data He described the attempts to to long-term; questions over bring the question of ‘health gain’ looking at surrogate end points into a single measure, the QALY (such as blood pressure) rather (qualify adjusted life-year). Again than actual outcomes; and, issues this is a vexed issue. How is over whether the trial compares survival benefit measured when it the product to an old drug or might be based on younger, fitter even to no drug at all (placebo). patients than we have in Scotland Patients in clinical trials are and when the outcomes are being unrepresentative of the real world extrapolated from surrogate end patient in that they tend to be points? The model tries to younger, fitter and have less produce an outcome measure- wrong with them. In the real ment, but it may be part of a world patients are much older and range of estimates. There’s also often have multiple morbidities the question of quality of life: is it and are on a multitude of from the perspective of the treatments. The typical trial patient or of the NHS and how patient will also get more does one assess it? monitoring than real life allows, which can also confound matters. There are several methods, Trial data ‘can’t simply be used including asking patients to say uncritically,’ he said. It can inform how they feel (visual analogue decision-making but cannot be scale); asking them how they feel regarded as the last word. about a time trade-off (eg ten years of life feeling awful com- Health economic modelling pared to two feeling good); and, involves taking the data into the standard gamble – what risk of real world and using the informa- death would they take to have an tion to predict what would injection which might make them happen in routine practice. better, or could kill them? These Clinician input is vital in this are decided on a scale where 0 process, so it is important that equals death and 1 equals perfect they are engaged and involved. health. When looking at costs, it’s also There are other issues including important to note that cost the age of a patient (biological savings predicted are putative – and actual) and special circum- rarely, if ever, will a new drug stances – someone with six

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months left to live might not want Other factors such as co-morbidi- to give up any of it so might ties, which may alter the efficacy inflate the gain in quality of life, or toxicity of a drug and biological while some older people might age also need to be taken into feel they’ve had their ‘three score account. He said there is a years and ten’ so might be theoretical issue over what would happier to take a chance and happen if a drug took 20 years to refuse treatment, which deflates become cost-effective. And niche it. drugs, which would only be used for a few people, also present All QALYs are allegedly valued challenges. He outlined a equally by society, he said, but this paradigm shift, where there is ignores the questions such as, lower pricing based on how well a how we feel about whether drug performs. ‘Show us the children should take precedence benefits and we’ll pay for it,’ he or whether priority should be said. The current system isn’t given to something which cures. perfect, but is the best we’ve got. How much should we pay for a Otherwise decisions might be QALY, he asked, saying that made on the basis of who shouts ‘infinity’ is not an option. ‘Do we loudest. bankrupt the NHS or bankrupt UK plc?’ Tom Divers Chief Executive, NHS Greater Economists want to lower the Glasgow and Clyde threshold. This could involve restricting treatment or lowering Affordability and Prioritisation prices. Mr Divers began by saying that With the QALY, all health gain is Scotland’s NHS Chief Executives valued equally, whether it goes were very supportive of SMC. He from 0.4 to 0.6 or 0.7 to 0.9 on proposed to describe some of the the scale – it’s the magnitude ‘blunter’ methods used in making which matters. That means that decisions at a regional and local older people may have an level about which drugs are made inherent advantage because more available, once they have been have diseases such as accepted by the national body. hypertension, osteoporosis and He asked the audience to bear in heart disease, which tend to mind that his NHS Board – the inflate the QALY gain and makes biggest in Scotland – was trying to treatment more cost-effective than deal with the challenges of paying in younger patients. for new drugs against an increase in budget this year of just 3.15

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per cent. He described the work of to this year, minimum uplift has the West of Scotland regional been six per cent, so thus far we advisory group, which involves have been able to accommodate NHS Ayrshire and Arran, Dumfries additional drug costs. That might and Galloway, Lanarkshire and become more challenging with Forth Valley, as well as Greater smaller uplifts. Glasgow and Clyde. Other groups He illustrated the difficulty by include the Area Drug and showing the increase in hospital Therapeutics Committee, which prescribing costs – double figure makes the decision about which percentage rises, year-on-year – drugs make it to the local making it one of the biggest formulary, and the Prescribing pressures (along with fuel costs Management Group, whose job and surgical instruments and includes horizon scanning, to see supplies). what’s coming up and the financial and other implications. The Prescribing Management Each of these groups plays into Group (PMG) uses horizon each other. scanning and trend analysis, he said. It’s a big group, mainly The approach is to have explicit clinicians, and also considers the criteria and an annual prioritisa- high costs of exceptional cases or tion round. This is based on expensive individual therapies. He business cases drawn up by each stressed that discussions are on a specialist service – for example, board-wide basis and that all cardiologists will be asked to rank acute hospitals came under the new cardiology developments. A one operating division, unlike the sub-group of the regional group days of trusts and before when short-lists these priorities, based different hospitals were trying to on a process which now includes ‘carve each other up’. face-to-face meetings with clinicians. This has been a really He gave a couple of hard exam- valuable development, said Mr ples of coping with new Divers, as it allows both sides to developments. When SMC see what is behind decision approved a new drug for wet making. AMD (age-related macular degeneration), a major cause of Health services in Scotland are blindness, it underestimated the facing real challenges. In recent likely impact, in terms of cost and years additional drug costs have in terms of the facilities and staff generally been within boards’ needed to administer it. The uplift. This has nothing to do with treatment requires repeated the change in government, but up injections of an antibody directly

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into the eyeball by an ophthalmic of currently used treatments could surgeon in a sterile room and the also help create some headroom, presence of an anaesthetist. The he said. PMG called for a business case to Professor Alan Maynard look at how it could be intro- Department of Health Science, duced and how much it would University of York cost. Meanwhile, the board came under pressure to introduce the The ethics of treatment denial drug and was accused of denying on the basis of cost it to local patients. ‘We took the Professor Maynard made the heat and said we were doing it as argument that rationing is quickly as we could,’ said Mr inevitable and ubiquitous – if not Divers. When it was introduced, it explicit – in health services; the cost £700,000 less than initially question is how it is done. The predicted (on a cost of £2.7 problem, he said, is both scarce million). resources and the fact that in this The other example was drug- country we don’t tend to be good eluting stents (a coronary scaffold at dealing with death. There are a placed into diseased arteries number of ways to ration, which slowly releases a drug to including willingness to pay prevent clots). A minister had (which disadvantages the poor) promised they would be made and the ‘toss a coin’ method available so health boards had to where decisions are taken, for make it happen. The regional example, on the basis of religion cardiac group wanted to fund the or race or age and by looking at more effective CRT (cardiac need, demand and supply. resynchronisation therapy), which Economists, he said, want to appeared unaffordable. After a improve the length and quality of negotiation, it was agreed that if life, but it is difficult to decide DES use was brought down to the how best to achieve that. level recommended by NICE guidelines, then the saving could He pointed out that much of what part fund CRT. is done in the health service has no basis in evidence and many His final thought was that great studies are published which are rigour had to be applied to imperfect. Even so, the health deciding what drugs the NHS service at least has some evidence- should fund, particularly in an era base, especially when compared of tight financial uplifts. A review with other areas such as educa-

200 Lectures

tion, social work and police. ‘At stays. Unfortunately the same least medicine is making an studies show that a higher attempt to be scientific,’ he said. intensity of care and higher levels of spending are not associated He spoke about economic models, with better quality of life or longer including the QALY, but made it survival times even in the most plain that health decisions are not renowned teaching hospitals. He always taken on a utilitarian basis; said the UK had particularly high they tend to have an ethical levels of variation and that these dimension too. He gave the persisted, despite calls for action example of low birth weight over many years, and asked babies; if considered on a purely whether incentives – or penalties – utilitarian basis of getting the would help achieve change. most benefit from resources, then treating these babies would not Another way to reduce rationing be seen as a good idea. The would be to drive down the price efficient route would be to let of drugs. ‘It’s time for government them die. ‘Society is prepared to to be a price maker, not a price be inefficient,’ he said, adding taker,’ he said. He referred to the that there was a challenge in OFT’s value-based pricing call squaring off both ethics and (where manufacturers would be efficiency. When measuring cost, it paid according to the benefit is important to look at what is the brought by their produce) but value of what is given up – if one asked who would do it. ‘We could person gets a treatment, another avoid the top-up debate if is therefore denied it. industry was prepared to negoti- ate prices,’ he said. There are a number of potential solutions, including finding more Factors other than cost or resources. Rationing can be economics could affect whether lessened by improving the patients are denied treatment. For efficiency of health care by, for example, it’s quite efficient to treat example, reducing clinical practice an 85-year-old cardiac patient but variations. It has been recognised there might possibly be a view for quite some time now that that it’s better to use resources considerable differences occur in inefficiently for young people the treatments carried out by instead. So should we swallow the doctors on apparently similar health economists’ efficiency patients in terms of the frequency model or should we put social of physician visits, the number of value weights in? ‘We’re pushing diagnostic tests and length of down the efficiency route – we’ve hospital and intensive care (ICU) converted the medical profession

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to efficiency – but there are other Professor Webb said that it might values, there are other things,’ he be helpful if patients understood said. what resources they were ‘consuming or not consuming’. He outlined some rationing rules, including treating equals equally Dr Paterson agreed there was a with due dignity (particularly lack of transparency in how when close to death); meeting products were priced, but added people’s needs for healthcare as that people should know the efficiently as possible; and, value of prescriptions as it might minimising health inequalities – make them more likely to take the something which he said may be treatment – or think twice about inefficient but ethical. whether they needed to get the prescription made up. He said that the way forward was for the public and politicians to Professor Maynard was not decide, but reminded the convinced, however, saying that audience of the reaction of former systems elsewhere in the world health minister Edwina Currie which had tried this had not when asked to consider rationing: noticed differences in behaviour. ‘Bugger off, I want to be re- Professor Dargie said there could elected.’ be problems if patients thought Debate that a new drug costing £500 would necessarily be better than The speakers were joined by an existing £25 product, when Professor Henry Dargie, Depart- there wasn’t necessarily any extra ment of Cardiology, Western benefit from the more expensive Infirmary, Glasgow. drug. He said that there was huge Transparency about cost of variation in patients and that medicines while knowing the cost might have an effect on some, it The lively question session was wouldn’t on others. opened by a man who described himself as an elderly patient with Mr Divers called on clinicians to be Parkinson’s. He suggested that more honest about the benefits of people might act more responsi- drugs, particularly non-formulary bly and comply with treatment if products, and asked them to get there was more transparency ‘alongside’ managers over what about how much medicines cost. was possibly within the resource envelope – rather than handing the issue to a panel which decides on exceptional cases.

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Professor Angus Mackay, a it would help if the drug industry psychiatrist, said there would be a could be persuaded to do better problem in psychiatry in particular ‘real world’ trials. because patients with depressive On orphan drugs, Mr Divers said illness may not think themselves there is a debate within SMC worthy of expensive drugs. about whether they should be Professor Dargie said it was subject to the same criteria as all difficult for clinicians to get to other drugs and that there is a risk know patients because consulta- of leaving it up to local decision- tion times were limited. He said it making by each health board. was important to explain what the On top-up fees, Mr Divers said the patient would gain from a current system (where patients treatment, and the downsides. ‘In cannot have NHS treatment if they some cases the patient might say opt to pay for something – such they don’t want to bother with as an expensive drug – privately) that [a drug], particularly if it’s came about because some preventative.’ hospital consultants allowed their QALYs, top-up fees and orphan private patients to jump the NHS drugs queue and move in and out of private treatment. Professor Webb A former physician from the Royal said that top-up payments are Infirmary of Edinburgh expressed against the ethos of the NHS, but alarm at how ‘vague’ a QALY is. He said he is ‘troubled’ that people also felt that those with rare have to sell or remortgage their diseases would get a ‘bad home to pay for treatment – bargain’ if denied new treatments particularly if the effectiveness is on the basis of cost, particularly as marginal. those looking for further develop- ments might gain knowledge Deciding on other areas of which would benefit other service provision conditions. He also asked about A representative from the ABPI top-up or co-payments. All (pharmaceutical industry) ques- panellists agreed that there are tioned affordability, saying that if clear limitations with the current drugs are subjected to a maximum approach, including the QALY, but cost per QALY, what about the said they are the best thing other 90 per cent of health available at the moment. Professor intervention. Professor Maynard Webb said that while economics said that the cut-off was arbitrary, helped form decisions, essentially but that rationing has been they were clinical judgments, submerged because so much while Professor Maynard said that

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money has been pumped into the is “at best inaccurate and is often NHS. He said politicians would misleading. It has to shock to be have to look at the issue. read,” he said. Mr Divers said that some proce- Considering social care costs dures, such as surgical practice, A representative of Alzheimer are looked at for cost-effective- Scotland said that NICE had tried ness. ‘Folk don’t get a £50,000 to take into account the costs of operation nodded through,’ he social care when making decisions said. about drugs for Alzheimer’s. She Self-monitoring asked if there is a possibility that ‘NHS-centric’ processes risk Asked if encouraging people to ignoring the impact on social care. self-monitor would improve Professor Webb said that if the compliance, the panel was not NHS identified social care costs as convinced. While it might be good part of the SMC’s brief, they for some patients, possibly those would look at them on a case-by- who were engaged with self- case basis. ‘We don’t look at carer monitoring would have adhered costs,’ he said, adding that to treatment in any case. politicians would have to make Patient education and the that decision. Tom Divers said that media the SMC got insights from patient interest group submissions, but A pharmacist from Edinburgh that some groups didn’t submit; asked about how to educate some submissions were superb; patients, when the media and, others were ‘patchy’. publicised the “latest must-have” drug. Professor Webb said it is ‘Me Too’ Drugs important to educate the public Asked by Professor Harmer, a that drugs could harm as well as pharmacologist, about ‘me too’ benefit. drugs, Professor Webb said they Professor Maynard added that it is aren’t necessarily a bad thing. important to get information out Having more than one drug in a to GPs so that they can deal with class means that if patients react patients who demanded the latest against one, they can try another. drug, by, for example, being able Also, extra benefits might be to say the results had been based found from the third of fourth on a small trial. Professor Dargie version – he gave the example of said the media is part of the the contraceptive pill, which has problem because what is written improved in safety as it has evolved. But he said it is important

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to be wary where pharmaceutical Dr Paterson said that primary care companies have a drug nearing trusts in England are increasingly the end of its patent and alter it looking to the SMC for advice slightly to preserve profits. while they wait for NICE to make decisions. Professor Maynard SMC v NICE added it was ‘very sad’ that more A member of the audience put the PCTs didn’t do so. ‘We have 150 question of which was better, the PCTs doing their own thing. I SMC or NICE. The Chairman think they should use SMC replied that the two organisations guidance and be more consistent.’ were ‘different creatures’. The Patient involvement SMC makes rapid assessments and uses information provided It was left to a woman active in early by the pharmaceutical patient involvement to put the last industry – and tries to ‘form’ question, which was really more rather than change prescribing of a statement. She said she was habits. NICE takes longer, but can ‘heartened’ and ‘encouraged’ by make decisions based on newer the debate and the thought and information. ‘We’d like them to consideration behind it. use the SMC’s data. Why reinvent Professor Lawson finished by the wheel?’ he said. calling on members of the public Professor Webb said that NICE – not necessarily representatives runs a public health programme, of patient groups – to get looks at health technology and at involved in the debate. “I think whole disease areas – none of public involvement has greatly which is part of the SMC remit. evolved – we’re getting better at ‘These are hard nuts to crack, but it,” he said, but conceded that it is important work,’ he said. ‘The there is room for improvement. SMC is very good at making fast judgements, but NICE does things that are just as important and which complement what the SMC does.’

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CONFERENCES, WORKSHOPS, SYMPOSIA, SEMINARS AND DISCUSSION FORUMS

Kelvin 2007 ...... 208 Are Our Civil Liberties Being Unduly Eroded? ...... 210 Science and the Parliament...... 214 Inflammation and Inflammatory Disease ...... 216 Cultural Flagships: being a ‘National’ – Music and Opera ...... 226 Rare Plants and Common Interests ...... 235 Cultural Flagships: being a ‘National’ – Film...... 259 Structures and Granular Solids ...... 267 Computer Predictions for Nature and Society: Should They be Trusted? ...... 268 The Life and Culture of the Highlands and Islands ...... 272 Doors Open Day ...... 287

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Institute of Physics Conference in association with the University of Glasgow and The Royal Society of Edinburgh Kelvin 2007 14 November 2007

On November 14 2007 in the what undermined by the subse- Kelvin Gallery of the University of quent discovery that light needed Glasgow we celebrated 100 years no ether at all! Although flawed of Lord Kelvin’s legacy. Kelvin was as a theory for atoms and mole- born William Thomson in Belfast cules, vortex lines within wave in 1824. He entered Glasgow fields are prevalent in many University at the age of ten and branches of physics, ranging from published a paper on Fournier’s superfluids and cosmic strings to Theory when he was seventeen. light itself. He so distinguished himself that Professor Sir Michael Berry FRS at the age of twenty-two he was HonFRSE explained how, ever elected to the Chair of Natural since the time of Newton, light Philosophy at Glasgow. Far was known to exhibit vortex-like beyond the laws of thermo- properties. Optical vortices are an dynamics his scientific inescapable feature that arises achievements spanned many whenever three or more light aspects of physics, engineering beams overlap. Professor Berry and – as a man ahead of his times revealed how for special super- – its commercialisation. positions of beams, the resulting Rather than concentrating on his vortex structure can form both historical achievements, the day’s links and knots – a topic of lectures centered on exploring the current research within Glasgow modern legacy of some of the University. scientific fields that occupied Kelvin gave his name to the Kelvin – presenting modern day temperature scale, which sets insights to work that he can be absolute zero as zero degrees said to have started. Kelvin. Not foreseen by Kelvin is Like many scientists of his time, that when gas atoms are cooled Kelvin believed that light travelled to a fraction of a degree above through ether which filled the absolute zero, their effective vacuum. Kelvin proposed that wavelength extends beyond the atoms and molecules were formed separation between individual from vortex loops and knots atoms. Rather than considering within this ether, a theory some- the gas as individual atoms, one

208 Conferences, Workshops, Symposia and Discussion Forums now considers the gas as a whole. highly sensitive receiver, capable These Bose-Einstein condensates of measuring the small currents are one of the hot topics of emerging at the far end of the modern physics. Professor Ed cable. Professor Sibbett explained Hinds produced one of the how electronic communication world’s first condensates, and has has been largely superseded by established many new techniques optical communication, and how for their transport and control. A UK science has developed the related area of excitement is that it essential optical amplifiers is possible to hold a single atom required to boost the light levels within a miniature cavity formed throughout the thousands of between the end of an optical kilometres of fibre optic cable. fibre and a neighbouring mirror. Professor Sibbett’s own work has The enhancement provided by the centred on making the ultra-short cavity means that it is possible to laser pulses that form the basis of interact with the atom using a high-speed optical communica- single photon of light. These tions. quantised interactions will form Returning again to the ether, the basis of a completely new Kelvin pondered also its structure, form of information processing – which had to be light, yet to capable of performing tasks account for light’s high velocity, impossible by any classical also very stiff. Kelvin speculated computer. that the ether had the same Beyond Thermodynamics, for structure as foam, famously only which Kelvin is most famous, his taking a few weeks to establish contributions to the commercial the lowest energy unit cell. His exploitation of modern science foam structure was considered the were truly impressive. Nowhere optimum foam until the mid was this more impressive than his 1990s, when Professor Denis contribution to worldwide Weaire established an alternative communication. Professor Wilson structure slightly more efficient Sibbett CBE FRS FRSE outlined than Kelvin’s proposal. Interest- Kelvin’s contribution, both the ingly, this structure rarely occurs in unsuccessful and subsequently nature. However, Professor Weaire successful laying of the first showed us how his foam structure transatlantic telegraph cable, an has been adopted as the design undertaking that also required the for the steel framework of the building of the world’s largest Beijing Olympic swimming venue. steam ship. Surely even Kelvin would have Kelvin’s key contributions to the been proud. project included the design of the

209 Review of the Session 2007-2008

Mock Trial Are Our Civil Liberties Being Unduly Eroded? 19 November 2007

On 19 November 2007, the Royal At the outset, the audience voted: Society of Edinburgh staged a For the proposition-94; Against mock trial on the topic “Are our the proposition-33; Undecided- civil liberties being unduly 20. eroded?” Baroness Kennedy, whose plane The event was sponsored by the had also been delayed, had not Faculty of Advocates, the Clark arrived in time to be consulted Foundation, Messrs Balfour & about the introduction of the Manson and Messrs Simpson & word “unduly” but pointed out Marwick, solicitors. The Society is that this was a concession that immensely grateful to them for our civil liberties are being eroded. their support. They had indeed been massively Magnus Linklater, standing in for eroded since before 9/11 because Jim Naughtie whose flight from of Mr Blair’s authoritarian atti- Pakistan had been delayed, acted tudes and anxiety to show that as judge. The audience acted as New Labour was neither a party of jury and were asked to vote at the peaceniks nor soft on crime – beginning and at the end. game-playing with the Tories to see who could be tougher. 2,000 The protagonists were Baroness new crimes had been introduced (Helena) Kennedy, QC, arguing the since 1997. She cited some 20 proposition that our civil liberties examples of authoritarian meas- are being unduly eroded and Lord ures enacted, proposed or (Charlie) Falconer, QC, arguing the threatened, including detention contrary. Each side led three without trial, control orders, witnesses. removal of safeguards (jury trial, The question for debate had double jeopardy, burden of proof, originally been formulated as right to silence, disclosure of “Are our civil liberties being previous convictions, admission of eroded?” At the request of Lord evidence based on torture, Falconer the word “unduly” was streamlining of extradition), inserted. neighbourhood curfews, keeping of DNA, identity cards. Public fears

210 Conferences, Workshops, Symposia and Discussion Forums were stoked up to make these police were able to take and retain appear acceptable and necessary. DNA even where the person The first witness was Shami concerned was not accused, let Chakrabarti, Director of Liberty. alone convicted, of any offence. It She argued that the Blair Govern- was arguable that everyone’s DNA ment — notably successive Home should be recorded on a data- Secretaries — had pursued an base, but this should be on the authoritarian and repressive basis of a comprehensive statute agenda. The Human Rights Act incorporating the necessary was a necessary protection against guarantees against abuse. The this agenda, but it was not in safe proposals for identity cards hands. Ministers treated it as an pursued the same covert agenda. embarrassing love child, and were The third witness was Roy prepared to contemplate its Martin, QC, former Dean of the repeal. Their true attitude was Faculty of Advocates. He concen- reflected in Mr Blair’s statement trated on the independence of the that “We asked the police what judiciary, legal aid and the powers they wanted and we gave regulation of the legal profession. them to them”. The measures It was significant that the govern- taken were counterproductive, ment north and south of the discriminatory and disproportion- Border thought it necessary to ate. Control orders were a form of introduce a statutory guarantee of punishment without trial and judicial independence. This was without limit of time. Such necessary only because, at the measures should be taken only in same time, the government was a temporary and exceptional state introducing legislation that would of emergency. All proportionate enable the executive to direct and alternatives should be considered control the workings of the first and were not. judicial system. Limitation of The second witness, Henry expenditure on legal aid in Porter, author and journalist, criminal cases led to a denial of argued that there had been a access to justice for those who steady erosion of civil liberties could not afford to pay. Regula- since the Home Secretaryship of tion of the legal profession, itself Michael Howard. The state was a guarantee of liberty, was to be intruding, by stealth, ever deeper transferred to a body appointed into the private sphere of the and directed by the government. individual in order to track and Opening the case for the other control their preferences, their side, Lord Falconer said that the reading, their movements, their issue was how we want to live. purchases and their health. The The government of which he had

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been a member had preserved it was a reasonable response but two things well – security and should be subject to review. freedom. Our country was faced The second witness, Alistair with new threats that required Bonnington, solicitor to the BBC action to ensure security. There in Scotland, argued that the had been detention without trial Human Rights Act provided a new during World War II. The meas- context within which to assess the ures taken to deal with the threat erosion of civil liberties. It was of the IRA had included intern- arguable that the criminal law was ment without trial and even now more favourable to the torture. Thanks to the Human accused than before the Act, and Rights Act, the courts were now the Act had been the means of able to ensure that there is no dealing with problems, such as abuse of executive power. Striking the “tenure” of temporary sheriffs the right balance between security at the pleasure of the Lord and liberty should be seen as a Advocate, for which there would collaborative effort between the otherwise have been no remedy. executive and the judiciary. While members of the Executive The first witness was Lord Elder, attacked the Act and the judges, who said that it was important the public were now so distrustful that non-lawyers should have a of politicians that it was an aid to view and should be able to judges to be attacked by politi- express it. Civil liberty was dis- cians. The underlying problem cussed now more than ever with current anti-terrorism before. Britain had been better legislation was haphazard and able to deal with the threat of inadequate drafting. terrorism after 9/11 because, as a The last witness was Lord McClus- result of previous experience with key, who pointed out that there the IRA, we already had stronger had been a threat from Islamic security systems in place. He could terrorism long before 9/11, and not speak for the Muslim commu- cited a list of examples. Meeting nity, but he was Chancellor of a the threat from IRA terrorism had Muslim FE College in Dundee and involved serious curtailment of could say that the concerns civil liberties. The problem of expressed to him were about Iraq dealing with Islamic terrorism was and Palestine rather than meas- of a different order. Normal ures of security at home. The use periods of detention without of stop and search powers charge were inadequate to allow without a requirement to give the police to investigate the reasons was a matter of propor- contents of computer disks, etc. tionality. In current circumstances Power would inevitably be

212 Conferences, Workshops, Symposia and Discussion Forums abused, and the purpose of civil guided by principle developed by liberties, enforced by judges, was collaboration between politicians to protect against abuse. If unduly and the courts. It is not enough to constrained, the police were liable sign up to words. Our experience to resort to underhand methods – of the IRA trials, etc., had shown indeed, one police chief had how the system could be manipu- referred to “perjury in a noble lated, and enactment of the cause”. Some extension of powers Human Rights Act had been of detention was, in the opinion essential to provide a new of the government, essential and framework. No-one in govern- we should accept that, subject to ment wanted to restrict liberty to control by the judiciary. any greater extent than was Summing up, Baroness Kennedy necessary to assure security. This affirmed that “law matters” — it country has a good record. tells us what our values are. Power Summing up, Magnus Linklater is delightful. It will be abused and observed that, over the course of must be constrained. Erosion of the debate, the two sides seemed civil liberties to deal with a threat to have moved further apart. leads to corruption of power and Whereas one side believed that seeps into the culture of policing. civil liberties had been eroded, the Governments will always tell us other maintained that they had, that it is necessary. But the state on the contrary been strength- and the executive derive their ened. He then invited the power from the people and the audience to vote again. burden is on them to show cause There voted: For the proposition- why our civil liberties should be 95; Against the proposition-48; constrained. Laws are the autobi- Still undecided-7. ography of a nation and ours includes shameful chapters. The There was a very enthusiastic politics of “what works” are not round of applause for the two enough. protagonists and the six witness- es. The event concluded with a Lord Falconer did not dispute the vote of thanks to Magnus Linklat- importance of law. We must be er proposed by Lord Cameron of Lochbroom.

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Science and the Parliament 28 November 2007

The Royal Society of Chemistry The President of the Royal Society (RSC) hosted its annual Science of Chemistry, Professor Jim Feast, and the Parliament event at Our welcomed the commitment Dynamic Earth on Wednesday 28 shown by Scottish Parliamentari- November. As well as the RSC a ans to the event, demonstrated by range of other scientific organisa- the attendance and participation tions participated, with of the Government Minister for considerable input from RSE Climate Change Stewart Steven- Fellows and staff. Significant son, and the participation of MSPs contributions to the event were of all parties, including Iain Gray made by Professor Geoffrey of Labour, the Conservative Alex Boulton, Professor Anne Glover Johnstone, Liam McArthur of the and Professor Maggie Gill. Liberal Democrats and Robin The event provided a great Harper the Green co-leader. opportunity for the science and The event looked at the whole political community to come range of ways in which science together and discuss some of the can contribute to tackling climate key issues facing society. change, including breakout Within the first few months of the sessions focusing on alternative new Parliamentary session much fuels for transport, renewable political attention had been paid energy, electricity generation, and to the issue of energy and climate energy conservation. change. The scientific community A Scottish Parliamentary Motion recognised the need to explore was tabled and debated in the the subject within the Scottish Scottish Parliament that after- context and hence the focus this noon. year being Energy and Climate In the evening over 30 Organisa- Change - The Science behind the tions, including the RSE, put on Energy Debate. an exhibition providing the ideal opportunity for networking between the political and scientif- ic communities.

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RSC Chief Executive, Dr Richard of carbon emissions, and I look Pike, said “I hope that the Science forward to seeing the proposals and the Parliament event has of the Scottish Government for its helped to give policy makers some own Climate Change Bill which new ideas of how the world of will be considered in 2008.” science can help tackle the issue

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CRF Conference Inflammation and Inflammatory Disease 29-30 November 2007

Reproduced from Conference Report ISBN: 978 0 902198 55 5

Inflammation and the inflamma- Many of the distinguished tory process are central to many speakers had been directly diseases, including cancer, heart involved in recent dramatic disease and arthritis. This is not a developments which have led to a new observation; in the first step change in the treatment of century AD, the Roman writer inflammatory disease. These Aulus Cornelius Celsus noted the included Professor Marc Feld- four cardinal signs of inflamma- mann, who described how he tion, namely rubor, calor, dolor came to discover anti-TNF therapy, and tumor (redness, heat, pain one of the big clinical success and swelling). Galen added to stories in treating chronic disease. that loss of function. Others described promising new That did not mean, however, that targets for potential new treat- the ancients came up with cures ments, and demonstrated how for inflammatory diseases. Indeed, our understanding of the molecu- until well into the last century lar basis for diseases including there was little in the way of rheumatoid arthritis and vasculitis treatment for some of the most was improving. common and even now cures for There was also a political dimen- many are elusive. sion, however. Glasgow’s There was a sense of history, Professor Ian McInnes was however, at this Caledonian particularly keen to move inflam- Research Foundation conference matory diseases up the agenda and a feeling that times are and to see a renewed focus on beginning to change. Perhaps co- finding effective new cures. He chair Professor Chris Haslett called for immunology groups to summed it up best when he told work together to find new the audience that his previous treatments and to make a concert- pessimism about the whole area ed effort to treat patients within of inflammatory disease was clinical trials, sharing the knowl- being replaced with a real sense edge and pushing the field of hope. forward, taking the cancer community as a model.

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All in all, the conference lived up degeneration and renewal each to the introduction from Professor menstrual cycle. David Baird, retired obstetrician Many of the molecules involved in and member of the CRF board. It menstruation, however, are also was important, he said, to have those involved in the body’s such conferences, free from the inflammatory response to injury. influence of commercial sponsors, These include a dynamic popula- to discuss and drive forward areas tion of leukocytes within the of clinical and scientific impor- endometrium and there is also a tance. complex interplay between sex Mechanisms of Inflammation hormones, immune system cells, Menstruation: A Pivotal Repro- locally produced cytokines and ductive Inflammatory Event growth factors. Professor Hilary Critchley, Centre Menstrual bleeding occurs when for Reproductive Biology, Universi- the sex hormone, progesterone, is ty of Edinburgh. withdrawn, although how that happens is not fully understood. Menstruation is an inflammatory Several compounds could be event which involves tissue injury involved, including uterine and repair. As such, it may serve as cytokines, VEGF and glucocorti- a paradigm for these processes coids. elsewhere in the body. But menstrual disorders also bring Professor Critchley concluded that their own problems and can have menstruation was an inflammato- a considerable impact on women’s ry event and there are a number of physical, economic and psycho- local mediators at play. A better logical wellbeing. In order to understanding of the regulation improve the medical treatment of of normal menstruation could women with menstrual problems, open the way to better treatments it is essential to understand the for menstrual problems. It could mechanisms involved in uterine also help to improve understand- bleeding. ing of Inflammation mechanisms and tumour formation elsewhere Professor Critchley said that the in the body. process of tissue injury and subsequent repair in menstrua- The Pathophysiology of Tumor tion involved a complex interplay Necrosis Factor: Insights from between the endocrine and the Animal Models local immune systems, with the Professor George Kollias, Presi- functional layer of the human dent and Director, Biomedical endometrium undergoing serial Sciences Research Centre Alexan- der Fleming, Greece.

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Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF) is one to be a single cause or mechanism of the big stories in inflammation for these diseases or processes. He and autoimmunity. The protein concluded that a number of plays an essential part in the different mechanisms could be at development of rheumatoid play and that this might help to arthritis, spondyloarthritis and explain the efficacy and safety of Crohn’s disease; and anti-TNF anti-TNF therapies. therapies have proved to be a Using information from both breakthrough treatment for these animal and patient samples, the conditions. researchers are building up a Professor Kollias, who is re- database of potential therapeutic nowned for the development and targets and treatments. characterisation of transgenic and Rheumatoid Arthritis as a knockout mice, spoke about the Syndrome of Accelerated work done in his lab and beyond, Immune Senescence to try to find out more about the specific function of TNF and its Dr Connie Weyand, Division of receptors. Rheumatology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta. Using animal models, researchers are trying to map molecular and Dr Weyand began by defining cellular pathways which involve various national reactions to TNF. As yet, the specific mecha- ageing: while the French think it’s nisms are unknown, but there are a nuisance and the British think promising lines of inquiry. it’s a fact, for Americans it’s Professor Kollias and colleagues regarded as ‘an option’. are using functional genomics Although this may have been a and high-throughput technolo- joke, it underlined the point of gies to investigate genes or her paper, which was that rheu- pathways potentially involved in matoid arthritis (RA) is caused by TNF-mediated disease. Using a an ageing and failing immune large-scale integrated expression system. The ‘option’ part comes approach in transgenic mice, they into it because, if it’s possible to have identified many genes and stop the immune system ageing, pathways which are deregulated then RA might also be halted. in diseased cells. Mesenchymal Dr Weyand pointed out the cells and follicular dendritic cells paradox that it is when our for example, are involved in the immune systems begin to age that TNF-signalling process. we develop conditions like RA, Again, however, Professor Kollias which rely on immune and stressed that there was not likely inflammatory responses. Her

218 Conferences, Workshops, Symposia and Discussion Forums hypothesis is that RA is, paradoxi- Inflammation and Destruction cally, caused by a failing, rather in Rheumatoid Arthritis: Path- than efficient immune system. ways and Therapeutic The immune system depends on Implications massive expansion and contrac- Professor Josef Smolen, Division tion of cell numbers, imposing of Rheumatology, Medical School intense proliferative stress and of Vienna. restricting the lifespan of lym- Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is phocytes. characterised by the propensity for She demonstrated that the body’s destruction of cartilage and bone, production of thymic T cells falls which is brought about by the away dramatically once it reaches inflammatory response of the the fifth decade, leading to a disease. Other disorders which remodelling of the immune have a similar inflammatory system. This was illustrated by a response have less potential for progressive loss of telomeres – the destruction, however. cell’s internal ‘clock’ – and Dr Professor Smolen said that the Weyand said that immunoregula- pathways leading to joint damage tory receptors were different in in RA seem to be connected to the ‘young’ and ‘old’ T cells. Patients high level of proinflammatory with RA accumulate senescent T cytokines which allow osteoclasts cells – indeed, their immune – the cells which destroy bone – to system is 20-30 years pre-aged, become hyperactive. she said. Not only does this affect the ‘memory cells’ which are He said TNF is an important Inflammation-mediating, but also cytokine in the pathogenesis of the immune system’s ‘reserve’ of destructive arthritis, but it is not naive T cells. the only one. What is known is that TNF enhances osteoclas- She concluded that there was a togenesis, primarily via TNF-R1, mechanistic link between acceler- while TNF-R2 may prove to have a ated immunosenescence and protective role. chronic inflammatory disease in RA. In practice, when treating patients with RA, it is important to aim to prevent damage both occurring in the first place and building up, but the only certain way to do that is by inducing remission. In all other situations, joint destruction will continue.

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He stressed that since anti-TNF treatment with anti-CD20 therapy therapy with MTX reduces joint (Rituximab), which depletes B damage at any disease activity cells, suggests they are also state, it is important to report involved. Professor Savage disease state in clinical trials. described results in patients in Professor Smolen concluded that Birmingham using Rituximab, the effects of therapy could be where remission and B-cell predicted within 3–6 months, depletion were induced in all, but which allowed a flexible approach. the mechanism of action is still Although reducing Inflammation now known. Her hypothesis is helps to slow destruction, pro- that autoantibodies might gression to disability will only be predominantly be produced by stopped by turning off the short-lived Ab-producing cells, inflammatory response dependent on repopulation by completely. precursor B cells. Pathogenic Mechanisms in She concluded that Inflammation Vasculitis in vasculitis may be driven in many instances by ANCA–neutrophil Professor Caroline Savage, interactions. But modulation by Institute of Biological Research, cytokines is key to this. In addi- University of Birmingham. tion, certain microvascular beds Vasculitides can attack large, are more susceptible to injury, so medium or small vessels, causing B cells may be needed to support damage to blood vessel walls. inflammatory niches where Small vessel vasculitides (SSV) can plasma cells can contribute to cause significant damage to major autoantibody formation and T organs including the kidney, cells may be overactive. Injury may respiratory and cardiovascular be largely driven by neutrophil systems. serine proteases, making them potentially important therapeutic SSV have strong autoimmune targets. features and, although it is not known precisely what agents Chemo Attraction of Inflamma- cause them, SSV do have an tory Cells to Sites of Allergic association with anti-neutrophil Inflammation cytoplasm antibodies (ANCA), Professor Timothy Williams, which may play an important part National Health & Lung Institute, in the development of the disease. Imperial College, London. Remission can be induced with Allergic diseases such as asthma corticosteroids and cyclophospha- involve an accumulation of mide and recent successful inflammatory cells in tissues.

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While the interplay between the Immunological Memory and cells (leukocytes) and tissue gives Chronic Inflammation rise to symptoms, it is not known Professor Andreas Radbruch, exactly how it works. Scientific Director, Deutsches Professor Williams and his team Rheuma-Forschunszentrum, have been studying the chemoat- Berlin. tractants released during allergic Immunosuppression (damping reactions and looking at their down the immune response) is involvement in trafficking leuko- the current therapeutic strategy cytes from the blood to the tissue. for treating chronic Inflammation, One discovery is that mast cell but this does not provide a cure progenitors express the BLT1 for many patients. Professor receptor, which may provide a Radbruch said the reason for this possible mechanism for increasing could be that it does not target mast cells in tissues at sites of pathogenic immunological allergic Inflammation, as activated memory. In other words, the mature mast cells produce the immune system is protected by ligand for this receptor, LTB4. cells which remember how to The team discovered Eotaxin, a resist therapies which tackle the chemokine produced in allergic primary immune responses. These reactions which is important in protective cells are not proliferat- the recruitment of eosinophils, ing, which removes the possibility which have been associated with of tackling them through mecha- lung damage. Eotaxin is produced nisms involved, in or inducing, by several different cells types and proliferation. signals via the CCR3 receptor, Using animal models, Professor which is present on eosinophils, Radbruch has shown that the mast cells and Th2 cells. protective cells depended on their Professor Williams said that future ability to express a particular treatments could target the gene–twist 1, in memory Th1 cells trafficking of specific leukocyte for example, to form survival types, such as eosinophils or mast niches for memory cells. Targeting cell progenitors, by blocking these memory cells could, there- particular chemoattractant fore, be key to effective therapies receptors. Therapies could inhibit for chronic Inflammation. In other mast cell hyperplasia, which words, making patients’ bodies occurs in allergic rhinitis, asthma ‘forget’ that they had rheumatic and parasitic infection. Inflammation could be the key to curing it.

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He showed results in patients who By 1991, the rationale behind the had undergone immunablation treatment had been established and whose immune system had and clinical trials began the been rebuilt using stem cells. following year. They were success- Pathogenic memory was deleted ful and the first drugs were in these patients with SLE or MS, registered at the end of the their autoantibodies disappeared millennium. and a new, young immune system Professor Feldmann pointed out developed. that it has since been clear that Therapeutic Approach to TNF is the body’s ‘fire alarm’ and Inflammatory Disease Anti-TNF that many cytokines are effective Therapy Heralds a Major therapeutic targets. The issue is Therapeutic Development: linking the disease with the Anti-Cytokines appropriate cytokine target. While Professor Marc Feldmann, successful in treating symptoms, Kennedy Institute of Rheumatolo- however, anti-cytokine therapies gy, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial do not cure; most work better in College, London. combination with other drugs and they are expensive. Professor Feldmann discovered (in the early 1980s) anti-TNF therapy, He concluded that cytokine which has had a tremendous medicine has come of age in impact on the treatment of chronic conditions, with many rheumatoid arthritis and other promising new therapies now in autoimmune diseases and has trials, but as yet there is nothing since been used to treat more for acute disease. than a million patients. He Cytokines as Therapeutic described how the discovery came Targets in Inflammatory about and possible ways forward Disease Responses for new treatments. Professor Ian McInnes, Division of He pointed out that cytokines are Immunology, Infection & Inflam- important in every biological mation, Biomedical Research process, including Inflammation Centre, University of Glasgow. and immunity. Many cytokines are Despite the success of therapies produced in rheumatoid synovi- such as anti-TNF, Professor um, so he and colleagues were McInnes pointed out that there looking to see if there were any was still unmet clinical need in therapeutic targets. Analysis of rheumatoid and psoriatic arthritis. cytokine regulation revealed the In his view, the important thing is importance of tumor necrosis to aim for remission. He pointed factor (TNF). out that it is still necessary to

222 Conferences, Workshops, Symposia and Discussion Forums know more about disease proc- environmental factors are also esses, and added that cytokines involved. Professor Klareskog other than TNF might also be described the EIRA (Environment good therapeutic targets. Even so, & Immunity in Rhematoid Arthri- he would like to see treatment tis) Study, which looks at the initiated at as early a stage as involvement of genes and the possible because there is evidence environment in the triggering of that this leads to better outcomes, RA, which has recruited around whatever the therapeutic agent. 3,000 cases and 3,000 controls to He would like treatment to reduce date. Several genes, including Inflammation given to patients as HLA-D and PTPN22, are known to soon as they present at a clinic, to be risk factors for RA and there try to prevent chronic damage. are now several new candidate Cytokines may be good candi- genes. Collaborations are being dates for such treatments because set up and expanding between of their role in the early stages of different groups internationally, Inflammation – in particular, he who are pooling the findings of wants to know more about IL-12, studies such as EIRA. IL-23, IL-15 and IL-33. Different Environmental factors are also cytokines may be targets for important, however. Professor different conditions, for example, Klareskog demonstrated that anti-IL-33 antibody is in preclinical smoking is a risk factor for ACPA/ trials with asthma as a . rst target RF-positive RA, but not for ACPA- and anti-IL-18 is being tested in negative RA. Risk increases with psoriasis. the amount smoked. Professor McInnes said he would Professor Klareskog posited that like to see more collaborative certain genes, particularly those working to find the best targets coding for some MHC class II for each condition and would also transplantation antigens, may act like more political engagement together with environmental with the issues. factors to cause immune reactions Genes, Environment and towards proteins which have been Immunity in the Development modified by a process of citrullina- of Rheumatoid Arthritis tion. Antibodies to citrullated peptides are present in the Professor Lars Klareskog, Rheuma- majority of RA patients, but rare in tology Unit, Karolinska Institute, the population generally. There Sweden. are still many questions to be Much work has been done to try answered, including whether to identify genes implicated in citrullination takes place before, rheumatoid arthritis (RA) but during, or after the onset of RA.

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He concluded that the scene was There are several candidates for now set for immunologists to therapeutic targets, including research the aetiologies and proteins involved in apoptosis molecular pathways of RA subsets (such as Bcl2 family) and cyclin- in the light of new information dependent kinase inhibitor drugs, from genetic epidemiology. which induce neutrophil apopto- Genetics, however, must be sis. combined with information on The team has also produced the environment, he stressed. evidence that CDK inhibitors Novel Strategies to Resolve (being developed as a cancer Inflammation treatment) promote neutrophil Professor Adriano G Rossi, MRC cell death in Inflammation where Centre for Inflammation Research, neutrophils are dominant, University of Edinburgh. including in pleurisy and arthritis. Tackling the processes which lead Professor Rossi explained that to programmed cell death their plans for future work include (apoptosis) may well provide new defining the mechanisms of CDK therapeutic targets for reducing inhibitor-driven resolution of Inflammation, said Professor Inflammation and testing their Rossi. efficacy in animal models and in humans with lung Inflammation. Apoptosis is an efficient way of clearing potentially histotoxic cells Targeting the B Cell in Multi- from inflamed sites and is there- System Immunity fore an important factor in Dr David Jayne, Dialysis Centre, resolving Inflammation. Dr Rossi Addenbrooke’s Hospital, Cam- and colleagues have been looking bridge. at neutrophil apoptosis and also Dr Jayne raised the realistic the phagocytosis of apoptotic prospect of new treatments for cells by macrophages and how multi-system immune disease they can be regulated by pharma- such as vasculitis and lupus. He cological intervention. gave an overview of treatments They have shown that signalling available to date, from steroids in pathways and kinases have been 1948, through immunosuppres- shown to regulate cell death and sion in the 1960s to biological survival in-vitro and have also means in the 21st century. Newer been shown to be involved in treatments had resulted from a reducing Inflammation in animal better understanding of the models. pathogenesis of the conditions and from developments in recombinant gene technology.

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The particular thrust of his Joint Remodelling: Pathways of presentation was tackling B cells, Destruction and Rebuilding which are key to autoantibody Professor George Schett, Depart- production and implicated in the ment of Medicine, University of development of autoimmune Erlangen-Nuremberg, Germany. disease. Inflammatory joint disease leads Therapies such as Rituximab, to destruction of bone and which deplete B cells, have the cartilage and changes the archi- potential to treat vasculitis and tecture of the joint. Osteoclasts lupus but many questions remain. are implicated in degradation of It may be that Rituximab is subchondral bone and mineral- unsuccessful when B cells are able ised cartilage – if there are no to find a place to ‘hide’ and osteoclasts, there is no bone therefore avoid depletion. It is erosion. also the case that Rituximab does not work for everybody and there Various molecules, including the have been concerns about side- RANK ligand, drive osteoclast effects, including infection. formation, but generation of these cells can be affected by Dr Jayne said that other therapeu- inflammatory cytokines and tic targets aimed at the B cell were chemokines such as MCP-1, which coming on board, including Blyss, is expressed in the synovial tissue. a B-cell stimulating cytokine and Further, although some T cells the receptor TAC1. Although B- (possibly Th17 cells) enhance cell therapy will not adequately osteoclast production, regulatory address induction and scarring, he T cells suppress it. said, it could be used in combina- tion with other treatments. The remodelling pattern of the joint architecture seems to be different in various inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis and psoriatic arthritis. Professor Schett concluded that in order to preserve joint architec- ture, therapeutic strategies may have to regulate bone formation pathways – such as Wnt-signalling and BMP-signalling – as well as blocking enhanced osteoclast formation in the joint.

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Cultural Flagships Discussion Forum Cultural Flagships: being a ‘National’ – Music and Opera 21 February 2008

The seminar was introduced by of Britain as a place of ancient, RSE Vice-President Professor Jan stable and unchanging institu- McDonald, who then handed over tions, and had therefore been to Professor Simon Frith as Chair relatively unaware of the pace of for the evening. Professor Frith constitutional and cultural change reminded the audience that the – notably devolution, and the idea of a ‘national’ music had coming of the Scottish Parliament always been a problematic one, – until he arrived in Scotland in but that there was nonetheless a 2006. For him, these are very substantial history of the use of exciting times, not only in Scot- music to give weight to feelings of land but throughout Europe. The national identity. He said that he Europe in which the Edinburgh felt the role of major musical Festival was founded in 1947 is events and institutions in the unrecognisable today. Power is nation’s cultural life would being devolved in many countries, provide a very rich subject for the European Union is developing debate, and introduced his two and expanding, and borders are main speakers, Mr Jonathan Mills, shifting, with new nations Director and Chief Executive of the emerging from old power- Edinburgh International Festival, structures. He is, he said, and Mr Roy McEwan, Managing impressed by the European Union Director of the Scottish Chamber as a huge political effort, involving Orchestra. For the debate follow- a formidable degree of trust and ing their initial contributions, the goodwill; he was also struck by speakers would be joined by Mr the forces of expansion and Alex Reedijk, General Director of fragmentation currently working Scottish Opera. within it. In the last 20 years, we Jonathan Mills said that he felt have seen Czechoslovakia split in very honoured to be invited to two, the Baltic states emerge, the take part in such a distinguished Balkans torn by war, the emer- and valuable forum. As an gence of strong regional forces in Australian, brought up in one of countries such as Spain, and – just Britain’s former ‘colonies’, he had this week – the emergence of always taken the stereotyped view Kosovo as a self-declared inde-

226 Conferences, Workshops, Symposia and Discussion Forums pendent state. And if the audi- Mr Mills felt it is therefore self- ence wondered why he was evident that the Festivals have a talking of such matters instead of national role in Scotland, both focusing on the Edinburgh culturally and economically. He Festival, it was because of his wanted to make a distinction, profound belief that culture does though, between the importance not exist in a vacuum, but repre- of the Festivals’ national role, and sents an expression of the ideals the idea that they should have and ambitions of a civilisation in some kind of nationalistic agenda. its totality. He believed that it is possible to Mr Mills then reflected on the make a tremendously meaningful ambitions of the Edinburgh contribution to national life International Festival itself, since without being nationalistic, and its foundation. He recalled the that Scotland provides rich words of the Lord Provost at the examples of how a plethora of time of the first Edinburgh arts organisations contribute in Festival, who said it should be “a that way. He felt that this is not a Festival to embrace the world.” He time for any arts organisation to also quoted George Steiner, who, be self-limiting. It is a time for in his Edinburgh Festival lecture of open societies, open places, and 1996, said that the Festival had open prospects; and he was been founded as “an enactment concerned that the discussion of of European re-union.” Today, the these should not be diverted by Festival is not one thing, but nationalistic ideas. Arts organisa- many. The Tattoo, the Festival tions should not be constrained Fringe, the Film Festival, Book by nostalgic or parochial consider- Festival, Jazz Festival, Television ations. Festival, Asian Mela, and now the He reminded the audience that we Festival of Politics, all contribute to live, in any case, in a time when an event without parallel in the there is considerable debate world of culture and the arts, and about what constitutes a nation, Mr Mills hoped that the imminent and that that debate has always move of the Film Festival to a June been with us in various forms. date would not diminish the Edinburgh, he said, is a city which overall impact of the August constantly reminds him that there festivals. Last year, the Festivals is nothing new under the sun, sold 2.6 million tickets to 875,000 and he sees evidence of interna- festival-goers, to a value of £30 tional exchange everywhere in its million; and their total economic fabric, as it has evolved through impact on the city is estimated at the centuries. The Edinburgh between £125 million and £130 Festival, he reflected, has the word million a year.

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‘international’ in its title, and is to the future of, for example, perhaps best defined as a prism Scottish Opera and Scottish Ballet. through which cultures of all He said that those crises have kinds can be reflected in and perhaps been associated with a through Scotland, and where the feeling that the traditional world’s greatest artists can bastions of classical art do not contribute to that reflection. In his deserve their privileged position, view, it forms part of an exception- in terms of the huge proportion ally rich artistic environment in of arts funding dedicated to them. Scotland today. However, what had seemed like a Mr Mills closed by considering the chronic problem has been difference between European and transformed into an opportunity; what he called “Anglo-Celtic” and today, with direct funding approaches to support for the from the Scottish Government, arts. In some European countries, the status of those key companies the arts are regarded as an is more clearly defined in govern- essential part of the infrastructure, ment policy than ever before. and funded in such a stable and Mr McEwan pointed out that generous way that they could Scotland’s five ‘national compa- become indulgent, and discon- nies’ - Scottish Opera, Scottish nected from audiences. The more Ballet, the Royal Scottish National commercially-minded Anglo-Celtic Orchestra, the Scottish Chamber model, on the other hand, runs Orchestra and the National the risks of mindless populism Theatre of Scotland - have all and banality. He felt that the emerged in very different ways. debate about how to strike the The NTS was developed as an idea right balance between these by the artistic community, and approaches is a vital one; and that brought to life by a government it is therefore all the more essen- decision to invest the necessary tial that we take every chance to funds; Scottish Opera was very define the value of creativity in our much the creation of one inspired time, and to articulate a role for it. leadership figure, Sir Alexander He hoped to see the role of art Gibson; Scottish Ballet was and artists embedded within our created by invitation of the community, both national and Scottish Arts Council, out of the international. shell of another company based in Roy McEwan opened his remarks the west of England; the RSNO’s by reflecting on the crises that has roots lay in a civic initiative at the affected many of Scotland’s end of the 19th century; and the flagship national companies since SCO was entirely a player-led the mid-1990s, with major threats project, created by orchestral

228 Conferences, Workshops, Symposia and Discussion Forums musicians with an interest in the He acknowledged that the delivery chamber repertoire. In no case of the wide range of services was the emergence and survival of required of a national company these companies inevitable, and could be seen as creating conflicts they have all, in various ways, of priorities. However, the SCO trodden a rocky road over the past feels that its summer activities 15 years. Now, the change in the across Scotland, often in rural funding system brings some areas, are strongly complementary aspects of the national compa- to the winter concert seasons in nies’ role into sharp focus, both in the cities. Artists and repertoire terms of the scale of their opera- can be shared across both tions across Scotland, and in activities, and also in the orches- terms of new opportunities to tra’s recording work and demonstrate national achieve- international touring. Inter- ments in the arts. national touring, said Mr So far as music is concerned, Mr McEwan, is essential in helping McEwan said he believes that create a critical mass of activity to there is a widespread recognition sustain the orchestra’s year-round that music crosses borders. The operation, and also in generating SCO, for example, competes for a critical mass of high achieve- audiences, artists and recognition ment. Every small nation, he with opera companies and argued, needs to open out to the orchestras throughout the UK and wider world, and to make strong beyond. He believed it is perhaps efforts to avoid parochialism. easier for music organisations in Mr McEwan also highlighted the Scotland to articulate national role of major national companies cultural aspirations, and to be in the training and development recognised in that role, than it is of new talent. All arts organisa- for cultural organisations in tions play a role in education and England. He thought there is training, but the national compa- therefore a need to be very nies have the resources to be ambitious in terms of standards, ambitious in this respect. He felt and to attract world-class artists, that national companies and arts as well as to develop the orches- funders should see education and tra’s recording profile and its training as a kind of research and opportunities for international development activity, essential in touring. He also thought it pushing forward the development imperative that the highest of the art-form itself. He also felt standards be delivered at home, in that national companies are part every aspect of the SCO’s work in of the support mechanism for Scotland. creative artists at every stage of

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their careers, and that they should In the discussion which followed, act as key hubs in the network of Paul Henderson Scott opened the relationships between producing questioning by asking about the organisations and creative artists. ‘national component’ in the work He commented on the SCO’s of our flagship cultural organisa- continuing pattern of mixed tions. Is there a sufficient funding - mainly from the Scottish commitment to including and Government, but also, in some developing Scottish work, such as areas, from the Scottish Arts the famous Festival productions of Council (soon to be Creative Ane Satire of the Thrie Estaites, Scotland) and from local authori- which have made such an impact ties. He said that all five Chief on audiences? Executives of the national compa- Jonathan Mills said that he didn’t nies had gone before the Scottish feel any obligation - for example - Parliament’s Culture and Media to stage a series of operas based Committee the previous day, on on the Waverley novels, or to an occasion that could hardly have include Scottish material in any been more different, in its positive such tokenistic way. However, it is tone, from some previous encoun- clear that Scottish artists, orches- ters. He finished by pointing out tras and companies have made that organisations such as the massive contributions to recent SCO need not only money, but festivals - he listed the presence of also the opportunity to be several of them in last year’s partners in a continuing, live Festival, including the NTS, national debate about hierarchies Scottish Ballet, the SCO and the in the arts and the relative RSNO. He said that he had been importance of art-forms, including excavating the layers of connec- debates about profligacy, about tion between the Festival and elitism, about definitions of high generations of Scottish artists quality and excellence, and about since 1947, and felt there has new forms of enterprise and been a rich connection through- innovation in the arts. He also out. He would continue to include remarked that internationalism is the work of Scottish companies a two-way process, and that it is on that basis, not fixing any kind as important to invite major artists of quota, but developing relation- to work in Scotland, as it is to ships which will result in joint ensure that Scottish artists have working and co-productions. He opportunities to travel and tour added that while Paul Scott drew abroad, and to develop interna- attention to Ane Satire of the tional links. Thrie Estaites as the Festival event that had made the greatest impact

230 Conferences, Workshops, Symposia and Discussion Forums on audiences, he felt that visiting to create supra-national perform- companies could, on occasions, ing organisations, such as the make as great an impact on Chamber Orchestra of Europe. Scottish audiences and artists. He Jonathan Mills said that as far as said that the theatre production he understood the situation, the most often mentioned to him, Chamber Orchestra of Europe is since he arrived in Scotland, was entirely a player-led initiative, and Ninagawa’s Medea, presented at the European Commission is Old College Quad in the 1980s. simply jumping on the band- Alex Reedijk, of Scottish Opera, wagon because of the success the drew attention to the company’s orchestra has enjoyed. He sug- forthcoming Five:15 project, an gested that the dead hand of evening of five short new operas European bureaucracy might made in Scotland by teams of actually cause what has been a contemporary writers, composers, very successful initiative to wither and directors. He said that and die, but he felt that so long as national companies have an the enthusiasm of individual obvious duty of care towards the artists lies behind such projects, development of the art-form they can be immensely rewarding. within the country, and that He cited the example of the EU includes a commitment to Youth Orchestra, driven by the commissioning and developing vision and charisma of its founder, new work made here. Joy Bryer. Roy McEwan said he felt that it From the audience, James Irvine was difficult ever to do enough in said that it was important for this area. The SCO routinely flagship national cultural organi- commissions four new works a sations to have a strong presence year, mainly from Scottish-based in the media, in order to strength- composers, but he felt that en their relationship with the national companies should never widest possible public. He asked be let off the hook. They should whether the panel believed that always be under pressure to the EIF receives enough media demonstrate their commitment to coverage. He also asked whether art-form development in Scotland, the lack of a permanent conductor perhaps through growing co- at SCO - which currently has a operation among the national team of associate conductors - is companies, a subject which is making the year-round working of increasingly under discussion. the orchestra more difficult. Richard Witts of Edinburgh Roy McEwan said that all orches- University asked what the panel tras were facing the fact that it is thought of EU-sponsored projects now more difficult to get world-

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class conductors to commit to a recently given evidence to the full-time relationship with a single Commission on this subject. orchestra. He felt this situation is In a final round of questions, Ian unlikely to change, and was Yeoman asked the panel how certain that so long as the their organisations were respond- orchestra has a clear artistic policy ing to the huge changes in and a stable relationship with demography, technology and players, the experience of working national identity now re-shaping with different conductors can Scotland and the world. American actually be an advantage. composer Chip Clark offered an Jonathan Mills said that he had observation rather than a ques- serious concerns about the media tion, pointing out that the coverage of the Edinburgh Edinburgh Festival is hugely International Festival. So far as recognised beyond the UK as theatre is concerned, he felt that perhaps the world’s premier arts that the EIF has a job to do in Festival. He felt that it was vital to reclaiming coverage from the continue to bring international Fringe, which tends to dominate artists to Scotland, and to make the drama pages, despite the fact sure that Scottish artists are that the EIF now often represents enabled to perform inter- far better value, and presents nationally. more exciting cutting-edge work, Alex Reedijk commented that the than the average commercial huge success of the NTS’s Black Fringe venue. Watch marks a change in the His main concern, though, was relationship between Scotland’s over the increasing failure of national companies and the broadcasters, and the BBC in nation’s developing sense of particular, to give serious coverage identity. The Scottish Government to the Festival, including broad- is now taking it upon itself to use casts of major music events. He culture as a means of articulating said that the BBC’s growing the idea of a confident Scotland. tendency to focus entirely on its In that process, Mr Reedijk own BBC Proms Season in London believes it helps to have the during the late summer calls into national companies in the right question its remit and purpose as place, clearly defined, and with a a national broadcaster for the new funding system in action. He whole of the Britain. He drew thought the Government is attention to the work of the beginning to understand the recently-set-up Scottish Broadcast- value of the arts as a way of ing Commission, chaired by Blair articulating the presence of a Jenkins, and said that he had country that punches above its

232 Conferences, Workshops, Symposia and Discussion Forums weight - as Scotland punched Mr Mills also felt that there are above its weight in previous huge opportunities in the current centuries, in areas such as medi- changing world scene. In 1992, cine and science. for example, when his predecessor Jonathan Mills acknowledged the Brian McMaster became Director scale of the challenges faced by of the Festival, almost no-one in the Edinburgh International China or India had any disposable Festival, in a world completely income at all; today, there are transformed since the 1940s. He millions if not billions of people in said that the Festival can no Asia now willing and able to longer assume it is alone, in an travel, and to become involved in age when every city on earth cultural experience and exchange. seems to have its international He was also determined to festival. He said that the only way develop the online presence of forward is to be genuinely the Festival in innovative ways. ambitious and innovative, and to Roy McEwan was also interested seek to make intelligent and in the SCO’s evolving online appropriate responses to develop- presence, and in new ways of ments in the world beyond the distributing musical experience arts. using the internet. He said that He felt, for example, that the the definition of western classical British arts community should be music is becoming more complex making a creative response now and the boundaries less sharp, to the coming of the London and that there are increasing Olympics in 2012. He said that interactions with other musical these Olympics would cost 7.5 traditions worldwide. He said that times more than the Sydney the market for electronic media is Olympics of 2004, and that the extensively international, and that whole issue of resources for sport techniques such as remote access and the arts is going to be at and webcasting mean that an bursting point in the run-up to organisation such as the SCO can the event. He therefore felt that begin to develop a world-wide the arts sector should be doing network of enthusiastic fans and everything it can to galvanise supporters. interest in a summer-long, UK- Simon Frith summed up the wide festival of culture, running evening’s discussion, saying that it alongside the Olympics, that can had demonstrated the truth of the become part of the strategy to observation that the role of maximise the positive impact of national flagship cultural organi- the Olympics across the UK. sations is not to resolve issues of identity, but to provide the arena

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in which they can be most from pessimism to optimism in interestingly debated. He felt that the arts. He believed that the the national companies’ economic embedding of the position of the role as key hubs of professional national flagship companies, as a training and opportunity is of serious part of what Scotland’s great importance and should not government is about, represents a be ignored. He also felt, as very important moment, which someone who has been observing this first seminar in the National the Scottish cultural scene since Flagships series has helped to he arrived in 1987, that there has capture, debate, and record. been a gradual but marked shift

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RSE/NSFC Workshop Rare Plants and Common Interests (A Two-day workshop on Management Science, Engineering and Public Policy) 17–18 March 2008

Scotland and China may be research and promoting interna- thousands of miles apart, but the tional links. RSE/NSFC Joint Workshop on The metaphor for the event was March 17 and 18 very clearly the joint presentation by three showed how close we are, in speakers from the Royal Botanic terms of both science and busi- Garden Edinburgh (Dr Mark ness. Watson, David Long and David Organised by the Royal Society of Paterson), describing the RBGE’s Edinburgh (RSE) and the National involvement in China over the last Natural Science Foundation of 100 years, as well as contempo- China (NSFC), the two-day rary projects, gathering and workshop on management documenting rare specimens, to science at the RSE in Edinburgh continue the tradition of research brought together 22 speakers and conservation, information from both countries, discussing sharing and exchanges. This tied everything from wildlife, agricul- in neatly with a talk by Dr Cheng ture and technology to risk, Guoqiang, describing China’s innovation and trust. latest agricultural policies, and RSE Vice-President Professor Tariq efforts to address the issues raised Durrani set the tone for the by urbanisation, including the workshop, describing how the environment and balanced aims were to exchange ideas and development. knowledge, and identify areas of On Day 2, Dr Wei Yi-Ming extend- common interest – so researchers ed this environmental theme by can collaborate and learn from focusing on China’s future energy each other, as well as arrange needs, discussing the problems of future visits. His words were carbon emissions and accurate echoed by Dr Zhang Wei, the forecasts. Dr Wei was followed by Deputy Director of the Depart- Professor KL Lo, outlining Scot- ment of Management Sciences at land’s efforts to model alternative the NSFC, who explained that his energy networks – and the organisation played a similar role parallels between the two coun- to the RSE, supporting basic tries.

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The common thread which ran reconcile different partners’ throughout the two-day event attitudes to risk. was the complexity of statistical Innovation was a major theme on models, and how to take account both days. Professor Chen Jin of both uncertainties and human started by discussing ‘open factors when we are making innovation’, and how the benefits predictions. Four speakers from of openness (to customers and the University of Strathclyde (Dr business partners as well as Tim Bedford, Dr Jiazhun Pan, Dr internal employees) can tail off Xuerong Mao and Dr Lesley Walls) over time for certain companies, talked about the role of statistical while others do better the more models, explaining how tools open they are, based on his recent such as stochastics can be used in research. George Boag then a wide range of fields, including discussed innovation in Scotland, risk analysis for nuclear power and the relationship between stations and the aerospace academics, government and industry, to forecasting popula- entrepreneurs, followed by tion figures, agricultural Professor Gao Xudong, who production and the stock market. stressed the need for China’s This was complemented by several major companies to innovate and speakers, including Professor stop depending on external Zhang Zongyi, who is studying partners, with telecoms and how innovations ‘spill over’ from petrochemical companies the region to region, based on an most likely to succeed in the short analysis of patent applications in term. Professor Jane Bower then China, and Dr Tang Lixin, who discussed technical innovation explained the use of data analysis systems in Scotland, describing to improve production scheduling the kind of environment which in the steel industry. tends to encourage inventors and Trust was the concern of several entrepreneurs, while Professor Ian speakers, most notably Dr Wang Hunt focused on how to get new Dan, who described attempts to innovative products from concept model trust between the partners to market. in a supply chain, and Professor Finally, Professor Jeff Haywood Umit Bititci, who asked how we and Professor Arthur Trew can establish standards for trust in provided insights into campus the same way as quality standards information systems and the use for products. On Day 1, Dr Chen of supercomputers in simulation – Jian also shared his ideas on how ‘the next frontier’ in science. to optimise supply chain perform- ance, focusing on how to

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Although most speakers focused DAY 1 on more esoteric aspects of The changing face of Chinese business and science, there were agriculture common themes which linked their different disciplines. For Dr Cheng Guoqiang (Deputy example, both Scotland and China Director-General and Senior are struggling to find new Fellow, Institute of Market solutions for power and protect Economy, Development Research the environment. They are also Center of the State Council of searching for new ways to boost China) innovation and the entrepreneuri- To open the workshop, Dr Cheng al spirit. Mathematicians in both provided some valuable insights countries are also concerned into China’s recent agricultural about how to make accurate policies, focusing on some of the forecasts and analyse risk, as well major developments in rural areas, as understand the ‘human factors’ including the migration of 200 influencing business performance. million people to the cities over In fact, the methods used to the last 30 years, drawn by higher model more ‘technical’ subjects earnings in the manufacturing, also have a role to play in seem- industrial and services sectors. ingly more abstract ‘human’ Dr Cheng began by putting China dimensions, for example how to in perspective. It possesses about measure innovation and trust 9% of the world’s arable land but between partners in business. has 21% of the world’s popula- Because so many speakers appear tion. Even though people in to have mutual concerns, close China are now getting richer and collaboration – as witnessed in becoming increasingly urban, botany over the years – is the agriculture still employs 320 logical next step for business and million workers, and still has the scientists in the two countries, if challenge of how to feed one they learn the lessons of the RSE/ billion people. China is also the NSFC Workshop. world’s fourth-biggest importer of agricultural products, after the US, Europe and Japan, and has one of the world’s lowest tariffs on imports – and no subsidies for exports. In 1978, said Dr Cheng, agricul- ture accounted for about 28% of China’s economy and 70% of employment. In 2006, this had

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fallen to less than 12% of the balanced development.” He also economy and 42.6% of jobs. said the government was trying to From 1979 to 2006, agricultural address the rural–urban divide, as production has increased by 4.6% well as health-care and education- per year, with crops down from 80 al and social developments. % to 51% of the total and The ‘botanical’ links between livestock more than doubling to China and Scotland 32% and aquatic products up Dr Mark Watson (Sino-Himalayan from 1.6% to 10%. Floristics Researcher) Average income in rural areas has Setting the tone for the rest of the doubled in less than ten years, workshop, Dr Watson talked from about RMB 2,200 to RMB about the 100-year relationship 4,400, while in the cities it has between botanists in China and climbed from about RMB 5,800 to the Royal Botanic Garden Edin- RMB 13,800. Meanwhile, average burgh, whose mission is “to consumption of meat has dou- explore and explain the world of bled from 10 to 20 kg in the cities plants.” and from 17 to 24 kg in rural areas (1983–2006), putting According to Dr Watson, there are greater strain not just on livestock more than 31,000 different plants itself but also on grain production in China, compared to only 1,500 (e.g. the amount of grain fed to in the UK, largely due to China’s US livestock is enough to feed great diversity in terms of its over 800 million people). geology and habitats – from tropical jungle to the world’s In policy terms, China is now highest mountains. This biodiver- stressing ‘give more’, ‘take less’ sity is the focus of a study called and ‘liberalisation’, focusing on Flora of China, which documents income growth for farmers, all the plants in China. Originally strengthening production capacity 126 volumes, written in Chinese, and constructing the ‘new the work has been distilled to 25 countryside’. The ‘give more’ volumes of text and 25 volumes of means setting minimum prices for illustrations, and is also now rice, for example, whilst the ‘take available online, with the RBGE less’ means reducing the level of providing extensive editorial taxes. input. According to Dr Cheng, “Priorities Dr Watson also described a more have shifted from increasing recent RBGE study of the Taxus production (e.g. grains) to rural genus (yew trees) which is used to income support as well as new produce the anti-cancer drug environmental concerns and Taxol.

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The links between the RBGE and environments. The attraction of China date back to the early 20th the range (declared a World century, and one of its best- Heritage Site in 2003) is its known collectors, George Forrest, biodiversity, largely protected by who went there in 1904, worked the mountains’ remoteness and very closely with the Institute of rugged terrain, which makes Botany in Beijing. Some of exploration (and exploitation) so Forrest’s specimens are still being hard. studied today. In the 1930s, The five-year survey is now several Chinese botanists came to complete, and the team of Scotland to study, and in the researchers from China, the US 1980s these links were restored, and Scotland are now focusing on including joint fieldwork and scientific description and distribu- botanical research. In 1991, the tion of the specimens and data to RBGE was twinned with the scientists worldwide. David Kunming Institute of Botany, to explained that the primary aim of consolidate the links via joint the survey is to help protect the research, sharing of knowledge biodiversity, now under pressure and staff exchanges. from development (including new Gathering specimens in one of roads and energy projects). the world’s most bio-diverse For David, a specialist in mosses areas and liverworts, the project has David Long (Cryptogamic Plants clearly been a labour of love, and Fungi Section at the Royal including the discovery of many Botanic Garden Edinburgh) new species of ferns, orchids and David described The Biotic Survey beetles – and possibly even new of Gaoligong Shan – one of the genera. It also continues the most ambitious of its kind ever tradition of the RBGE in explora- undertaken in China, collecting tion and collecting specimens in and documenting over 25,000 China. plant specimens, as well as New alpine garden to protect countless insects and other local plant life invertebrates. David Paterson (Chartered The Gaoligong Shan is a 585km- Environmentalist, the Royal long mountain range on the Botanic Garden Edinburgh) border of Yunnan Province and Continuing the theme of collabo- Myanmar which rises to heights of ration between Scotland and over 6,000 metres, including China in horticulture, David subtropical and temperate forests described the work of the UK Joint as well as spectacular alpine Scientific Laboratory (JSL) in

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Yunnan Province, a joint venture Asked about how the project gets between the RBGE and the ‘buy-in’ from local people, David Kunming Institute of Botany. The explained how his team seeks to Jade Dragon Field Station in work very closely with local people Lijiang was set up “to facilitate and balance the needs of different the conservation of plants and communities – for example, habitats through capacity building cultivating medicinal plants, both projects that aim to bring about to generate profits and protect more sustainable land manage- certain species. ment practices,” with support How to optimise supply chain from both the British (including performance Scottish) and Chinese govern- ments, plus £400,000-worth of Dr Chen Jian (Professor and funding from sponsors such as BP, Chairman of Management Science Tiso, BA and BHP Billiton. Department, Director of Research Center for Contemporary Man- Located on the Yulong mountain, agement, Tsinghua University) the field station is an alpine botanic garden and nature reserve Professor Chen explained how which seeks to protect and China’s changing economic conserve the indigenous plant life landscape is affecting supply and wildlife, and enable “more chain management – and the sustainable use of the land,” different problems caused by including the reduction of decentralisation. deforestation. The local people The major issue is how to opti- also have their special needs, and mise the performance of the David explained the importance of supply chain so that everyone “understanding the birthright” of finds the right partners and comes the people who live on the out a winner, in a more decentral- mountain, at the same time as ised business environment. When doing their best to protect local trying to identify a suitable agent, plants – which in turn provide an a company should ask if the economic benefit. potential partner is averse to risk, According to David, the project neutral towards risk or risk- also has a role to play in tradition- seeking as an organisation. al Chinese medicine, including the Different organisations have sustainable harvesting of medici- different attitudes to risk, yet the nal plants, so these rare species channel behaves as if everyone do not disappear because of shares the same attitude, so rapidly growing demand from the greater flexibility and open- better-off regions of China. mindedness will be needed in future.

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“Usually, companies are risk- in principle – joint probability neutral when it comes to distributions. Unfortunately data – contracts, but globalisation makes even from experts – is only this harder to manage,” said available in limited form, so Professor Chen. Therefore, he methods are used “to extend asked, how do you change the partial specifications of joint contract to take account of greater probability distributions, and risk-seeking? show how the entropy principle The objective of Dr Chen’s can be used to help specify such research project is to help supply joint uncertainties in complex chain partners draw up the right models.” kind of revenue-sharing contract For those in the audience who by understanding the risk prefer- struggled to grasp this, he also ences of different partners, to talked about how there are “lots increase profit margins and of uncertainties in every decision,” balance supply and demand. He and how we have to take account also said that this would have an of these uncertainties to develop impact on the companies’ ability new methods of rational decision to innovate. Ultimately, this making, especially when only part ‘marriage’ of different risk of the data is available. He also attitudes will optimise the said that one of the most difficult profitability of the whole supply problems in statistical modelling chain, achieving the same results is how to “elicit subjective for decentralisation that used to probabilities,” and how to be achieved with more centralised develop an empirical basis to management. account for experts’ personal bias. Intelligent risk analysis Also, how do we extract consist- ent data from experts so the Dr Tim Bedford (Professor of experts do not contradict them- Decision and Risk Analysis, selves? University of Strathclyde) Dr Bedford then discussed the use The title of Dr Bedford’s talk was of ‘cupolas’ in statistical model- Partial specification of risk models, ling, and the need to find a and he explained how his meth- practical and interactive way to get ods can be used across a range of data from experts so that the different disciplines, from nuclear model does not constrain the power stations to agricultural experts. planning. According to Dr Bedford, risk models require the specification of many parameters, including –

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New research in econometrics “If you don’t take stochastics into Dr Jiazhun Pan (Department of account,” he added, “you end up Statistics and Modelling Science, with inadequate models,” which University of Strathclyde) fail to account for the “noise” in the real world. “But if you take Like his colleagues at Strathclyde, uncertainty into account, then you Dr Pan was concerned with the can avoid errors.” A simple problems as well as the benefits example of the benefits – and the of statistical modelling – for complexity – of stochastic tech- example, the difficulties of dealing niques is how it helps to model with low-frequency and high- population growth. If we look at frequency data. His talk focused population statistics and we on his recent research in financial notice an increase in recent years, econometrics, including factor then as soon as we try to predict analysis and heavy-tailed time population, we forecast continu- series models, statistical analysis ous growth – theoretically, all the of panel data and how to “reduce way to infinity. Similarly, a dimensionality.” decrease would suggest eventual Stochastic vs deterministic extinction. statistics In the real world, however, we Dr Xuerong Mao (Department of know this is not very likely to Statistics and Modelling Science, happen – just because Scotland’s University of Strathclyde) population doubled in the last 100 years, does not mean it will Dr Mao described the evolution double again in the next 100 from deterministic statistical years. Catastrophic events such as modelling methods to more a plague or an earthquake can modern stochastic techniques, make any forecasts redundant, over the last 50 years. The basic and nature also has a way of idea is that when we try to correcting the problems caused by forecast what will happen in the over-population, since there may future, we have to take random not be enough resources to change into account, rather than support large populations in depend on inflexible models, particular places at particular rigidly based on historical data times. and obvious trends. For example, he said: “Classical financial Therefore, when we look at any models don’t work in current economic or business issue, conditions,” because human stochastic techniques will enable behaviour and extraordinary or much better predictions, because unexpected events can make any they will take random change and prediction redundant. uncertainty into account.

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Open innovation they strive to develop new Professor Chen Jin (Professor of products and/or services. Management at College of Public But open innovation can also have Administration, Zhejiang Universi- a negative impact, he added, ty) depending on the nature of the How much does openness affect business. Every activity involves an the innovation performance of opportunity cost as well as an Chinese companies, and how do actual financial cost, and some- we measure how open these times there can be too much companies are? Can too much information to process – leading openness be counter-productive to a lack of focus, indecision and or simply too costly? These were delays. Openness also varies from the key questions posed by company to company, as Professor Professor Chen, who started off Chen discovered in a survey of by saying that companies who over 200 Chinese organisations, don’t innovate will fail – before looking at the ratio of new to old cautioning that most innovations products and the frequency of are failures. new product introductions. Open innovation, according to Dividing companies into two Professor Chen, means using categories – science & technology external as well as internal ideas driven companies (STIs) and to come up with new ideas. It can “doing, using & interacting” speed up innovation and improve companies (DUIs) – Professor creativity, as well as target markets Chen’s research showed that for more precisely and reduce STIs, the benefits of openness uncertainty. It also means R&D were “curvilinear” or tended to working more closely with other tail off over time, while for DUIs, departments as well as “innova- the more open they were, the tive users,” to increase the better they performed. Chinese number of new ideas bouncing companies may not have been around. All employees, including open enough in the past, he the sales team and customer concluded, but they are already service, can be “inno-creative,” beginning to progress from and this is a strategy used by closed innovation to R&D-based Chinese companies like Haier innovation, and the next step will (now the world’s 4th largest white be open innovation networks. goods manufacturer) and Boast- eel, who regard every member of the team as strategic business units (SBUs) and innovators, as

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How to measure innovation “We need a step change,” said George Boag (CEO of Targeting Mr Boag, in our attitudes to Innovation Limited – TIL) innovation, and that is what he and his organisation are attempt- Innovation in Scotland – how do ing to drive with his “innovation we support it through govern- dashboard” – a tool which ment policy and how do we measures Scotland’s performance measure it? In his professional in areas such as research and life, George Boag lives and development, academia, finance, breathes innovation and his talk industry, skills and economic also touched upon similar issues growth, comparing Scotland with in China, and how far it has come the rest of the UK and Europe. in a short space of time in terms of innovation performance. Scotland’s USP (unique selling point) has always been its human For Mr Boag, innovation is not capital, said Mr Boag, who has just concerned with new products, been involved in over 100 initia- but how to “make money from tives in Scotland, bidding to get new ideas, new partnerships, new new ideas to market – not just services, new forms of communi- looking at the role of academia cation and new ways to market.” and government and how to He also stressed the fact that commercialise research, but also innovation isn’t easy, and suggest- how to inject more confidence ed that in Scotland, we need to do into new business ventures. more to encourage new ideas, and provide tools which enable The innovators most likely to new ideas to flourish. succeed According to Mr Boag, “only 10 Professor Gao Xudong (School of per cent of our most innovative Economics and Management, businesses have any interaction Tsinghua University) with research institutions.” Out China is about to enter a new of 197 spin-outs from universities, stage of technological develop- 26 per cent have closed, 56 have ment, with indigenous innovators fewer than 10 employees and only leading the way, and companies one per cent employ over 100 becoming developers rather than people. Even though Scotland buyers of new technology. China has more mathematics and has a huge trade surplus at computer science graduates per present, and relatively low interest million people than the US, Japan, rates, but Professor Gao won- Germany or Sweden, we have a lot dered if strong economic growth of work to do to realise our could continue, without a radical national potential. change in attitudes to innovation,

244 Conferences, Workshops, Symposia and Discussion Forums and greater internationalisation of from its foreign partners in terms business to promote China’s of manufacturing capabilities, but brand names. It is no longer learned almost nothing about enough to buy new products, design. “Some Chinese compa- absorb new technologies and nies have made zero contribution then try to add on innovation. to their MNC partners,” Professor Companies will need to be much Gao added. more original. According to Professor Gao, the Professor Gao identified five types companies who innovate and use of innovators in China: their own technology are doing 1. Companies who import or buy better and competing globally. innovations Examples: ZTE in telecoms (40,000 employees including 10,000 2. Joint-venture innovators (e.g. graduates), and CPNC in petro- car manufacturers) chemicals. In many cases, success 3. Companies who make products has come because the companies based on dominant standards have been forced to innovate, and (e.g. laptop computers) this should be a lesson for the future, said Professor Gao. 4. Integrators (e.g. DVD manufac- turers who license technologies) There are many opportunities for Chinese companies in emerging 5. Developers of proprietary technologies, or in reinventing products. mature technologies. The Of all these groups, the Chinese challenges are not money or companies most likely to succeed technical capabilities but in are those who develop proprietary developing a sense of urgency, technologies, including telecoms providing the right kind of and oil & gas companies. In the incentives and instilling confi- highly competitive, globalised dence. market we live in today, profit Technical innovation systems margins will shrink even more unless companies become more Professor Jane Bower (Visiting innovative. For example, manufac- Fellow at Edinburgh University’s turers of TV sets in China are ESRC INNOGEN Centre) finding it hard to compete with Scotland used to be a leader in their rivals in Korea and Japan technical innovation, but towards (e.g. Samsung and Sony), and the end of the 20th century, there either can’t afford to licence the was increasing concern we were technology or can’t reach agree- falling behind, so academics, ment to do so. In the automobile government and business decided industry, China has learned a lot it was time to do something

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about it. This was the back- knowledge creators but there ground to Professor Bower’s talk wasn’t much other support. Since about Universities and the then, we have gained much more technical innovation system in experience (including returning Scotland, and how the system has expatriates) and developed new evolved over the last 15 years, ideas such as ‘angel finance’ and leading to successful ‘spin-outs’ entrepreneurial mentors for start- from academia into the business ups, gradually changing not just world. the image but the culture of According to Professor Bower, for Scottish business. The RSE has technical innovation to flourish, also played a major role, awarding we need key ingredients working research grants and encouraging together, including knowledge new ventures via Fellowship creators, demanding clients, programmes and other initiatives. specialist finance suppliers, Professor Bower said that there complementary expertise (e.g. in were ongoing problems in law and IP) and “status for Scotland, such as a lack of entrepreneurs.” In modern times, industrial buyers and limited Silicon Valley has been a good status for entrepreneurs, but with model, with a geographical support from government clustering of academic research- including R&D finance, spin-out ers, large companies and venture firms (growing out of large firms capitalists, plus legal and other or universities) continue to notch professionals used to dealing with up a string of successes. start-ups and access to major DAY 2 industrial buyers. “These innova- tive networks didn’t happen Can you measure trust in overnight but have built up over business? 50 years,” explained Professor Dr Wang Dan (Associate Professor Bower, adding that entrepreneurs of the School of Management at are also accorded more status in Harbin Institute of Technology) that part of the world. There is a “trust crisis” in the Academic–industrial links are supply chain today, said Dr Wang, essential, she said, and sometimes and her job is to diagnose the this can happen quite informally, factors involved, to enable with ‘conversations’ that may lead different partners to establish to future new products or busi- trust and thus gain mutual ness relationships – simply advantage. Trust is a critical factor because people are living and in business, but there are also working in the same place. In the many parallels in our personal 1990s, Scotland had lots of lives. Diagnosing problems and

246 Conferences, Workshops, Symposia and Discussion Forums building trust between business together and develops an intelli- partners is like a marriage coun- gent model to help understand sellor, using statistical modelling the processes involved. The methods rather than intuition and model of ‘collaborative trust’ has experience, to understand each not been applied in the real world partner’s strengths and weakness, to date, but Dr Wang and her hopes and dreams, and reach colleagues are confident that it agreement on the ultimate aim of will be a highly useful tool in the relationship. future, building a bridge between According to Dr Wang, surveys of organisations and helping the large-scale enterprises in China supply chain to function more show that there is “a lack of efficiently, for the benefit of all the partnership in the real sense,” so partners involved. she is now developing an intelli- Raising the standards of trust gent theory and model to evaluate Professor Umit Bititci (Director of trust, diagnose problems and The Strathclyde Institute for come up with practical business Operations Management & solutions. Professor of Technology and Sometimes, lack of trust comes Enterprise Management at the from informational asymmetry or University of Strathclyde) lack of legal infrastructure, and Dr What are the forces driving Wang believes there is an urgent business today? How can we need to monitor trust status establish standards for trust in the during negotiations, to set off same way as quality standards for alarm bells and help the partners products? How do we manage modify their behaviour, so they creativity? These were just some can collaborate better. “There are of the questions posed by different definitions of trust,” she Professor Bititci. said, “and sometimes it is very hard to measure, but our studies After reviewing some of the work are making good progress.” done by his department, including more than 100 interventions The factors to consider in analysis involving companies of all shapes of trust include legal, regulatory and sizes, he described how and contractual issues, technolog- industry has moved from being ical and financial capabilities, as product-driven in the early 20th well as ‘human’ or subjective century to market- and customer- factors like goodwill, intentions, driven today. Among the major experience, knowledge, percep- factors influencing business today tion and sense of obligation. Dr are openness, collaborative Wang then adds these factors agreements (to create competitive

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advantage), mutual trust rather ties and mutual advantage. than using the law (to protect “Most companies want to do intellectual property), social and business with themselves,” he environmental responsibility and said, suggesting that they should global networks and communities look for difference not sameness – as opposed to individual in the search for new partners. companies acting alone to pursue Finally, Professor Bititci talked their self-interest. In addition, about his department’s involve- said Professor Bititci, innovation is ment in a Europe-wide project to a key strategic weapon, and value study the future SME (small to comes from personalisation of medium-sized enterprise) – for services and creative design. example, looking at the opportu- Because all companies can use the nities for collaborative R&D. same tools – such as lean manu- The innovation overspill facturing, JIT or 6-Sigma, etc. – their competitive edge can soon Professor Zhang Zongyi (Vice- be eroded (or cancelled out), and President of Chongqing this means gaining fresh advan- University) tage in other directions, from Do innovations overflow from one strategic excellence, innovation, place and one region to another, learning and networking. Many creating clusters of inventors who companies innovate once and are can bounce their ideas around very successful, he said. But that and drive each other on to create success may be a happy one-off more new products? Using data accident. The challenge is to build based on patent applications per the capacity for ongoing excel- 10,000 people in 29 provinces in lence, to seed new, good ideas China from 1985 (when the new and manage them through to patent laws were first introduced) commercial success. to 2004, Professor Zhang has Professor Bititci also asked: “What studied the Spatial Overflows and prevents companies adopting Convergence of Innovation high-value, and what is high Outputs in China. And in the value? How do we manage process, he has reached some very creativity? Why do companies interesting conclusions which may fail?” And his answer was to aim help to spread innovation around to for strategic, commercial, and reverse the ‘brain drain’ in cultural and operational synergy less economically successful among different partners in the provinces. supply chain – modelling aims Because he is measuring innova- and objectives, etc. – to ensure tion in terms of new patents in there are complementary capabili- specific locations, Professor Zhang

248 Conferences, Workshops, Symposia and Discussion Forums also pointed out that the data can graduates to more established have limitations. For example, the centres like Guangdong. success of Linux software has Fear of flying (and statistics) been built around a global network of inventors and develop- Dr Lesley Walls (Head of the ers openly sharing ideas, instead Management Science Department of seeking to protect their at the University of Strathclyde) intellectual property in order to The new A380 Airbus was due to keep all the profits. In addition, land in London on its first com- the data in China can sometimes mercial flight, that same be distorted by extraordinary local afternoon, soon after Dr Lesley conditions – e.g. there are Walls delivered her talk on relatively few patents awarded in Reliability informed design in Shanghai, largely due to the large aerospace product development – number of multinational corpora- a process which has also had a tions based there whose critical impact on the new super- innovations are usually registered jumbo. in their home countries. Dr Walls explained that the focus From 1985 to 1996, Professor on safety and reliability in the Zhang revealed, the distribution aerospace industry has changed in of new patents was unequal in recent years, as more and more China, and innovation depended airlines lease flying hours rather much more on geography, than buying their aircraft outright, focused on the major economic shifting the emphasis in manufac- and industrial centres. Since then, turing by making spares this pattern has changed and replacement more a cost than an patent growth has started to ongoing revenue source – thus cluster. His conclusion is that pushing manufacturers to seek before 1996, innovation tended new ways to improve the lifetime to converge on major centres, but of various parts. To model this that since then it has been more process and forecast probability of divergent. One major factor, he failure, for example, Dr Walls and revealed, is decentralisation, her team try to learn from experi- which has tended to encourage ence, including studying historical more widespread innovation. For events, and speaking to the example, by creating new ‘innova- experts in the field as well as the tion centres’ in the west of the engineers who design and country (the Professor’s home develop components, then region), he believes innovation subjecting all the data to statisti- will spread out to the provinces, cal analysis. Ultimately, this leads and help to halt the migration of to safer and more profitable

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aircraft via better decision-making, Modelling future energy needs better allocation of resources and Dr Wei Yi-Ming (Deputy Director- better prioritisation, in the bid to General of the CAS Institute of improve the quality and reliability Policy and Management, Director of the components, as well as the of IPM-CAS and RIET-CNPC Joint production process itself. Center for Energy and Environ- According to Dr Walls, all innova- mental Policy Research) tions introduce new analytical Dr Wei’s talk spelled out the key problems (because they create challenges for China’s energy new conditions), but using policy makers and how new stochastic modelling methods, modelling techniques could help which take randomness into them make better decisions. account, they can more accurately predict the performance of any First, he described China’s huge component at any given time in appetite for energy, and the the future, by interrogating the relationship between energy available data in different depart- consumption and GDP, highlight- ments, including repair shops and ing top-down factors (driven by the experts themselves – who are the economy) and bottom-up interviewed individually as well as factors (driven by technology). He in groups. There are five key also pointed out that growth in principles in the research, said Dr energy consumption has overtak- Walls: reproducibility, accountabil- en economic growth, and ity, neutrality, fairness and explained that sustainability was empirical control. becoming a much bigger issue in China, adding to other issues “Engineers can be sceptical about such as security, the need to expert judgement,” she said, “but increase production to balance the results prove it works – our supply and demand, the need to modelling techniques do help to improve efficiency and lower manage reliability of innovations emissions, the impact of price in product design and develop- fluctuations and the need to ment.” The next step, she said, reduce dependence on imports of was to validate the modelling oil. methods through studies of historical data, checked against Dr Wei then described how all the forecasts – including the these factors have to be taken into performance of the A380, in the account in his model of China’s real world. energy needs – looking at the relationships between Society, Energy, Environment, Economy and Technology (SE3T), and asking

250 Conferences, Workshops, Symposia and Discussion Forums questions such as how much Lo, who also asked what China energy will be needed in future, and Europe have in common, and how to balance regional supply what they can learn from each and demand, the need to manage other, when it comes to renewable coal supplies, oil price mecha- energy. nisms, control of CO emissions, 2 In Europe, he said, the target is to the impact on society and indus- grow from 34GW in 2004 to try, etc. Ultimately, Dr Wei added, 180GW by 2020. The UK aims to looking forward to the year 2020, increase its wind power from 10% the big issue is how to manage of installed capacity in 2010 to China’s energy consumption at 20% by 2020, with Scotland the same time as achieving today contributing just over 50% sustainable economic growth, in a of the total from wind, or 1.1GW. multi-regional nation where local Germany is the most advanced conditions can vary dramatically. wind generator in Europe, The SE3T model looks at five basic contributing over 40% of the scenarios in eight different total, or 28.5GW. regions, across four different China added 3GW of wind power sectors, to see what pressures to its national network in 2007 there would be with different alone, Professor Lo continued – rates of economic growth and making it the fastest-growing changes in power production – as market for wind power in the well as changes caused by global world. China also plans to add warming. 1,300 GW of power by 2020, with Modelling alternative energy 25–30% coming from clean and networks renewable sources. This compares Professor K L Lo (Head of Power to the 1,000 GW produced by the System Analysis Research at the US today, and means that China Department of Electronic and will – in effect – build more Electrical Engineering at the capacity over the next 12 years University of Strathclyde) than the US has built since the dawn of electricity. Wind and other alternative sources of power (e.g. wave & As well as facing difficult choices tidal) promise to solve many regarding the ideal design for problems, but how do we connect wind turbines, trading costs renewable energy sources to the against efficiency and using national network, and how do we different types of turbines in model the process to work out the different locations, power compa- best way to do it? That was the nies also face a number of chief question posed by Professor economic and technical problems

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when it comes to connecting their Improving steel production turbines to the national grid – scheduling with some problems common to Dr Tang Lixin (Chair Professor and Scotland and China. The key issue Director of the Logistics Institute is to reduce fluctuations in voltage at Northeastern University) due to the nature of wind power, forcing generators to keep Production scheduling in the iron alternative sources such as coal in and steel industry was the focus reserve, to maintain 500MW at all of Dr Tang’s presentation. Steel times in the network, thus plays a critical role in China’s increasing emissions and reducing economy, and the national steel overall efficiency. The lower the industry has been the Number reserve, the more you save, and One producer in the world since this is a key aim of energy plan- 1996, feeding other sectors such ning. as construction, automobile manufacturing and machinery. By dispersing wind farms throughout the network, fluctua- The major characteristics of the tions can be greatly reduced, Lo steel industry are a long and explained – optimising the complex production schedule, efficiency of wind power as a combined with high energy and whole, at the same time as having capital consumption, plus the a significant impact on prices. To need to optimise capacity and achieve this aim, we therefore minimise downtime (delays have to analyse (and model) the between orders) and materials tolerable limits of the network, wastage. The questions facing Dr taking risks and probability into Tang and his team are therefore account – e.g. forecasting weather how to reduce energy consump- conditions, and how often tion, how to cut production costs turbines are forced to shut down, and how to keep the furnaces as well as wear and tear. When burning – in other words, optimi- problems occur, it is also impor- sation of production scheduling tant to isolate parts of the and logistics, for different produc- network, to stop problems tion stages and processes. spreading. And Professor Lo Steel-making continuous casting explained that his research models (SCC) has relied upon just-in-time take into account all of these (JIT) methods to optimise produc- complex economic and technical tion scheduling, and Dr Tang’s factors. work focuses on using new modelling methods (including Lagrangian relaxation algorithms) to understand what’s happening

252 Conferences, Workshops, Symposia and Discussion Forums at any stage during production innovation, the importance of fast and thus make better decisions. and flexible response to market Unlike the machinery industry, demand, and how to “pull production and logistics schedul- information back from custom- ing in the iron and steel industry ers” in the modern global market. involves extra complications like At Napier, Professor Hunt’s team job grouping and precedence engages in a diverse range of constraints, as well as high activities, including manufacturing waiting costs. Working with planning and control, preparing major producers in China such as and assessing prototypes, and Boasteel and Tian Steelpipe, Dr advanced materials research, as Tang’s modelling techniques have well as simulation and seismic led to significant improvements in studies. productivity and reduced bottle- necks, taking advantage of Among the school’s recent advanced mathematical and successes are the new HAV (Hand heuristic algorithms. Arm Vibration) meter invented by REACTEC in Edinburgh, which is Mind to market now being manufactured and Professor Ian Hunt (Head of distributed worldwide, and the School of Engineering and Built award-winning Ewgeco energy Environment, Napier University) management system, another new Professor Hunt focused on the device prototyped at Napier, work of his department in helping invented by Perth-based Tanya new products from concept to Ewing. market, using recent examples IT at university including a device for measuring Professor Jeff Haywood (Vice- vibration in construction tools and Principal for Knowledge a meter to monitor power con- Management, Chief Information sumption, designed for the home. Officer and Librarian at the His chief concern was taking the University of Edinburgh) leap from design to production, and how this often means Professor Haywood provided the Scottish companies looking workshop with a number of abroad to identify new manufac- insights into the computing turing partners, particularly in environment at the University of Eastern Europe and the Asia Edinburgh, focusing on the Pacific. He also talked about the acquisition and integration of challenges which face designers new information systems, and and developers, including the how to optimise performance – critical role of the entrepreneur, something which depends on many different individual criteria,

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particularly the different percep- forces people to ask the right tions of users and service questions about their require- providers. He also talked about ments and reach a compromise the cultural tensions which can which in the end benefits every- sometimes arise between academ- one to some degree – by making ic and ‘corporate’ stakeholders. the right decisions from the start. The university’s network consists There is always a trade-off, he of research systems, learning and explained, between security and teaching systems, and corporate connectivity, for example, or cost systems, and Professor Haywood of ownership versus ‘agility’. noted that “whatever we design Professor Haywood also talked must take account of what will about the ‘roller-coaster’ of user change.” For example, many expectations when new systems systems (e-portfolio and online go live – how people often learning) which were considered ‘mourn’ the old system, as they highly innovative a short time ago struggle to come to terms with a are now essential systems which new system, before they finally are taken for granted. Also, as the acknowledge the benefits. network evolves, there are fewer According to Haywood, this and fewer standalone systems presents a challenge to service (excluding supercomputers). providers, who must ensure that It would be easy, said Professor users don’t expect too much Haywood, to start from scratch initially, to soften the blow of the when you build a new campus inevitable disappointments and network, but in reality the net- frustrations of using new systems. work usually has many legacy “It’s all about people and manag- systems which must be connected ing change,” he said, as well as and talk with each other. Increas- having very clear objectives, ingly, he added, the university aligning expectations, listening to must also “reach agreement with users and communicating clearly the community of users” when it with stakeholders. Finally, he said, introduces new systems, and “it’s not technology management comply with legal and procure- but people management” which ment constraints. Some users matters the most. need and demand different tools, but unless they can justify their individual requests, they must comply with university-wide standards. On the one hand, this can inhibit purchasing methods, but Haywood also believes it

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Simulation in the real world of the actual computer. To Professor Arthur Trew (Director of appreciate the progress made in the EPCC – Edinburgh Parallel computing over the years, Trew Computing Centre) said that the university’s first “supercomputer,” purchased in Professor Trew kicked off by 1982, was built around proces- describing the evolution of sors the equivalent of today’s scientific research from theory to more advanced mobile phones – experiment and more recently to and yet it was still smart enough simulation – a methodology to enable researchers to produce pioneered in Edinburgh since the over 180 ground-breaking papers. early 1980s. He said that the EPCC (founded in 1990) is now With £100 million-worth of the “major centre for computa- computer, the EPCC is capable of tional research in Europe,” and doing some challenging work, aims to rival similar facilities in the including computational fluid US. Although the centre empha- dynamics, which helps researchers sises academic research and improve the efficiency of the new technology transfer, and has generation of wind turbines, as worked with 75 major industry well as research into nuclear clients over the last three years, he fusion and production schedul- also said, “It’s no good doing ing. One of the future challenges research if you don’t train the next for the EPCC will be its work in generation,” adding that the what Trew described as the “circle university also provided a better of life,” doing research into environment for certain kinds of biological systems, including research than commercial facili- molecular dynamics and popula- ties, by providing easy access to tion (e.g. looking at avian flu), as diverse academic resources. well as some mind-boggling problems in physics. Even though Professor Trew said that people were the most Professor Trew concluded by important asset of the centre, he saying that the key to success for is also very proud of its comput- the EPCC is the continuing links ers, especially HECToR (High End between academia and its Computing Terascale Resources), hardware suppliers and industry which is one of the most powerful partners. computers in the world, capable of 60 Tflop/s. In fact, it is so powerful that it uses more power than 10,000 households, and its power plant is three times the size

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17 March 2008 - Visit by Ms important ‘pooling’ of research in Fiona Hyslop key disciplines is also being seen, Cabinet Secretary for Education particularly in areas such as life and Lifelong Learning sciences, physics, chemistry and Ms Hyslop, Cabinet Secretary for economics. Education and Lifelong Learning There has been a general increase welcomed the delegation to in collaboration between scien- Scotland and to Edinburgh. She tists in Scotland and China. As a reminded the meeting that the pilot, in 2008 the Scottish Deputy Director of the NSFC, Government with the British Professor Zuoyan Zhu, had visited Council is funding an exchange of Scotland in 2007 to receive an a small number of science and honorary degree from the Univer- technology students with Chinese sity of Aberdeen – the first to be institutions, through the Interna- awarded to a scholar from tional Association for the mainland China. During the same Exchange of Students for Techni- visit he signed the bilateral cal Experience (IAESTE). In agreement with the Royal Society addition, it continues to support of Edinburgh, which directly student activity through its own resulted in this workshop, which Scottish International Scholarship the Scottish Government was programme and individual pleased to support. Scottish institutions are engaged Ms Hyslop pointed out that in many more programmes, both Scotland is famous for its great their own and UK initiatives. thinkers and philosophers, Ms Hyslop explained that her including David Hume and Adam main responsibilities as Cabinet Smith and its great engineers, Secretary for Education and including Thomas Telford. Today it Lifelong Learning are education, continues this tradition with a skills, research and innovation. It strong capability in Business and is her role to ensure that Scottish Management Sciences and also in people are successful learners and Engineering. Another area of effective contributors to society strength is Biological Sciences and and she was pleased to report many Chinese scientists have also that the Scottish science commu- participated in projects in this nity is a fantastic ambassador for field through the RSE exchange the rest of Scotland in all these programme. Energy is another key respects. area for collaboration and One of the areas of her portfolio, partnership now, and will be in which the Scottish Government is the future. Across the entire keen to develop, is skills utilisa- breadth of the research base,

256 Conferences, Workshops, Symposia and Discussion Forums tion. School pupils are part of her base in Scotland, but also the responsibility and the Scottish building of strong international Qualifications Authority has partnerships. Scottish institutions strong links with China. Increas- have always been outward ing numbers of Chinese students looking, and China is becoming have been coming to Scotland in increasingly important as a world recent years and bonds are being player. Scotland takes its relation- formed, not only in education but ship with China very seriously and also of friendship. Ms Hyslop needs to do even more to partner pointed out that the Scottish with China, to their mutual national poet, Robert Burns, with advantage. Ms Hyslop stated that whom many Chinese are familiar, everyone present at the meeting came from her birthplace. would play an important part in Scotland has a long and distin- achieving the sustainable eco- guished educational heritage, a nomic growth that is key to both healthy curiosity for making new their futures. discoveries, and a great appetite Scotland and China already have a for dialogue with others from history of science collaboration across the globe. In terms of through long-standing links with innovation and leadership, the Royal Botanic Garden Edin- something important is happen- burgh with its field station in ing in Scotland – Scottish Lijiang and its expertise in Chinese institutions are collaborating, thus plants and conservation, dis- providing a single entry point for cussed earlier in the workshop. international partners. Links continue to be established Scotland is – and historically has through institutions and compa- been – a ‘Science Nation’. Its nies in many areas of interest. world-class universities excel in Increasing numbers of Chinese research and innovation. It is first students are choosing Scottish in the world in terms of citation institutions and developing long- rates for research papers and also lasting friendships with people in has one of the world’s top impact Scotland and the Scottish Govern- factors for research citations per ment wishes to build on those paper. But science is a truly links. The Scottish Government is international endeavour. Ms currently progressing five science Hyslop said that the Scottish IAESTE scholarships, researcher Government recognises that exchanges through the RSE/ NSFC driving forward competitive programme and exchanges science requires not only the through the SIPS exchanges, also commitment of those who work funded by the Scottish Govern- within the world-class research ment.

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Ms Hyslop said she would be Ms Hyslop hoped that hearing visiting China in April 2008 and about the Scottish experience intended to discuss education and would help the Chinese delegates science links. During the visit she to develop their thinking and that will spend time in Beijing, Jinan their trip would be both stimulat- and Shanghai and hopes to ing and productive. At the same witness a signing ceremony in time, she stated that Scotland is a Beijing on a new agreement learning nation and it was hoped between Aberdeen University and that Scottish scientists had also the Chinese Academy of Sciences been challenged by the visit. on a research centre for Eco- Finally she encouraged delegates Environmental Sciences. to explore possible actions arising Ms Hyslop thanked delegates for from the workshop, alongside their contributions. She said she continuing discussion with the was pleased with the level of RSE and with others. interest in what is happening in Scotland, exemplified by their commitment to attend this event.

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Cultural Flagships Discussion Forum Cultural Flagships: being a ‘National’ – Film 26 June 2008

The seminar was introduced by ent film producer based in RSE Vice-President Professor Tariq Edinburgh and Chair of Edin- Durrani, who then handed over to burgh Filmhouse; Iain Smith OBE, the event Chair, Professor John the Scottish-born producer of Caughie, Professor of Film and major films ranging from Bill Television Studies at the University Douglas’ My Childhood to Local of Glasgow. In introducing the Hero and Cold Mountain, an EIFF debate, Professor Caughie board member, and current Chair observed that while it is always of the UK Film Skills Strategy relatively easy to ‘score’ the Committee; and Robin MacPher- national contribution of the son, Director of Screen Academy Scottish or British film industry in Scotland, and Senior Lecturer in economic or commercial terms, it the School of Creative Industries is much more difficult to define its at Napier University, Edinburgh. cultural contribution. He said that Ginnie Atkinson began by the film industry in Scotland observing that film represents a currently faces major issues, meeting of art and commerce concerning both its general across a very wide range of sustainability, and the impact of production, in what is, in many the forthcoming merger between ways, the most popular of all art- Scottish Screen and the Scottish forms. Film is a huge, diverse field, Arts Council, to form Creative encompassing everything from Scotland. He said this raises blockbuster popular entertain- questions about whether we are ment to complex experimental trying to create a Scottish film work, and a whole range of ever- industry, or – in the wider sense – changing technologies – hence a Scottish film culture. the term ‘moving image’, increas- Professor Caughie then intro- ingly used to embrace and express duced the four members of the the complexity of the field. panel. They were: Ginnie Atkin- Ms Atkinson pointed out that son, Managing Director of the when the Edinburgh International Edinburgh International Film Film Festival was launched, it was Festival; Leslie Hills of Skyline one of only three major film Productions, a leading independ-

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festivals in Europe – Venice, ming that make the EIFF a prestig- Cannes and Edinburgh. Now ious showcase; on the other hand, there are literally thousands of that commitment to quality, and international festivals, and the to coherence in the programming survival of Edinburgh as a major of the Festival, means that tough event, under these conditions, is and sometimes hurtful choices in itself an achievement. Excel- have to be made. lence in programming and The Edinburgh Filmhouse, of execution is essential for any which Ginnie Atkinson is also festival to remain at the top of the Chief Executive, has a different heap, and Edinburgh is famous role in relation to the Scottish film for the quality of its achievement community, as did the Glasgow in this area. The event also has an Film Theatre; however, she did not intimacy which makes it particular- explore that on this occasion, ly enjoyable. since it seemed appropriate to So far as the Festival’s role as a focus on the Film Festival for the national flagship is concerned, Ms purposes of this event. Atkinson suggested that being Leslie Hills began by observing international implies, to some that, as an independent film- extent, being national, or having a maker, she is not affiliated to any sense of national identity and national cultural organisation. culture to bring to the table. She However, she said that she noted that none of the Edinburgh believes that the whole field of Festivals is actually designated a cultural activity in Scotland should national arts company by the be mutually supportive and Scottish Government, unlike seamless; she argued that nation- Scottish Opera and the National al heritage and culture is Theatre of Scotland, etc. Nonethe- indivisible, and is not just a matter less, EIFF does provide an for organisations designated as international showcase for national cultural institutions. Scottish film; the difficulty arises There should be space in the from the fact that it does not act debate for a wide variety of as a showcase for every Scottish independent voices. film, but only for those which are selected on merit, and this can Ms Hills said that it is difficult to cause upset and controversy. overstate the recent achievement There is an element of ‘Catch-22’ of the live and visual arts in in the relationship between EIFF Scotland, and the quality of and the Scottish film industry. On Scotland’s living cultural scene the one hand, it is the quality and today. She felt that there is a high standard of Festival program- general sense of film being

260 Conferences, Workshops, Symposia and Discussion Forums slightly different from other arts, Ms Hills then reflected on the or not quite part of this scene. complex funding of some recent There is a huge global film culture projects. Her own short film about affecting our national self-image the artist Alison Watt was part- and self-perception, but it often funded by BBC Scotland, PPG, the seems to be a completely external Glenfiddich Company, and an force, beyond our control. American ‘angel’ (or private Ms Hills describes herself as a backer) based in Prague. The film relative newcomer to film produc- Stone of Destiny, shown at the tion, as she has only been EIFF, was financed by the Canadian working in the industry for a little Film Fund. Kenny Glenaan’s over 20 years. In that time, she has Summer was made possible by been responsible for producing German production money. lots of television, made for UK and Death-Defying Acts, a film about European audiences. These were Houdini in Scotland, is a Scottish mainly drama series and docu- story produced and filmed entirely mentary and current affairs series. outside Scotland. The nature of Her work now consists mainly of the modern industry, in other 90-minute documentaries with words, raises questions about the high production values for definition of a ‘Scottish’ film. The theatrical release, made in co- industry is international, and it is production with Germany. They worth noting that ‘Scottishness’ is are films on Scottish subjects, often a positive asset – a blessing usually set in Scotland, and filmed or an entrée – in dealing with the around the world; but the main film industry in other parts of the investment often comes from world. Ms Hills’ next project will German broadcasters, film funds be about a Japanese sculptor or distribution companies, with working in the toe of Italy with Scottish Screen the only Scottish the Italian architect Renzo PIaino – resource for funding such but produced by a Scottish-based projects. They are also often company. And this is how the film funded by public film funds from world will increasingly operate in other European countries or the future. European Union. Ms Hills said On the matter of training, Ms Hills that she feels that Scottish Screen said that good training is indis- is a body much more respected pensable, but that it is no abroad than at home – its much- substitute for an industry that mocked Scottie-dog logo is now enables people to work, to make recognised and respected world- movies, and to develop careers in wide. Scotland, if they wish to do so. We need a film industry, not just a

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training structure. And we need adequately funded for the training institutions which will complex and vital job it has to do. attract students from all over the In introducing his talk, Iain Smith world, so that students here can described himself as a ‘detribal- begin to build the network of ised’ Scot, meaning one who has international relationships they spent most of his working life will need. Ms Hills said that she outside Scotland - nor, he said, often speaks to groups of film has London been far enough for students working together at him. His life has been a journey summer schools or special into international film production, projects all over Europe, but that and it has taken him to Hollywood she has never seen a Scottish and beyond. He feels that the student at one of these events. experience of living with such a This is a concern. powerful neighbour gives Scots in In summing up, Ms Hills said that general an enormous sense of she feels national identity is very empathy, an ability to read and important in forming film cul- recognise the feelings of others tures. She cited the current that is a huge asset in negotiating strength of, for example, the the global film industry. Rumanian film industry. She said Mr Smith said that he is always that she feels film has a great role very suspicious of people who to play in articulating the relation- begin their pitch by saying what ship between modernity and type of film they want to make – tradition in Europe, and that both an ‘art’ film, or a ‘commercial’ film, a strong national culture and a or a ‘Scottish’ film. He said that strong sense of internationalism this kind of category-thinking is are necessary for that task. She usually an act of concealment, argued that while it would be designed to obscure the fact that great to fund films made in the film-maker does not have Scotland that would make money much of an idea, or much of a internationally and bring it back story to tell. He said that he into our industry, it is also neces- thought there was an ongoing sary for us to nurture our own Scottish crisis of identity. Sir identity and heritage. Currently, Walter Scott had been one of the Scotland punches above its greatest brand-masters of all time, weight in the world of film; but with his sentimental creation of Ms Hills is concerned that our film the kilted Highlander as the culture could lose out in the archetype of ‘Scottishness’, but it coming merger between Scottish is a temporary solution with which Screen and the Scottish Arts Scots comply, rather than a real Council if Creative Scotland is not resolution of the issue.

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The first feature films with vigilant. As a member of the Scottish content therefore Creative Scotland transitional followed the Sir Walter Scott/ board, he welcomes the setting- Ivanhoe model, and that was not up of the new body, in that it seriously challenged until Bill seems to signal that governments Douglas came along in the 1970s increasingly recognise the impor- with his hate-filled vision of a very tance of creativity. He talked briefly different Scotland. My Childhood of his experience of film culture in (1972) was one of the very first Bengal, and said that in his view, truly Scottish films, in that it Scotland is now gradually joining addresses aspects of Scotland that the ‘great river’ of human self- we would often rather not look at. expression, and is gradually Early Scottish film-makers were moving on from the time when often making propaganda films the nation was self-inhibited by a for Films of Scotland or the confused national identity. Highlands and Islands Develop- Robin MacPherson began by ment Board, but in the 1980s posing himself two questions, things began to move forward, asking why Scotland needs a with the famous conference on National Film School, and what Cinema In A Small Country, and conditions would make such an the Film Bang events. Then there institution into a ‘national’ was Chariots Of Fire, and Bill organisation. He suggested four Forsyth went to the Dolphin Arts criteria for a national institution: Centre in Glasgow and decided, that it should have an ambition to come what may, to make the film operate at a national level; that it that was eventually called That should achieve at a national level; Sinking Feeling, which led on to that it should be designated as a Gregory’s Girl. That Sinking national body; and, that there Feeling is one of those great films should be an expectation that it that has a strange feeling of will contribute to national life. He familiarity about it – the feeling feels that a national body should that the film has existed forever, have some sense of being ac- but you have just discovered it. countable to a wider national Iain Smith concluded that the idea project – and that all of these of national consciousness in film criteria apply to Screen Academy can very easily be abused – see, for Scotland. example, Braveheart, and its He then turned to the question of distorted but hugely influential why we need a National Film external view of Scottish history School in Scotland. After all, there and identity. This is something is already a National Film and about which we have to be Television School outside London,

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at Beaconsfield, which has Scotland to mount events in fostered a great deal of talent Tallinn, Dublin and Edinburgh, and, under the Directorship of designed to encourage this kind Colin Young, has specifically of awareness and networking, encouraged Scottish filmmakers and to help students develop such as Lynne Ramsay. Mr international creative projects. He MacPherson said that a good film believes that talent and craft could school should foster talent, be developed in Scotland, or provide space for it to develop, revisited in Scotland by those in encourage young artists to take mid-career. Career development risks, offer opportunities for them for existing professionals is to meet others, give them the extremely important. And he chance to learn about relevant pointed out that with the BBC technologies, and mentor them in and Channel 4 promising in- finding the right path. And he creased levels of television said that if Scotland was a nation production in Scotland, we will with a distinctive cultural identity, need to develop the skills base to then there should be a chance for meet that growing demand. people to experience this learning The discussion session began with process in Scotland, should they a question about the poor quality choose to do so. At the moment, of some films that claim to Screen Academy Scotland is able represent Scotland on screen. The to foster some elements of talent, questioner mentioned the EIFF among writers, producers, premiere of Stone of Destiny, directors and animators; but is not which she had not enjoyed, and able to teach or develop the other asked how poor representations skills involved in film production of Scottish history and culture at postgraduate level. (It is quite could be avoided. Iain Smith successful at undergraduate level commented that the general and has been so for some 20 expectation in Hollywood is that years). only one script in 80 - or perhaps, Mr MacPherson emphasised, more recently, one in 40 - will be though, that international successful at all, and that almost currents in the film industry are of all films made are complete great importance, and talked ‘turkeys’. Even in the best times about the development of an for the British film industry, the international network of film strike rate has not been higher schools, to help students develop than one in 20. It’s therefore not a global awareness. The European surprising that most of the films MEDIA programme has already identified one way or another as supported Screen Academy ‘Scottish’ are not much good; and

264 Conferences, Workshops, Symposia and Discussion Forums governments need to take the said that new technologies might long view. actually make possible the Another questioner asked about development of a new wave of the plans for a new Edinburgh ‘boutique’ cinemas, with fans of Filmhouse to replace the current particular periods or types of film run-down premises, wondering able to download the programme whether they were ‘dead in the of their choice electronically, in water.’ Leslie Hills, recently seconds, to small theatres across appointed Chair of the Board of the country. He had noted that a Filmhouse, assured him that the development of this kind was plans are not dead, that funding already happening in Henley-on- is being actively sought, and that Thames. something has to be done about Ginnie Atkinson said that she the housing of Filmhouse as the feels people will always have a current situation cannot continue. need to congregate in groups to On the question about the quality watch films, and that the preva- of ‘Scottish’ films, Ms Hills said lence of home entertainment that the Scottish Government is actually adds to the value of definitely interested in the idea of festivals like the EIFF, which nationhood and culture; and that provide not only the chance to although it is always necessary to watch a huge range of films in guard against jingoism, this could theatre conditions, but also a live be useful in beginning to get the encounter with film artists, ear of government, and cam- through personal appearances by paigning for the resources that directors, stars etc. Leslie Hills said are needed to develop our film that in the 21st century film culture, and the economic base of world, the expert professional our industry. programming of festivals like EIFF has even more added value than Robin MacPherson affirmed that before. he thought it would be possible to build something positive over Iain Smith pointed out that 10-15 years, including a National technologies are changing at Film and Television School in breakneck speed, and said he has Scotland. heard that teenagers are not bothering to go to see films like A questioner wondered whether the recent blockbuster thriller people will still go to the cinema Wanted – built around a series of in future, as sophisticated new spectacular action sequences – technologies for home and because the ‘best bits’ have personal entertainment become already been downloaded from ever more widespread. Iain Smith trailers weeks ago, and circulated

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by mobile phone around the “the products of medical schools world. He said that rather than will keep you alive, but the trying to hold back the tide, the products of film schools will make film industry had better get ‘very you glad to be alive”. Scotland fresh-eyed’ about such develop- already had a world-class track- ments, and try to seize every new record in medical education – opportunity. perhaps it is time to prioritise film From the Chair, Professor Caughie education, too. said that he feels it is becoming The final question from the very difficult to experience the audience was about the impact of history of cinema in theatre National Lottery funding on conditions. New releases still have British film culture, and whether it an extensive theatre life, but has been generally good or bad. people are expected to hire or buy Iain Smith said that at the Nation- old films on DVD, and watch them al Film Council (UK) there had at home. been a move to ‘get rid of the An audience member asked for Committee’, and to appoint reassurance that there would be individual gatekeepers who would enough demand for the product act as producers, giving green of a National Film School in lights to projects, and taking Scotland – i.e. will there be work responsibility for their own for all the graduates? Robin creative decisions, since commit- MacPherson said that there is a tees notoriously cannot do this very strong business case for very well. He said that given the generating more talent in Scot- low proportion of successful films land, and trying to keep that can be achieved under any production and profits in the funding structure (see above), country. The problem is that this British Lottery funding has kind of development has a long probably not done too badly. He lead-time. It is unlikely that the cited The Potato Man, a British results will be obvious in less than film which had been a disaster ten years or so, since it will take critically and at the box office, but that long for a first generation of which he saw as a good example film school graduates to begin to of a film which had been trying to emerge as feature-film-makers – achieve something worthwhile in maybe even longer. And politi- new British film-making, and had cians investing resources tend to represented a risk worth taking. want quick results. Professor Caughie said that this reminds him of the saying that

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Conference Structures and Granular Solids 1 - 2 July 2008

The RSE and the University of three decades. His collaborators Edinburgh staged a three-day have included leading researchers International symposium on from Hong Kong, Australia, Spain Structures and granular solids: and Germany in the areas of from scientific principles to structural mechanics, civil and engineering applications. The structural engineering, mechanical symposium began with a public engineering, chemical engineer- lecture by Professor J. Michael ing, mathematics, physics and Rotter, FREng FRSE FICE FASCE geology many of whom attended FIEAust (see page 180). the symposium. The symposium was conceived to The Symposium brought together celebrate the life and work of a significant group of eminent Professor Rotter. Professor Rotter’s researchers from around the work has placed equal emphasis world in the two related and on both fundamental scientific interacting fields of structures and principles and how they are best granular solids, with a unique applied to solve real engineering theme of bridging the gap problems. Whilst his PhD research between the development of new was on composite steel-concrete scientific understanding and its building construction, he has application to solve practical devoted most of his research engineering problems. A poster career to the mechanics of competition held throughout the granular solids and the buckling symposium featured a number of of thin shell structures. Michael promising students from the has made major and pioneering University of Edinburgh. After the contributions of lasting impor- first day of the event, delegates tance in all these areas. Michael’s were treated to an evening of research has also led to many Scottish hospitality at Dalhousie international collaborations on a Castle. wide range of topics over the last

Structures and Granular Solids: From Scientific Principles to Engineering Application by J. Michael Rotter, J. F. Chen, J. G. Teng (Editor), Jian-Fei Chen (Editor), J. Y. Ooi (Editor). ISBN-13: 9780415475945. ISBN: 0415475945

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Conference Computer Predictions for Nature and Society: Should They be Trusted? 11 September 2008 Supported by the Scottish Universities Physics Alliance (SUPA)

Computer simulations have long government policy on such been used by scientists and predictions? engineers to help design better The aim of this RSE conference materials and machines. Increas- was to highlight precisely these ingly computers are being used to issues in a public forum. The predict the future for natural and organisers, Professor Graeme social processes, such as epidem- Ackland FRSE and Dr Richard ics, climate change, economic Blythe of Edinburgh University, forecasting and earthquakes. But brought together four leading is this a reasonable leap to take? computer modellers to outline Physical systems, such as solids, their methods and findings, and liquids and gases, have the to present their views on the advantage of being well-under- benefits and limitations of stood at a fundamental level and modelling. Members of the highly repeatable. We may audience were offered the therefore expect computer opportunity to put their views and predictions for physical structures questions to the speakers and to be accurate – although even representatives of NANIA, (the there, it is a fact of life that today’s interdisciplinary research collabo- fastest computers might need ration on modelling complex several weeks to reproduce what systems), an offer that was nature can achieve in a nanosec- accepted with alacrity, resulting in ond. two lively discussion sessions. Why then should we trust a Keynote Speaker – Neil John- computer prediction for the son, Professor of Complexity at spread of an epidemic, or for the Miami University earth’s climate in fifty years time, where the fundamental processes Professor Johnson is author of involved may not be completely Two’s company, three is complexity understood, or the predictions and presenter of the televised turn out to depend strongly on 175th Royal Institution Christmas data that is not available to us (for Lectures. Johnson proposed that example, detailed geographical the characteristic unpredictability information)? Is it sensible to base of collective human behaviour

268 Conferences, Workshops, Symposia and Discussion Forums could be viewed from a modeller’s have seen never before? The perspective as a benefit rather second interesting idea was the than a drawback. That is, perhaps use of a ‘bag of models’ for the such diverse contemporary same process, and combining challenges as chaotic traffic, their results to get a feel for the market crashes and insurgent spread of likely outcomes. Here warfare are unpredictable in Johnson commented on the similar ways because all involve intuition his neighbours in Florida competition for a limited resource, have when using published ‘cones whether that be space, money, of uncertainty’ that show possible power or territory. paths of an impending hurricane, In his engaging talk, Johnson to decide whether to take evasive took the audience through the action, and suggested that principles of these competitive perhaps all computer predictions acts: what each agent is trying to should be treated in this way. achieve and how they deal with Christl Donnelly (Professor of information as it becomes Statistical Epidemiology, available. His tour took in the Imperial College London) ‘minority game’ paradigm which Professor Donnelly shared her describes the conflict that arises experiences of working with the when all agents simultaneously UK government on strategies to attempt to choose the least control the spread of a foot-and- popular of two options – for mouth disease (FMD) epidemic. example, to end up buying when She advocates the use of policies everyone else decides to sell. that are forward-looking and Through a range of case studies, shaped by evidence, whereas in Johnson moved towards the this case the evidence comes in conclusion that computer model- part from models of disease ling of human behaviour is not spreading. The essential content only possible, but also allows of these models is the network of prediction and even some form of contacts between susceptible control. individuals, and how quickly the Two particularly interesting and disease can spread from an important ideas were raised in this infected individual to a nearby first talk. The first is the issue of uninfected one. predicting ‘freak’ events – such as Once this is established, the a global financial crisis – when, by modellers can use data for their very nature, the historical confirmed cases of infection to precedent for them is weak. predict what effect specific Should we believe a model when interventions would have on the it predicts an outcome that we

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spread of the disease. For exam- power has enabled increasing ple, they can ask how many – and spatial resolution in climate which – individuals should be models, but even now typical grid vaccinated or culled to minimise boxes are of the order of 100 km the number of future cases. On by 100 km. How can we hope to this basis, a culling strategy was predict climate change 100 years developed and implemented, and from now, when we find it the number of new cases subse- difficult to predict weather ten quently confirmed decreased over days ahead? Fortunately climate time in a pattern very similar to modelling is a totally different that predicted by the model. problem to weather prediction: Nevertheless, aspects of the rather than tracking a trajectory in culling policy remain controversial, a chaotic attractor, it’s about and a number of criticisms were mapping the whole attractor – all expressed at the conference. This the possible weathers. Weather highlighted the need for good forecasting errors largely arise quality data to input into compu- from uncertainty in initial condi- ter models, and the need to tions, but century-timescale properly acknowledge risk and climate prediction is uncertain uncertainty to help build under- because of uncertainties in future standing, echoing Johnson’s greenhouse gas emissions and comments about hurricane cones. climate feedbacks. Peter Cox (Met Office Chair in Tracing the history of greenhouse Climate System Dynamics at gas theory from Fourier and the University of Exeter) Arrhenius in the 1800s to the present, Cox showed that models Mr Cox provided some insight including ‘natural factors’ can into weather and climate predic- approximately reproduce the tion. Weather forecasting has observed warming up to the improved a lot over the years, due 1970s, but underestimate it now. in large part to increasing compu- Emphasising the unequivocal ter power. Whether the forecast is reliability of the measured data, ‘correct’ is subjective, but on any additional factors are required to measure the three-day forecast for explain it and man-made emis- 2008 was as reliable as the two- sions of aerosols and CO2 do just day forecast from 1998. that, in Europe, North America The climate models are essentially and Asia (where mid-century lower resolution versions of cooling was less pronounced). numerical weather prediction Finally, Cox emphasised that models, run for decades rather increased warming is already than days. Increasing computer inevitable, and the emphasis must

270 Conferences, Workshops, Symposia and Discussion Forums now shift to adaptation as well as Smith was particularly critical of mitigation. Even if observed the mindset of forever tweaking warming is due to some unknown individual climate models in all factor other than CO2 emission, it areas. The models are all highly is unlikely that this mystery complex nonlinear systems, and phenomenon will disappear, and details will be sensitive to small our mitigation strategy would be changes in a possibly unpredicta- doomed. So the focus of climate ble way. Rather, he said, we modelling is now shifting from a should investigate how robust focus on mitigation (“how bad current climate models are by would it get if we do nothing?”) checking for consistencies among to a focus on adaptation (“what them. Smith pointed out that we climate change do we need to be cannot know whether proposed prepared for?”). improvements to climate models – Regional planning requires higher higher resolutions, physics of resolution modelling than a clouds, etc – will actually guide us single-point Scotland, and towards a better understanding of accuracy on decadal timescales – a how climate works. Testing a hybrid of weather forecasting and range of models with different climate prediction, which Cox (yet reasonable) assumptions is far called “Climate Prediction of the more likely to tell us not only what Third Kind”. we can predict, but perhaps more importantly where the design of Lenny Smith (Senior Research the model itself gives uncertainty. Fellow, Pembroke College) Between them, the four speakers Dr Smith dealt with the confusa- covered a wide range of applica- ble issues of chaos and tions, yet three themes ran unpredictability, and the quality of consistently through them. models. Smith also argued that · If the model is wrong, you can the Greenhouse effect: more CO2 gives ‘warmer, wetter winters with reproduce known data, but no increased storminess’ was long amount of fitting will help you established. From a practical predict. viewpoint, this is all we need to · Input data is always insufficient, know to drive policy, and insuffi- computed results come with cient to drive individual behaviour: uncertainty, but this uncertainty he presented the example of his can be estimated. recently-flooded local pub, asking · Extreme confidence in the whether it was worth refurbishing output of a simulation provides given the risk of repeating this a good test of charlatanism. rare event.

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Conference The Life and Culture of the Highlands and Islands 23 September 2008

The Conference covered a wide Key points from the Conference: variety of topics affecting many - The Highlands and Islands is a areas of social, cultural and region of great economic economic life in the Highlands opportunity in exciting emerg- and Islands – past, present and ing areas such as medical and future. Rather than being a region scientific research, renewable in irreversible decline, there was a energy production and efficien- broad consensus that it should be cy. understood as a place of out- standing opportunity. Its role as a - Support is needed for tradition- region at the edge of Scotland al sectors, such as sheep and the UK is ripe to be over- farming and crofting, to give turned, as its potential as a source them a sustainable future and of renewable energy, as a tourism help provide food security for destination and a hotbed for the nation. contemporary arts and creativity - Public policy needs to concen- can put it at the very heart of trate on community national life. For this vision to be empowerment by giving achieved, effective partnerships communities that are already between government at all levels used to being self-reliant the and local communities are tools for further development. needed. The model must be one - Land reform has been, and can in which people are provided with continue to be, a vital means of the tools they need to earn a restoring self-confidence to good living and mould their own communities and allowing them futures. The development of a to take control of their own University for the Highlands and destinies, creating jobs and Islands is a key factor in its future generating income. and one of the best ways of ensuring an abundance of young - The creative industries make a and talented people choose to live major contribution to the in the region and build a knowl- economy and cultural identity of edge-based economy to suit 21st the region and every effort Century needs.

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should be made to nurture - The past, especially the Clear- them. ances, has huge resonance in - The natural environment, on the Highlands and Islands. This land and at sea, is among the is coupled with a perception greatest resources of the that the area has been been Highlands and Islands and must neglected by policy makers be protected and managed in when – for better or worse – the order to realise its economic opposite has often been true. potential. The conference was introduced by - Since its inception, the Universi- RSE President Sir Michael Atiyah, ty of the Highlands and Islands who emphasised the range of (UHI) Millennium Institute has topics under discussion including proved its potential as an the arts, sciences and economics engine for renewal and change and highlighted the importance – providing education, research of the Royal Society’s Inquiry into and employment opportunities issues affecting Scotland’s hill and that keep young people in the island areas. region and offer them viable Michael Russell MSP, Scottish careers. Government Minister for the - Language, culture and history Environment all play a vital role in the social The people, culture and environ- and cultural identity of the ment of the highlands and islands region and should be cherished. are its greatest assets and the key - While depopulation has been to its future prosperity. slowed, and even reversed, According to Mr Russell, the there are still many issues to be region is one that has too often addressed, as the region has an been misunderstood and inter- ageing population and a fered with, having suffered shortage of people of working historic injustices such as the age. Clearances and faced continued - Small populations need not be difficulties from depopulation and a problem so long as the vital economic decline. The situation is issues of employment, housing now looking increasingly positive, and fuel poverty are addressed with a growing population and so people have an environment lower than average unemploy- in which they can make a decent ment based on a diverse economy. living and enjoy a decent quality Government must apply three of life. golden rules to help the region achieve its undoubted potential. These are the need for:

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- solidarity with the people, to successful way of keeping a uplift society’s most disadvan- population in a remote area.” taged; Professor Gavin McCrone, - cohesion to ensure that Chairman of the RSE Inquiry everyone shares in growing into Scotland’s Hill and Island wealth; and areas. - sustainability to protect and Scotland’s hill and island areas enhance its environment and have immense potential to heritage. contribute to the national need to Mr Russell said that the current ensure food security, bio-diversity administration is dedicated to a and a strong tourism industry. positive approach which empow- Professor McCrone explained that ers the region, its local net farm income in sheep farming government, communities and in the Less favoured Area in people to make decisions for Scotland was only £1,500 last year themselves. and in all recent years was “In trying to secure a sustainable considerably exceeded by the future for the Highlands and subsidy paid. This meant that Islands we need to regard them without support such farming not as perpetual drain on resourc- would decline very rapidly. Yet it es, not as a problem to be solved was the declared policy of the UK …but as a place where by provid- Government to urge the EU to ing the right tools we can enable end direct subsidies after 2013. the people that live there to solve The Inquiry rejected this, as they the problems that they face.” considered that it would be very damaging to the communities in Mr Russell emphasised the the hill and islands areas, to contribution and value of the biodiversity and to the landscape, agricultural sector and of commu- which was important for tourism. nity buy-outs of land. The He outlined a number of ways in government is concerned to find which the support could be ways to reform crofting and adjusted to meet the needs of ensure its continued contribution these areas and at the same time to the region’s vitality and identity. deliver environmental benefit. “It has contributed not just to the He encouraged a new approach at agricultural life of these areas but all levels of government to has contributed to the social life encourage farming and to and environment of them as well. promote local produce – pointing “There is an argument to say that out that despite the large number crofting is the most uniquely of sheep farms, Scots eat less

274 Conferences, Workshops, Symposia and Discussion Forums lamb and mutton than the English development of tourism – not and a great deal less than the least the excellence of Scottish Welsh. regional food and drink and the Allowing a free market to reign country’s remarkable potential as would create a risky dependence a wildlife tourism destination. on imports from potentially In order for the hills and islands to unreliable foreign countries and thrive, there is a need for a range could prove potentially unreliable of infrastructural developments, in at a moment when production in particular the provision of afforda- some parts of the world is ble housing, improved ferry threatened by climate change, the services and high-speed broad- shift to biofuels and growing band connections. demand from swiftly expanding THEME 1: Economic countries with rapidly growing economies, such as China. Chair: Willy Roe, Chairman of Highland and Islands Enterprise “This is not the right time to address the food crisis in the In his opening remarks Mr Roe world by allowing our own said the critical issue for the productivity to decline.” If region is not the size of its livestock farming in the hill and population, but the need to islands areas which are responsi- attract and retain people of ble for a large part of Scotland’s working age. The emergence of output were to cease it would be the UHI Millennium Institute is a difficult, if not impossible, to key means to encourage some bring it back. young adults to stay and bring in others. Mr Roe said he believed The Inquiry, which took in areas that the region has much to offer such as the Southern Uplands as in terms of lifestyle and with well as the Highlands and Islands, career opportunities in everything also calls for a stronger body to from the creative industries to the promote tourism complete with life sciences. He called for the the ability to fund projects that region to market itself as a place will provide a top quality experi- that welcomes ambitious incom- ence for visitors. This should build ers with a desire to succeed and a on the strengths of VisitScotland wish to enjoy an unbeatable rather than abolish it and would environment. also provide greater opportunities for each region to develop and promote itself. Professor McCrone believes that many sectors can contribute to the

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Beyond the shore: a sustainable commercial fishing or scuba marine economy for the diving. Highlands and Islands “Protection of the marine environ- Professor Laurence Mee, Director ment is vital, but that does not of the Scottish Association for mean we put it in a box. Marine Science (SAMS), UHI But we have to have specially Millennium Institute. protected areas. We have to The seas and shoreline of the protect our crown jewels. Highlands and Islands are among It is important for our economy its greatest and least understood and it is important for our resources. Traditionally exploited sustainability.” as a source of food, they are now This, said Professor Mee, is being recognised as holding the underlined by the growing key to many other needs. SAMS, popularity of whale watching and based in Oban, is a European other nature-based activities, as leader in researching how algae well as water sports like sailing, can be used to create new surfing and windsurfing, which medicines and the potential of already bring in millions of our oceans to provide biofuels. pounds to local economies. According to Professor Mee, the “These are opportunities that can success of SAMS underlines the be taken much further. After all, region’s potential as a centre for these people don’t mind if it rains, advanced science and sustainable they just want wind, and my God production. Among the most we’ve got a lot of that.” exciting developments will be in THEME 2: Higher Education, the the energy sector, where the UHI Millennium Institute and technology is becoming available the Highlands and Islands to create offshore wind farms and Renaissance exploit the tremendous potential of wave and tidal power. UHI’s Role in the Renaissance of the Highlands and Islands It is, he added, vital to ensure that our marine environment is Chair: Professor Robert Cormack managed carefully to balance FRSE, Principal of the UHI Millen- competing interests and maximise nium Institute economic benefits. This means In his introductory comments ensuring that sustainability is a Professor Cormack outlined how reality, not just a buzz-word, and the region has missed out on each recognises the needs of every sea of Scotland’s three waves of user, whether it is for aquaculture, university development from the Middle Ages to the present day. It

276 Conferences, Workshops, Symposia and Discussion Forums is, he argued, inequitable that Low Carbon and Renewable Edinburgh, with a population of Energy Built Environmental 470,000, has four universities, Research at UHI while a region of more than half a Dr Neil Finlayson, Director, million has none. After outlining Greenspace Research, Lews Castle the UHI’s development, including College, UHI Millennium Institute this year’s granting of taught degree-awarding powers, he said Low-energy buildings are essential UHI is moving rapidly towards full if we are going to be successful in University status. Professor confronting climate change. Cormack believes that a University According to Dr Finlayson, there of the Highlands and Islands is are 140 million buildings in critical to the region’s ability to Europe and every one of them has develop a knowledge-based problems. As buildings in devel- economy, to keep talented young oped economies account for 40% people and attract inward invest- to 60% of energy use, there is an ment. The UHI is already attracting urgent need to cut back on waste, valuable research funding from and European regulations are the public and private sources. now coming into effect which will This includes an impressive £1 force the pace of change. million from private sources for Greenspace, based in Stornoway, historical research alongside circa is doing much to contribute to £52M over the next seven years this goal on a local and worldwide from European sources, providing scale. Part of its research vision is matched funds can be found. At to help transform the Hebrides the same time, it has exciting from a high to a low carbon projects underway, such as the environment, whilst creating creation of a centre for diabetes wider educational, scientific and research. The UHI’s great success commercial opportunities. It has has been to bring together many already produced one spin-out colleges and centres, using company. By providing opportuni- modern technology such as video ties in this way, Dr Finlayson conferencing, giving students believes the UHI will be a driving access to academic excellence no force in the renaissance of the matter where they are. The result Highlands and Islands. is that a student can already go to Greenspace has a strong empha- a small college like Orkney, for sis on software, on building example, and move from an access material and on control systems. course through every level of the Among its aims are to create Scottish Credit and Qualification buildings which minimise energy Framework (SCQF) to a PhD. use and waste, but require the

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minimum of effort to control. The country’s history and culture that progress being made at Green- should be better understood and space, and throughout UHI, are more widely appreciated. already making it a force to be “Scotland has explored its Gaelic reckoned with. heritage to a large extent and now “UHI has a lot of strengths in it is time to look to its Nordic energy and environmental issues roots.” and I think it is very competitive at Dr Heddle argued that the role of this point with the other Scottish the Centre is not only to promote universities, and getting more research but to allow it to take so,” said Dr Finlayson. place at the focal points of “The North wind doth blow ….” Scotland’s Nordic culture. The key A New Cultural Agenda for the aim is to give ownership of their Northern Isles cultural heritage back to the Dr Donna Heddle, Director of the communities themselves: to Centre for Nordic Studies, educate, enable, and empower Orkney College UHI Millennium them for the future. Institute The Centre provides activities at The interdisciplinary Centre for many levels to accomplish this Nordic Studies is an exciting and aim. These range from workshops, far-sighted initiative, led by seminars and lectures and Orkney in partnership with summer schools to conferences, Shetland, to rediscover and fellowships, taught postgraduate celebrate the Nordic past and and research degrees. The Centre non-Gaelic indigenous cultures of can benefit the local economy by Scotland. In a UK context where so helping develop the cultural much has tended to become tourism industry, satisfying the concentrated in the south east of growing appetite for holiday England, areas such as these have destinations where people can come to be seen as peripheral. pursue hobbies and interests. They now need to be re-evaluated The Centre is creating multilay- and policy decisions made ered cultural networks involving regarding them need to be better local groups and funders, along informed. The Centre will provide with academic institutions at a locus for this re-evaluation and home and abroad, which will take materials to inform policy. forward their aims for the region. According to Dr Heddle, the Key aims are to explore the Northern Isles are centres of a region’s intangible cultural vibrant Nordic world which made heritage and to promote a greater an enormous contribution to the knowledge of the Nordic languag- es that were spoken by islanders.

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“It is time to cherish the linguistic “But the level is only 17% in heritage of Orkney and Shetland – Shetland, so it may not be that without our tongues we cannot straightforward. One of the things speak for ourselves,” said Dr we will be researching is genetic Heddle. and environmental interaction.” Diabetes Research in the The study of Type 2 diabetes is Highlands: a radical approach also of great importance, as the Professor Ian Megson, Depart- Highlands and Islands have an ment of Diabetes, UHI Millennium ageing population. Professor Institute Megson has a particular interest in the possible role of free radicals A distribution map of diabetes in the development of this form of rates across Scotland shows the disease. startling differences between the Highlands and Islands and other Diabetes can be controlled, but no areas. Some 30% plus of sufferers cure is yet available. One of the in the region have Type 1 diabe- major difficulties is that it can lead tes, the form which tends to to strokes and heart attacks; some appear in childhood, compared to patients also have to have limbs 8–19% in much of the lowlands. amputated, whilst others lose For this reason the UHI has been their sight. establishing a research centre to Even though the centre was just look into the causes of Type 1 and an empty room in 2006, it is Type 2 diabetes – the latter tends already making exciting advances. to develop among older people Clinical trials have started for one and is frequently linked to obesity. new drug which could help According to Professor Megson, prevent the blood clotting process the distribution of Type 1 diabetes that underlies many of these may prove vitally important in problems. The centre has a discovering its cause. particular interest in the antioxi- dant properties of natural “Why are the rates so high? We products, such as seaweed and want to know. An obvious berries, and how they can be used explanation is genetic – perhaps to provide therapies to prevent there is a Viking gene that’s cardiovascular disease associated causing this. with diabetes.

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THEME 3: Highland History He added that there has been a after the Clearances strong emphasis on the impact of Chair: Professor Chris Whatley, the Clearances and the ongoing Professor of Scottish History, Vice- significance of rises and falls in Principal and Head, University of population. There has often also Dundee been tendency to forget the efforts of previous generations to Professor Whatley pointed to the right past wrongs and bring importance of the fascination with prosperity to the area, whether heritage among the region’s through the Crofters Bill of 1885 communities – where historical or the Highland Development Bill societies often have a high profile. of 1965. He also described history as an important resource, often used for Changes have taken place in the benefit of the tourism industry public policy, with the land and sometimes abused for the question drifting off the agenda benefit of politicians. in the late 1940s around the time of the Knoydart Land Raid, but Highland History and the returning more recently with Conscience of Scotland developments such as the 2003 Dr Ewen Cameron, Reader in Land Reform Act. Dr Cameron Scottish History at the University argued that huge amounts of of Edinburgh government money have been invested in the Highlands and The history of the Highlands is a Islands – though not always popular and hotly debated area of having the intended results. There study. Dr Cameron said the has also been a tendency to intensity of argument is “a bit like regard the region as unique, a shinty match with no quarter rather than recognise its similari- asked or given”. ties with other parts of the UK His talk extended into historiogra- such as Wales and even south phy and demography and was west England. underpinned by the observation Indeed there are close similarities that political policy towards the between the forces that brought Highlands and Islands is often depopulation in the Highlands rooted in ideas about its history and those that created industriali- and a notion that it has been a sation and urbanisation in the neglected region. Dr Cameron lowlands. Historians have often argued that the opposite is true been poor at pointing out the and that it has had a high profile links between the Highlands and among historians, politicians and other areas, and there is a contin- others. ued demand for popular works

280 Conferences, Workshops, Symposia and Discussion Forums with a romanticised and overly- increasingly sophisticated, with nostalgic view of its past. the development of social enter- “History has been incredibly prises and the acquisition of important in the way government large areas of land into communal has thought about the Highlands ownership. Further support of … we saw that again in the talk these kinds of process, he be- this morning from Mike Russell. lieves, will contribute much to repopulation and regeneration. “There has also sometimes been a forgetting of history in the The role of communities in the making of public policy towards 21st Century Highlands and the Highlands … and this idea Islands that the Highlands have been David Cameron, North Harris Trust neglected and the Clearances are Depopulation of the Highlands still something to be atoned for,” and Islands is not just about the said Dr Cameron. loss of people but of cultures – THEME 4: Turning the Tide: which could never be revived. Mr Community and Land Owner- Cameron said that while the ship, Population Growth and problems that led to collapsing Regeneration in the Highlands communities might be complex, and Islands the solutions could be remarkably Chair: Dr John Watt, Director of simple. Strengthening Communities at The North Harris Trust, like others, the HIE has transformed community Dr Watt introduced himself as the prospects in the last 15 years after Chair of the session and as a man buying out 55,000 acres of land. who was accused one year of This has allowed the 750 resi- being passive on the issue of land dents to take control of their own reform, then the next of leading futures and harness the potential Mugabe-style land raids. His of the environment. Such success- opening remarks addressed the es need to be repeated elsewhere, need to bring about community and this can only be done by development by building the providing people with the means social capital lost through out- to generate a decent living. ward migration. Market failure “It is ironic that there are more and lack of economies of scale and more calendars with pictures have meant that the region has of places like Harris, yet it is more often lost out. Conversely this has and more difficult to find a well- led to a culture in which commu- paid job in these places for the nities do things for themselves. whole year round,” said Mr This approach has become Cameron.

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There is, however, the possibility most precious environments in that we could be entering a Europe and that this can be golden era of renewal, with new demonstrated by the significant communities being built on old number and density of conserva- roots. Initiatives like the North tion designations that the area Harris Trust have shown the has. The environment and potential of community empower- landscape of the Highlands and ment. Jobs and income have been Islands is closely linked to both created by building a jetty, the socio-cultural aspects of the running deer management area, and also provides a basis for courses, creating walking tracks a significant amount of economic and planting woodland. At the activity including encouraging in- same time it is involved in wind migration. Ms Bryan pointed to turbine, biomass and hydro- the immense contribution to the electric projects. economy from tourism, with wild One outcome is that when the landscapes accounting for 19.9 Trust seeks backing for projects, it million day visits a year, and in the is able to be the first rather than Highland Region in 2003 they the last to put money on the generated between £411m and table. £751m in expenditure and supported 20,600 fte jobs. “It shows what can be done when Wildlife tourism alone generates communities are trusted to do £57 million, and the £1 million a things themselves and when you year now earned from sea eagle put people at the heart of deci- watching in Mull illustrates how sion making,” said Mr Cameron. many opportunities there are to THEME 5: Environment and develop the economy in tandem Landscape with caring for the natural environment. Chair: Amanda Bryan, Board Member of Scottish Natural A DVD, entitled The Sea Kingdom, Heritage was shown which examined environmental and economic Ms Bryan demonstrated the point issues on the islands of Argyll. that the Highlands and Islands Created by the Nadair Trust, it and its environment and land- introduced members of island scape are indistinguishable communities who talked about through some audience participa- the relationship between their tion and a set of background livelihoods, the environment and slides of dramatic landscapes and tourism, which is the mainstay of iconic wildlife. The point was the local economy. These included made that the Highlands and efforts to allow wildlife and Islands are home to some of the

282 Conferences, Workshops, Symposia and Discussion Forums adventure sports to co-exist on In a keenly competitive environ- Tiree. On Colonsay it showed how ment, the Commission is highly man is having to restore the responsive to film-makers’ needs, balance of nature through long- attracting growing numbers of term projects to combat the enquiries, with a high conversion spread of the rhododendron, rate of over 40%. Ms Shorthouse which is threatening to over- said proactive marketing has whelm native species. included “taking a slice of the The scenic value of the land- Highlands to Cannes” by promot- scape with reference to the ing Moray as a location during the economic benefit of film and International Film Festival. television in the Highlands and One of the keys to attracting Islands business, and making the most of Trish Shorthouse, Film Commis- it, is to be film-crew friendly by sioner, Highlands and Islands Film making sure they can enjoy great Commission food, good accommodation and have all their needs catered for at When the French makers of an any time of day or night. As time Asterix movie were looking for is money for film crews, they need somewhere to represent 1st to be up early and back late, and century Gaul they found it in then want to enjoy themselves. Durness. Ms Shorthouse said: “They work Ms Shorthouse said the Highlands hard and play hard and are very and Islands have been highly happy to spend money if there are successful in attracting movie, TV the right facilities.” programme and advertisement She added that there is enormous makers because of fantastic economic potential of film for the scenery and a quality of light Highlands and Islands and which directors adore. Their work outlined a wish list, which demonstrates a clear link between included post-production facili- having a high quality landscape ties, that would enable the region and environment and economic to become a thriving and sustain- benefits. Some examples were able production base. provided including the income of £15million that was generated in the community of Laggan over the seven-year filming period of Monarch of the Glen.

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THEME 6: Culture and Arts: has been decisive in promoting Popular Culture – Broadcasting, and nurturing a cultural resur- Journalism and Publishing gence. in the Highlands and Islands Nonetheless, there are concerns Gaelic and contemporary music for the future. While Mr Living- in the Highlands and Islands ston felt that initiatives like the Chair: Robert Livingston, Director 2007 Year of Highland Culture of HI-Arts Music had achieved a measure of success ,there is a danger that some Introducing the final strand of the people may feel it’s a case of “job day, Mr Livingston said that done” and shift their focus Rockness is now Scotland’s elsewhere. This, he added, could second largest popular music pose a considerable threat to the festival, reflecting the enormous cumulative growth and develop- energy of contemporary culture in ment of the past three decades. the Highlands and Islands. Bands and musicians from the region are Culture now celebrated worldwide, giving Glenys Hughes, Director, St young people in the region a Magnus Festival sense that they are at the heart The St Magnus Festival in Orkney rather than the periphery of the has become a central feature of modern world. island life which attracts an At the same time there has been a audience from around the world. powerful revival in traditional Founded in 1977 by composer Sir Gaelic arts and music, which are Peter Maxwell Davies, it has seen as cool thanks to the Feis burgeoned into a large-scale movement, which provides a non- annual event which features the competitive arena in which very best in local, national and excellence can flourish. There are international talent. It is staged now some 40 Feisean – festivals – largely by volunteers, but aspires around the country. According to to achieve the same standard of Mr Livingston, the vibrancy of administration that visitors would modern and traditional music is expect at, for example, the part of a wider flourishing of the Edinburgh Festival. region’s arts. And while there are According to Ms Hughes, the many reasons for the explosion in benefits of the Festival flow in creative forces, he said that the many directions. Performers from unique coupling of economic and beyond the islands do not simply social remits within the Highlands appear then leave, but frequently and Islands Development Agency work with schools and the – and its predecessor the HIDB – community to pass on their skills

284 Conferences, Workshops, Symposia and Discussion Forums and enthusiasm to others. At the Journalism and Broadcasting same time it is a showcase for The Impact of Regional Print local talent – not least the Festival Media Chorus of 130 residents whose singing has achieved a standard Roger Hutchinson, author and unthinkable a decade ago. West Highland Free Press column- Preparations for the festival are ist now effectively a year-round Regional newspapers at their best business. have been powerful campaigners “Why should so many people put for social and political progress. so much time and effort into Mr Hutchinson argued that they something for no financial reflect the views of proprietors, reward? I think it is because editors and to a lesser extent Orkney is an island community, reporters and columnists rather people are used to being self- than being the voice of the reliant, the festival a big event that community. But at their best they people like to be part of, and endeavour to champion commu- most of all it’s their event,” said nity interests. Ms Hughes. A major event of the The West Highland Free Press has 2008 Festival was inspired by the a proud record of fighting for journey of Norse adventurer, earl causes before they become and saint Rognvald, with a fashionable. It has called for land spectacular array of performances reform, support of the Gaelic featuring Turkish dancers, Viking language and the development of warriors, jugglers, acrobats and renewable energy – as well as other circus-style artists. consistently urging readers to vote The Festival’s advantages are not Labour. These efforts have enjoyed simply cultural, as the festival some success, though the cam- provides economic benefits to paign in favour of plans for a hotels, restaurants and the large-scale Lewis wind farm were island’s many other visitor attrac- firmly rebutted and its voting tions. Ms Hughes added that recommendations completely there are challenges in maintain- ignored. ing the Festival: a new generation Mr Hutchinson expressed fears of volunteers must be found to that the growth of freesheets and take over the role of organising the internet are bringing the the event; and the Festival’s decline of a local journalism which identity needs to be constantly plays a positive role in community refreshed so that it continues to life, and exchanging it for media attract audiences by always that will often try to get away with offering something different from the bare minimum. He argued events found elsewhere. 285 Review of the Session 2007-2008

that the cover price on a paid-for The strength of the language has title acted as the reader’s guaran- always been in the home and the tor. new channel, with 90 minutes of “The fact that sufficient people new programming a day, beams it are prepared to fork out to buy a straight into the living room. Just local newspaper every week as important is that the station is means it has to get its act togeth- cultivating an image that is er in terms of the quality of youthful, vibrant and fun-loving. people it employs to provide its “On the first day it was delightful editorial copy; it isn’t solely to see that most of the presenters dependent on the whims of were young.” advertisers.” “In the past it has often seemed The Potential for Gaelic Broad- to present Gaels in very formalised casting: its Role in Gaelic’s circumstances, like church services. Linguistic and Cultural Revitali- This service will give a better view sation of what Gaeldom is about and Dr Robert Dunbar, Reader in Law people will no longer see it as an and Celtic, The University of old-fashioned and backward Aberdeen, and Board Member of looking language. It will help turn MG ALBA the stereotypes on their heads.” As one of the most powerful Dr Dunbar argued that the service media ever invented by mankind, must be part of a wider strategy to the TV has a vital role to play in create more opportunities to the future of the Gaelic language. speak Gaelic and so to strengthen Dr Dunbar expressed his delight at and broaden its role in society. If the launch of the new seven-hour- this is done he believed the a-day Gaelic digital channel by the decline could be reversed as BBC in collaboration with MG growing numbers of people saw ALBA, though this was tempered learning the language as giving by disappointment that there is them access to a vibrant culture no commitment to its availability and even to career opportunities on Freeview. in the creative industries.

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Doors Open Day 27 September 2008

On 27 September 2008 the about the Society’s history, its Society once again took part in mission and role, and the many Edinburgh’s successful Doors public benefit activities it provides Open Day event, and attracted through its Fellows. more visitors than it could Doors Open Day is a celebration accommodate. of Edinburgh’s architecture and Free guided tours did, however, heritage and has been organised enable almost 300 members of by the Cockburn Association the public to view the building. (Edinburgh’s Civic Trust) since The tours also provided an 1991. opportunity for visitors to learn

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PUBLICATIONS Proceedings A: Mathematics ReSourcE - the RSE’s Newsletter: Six issues were published: Parts Issues 19, 20 and 21. 137.5 & 137.6 (2007) and 138.1, RSE Directory 2008 138.2, 138.3 and 138.4 (2008) RSE Annual Review 2008 Earth and Environmental (April 2007–March 2008). Science Transactions Other Publications: Four issues were published: Avian Influenza: An Assessment of 97.4 (2008, for 2006) – a Special the Threat to Scotland – A Report Issue entitiled Plutons and from the RSE’s Working Party on Batholiths, published in memory Avian Influenza (revised December of the eminent geologist, the late 2007). ISBN: 978 0 902198 50 0 Wallace Pitcher, HonFRSE; The Future of Scotland’s Hills and 98.2 (2007); Islands – Committee Inquiry 98.3/4 (2008, for 2007) – a Report (September 2008). ISBN: Special Issue entitled Brachiopod 978 0 902198 70 8 Reseach into the Third Millenni- The Future of Scotland’s Hills and um, published in honour of the Islands – Committee Inquiry eminent palaeontologist, the late Summary Report (September Sir Alwyn Williams, FRSE. 2008). ISBN: 978 0 902198 75 3

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