Second Fronts FACTORS IN SUCCESS AND FAILURE AND IMPLICATIONS FOR THE FUTURE By P HILLIP S. MEILINGER U.S. Army U.S. bomber hits mark deep in Germany 100 JFQ / issue 70, 3 rd quarter 2013 ndupress.ndu.edu MEILINGER ome argue that the best way to which had an uneasy truce with Athens, Athens saw this as a preventive war confront an enemy is to face him and involve a major war with Syracuse, a to abort the presumed union of Sicily and head on. At times, however, a bel- useful trading partner. The expedition would Sparta against it. But there was little indica- S ligerent realizes that he cannot involve enormous risk but offer little gain. In tion such an alliance would have occurred. strike the enemy directly because he is not a prescient comment, Nicias stated: “I affirm Indeed, it was the expedition itself that drove strong enough, it involves unacceptable risks, . that you leave many enemies behind you Syracuse into the arms of Sparta. or he believes greater gains can be made by here [the Spartans and their Corinthian opening a “second front.” The purpose of allies] to go there far away and bring more Wellington in the Peninsula second front operations may be to strike a back with you.”3 Nicias urged his fellow citi- After the Peace of Tilsit in 1807, blow to enemy strength, gain resources such zens to focus on Sparta, the main threat close Napoleon controlled most of Europe. Britain as oil while denying them to the enemy, split at hand. Alcibiades argued instead that Sicily still held out, and in an effort to break its the enemy alliance by knocking out a weaker would be an easy conquest that would heap economy, Napoleon instituted the Continen- member, assist an ally under attack by divert- glory on Athens while intimidating Sparta. tal System. He ordered Europe not to trade ing the enemy, or influence a third party, Alcibiades was the more persuasive.4 with Britain, hoping this policy would so perhaps deterring that party from entering The invasion was launched in 415 injure the British economy as to force sur- the war. BCE. Nicias, Alcibiades, and Lamachus were render.9 A tiny country on the periphery of Following are four examples of such chosen as joint commanders, and 136 war- Europe, Portugal, refused to obey Napoleon’s second front maneuvers. Two succeeded and ships—carrying 5,100 hoplites but only 30 decree.10 To teach it a lesson, the Emperor two failed. These operations have implica- horses—set sail.5 Soon after landing in Sicily, sent 30,000 men to conquer it, and they took tions for the way America will fight for the Alcibiades was recalled to Athens to stand Lisbon on November 30, 1807. foreseeable future. Our wars are now wars trial on charges of blasphemy.6 Believing he Napoleon then installed his brother of choice, and the motives and constraints would be found guilty, Alcibiades fled to Joseph on the Spanish throne. To his surprise, driving such conflicts are comparable to Sparta and offered his services. the Spanish population rose up against him those of belligerents seeking to open second fronts throughout history. second front maneuvers have implications for the way The Sicilian Expedition During the America will fight for the foreseeable future Peloponnesian War The Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta was in its 16th year when Thucydides argues that had the in May 1808. This resistance movement, one Athens decided to invade Sicily. Its rationale Athenians moved quickly, they would have of the bloodiest and most effective guerrilla for invasion concerned Egesta—a city-state in overcome Syracusan resistance. Instead, they wars in centuries, became a long-term drain western Sicily allied with Athens. It was being dallied, partly because of Alcibiades’s recall on French resources. The “Spanish Ulcer” harried by Selinus, a nearby city, and asked and partly due to the cautiousness of Nicias. lasted for 6 years.11 the Athenian Assembly to send aid while also Things quickly turned sour. Egesta did not The French army sent to pacify Spain warning of Syracuse, the most powerful city- have the promised money. Horses were in initially numbered 120,000 and was led by state on Sicily. Syracuse, the envoys claimed, short supply so the army had little cavalry. proven commanders. In July 1808, however, was bent on dominating the entire island and The Sicilians did not welcome their liberators an army of 18,000 surrendered to the Spanish was friendly toward Sparta. This meant that and instead the Athenian force united Sicily at Bailen. Europe was stunned; it was the Sparta would have access to huge resources as nothing else could have.7 The Syracusans first surrender by a French army in 7 years. in grain, soldiers, and ships, resources that proved tough adversaries, especially after Napoleon was furious: “I realize that I must could be used against Athens.1 Sparta sent one of its generals, Gylippus, to go there myself to get the machine working Such catastrophizing on what might assist them, along with a contingent of Corin- again.”12 By October 1808, he would have occur was hardly a justification for war. thian hoplites. Sparta then invaded Attica, 270,000 men in Iberia. Nonetheless, the Athenians, led by a gifted the area surrounding Athens, and laid it to A British army under Lieutenant scoundrel named Alcibiades, pushed for waste. As Nicias predicted, Athens was fight- General Arthur Wellesley landed in Portugal an invasion of Sicily to defeat Syracuse and ing a two-front war against two formidable in 1809 and built formidable fortifications conquer the island.2 opponents. there. From this sanctuary he repulsed Nicias warned that an expedition made Nicias, the sole commander after the French assaults.13 Wellesley was aided by the little strategic sense. It would anger Sparta, departure of Alcibiades and the death of tenacity of the Spanish army, which struck Lamachus in battle, continued to delay, continually at the French and their supply pleading for either reinforcements or evacu- lines. Indeed, 70 percent of all French casual- Colonel Phillip S. Meilinger, USAF (Ret.), served in ation. The Assembly sent another army but ties sustained during the war were inflicted 14 the U.S. Air Force for 30 years. He holds a Ph.D. in it made little difference. In 413, Gylippus by the Spanish army and guerrillas. history from the University of Michigan. His latest defeated the Athenians, Nicias was butch- Throughout 1810 and 1811, Wellesley (soon book is Bomber: The Formation and Early Years of ered, and at least 7,000 Athenians were cap- to be the Duke of Wellington) coordinated Strategic Air Command (Air University Press, 2012). tured and enslaved. It was a horrendous loss.8 with the Spanish to pressure the French. ndupress.ndu.edu issue 70, 3 rd quarter 2013 / JFQ 101 RECALL | Second Fronts Royal Navy Panoramic view of Dardanelles Fleet, 1915–1916 It was a hard-fought war, but everything would quickly silence the enemy cannon. The was intended to bypass. Five more Allied divi- changed in 1812. strait was also heavily mined. No matter, the sions were sent, to no avail. Admitting defeat, Napoleon invaded Russia that year armada would include minesweepers to clear the Allies evacuated in December 1915. with an army of 500,000. Iberia was then a the way. The battleships would confront Con- Overall, the Gallipoli operation was a sideshow. Wellington invaded Spain and over stantinople and shell it if necessary and then disaster for the Allies. It cost nearly 400,000 the next year won a series of battles, liberat- accept the Ottoman surrender. casualties and gained virtually nothing. The ing Madrid in August. The following year, A fleet was raised consisting of 82 ships Ottoman Empire remained in the war, Russia Wellington crossed through the mountains including 18 battleships.19 On February 19, remained largely cut off from its allies, and and invaded France. By then Napoleon was 1915, warships entered the strait and began the Western Front remained stagnant. fighting for his throne in Germany, a fight he shelling the forts. It was expected the enemy would soon lose. guns, numbering over 230, would be silenced North Africa, Operation Torch, 1942 Napoleon’s foray into Iberia was a huge by naval gunfire within a month. That first When the United States entered the war miscalculation. The French suffered 250,000 day, however, no enemy guns were destroyed against Germany in December 1941, Allied casualties, a high price for a failed effort. At despite a barrage lasting 7 hours.20 Several fortunes were at low ebb. Most of Europe was the same time, the war occupied 200,000 more forays were launched into the straits under Axis control and the Soviet Union was troops annually that France desperately but achieved meager results. Clearly, naval reeling. In the Pacific, Singapore was about needed against Russia, Austria, and Prussia gunfire was insufficient to knock out heavily to fall to the Japanese as were the Philippines in Central Europe. Spain was truly an ulcer defended forts. and Dutch East Indies. The Allies needed that bled the Napoleonic Empire white. On March 18, 1915, the ships went in victories. again but this time they hit mines. Three The American and British combined Gallipoli, 1915 battleships were sunk and three others were chiefs of staff met, confirmed a “Europe First” World War I deteriorated into a blood heavily damaged. A third of the Allies’ capital strategy, and discussed taking the offensive. bath by the end of 1914, and a line of trenches ships were put out of commission in a day.