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181 JANUARY 1981: Volume 58, No. 1 Sforeign ISSN 0015-7279 emee , The Future of Diplomacy— and Diplomats journal CHARLES MAECHLING, JR. 17 Who Should Be an American Ambassador? American Foreign Service Association MARTIN F. HERZ 23 Officers and Members of the Governing Board KENNETH W BLEAKLEY. President Breakout: A Plan for Reforming ANTHEA S. DE ROUVILLE. Vice President FRANK DIMOND, Second Vice President Our Foreign Policy Institutions: GALEN FOX, Secretary Part I RON WITHERELL, Treasurer JONATHAN L. SPERLING, AID Representative WILLIAM CLEVEN VEALE 29 FRED M. SHAVER, ICA Representative MATTHEW P, DALEY, JOSEPH N. MCBRIDE, ROBERT H. STERN, Lessons of the Midcentury State Representatives SPENCER KING AND CHARLES WHITEHOUSE, ELEANOR LANSING DULLES 33 Retired Representatives Foreign Service Wife: A Study in Motion Journal Editorial Board NANCY MATTHEWS 39 JOEL M, WOLDMAN, Chairman H. KENNETH HILL JAMES F O'CONNOR JAMES L. ROUSH Hold on Tight HARRIET P. CULLEY DONALD MACCORQUODALE WESLEY N PEDERSEN DAVID WILSON FRANCIS X. CUNNINGHAM 44 GEORGE S. DRAGNICH Women in the Foreign Service: A Quiet Revolution Staff BARBARA GOOD 47 ROBERT M. BEERS, Executive Director SUSAN HOLIK, General Counsel Diplomacy and War in the SABINE SISK, Members' Interest/Grievance Representative PAT GUILD, Executive Secretary 20th Century: CECIL B. SANNER. Membership and Circulation The Foreign Service Career of Cornelius Van H. Engert AFSA Scholarship Programs JOHN J. HARTER 51 DAWN CUTHELL OTHER FEATURES: Communication re: The Roots of the Foreign Service, page 4; Communication re: For¬ eign Service Species, by Toby Zettler, page 10; Com¬ Journal munication re: Washington Revisited, page 13; A Diplo¬ SHIRLEY R. NEWHALL, Editor mat’s Viewpoint, by Jack Perry, page 14. RICHARD R, LOHMEYER, Editorial Assistant MclVER ART & PUBLICATIONS, INC., Art Direction Editorial 16 Association News 35 Book Essay: The Glorious Attempt, Advertising Representatives by Ralph Stuart Smith 57 Bookshelf 58 JAMES C. SASMOR ASSOCIATES, 521 Fifth Ave., Suite 1700. Letters to the Editor 69 New York, N.Y. 10017 (212) 683-3421 ALBERT D. SHONK CO., 681 Market St., San Francisco, Foreign Service People 70 Calif. 94105 (415) 392-7144 JOSHUA B. POWERS. LTD., 46 Keyes House. Dolphin Sq., London COVER. The First Home of the Department of State, SW1 01-834-8023 9. International Representatives. by Robert Sivard

The FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL is the journal of professionals in foreign annually. Retired Active Members—Dues are $40 annually for members with affairs, published eleven times a year by the American Foreign Service incomes over $30,000: $25 annually for less than $20,000 Associate Mem¬ Association, a non-profit organization. bers—Dues are $25 annually. All dues payments include $6.50 allocation for the Journal and AFSA News, per AFSA Bylaws. Material appearing herein represents the opinions of the writers and is not intended to indicate the official views of the Department of State, the In¬ For subscription to the JOURNAL, one year (11 issues); $7.50; two years, ternational Communication Agency, the Agency for International Development $12.00. For subscriptions going abroad, except Canada, add $1.00 annually or the United States Government as a whole. for overseas postage. While the Editorial Board of the JOURNAL is responsible for its general Microfilm copies of current as well as of back issues of the FOREIGN content, statements concerning the policy and administration of AFSA as SERVICE JOURNAL are available through the University Microfilm Library employee representative under Executive Order 11636 on the editorial page Services, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106 under a contract signed October 30. and in the AFSA News, and all communications relating to these, are the 1967. responsibility of the AFSA Governing Board American Foreign Service Association, 1981. The Foreign Service Journal Membership in the American Foreign Service Association is open to the is published eleven times a year by the American Foreign Service Association, professionals in foreign affairs overseas or in Washington, as well as to per¬ 2101 E Street, N.W.. Washington, D C. 20037. Telephone (202) 338-4045. sons having an active interest in, or close association with foreign affairs. Second-class postage paid at Washington, D.C. and at additional post office. Membership dues are: Active Members—Dues range from $52 to $104 The chief function of the second committee was to keep our ministers in Europe, as the commissioners had be¬ Communication Re: come, informed about events in the United States. But even then diplomats in the field were not satisfied with the THE ROOTS OF correspondence they received. John Jay wrote the commit¬ tee from Spain in 1780, “Till now I have received but one THE FOREIGN SERVICE letter from (the committee), and that not worth a farth¬ ing. . . . One good private correspondent would be worth twenty standing committees, made of the wisest heads in Editor’s Note: This overview of the origin and establishment of America, for the purpose of intelligence.” the Foreign Service and the Department of State was compiled by The great accomplishment of the two committees of the Harriet P. Culley. It leads the way into an issue which combines Continental Congress was the work of the commission in the history of the Foreign Service with present-day concerns. France composed of Dr. Franklin, Mr. Deane, and Mr. Lee. They signed with France treaties of amity and com¬ The roots of the Department of Foreign Affairs go back merce and of alliance on February 6, 1778, which repre¬ to 1775 and the appointment of a “Committee of Secret sented the first public recognition of the independence of Correspondence,” with Benjamin Franklin at its head. The the United States by a foreign power. Continental Congress had responsibility for the foreign af¬ By the end of 1780 it was obvious that the increasing fairs of the colonies and was charged with “sending and re¬ burden of international relations could not be handled by ceiving ambassadors under any character, entering into the committee for foreign affairs and, in January, it sent to treaties and alliances, etc.”* But after 14 months, the Congress a “plan for the department of foreign affairs.” members decided to lighten the burden on themselves and The plan pointed out “that the extent and rising power of passed the following resolution in November 1775: these United States entitle them to place among the great Resolved, that a committee of five be appointed for the pur¬ potentates of Europe” and necessitate “friendly correspond¬ pose of corresponding with our friends in Great Britain, Ireland, ence and connection” and “that to render such an inter¬ and other parts of the world, and that they lay their correspon¬ course advantageous, the necessity of those potentates, is dence before Congress when directed. . . obvious” and can “only be acquired by a constant attention The new committee started corresponding with “our to the state of Europe, and an unremitted application to the friends” in Europe to explore the possibility of a reconcili¬ means of acquiring well-grounded information.” ation with Great Britain. In March 1776, it sent its first The plan stated “that Congress was, moreover, called representative, Silas Deane, to the Court of France, and, upon to maintain with our ministers at foreign courts a soon after, Dr. Franklin and Arthur Lee joined him to make regular correspondence, and to keep them fully informed up a commission to negotiate a treaty with France. In of every circumstance and event which regards the public 1777, other commissioners were sent by the committee to honour, interest and safety” and: Spain, Germany and Prussia, and Tuscany. That to answer these essential purposes, the committee are of In April 1777, the name of the committee was changed opinion, that a fixed and permanent office for the department of to “committee for foreign affairs”: and Thomas Paine was foreign affairs ought forthwith to be established, as a remedy named the first secretary at $70 a month. It would appear against the fluctuation, the delay and indecision to which the that Congress considered him more than just a clerk, and present mode of managing our foreign affairs must be exposed. Paine thought of himself as sort of a “secretary for foreign After the free debate, the Continental Congress passed affairs.” His tenure was short, however; he was dismissed the following resolution, on January 10, 1781: after only 20 months in office, for making an official Resolved: That an office be forthwith established for the matter public. department of foreign affairs, to be kept always in the place where Congress shall reside. That there shall be a secretary for the despatch of business of *Among other actions, they sent "addresses" to the king of England and the said office, to be styled “secretary for foreign affairs.” dispatched agents.to London to seek aid from Englishmen they believed Thus the department was set up outside of Congress, but were "friends to American Liberty." the resolution made perfectly clear that it was directly responsible to Congress and would have very little life on its own. The secretary for a salary of $4,000 a year, was to: • keep and preserve all the books and papers belonging to the department of foreign affairs; • receive and report the applications of all foreigners; • correspond with the minister of the United States at foreign courts, and with the ministers of foreign powers and other persons, for the purpose of obtaining the most extensive and useful information relative to foreign affairs, to be laid before Congress when required: • transmit such communications as Congress shall di¬ rect, to the ministers to these United States and others at foreign courts, and in foreign countries; • attend Congress, that he may be better informed of the affairs of the United States, and have an opportunity of explaining his reports respecting his department; • employ one or, if necessary, more clerks to assist him in his office; 4 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. 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-I • take an oath of fidelity to the United States before the In another letter to Congress, Secretary Livingston de¬ president of Congress, along with his clerks, and an oath scribed the living arrangements of our ministers abroad.* for the faithful execution of their respective trusts. Dr. Franklin had a part of M. Chaumont’s house at Passy, It was planned that the secretary would have a secretary kept a chariot and pair and three or four servants, and gave at $1,000 a year and a clerk at $500, but that was revised, a dinner occasionally “to the Americans and others.” In according to the 1781 Civil List, to two undersecretaries at spite of this Secretary Livingston wrote, “His whole ex¬ $800 and $700 apiece, and a clerk and interpreter-translator pense, as far as I can leant, is very much within his at $500 each. income.” John Adams lived in lodgings, kept a chariot and The first secretary for foreign affairs was Robert R. pair and two men servants, and also had a private secretary. Livingston, chancellor of New York, who took office nine Secretary Livingston added that Adams was about to rent a months later on October 20, 1781. The department’s first house. It appeared that Francis Dana’s salary, even in home (as pictured on our cover) was a small, plain, brick Russia, where the relative value of money was so high that house at 13 South Sixth Street in Philadelphia, 12 feet a house could not be hired for less than 15 guineas a year, across the front and 30 feet deep. It had six rooms and an was ample. The cost of living, taking Philadelphia as a attic and a dark, winding stairway led to the secretary’s standard, was 20 percent cheaper in Paris (if wine, cloth¬ office on the second floor. ing and the wages of servants were included); in Amster¬ Secretary Livingston has been credited with organizing dam, it was 10 percent cheaper than in Philadelphia, and in the department, injecting vigor into its administration and Madrid, somewhat higher, since one had to follow the making the position of secretary respectable. But his was a court from place to place. familiar cry, as he wrote to Congress: “(Two clerks) are All matters of great importance went to Congress for barely sufficient to do the running business of the office, clearance, but the secretary carried on the correspondence which is much greater than I imagined it would be; five with “our friends in Europe” and, in one instance, scolded copies, besides the draft, being necessary of every foreign Dr. Franklin: “I am sorry that you found it necessary to act letter or paper transmitted.” Sometimes, the department with reserve and to conceal your measures from the court sent seven copies to guarantee that at least one would of France. I am fearful that you will not be able to produce arrive, and each packet was marked “To be sunk in case of such facts as will justify this conduct to the world or free us danger from the enemy.” Sometimes agents were used to from the chaige of ingratitude to a friend who has treated us hand carry instructions, which were often in cipher. Mr. not only justly, but generously.” Deane and Mr. Jay often corresponded in invisible ink, Secretary Livingston did not give up his post as chancel- which the recipient treated with acid. Many of the letters were captured without being sunk, and went to the British *As of January I, 1783, the salary of a minister plenipotentiary was not Foreign Office. to exceed $5,000, but an allowance was given for household expenses. Picasso Staved Here. If we wanted to name drop, our insurance department we could boggle your mind. through its Annual Govern¬ Because for decades, Security ment Service Floater. Storage has been Washington’s Decades of this kind of favorite place to store valu¬ efficient, personal service, and ables. And when it comes to a dedication to quality, have FSO valuables, the Govern¬ made Security an FSO moving ment will cover all expenses, and storage expert. And that’s providing special arrangements why anytime you need depend¬ are made in advance with your able service, it’s good to know transportation officer. Security is there. Silver, jewels, stamp and coin collections, and rare books are protected in Security’s vault. Temperature controlled areas are available for ^rruritg jSlurag* (Jompang maximum protection and preservation of furs and off-season wardrobes. And paintings in our Art Room of Utfashingfron MAIN OFFICE: receive the same storage treatment as paintings in 1701 Florida Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20009 (202» 234-5600 one of Washington’s largest museums. MARYLAND: Bethesda-Chevy Chase. Marlow Heights, White Oak In addition, hundreds of your colleagues use VIRGINIA: Alexandria. McLean

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Call toll-free (800) 845-6131 In South Carolina (800) 922-7042, or call your travel agent. Sea Pines. International Telex 804737 AT HILTON HEAD America’s Favorite Vacation Sea Pines is a 5,000-acre island resort with i'k miles of Atlantic beach, 71 tennis courts, 3 championship golf courses, sailing fishing, cycling, and horseback riding. Sea Pines at Hilton Head Island * South Carolina 29928 lor of New York while he was serving at the head of the The social obligations of the secretary were heavy: “At new department, and after 13 months, he indicated his least one ceremonial dinner and one drawing-room” were desire to return to it. He left, finally, in June 1783 and given by the Jays each week, and Mrs. Jay seems to have suggested Thomas Jefferson or John Jay as his replace¬ assisted ably in these affairs. ment. Mr. Jefferson refused, saying that he would not The changeover from government under the Articles of serve even if elected. John Jay was nominated and elected Confederation to government under the Constitution took without his knowledge while he was in Europe, serving as place in the spring of 1789. and President Washington took one of the commissioners negotiating and signing the office on April 30. The Department of Foreign Affairs peace treaties with Great Britain. When Congress moved under the Constitution came into being on July 27, but two from Trenton to New York City in December 1784, Jay months later its name was changed to the one it now bears, agreed to serve and took up his office on December 21. the Department of State. Jefferson was named the first Secretary Jay took over a department which had been secretary of state and this time he agreed to serve. He was without a head for a year and a half and was badly in need commissioned while he was still in France, and Secretary of reorganization, the first of many to come. He abolished Jay continued to occupy the office until March 22, 1790, one of the positions of undersecretary, and added a door¬ when Secretary Jefferson was sworn in. keeper and messenger, a junior clerk, and two more inter¬ In the nine-year period from 1781 to 1789, the Depart¬ preters, for a total of three with specialties in French, ment of Foreign Affairs and its two secretaries for foreign Dutch, and German. He petitioned Congress for a library affairs established the foundation for the Department of of the “best books on diplomatic Subjects," and asked that State which followed it. Both men had given dignity and Dr. Franklin, John Adams, and Thomas Jefferson be respectability to their position and had developed and directed to procure them. He suggested the appointment of administered competent staffs. Secretary Fivingston has a consul and vice consul to Canton, and a commercial agent been credited with organizing the Department and injecting to Fisbon. He worked for naval strength, maritime impor¬ vigor into its operation and Secretary Jay started the careful tance, and enforcement of treaty obligations. He spoke out collection and filing of the department’s papers including on the relationship between the department and the field: official correspondence, and a library of books on foreign “It is proper and common to instruct Ministers on the great affairs. In spite of the time lapse between their service, and Points to be agitated, and to inform them how far they are to the moving of the department six times* in order to be “in insist on some, and how far they may yield on others—But the place where Congress shall reside,” they achieved I am inclined to think it is very seldom thought necessary *From Philadelphia to Nassau Hall in Princeton, then to the Stale House to leave nothing at all to their Discretion,” for where that in Annapolis, the French Arms Tavern in Trenton, the Frounces Tavern ought to be done, “the man ought not to be employed.” and two locations on lower Broadway in New York City.

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ADDRESS notable diplomatic success, working through their distin¬ and motivation of its members. However, in analyzing the guished ministers, Dr. Franklin, John Adams, and Thomas human interactions that affect skills and motivation, the Jefferson. Their greatest accomplishment was the treaty biobureaucratologist doesn’t deal with individuals, classes, with Great Britain ending the war for independence. Al¬ professions, ranks, or formal organizational units. He deals though it was uphill work with Congress retaining all instead with “species,” groups of individuals within the significant powers, the Department of Foreign Affairs came organization (i.e., bureaucratic ecosystem) that share com¬ to have a strong voice in foreign affairs and it left a not mon traits of personality, character, and professional hab¬ unimpressive heritage to pass on to the Department of its. State. A biobureaucratic analysis is especially valid for the Foreign Service. With its relatively long cultural history, restricted entry, and low turnover, the components of the community vary little with time; one is dealing with the same three species over an extended period. The FS is Communication Re: practically unique among bureaucracies and other service organizations in this respect. However, these very qualities, Foreign Service Species and which the sociologist may judge desirable and the FSO find comfortable, encourage—even reward—inadaptability. Why They Have Become Endangered And lack of ability to adapt endangers any species. In a harsh and changing environment like the jungle of official Washington, inadaptability can lead rapidly to TOBY ZETTLER extinction irrespective of the other merits of an endangered species. In the absence of powerful political protection, Of the seemingly endless series of analyses of "What’s this principle of nature holds as rigorously for the wrong with the Service,” it seems odd that no attempt biobureaucratic species as for the biological species. On has been made to apply the principles of “biobureaucra- the road to extinction, the species become progressively tology” to the problem. This relatively new discipline weaker and less able and willing to compete. And. as treats a service organization, such as the Foreign Service, suggested above, the social or service organization of as a community of species within a bureaucratic ecosys¬ tem. It accepts the widely held (at least outside the State Toby Zelller joined the Foreign Service in 1967. after private expe¬ Department) notion that the success of any service oigani- rience in the chemical field. He has served at Tegucigalpa. Milan and zation is directly proportional to the sum total of the skills Guayaquil.

AVAILABLE AGAIN... Tales of the Foreign Service

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10 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. January. 1981 which it is a part is proportionately less successful in reaching its goals. Conversely, other species within the same organization may adapt better and survive the extinc¬ tion of their colleague species and, by migrating to other WE HAVE ecosystems, even the demise of the organization itself. Returning from the general to the specific, how do these FOREIGN biobureaucratic principles apply to the bureaucratic ecosys¬ tem known as the Foreign Service? The Service is made up of three species of FSO which will be described below. The SERVICE . . . FSS species is excluded because its technical skills enable it to adapt to a wide variety of environments. The three FOR THE FSO species, for the reasons cited in the second paragraph above, have many traits in common; only the differences will be described here. The species are listed in order of FOREIGN inadaptability and hence probability of extinction. It should also be noted that the disappearance of any one of them SERVICED implies the end of the Foreign Service as most have known it. 1) The Passive Observer: This species’ most notable E' or 19 years Cavalier Cars has served the characteristic is an absence of career ambition, often * diplomatic community as the Washington accompanied by a lack of initiative and a disinterest in area's only exclusive Volkswagen dealership. the state of the Service. It tends to be studious, even professorial. Its curiosity is so universal that supervisors Cavalier Cars is the Volkswagen dealer closest may have a hard time channeling it to meet organizational to your State Department or Foreign Service goals. On the other hand, it seldom challenges “man¬ Institute Office. And our special diplomatic agement” or “Washington.” Its level of intelligence is service lets us be the dealer closest to your post above average. It abhors deadlines and quick studies but anywhere in the world. excels in detailed analytical and speculative studies. Whether you're looking for Social obligations of the profession are viewed with amusement but tolerance; it enjoys the opportunity to just one car, or an entire observe human nature but often will choose the interest¬ fleet a purchase from Cavalier ing over the important contact. Because it is slow if not Cars links you to a dealer loath to recognize predators, PO seldom arrives at the dedicated to servicing your needs highest levels of the Service. However, in the case where it does, it is almost invariably a poor manager. It is easily worldwide. victimized by incursions; other agencies and species may Cavalier Cars offers a diplomatic purchase not attack it directly because of its rank and reputation, discount and speedy worldwide delivery. For but will appropriate large sections of its territory and your convenience our Service Department is possessions by taking advantage of its inertia, naivete open 7 a.m. to midnight And we ll be happy and abhorrence of power plays. Thus, P.0 is a valuable to arrange service for your new Volkswagen source of analysis and intellectual innovation at lower anywhere you might be stationed. and mid-levels of maturity, but a threat to the survival of its own species and of the Foreign Service community of When in Washingtoa stop in our species when thrust into positions of leadership. PO is convenient Arlington showroom and the most ancient of Foreign Service species and earlier contact our Diplomatic Sales Representative, was included in the group known by the nonscientific David Roden. Or just complete this coupon name generalist. Its most common habitat is the political cone, but it is also found frequently in the economic and and we ll send you details on our special consular cones. diplomatic service. 2) The Ruffled Activist: Aggressive and competent, this species wandered into the Foreign Service ecosystem in CAVALIER CARS INC. relatively recent times and has found it difficult to thrive ■< ■VOLKSWAGEN - Please send me information on the Cavalier Cars Diplomatic Sales Division and how I can use my special discount to purchase a 1981 Volkswagen.

Marne and Title Post Address Country/Area of Vehicle Use Send to: David Roden • Diplomatic Sales Representative Cavalier Cars • 4045 Lee Highway Arlington, Virginia 22207 Winner of award at The Miniature Painters, Sculptors and 703-525-1900 Gravers Society of Washington, D.C., 1980 exhibition. Va Dir • 1542 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January, 1981 in the presence of the overwhelming numbers of the other two species. Instinct for survival makes it alert to the conventions of the community but it tends to evade them and move quickly and decisively when the uncon¬ ventional path is more effective. It therefore flourishes at overseas posts, away from the glare of the Washington sun. It is very task- and result-oriented and thus is easily frustrated in the Foreign Service environment; its call can be described as a loud, vulgar and irritated bray. Nonetheless, this orientation goes hand in hand with ambition and accomplishment, so its rate of promotion is above average. Operational and planning skills over¬ shadow the analytical in this species. When challenged or frustrated by other Foreign Service species, particu¬ larly those in the Washington habitat, its first instinct is to fight. In these encounters, the numerically superior species will frequently bloody the RA but seldom deliver the mortal blow because of the latter’s disproportionately high contribution to the well-being of the community. The RA is effective but not brilliant in social situations, which it invariably considers merely a means to carry out its primary responsibilities. Despite its maverick reputation, certain members of this species rise quickly in the community hierarchy because of their sheer com¬ Clements 8 Co. considers it a petence; once at the top they have been known to privilege to work with you in our alleviate the community’s dysfunctions. However, many field — INSURANCE. others choose to depart for more rewarding bureaucratic ecosystems or to assume the characteristics of the more Whclhcr you arc departing lo a ioicign post, dominant Foreign Service species in order to survive. As reluming lor Uniled Slates assignuicnl, ret iring a result, reliable biobureaucratic observers believe that — we'd like Io hear about il, because GETTING the number of members of the RA species is in decline. TO KNOW YOU icS wlial we’re all about. Remaining members of the species are found primarily in the administrative and consular cone habitats; until Thai is why members ol our sl.aff have traveled lo the recent drastic destruction of E/C cone territory they also frequented that habitat. many foreign posls, and have made il a poinl lo 3) The Naked Opportunist: This most hardy of the sludy local insuring conditions around I he Foreign Service species is notable for its adaptability to world — horn Zaire lo Russia, Cualemala lo rapidly changing environmental circumstances. It for¬ Argentina, and Washinglon, D.C.I ages constantly in search of a more direct path to the higher vantage points within the jungle. Once upon such Write, Cable or Call us about YOUR plans! We a path it can become a superachiever, at least until will understand, because we’ve been there . . . such time that it finds a better path. Unfortunately, it tends to forage independently, and during these forage TDetailed brochure #11/980 available through periods is only a superficial contributor to the commun¬ our Washinglon office, or at many posts.) ity as a whole. Its ambition is almost without limit, so the NO will always gravitate to a place near the power¬ ful in the sun even if the substance is elsewhere. It also ITT US CONSOLIDATE AND SOLVE YOUP actively seeks pseudo-kinship ties in other ecosystems. INSURANCE REQUIREMENTS. This species prefers the Washington or large embassy habitat and is particularly numerous in special assistant and other staff positions. Consequently, this species is more recognizable than the other two. This community d Company exposure can lead to promotion or culling with equal rapidity, depending on the apparent ability of the indi¬ %rW INSURANCE BROKERS vidual, which in turn is judged semi-independently by a “mentor.” A mentor is a high-ranking member of the Suite 900, Commerce Bldg. community with which the NO often assumes a synergis¬ M. JUANITA GUESS 1700 K Street, N.W. tic or even parasitic relationship. It will often follow its Tel.: (202) 872-0060 Washington, D.C. 20006 mentor everywhere and even try to mimic it. This species is socially gregarious but calculating; its drop¬ pings are distinctive for the number of names found there. The NO adapts readily to and can even thrive in Insurance Specialists Lo the American foreign an incompetent or illogical environment (unlike the PO Service — at home and abroad. which ignores it or the RA which fights it). Its survival is therefore almost certain even if the Foreign Service ecosystem as such is wiped out completely by the

12 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. January, 1981 attrition observed in recent times. Meanwhile, its num¬ SHIPPING LOSSES OF ALL KINDS bers are reported to be increasing. 'A Adaptation may yet save all three Foreign Service spe¬ cies from extinction, but, as documented in these species sketches,PET LIABILITY • BY AIR RAIL MARINE PILFERAGE WINDSTORM TRANSIT/WAR RISKS the process will have to be much more rapid than it has been in the past. The world and the Washington milieu have changed in a way uncongenial to a small corps of foreign affairs professionals. The ecosystem frequented by the Foreign Service community has been invaded by specialists in domestic agencies who are conversant with the ever more complex technical subjects which influence foreign relations. Political centralization at the White House, especially the ascendancy of OMB, has progres¬ sively limited the influence, resources and scope of action of Foreign Service species. In biobureaucratic terms, the jungle is more hostile than ever. Only a heroic effort to acknowledge weaknesses and adapt can save the two more endangered Foreign Service species (Passive Observer and Ruffled Activist)', but individual effort will be wasted without support from the community leaders (common name: management). The grisly alternative might be termed “natural selection Your career—or personal life—sometimes dictates out.” that you spend a prolonged period living in foreign lands—at least long enough to establish a home away from home. Do you know that TRAVEL-PAK protects the financial interest in the household and personal possessions traveling with you against a multitude of catastrophes which could occur—on the way—while there (including storage if requested)—and back home again? And TRAVEL-PAK also includes generous Communication Re: liability benefits covering the activities of you and your family members. WASHINGTON REVISITED Complete and mail the coupon below for prompt and Or the War of the Words complete details about TRAVEL-PAK . . or if you're in a hurry feel free to call us!

An important objective of the Journal is to keep all When you return to the Washington area—call Association members in Washington and in the field us—we'll be happy to help you set-up a sound, economical insurance program covering your informed. As the field knows only too well,, communicat¬ home, auto and life. ing with the department is at best difficult and at worst impossible. (A distinguished former member of the histori¬ cal office has brought to our attention a despatch from the travel-pak consul general in Barcelona dated 1828, in which our nineteenth century colleague complained fretfully to the when you’re going to live abroad Honorable the Secretary of State for several pages that he had had no communication of any sort whatsoever from the department since 1816.) REED STENHOUSE me. We are indebted to a senior colleague, FSO R. Van OF WASHINGTON, D.C. Winkle, who has lately returned to a posting in Washing¬ ton after some years in the field for the following insights 1140 CONNECTICUT AVE., NW into the continuing sweepstakes for buzzword of the year WASHINGTON, D.C. 20036 for FY ’81. TELEPHONE: 202-296-6440 Van Winkle reports that when he wandered into various offices around the department in the course of his arduous professional duties in the bureau of resources, intelligence Gentlemen: and personnel (RIP) using such buzzwords current during Tell me all about Travel-Pak. his earlier Washington incarnation as “posture,” “parame¬ ters” and “bottom line,” he sensed at once from the Name furrowed brows and puzzled glances he attracted that some¬ thing had changed in Foggy Bottom. Address We have told Van Winkle and we are glad to report to you that there are three hot contenders for the position of buzzword of FY ’81. Anyone who is really “in” must know City how and when to allow one or more of them to roll casually off the tongue. A word of explanation about each State may be helpful to prevent misuse by the field and conse-

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAI . January. 19SI 13 quent ridicule or ignoring of messages by the department, an occurrence otherwise unthinkable. 1) Sustainable—in the sense of tolerable, or (a) what we A Diplomat’s Viewpoint can get away with, (b) can fund, or (c) will fly. Reminis¬ cent of “let’s run it up the flagpole ...” of FY ’64, but with vigorous, cold-blooded managerial overtones, so pop¬ Steadfastness ular in the computer age. 2) Universe—in the sense of the defined area under JACK PERRY discussion. It may be as small a universe as the number of left-handed, red-headed persons in the smallest bureau. For a professional diplomat, the cardinal need in Ameri¬ Universe replaces parameters, which gave up the ghost can foreign policy is steadfastness. from exhaustion brought on by overwork several years ago; Now I write that bearing in mind that diplomats are paid it is clearly more apt in the space era. Cosmos might have to carry out policy, not make it. And that diplomats, served had it not been forceps delivered in NATO 25 years serving so often abroad, are peculiarly sensitive to the ago (in the form of cosmic clearance) with considerable views and requirements of other nations, ally, adversary, or damage to its future development. uncommitted. The diplomat—“witness to history,” in Chip 3) Triage, occasionally semi-triage—for the Darwinian Bohlen’s phrase—looks beyond domestic origins of foreign selection process which determines the success of ideas, policy trends and surveys what works in foreign policy. In people, programs and practically everything else in the old-fashioned terms, how is the national interest being building known as New State Extension* back in 1959. served. Triage, a very macho high-brow usage, was first identified In the United States, as has often been observed, we in late May being taken out for an airing by S/P, always a were fortunate enough, in inheriting a rich continent, to be fertile breeding group for buzzwords. protected from European Great Power politics, leaving us The Journal will continue to monitor this silent struggle with a false conviction that we could either retire from for chief buzzword of ’81 (FY not CY) and will report to power politics or rise above them. In both world wars, we the field the final outcome at an early date. were able to enter late and still win—a feasibility that seems incredibly remote from the hair-trigger, split-second *Now it's just State. Even Old State is now clumsily termed EOB in this nuclear balance of today. Our post-World War II alliance year of our Lord 1980 and of the independence of the United States of structure, and our constant involvement in global politics America the two hundred and fifth. The English do these things so much better. The New Forest, established by Henry II in the late twelfth in all regions, also seem far away from those irresponsible century, is still known as the New Forest. days before Pearl Harbor.

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Drawing on a lifetime of experience in di¬ Stanley K. Hornbeck, chief of the State De¬ plomacy, Ambassador Beaulac provides a partment’s Division of Far Eastern Affairs, concise introduction to Latin American his¬ was the American diplomat most concerned tory, and a compelling analysis of the con¬ with events in Manchuria. His papers reveal temporary political scene. Concluding that detailed knowledge of Asian politics as well "we have done too much for Latin America as his commitment to an Open Door Policy — in wrong ways," Beaulac urges both in China during this trying time. sides to engage in less confrontation and more cooperation.

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14 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. January. 1981 Yet there is an American approach to foreign policy, as seen by a career diplomat, which derives from our above-the-battle past, and which may also be an anachro¬ “Can we afford a division nism in the world of today. This is the practice of having a between executive and divided and constantly changing foreign policy, with allies and opponents not knowing from one American election to legislative which leaves the next what the new direction will be. This is the the world uncertain of the absence of steadfastness. president’s authority?” Wait, you will say: What you are describing is merely democracy at work in foreign policy. Democracy is messy, and the popular will changes as conditions change in the definers of detente hopefully wished—rise above power world; but that is our system, and no American is willing politics. We are in an adversary situation with the Russians to sacrifice democracy to continuity in policy, even if you around the world, and nothing can take the responsibility dress it up with a fancy name like “steadfastness.” What from us of meeting this challenge. The challenge to diplo¬ you are suggesting is authoritarianism in foreign policy, macy is especially weighty, because the resort to war and we won’t have it. would be the loss of the entire matter. We must reduce In reply, three points. First, there was a degree of unity tensions, but we must meet the Soviet challenge. And we in post-war American policy—a feeling of purpose, a cannot do it alone—successful alliance diplomacy, with continuing direction—which seems lacking today. Many increasingly independent allies, is a condition of success things have of course changed: bipartisanship has lost its overall. hold, the presidency has lost some authority, Congress is Third: From the Vietnam experience we have developed both more powerful and less cohesive, Vietnam has de¬ an adversary attitude to foreign policy which is hurting us, prived us of some instruments of policy we had before, and which we cannot afford. If you look at the other major so on. But the fact remains: in the eyes of the world, we do nations of the world, past or present, you will conclude, I not have the unified, steadfast policy we once had. believe, that successful foreign policies were not conducted Second: The Soviet Union is now a most challenging under adversary conditions, with half a nation tearing adversary. Our superb response to Stalin after World War II down what the other was building up. Differences, de¬ was impressive, but a hugely more powerful USSR de¬ bates, occasional national changes of course, yes; democ¬ mands a hugely more impressive—and steadfast—response racy, yes; but national disunity, no. The highly successful today. We cannot opt out, or go isolationist, or leave it to British foreign policy of the nineteenth century included others (although we must have their help), or—as some (Continued on page 64) 1 T')ipIomacy of ** gilence ‘ ‘De Santis offers a thorough and original analysis of the American diplomats who The American played crucial roles in the formative years of Foreign Service, the Cold War.”—Akira Iriye, Department of History, University of Chicago. the Soviet Union, ‘‘It is fascinating, analytically keen, awesomely thorough in its coverage of sources, and the Cold War; and extremely well- written. ’ ’ —Alexander L. George, Stanford University. 1933-1947 Cloth 280 pages S23-00 Hugh De Santis

University of Chicago Press Chicago 60637

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. January. 1981 15 THE AMERICAN FOREIGN SERVICE—200 YEARS OLD AND LOOKING TOWARD THE FUTURE Over 20,000 men and women registered to take the en¬ professional diplomacy. In the longer run, Global 2000, trance examination December 6 to become Foreign Service describes population and resource pressures which are going officers and Foreign Service Information officers. Two to require ever more skillful pilots to steer us through hundred fifty of them will survive the written, oral, phys¬ troubled international waters. ical and security examination process. The Foreign Ser¬ vice of the United States thereby begins its third century Obstacles to Meeting the Challenge with renewed promise that it will continue to attract the Effective utilization of the people of the Foreign Service very best from a broad range of American society. will require increases in the resources our nation devotes to this vital component of its national security. The Who are the People of the Foreign Service? number of career professionals dealing with the core The latest top 1% selected from among America’s most requirements of modem diplomacy is grossly inadequate to highly educated population will join 11,000 of their col¬ the task. There has been a dangerous decline in the leagues in a common profession whose basis is willingness quantity of officers doing economic and political report¬ to serve our nation anywhere in the world whenever they are ing and analysis abroad. Staffing has not begun to keep called. The members of the Service who share this com¬ pace with the expanding requirements for protecting mitment include secretaries and communications specialists, American citizens abroad and administering US immigra¬ economic development officers and couriers, commercial tion law. Training in the sophisticated skills required in and agricultural experts, security officers, and consular and today’s complex world has been static despite congres¬ administrative specialists. They include increasing numbers sional admonitions to get on with the task. Utilization of of women and minorities who are being selected through modem computer and communications technology has renewed emphasis on the regular examination procedures. fallen as much as 20 years behind the state of the art as They represent not just the Department of State but also the modernization projects are deferred year after year. Our Agency for International Development, Foreign Commercial ambassadors’ vital links to their homelands are severed Service, United States International Communication Agency by the lack of travel funds while other professionals are and the Foreign Agricultural Service. They are the heroic frozen in Washington, not able to be deployed where their hostages in Iran and the core staff at US missions facing skills are most needed. Meanwhile, allowances authorized danger in Central America, Africa and the Middle East, as by Congress to compensate in part for the difficulties of well as hardships, family disruption and health hazards world-wide availability and to make the most difficult throughout the world. posts more attractive remain unfunded. The lowest paid They are the officers receiving the annual awards from the foreign service employees and the most senior continue to American Foreign Service Association in recognition of receive totally inadequate incentives to dedicated interna¬ extraordinary accomplishments—Trusten Frank Crigler for tional service. No wonder that, when surveyed by the his outstanding performance as deputy chief of mission American Foreign Service Association in mid-1980, 48% while Ambassador Diego Ascencio was held Hostage in of the Service indicated that they were seriously consider¬ Colombia; Ray Caldwell for his development of extensive ing leaving it. For the US government to attract its political contacts for the American embassy in Spain; brightest citizens to service and then fail to retain them Geraldeen Chester for her role in the negotiation and imple¬ through lack of professional and material incentives is to mentation of the Panama Canal Treaty. squander a national resource. Their numbers are small—not having grown at all during A New Foreign Service Act the last thirty years when the rest of the federal bureaucracy and a New Administration and our international commitments were burgeoning. Their rigorous selection, extensive training and worldwide experi¬ Fortunately steps are underway to reverse this trend. ence constitute a national resource which is essential if the Recognition of the problem began under Secretary US is to retain its world leadership role for the remainder of Kissinger. Secretary Vance and Under Secretary Read this century and into the next. moved boldly to rectify many of the defects of the Foreign Service personnel structure in proposing a new Need for an Effective Foreign Service Foreign Service Act. Secretary Muskie, with strong sup¬ Implementing the national consensus to strengthen our port from Senators Pell and Percy, and Representatives national security begins with the Foreign Service—our first Fascell, Schroeder, Leach and Buchanan, and from the line of defense. The Service advises the president and the Foreign Service Association, saw it through to successful secretary about where and how our national power can be conclusion. Responsibility for implementing the new leg¬ applied to advance national interests and provides the bulk islation, effective February 15, 1981, will fall to the new of the information which, along with covert intelligence, administration and to the ongoing efforts of the Service provides our national leader with advance or current knowl¬ itself. edge about threats to national security. It also enhances our Hopefully, the Carter administration will exit providing national security indirectly by, for example, providing for¬ a strong institutional base for the conduct of our interna¬ eign governments and people with information to encourage tional relations by including in the budget which it is their support of US policy or by assuring that scarce US about to present to Congress adequate funds for the tasks bilateral economic assistance is used in ways which will best ahead. The Office of Management and Budget’s recent satisfy basic human needs, thereby diffusing potential con¬ record with regard to foreign affairs, however, is a dismal flicts with the world’s have-nots. one. The first task of the new administration could well Never has the need for an effective Foreign Service been be that of rescuing its foreign affairs apparatus from greater. Explosive situations in Poland. Iraq-lran, and El being crippled at the hands of the overeager budgeteers of Salvador are current examples of the need for skilled and the outgoing administration.

16 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. January. I9SI ences between sovereigns. He says “As in other walks of life, and as in other professions, nothing about other aspects of dip¬ a man is ultimately judged, not by his brilliance, but lomatic representation—military, by his rectitude."—Harold Nicolson commercial, public information. The reporting function is taken for grant¬ ed. Nicolson saw the primary threat to traditional diplomacy as originat¬ ing not so much from the break-up of colonial empires or dramatic ad¬ vances in transportation and commu¬ THE FUTURE OF nication, disruptive as these were to the civilized tenor and measured pace of diplomatic intercourse, as from the rise of popular democracy DIPLOMACY and the application to the conduct of external affairs of the “ideas and practices which in the conduct of internal affairs, had for generations AND been regarded as the essentials of liberal democracy.” In brief, like his later American counterpart, George Kennan, Nicolson bewailed the in¬ DIPLOMATS trusion of domestic factors into the conduct of foreign relations. Today, Nicolson’s historical per¬ spective seems almost ludicrously culture-bound and his standards of CHARLES MAECHLING, JR. international behavior unbelievably artificial. (Can the term “responsi¬ bility” be seriously applied to the Diplomacy stands at a crossroads his Chichele Lectures at Oxford in three partitions of Poland? to the in the turbulent ’80s and with it 1953, which called for a return to rape of the Danish duchies by Prus¬ the future of the career service. No the traditional methods of the old sia? to the repeated invasions of Italy one questions the need for a corps of diplomacy, which he defined as the by France? to the suppression of the trained foreign service professionals “conduct of relations between civi¬ Hungarian rising by Russia?) Pro¬ to represent the nation overseas, or lized states.” With impeccable liter¬ foundly disturbed by the impact of the role of the State Department as ary grace—and remarkable selecti¬ messianic Wilsonian idealism on the the formal vehicle for conducting vity of historical example—he traced peace negotiations of 1919, and the foreign relations, but in practice the the evolution of the diplomatic meth¬ rejection of the Versailles treaty by department’s leadership role in for¬ od from its origins in the Greek city the Senate, Nicolson viewed the dip¬ eign affairs within the government is states, through Byzantium, Venice lomatic method as one of the last increasingly subject to challenge. and' 18th century France, to its entrenchments of civilization—an Not only has there been a shift in apotheosis in Edwardian Europe. He extension of the upper-class norms bureaucratic power from the State concluded his analysis by scathingly of Edwardian Europe, whose strati¬ Department to the National Security enumerating the anarchical and bar¬ fied class distinctions and traditions Council, but in many eyes the de¬ baric forces that were threatening to of civility he unconsciously extrapo¬ partment is viewed as merely a destroy it. lated to the international arena. In bureaucratic mechanism to formalize In Nicolson’s idealized picture the order to nail down the indispensabil¬ policies and implement decisions ar¬ old diplomacy, grounded in the Eu¬ ity of his class and educational tradi¬ rived at through other channels. ropean system of nation-states, was tion to diplomacy, he rather artfully Fifty years ago, in the aftermath the outgrowth of a natural hierarchy narrowed the definition of the dip¬ of the world war that shattered the of power, in which larger, states as¬ lomatic function to exclude such old order in Europe, Sir Harold sumed responsibility for the conduct difficult and inconvenient areas as Nicolson sought to identify the rea¬ of smaller states, and diplomatic in¬ the economics and technology that sons for the inability of diplomacy tercourse was entrusted to a corps of had already transformed European to solve the pressing problems of the professionals who insured that rela¬ society and were rapidly revolution¬ post-war era. He set down his an¬ tions were conducted according to izing warfare. swer in a small book entitled Di¬ principles of “courtesy, confidence Dismayed by the League of Na¬ plomacy, subsequently up-dated in and discretion.” Nicolson seems to tions—and even more by the United equate the diplomatic method almost Nations—Nicolson regarded their exclusively with negotiation, though proceedings not as part of the “nego¬ not in the operational sense we think tiating” (i.e., diplomatic) process but of today; he saw it as a continuous, as “exercises in forensic propagan¬ Charles Maechling, Jr., an international lawyer, vwu on the 7th floor of the Depart¬ confidential and discreet process of da.” Appalled by the “diplomacy by ment of State 1961-1967. adjusting relationships and differ¬ insult or diplomacy by loudspeaker” FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. January. 1981 17 which first made an appearance in tion media—ranging from scholarly societies for fuel and raw materials the era of the fascist dictators, he and technical journals at one end of has made national self-sufficiency a equally rejected the intrusions of the spectrum to radio and television thing of the past.The economies of popularly-elected politicians, especial¬ at the other—has created so many advanced industrial societies like the ly American ones. information outlets that no signifi¬ United States, Japan and Western Nicolson’s analysis (if it can be cant development can be kept in Europe have become vulnerable. But flattered by such an appellation) is isolation and analyzed for long. dependence on foreign energy sources useful today for its advocacy of cer¬ In addition, the breadth of media is only one aspect of the interde¬ tain timeless virtues in the conduct coverage now dwarfs official cover¬ pendence of advanced industrial so¬ of relations between states—reli¬ age to the point of making the latter cieties on each other and the Third ability, truthfulness, discretion, firm¬ hopelessly narrow, no matter how World. For nearly all countries, ex¬ ness, and consistency. Where his much deeper its penetration. Mass ports provide the foreign exchange analysis failed fifty years ago—and communication also unleashes gov¬ to pay for food, fuel and other im¬ where similar attempts fail today—is ernmental propaganda, directed at a ports on which the standard of liv¬ in its incomplete comprehension of nation’s own citizens, neighboring ing, and in a few cases like Britain the underlying idiom of history and countries, and the rest of the world, and Japan, the physical survival of human development, of which rela¬ on an unparalleled scale. Air trans¬ the population, depends. Economic tions between governments and mo¬ portation has compressed the time self-sufficiency is almost everywhere dalities of international intercourse frame of international intercourse an idle dream, except at the price of can only be a reflection. Today the and made isolation of criminal activ¬ return to a subsistence economy and forces destructive of the old diplo¬ ities inside national boundaries im¬ a medieval way of life. Environ¬ macy that were operative in the ’20s possible. mental effects are also global in and ’30s have been intensified and 2) Extension of the Role of Govern¬ character, inextricably linked in such multiplied many times over. A return ment matters as toxic discharges and oil to the past is impossible. In every nation today, whether so¬ spills to the economic life of indus¬ The crisis confronting diplomacy cialist or nominally free, the role of trial societies. Moreover, multi-level in the 1980s can only be understood government in regulating the social relationships between nations now as part of the much larger crisis and economic welfare of its citizens continue through periods of extreme confronting the nation-state. Despite has projected the state into every political hostility and even war. all the frenzied manifestations of na¬ level of commercial and financial 5) Egalitarianism—Mass Education tionalism and the proliferation of life. In the United States, a govern¬ A rising level of general education new nations, the basic reality to the mental interest is present in a whole and social equality has become both latter part of the 20th century is that range of transactions untouched by a precondition and inevitable conse¬ “One World” is rapidly becoming a government thirty years ago. This quence of technological progress and fact. The steady and inexorable has generated corresponding pres¬ economic development. As mass shrinkage of the planet to the di¬ sures on government from the busi¬ education takes hold there is no way mensions of a global village, com¬ ness, labor and societal sectors af¬ of containing popular participation bined with quantum leaps in the fected. Government has everywhere in the governing process, however advance of technology and the so¬ extended its control over society and crude or indirect. There is no longer cial and economic development of the person to the point where even any way of containing ideas—and hitherto backward regions is daily in free societies the citizen has little ideologies. Even the most repressive making the nation-state more obso¬ redress except at election time. The governments pay involuntary tribute lete at every level of international effect on foreign relations is to ex¬ to popular sentiment by feeling the intercourse. As this process acceler¬ pand government’s constitutional need to justify their policies. Egali¬ ates, the traditional modalities and mandate to intervene in transactions tarianism is replacing stratification instrumentalities have become too and activities extending overseas. by class whether or not accompa¬ narrow and stereotyped to accom¬ 3) Advanced Technology nied by political freedoms. modate the traffic. The transformation of warfare ^y sci¬ 6) Acceleration of Change At the risk of belaboring the ob¬ ence and technology has not only Every nation, whether advanced or vious, here are some of the factors created a “balance of terror” in nu¬ less developed, now stands on a that are rapidly changing the shape clear armaments, but made the tech¬ moving walkway from which it falls of diplomacy: nology factor a crucial element in off at its peril. Economic develop¬ 1) Tmilitaryhe Revolution readiness in andCommunica¬ comparative ment is the name of the game in the tions and Transportation military strength. It is also trans¬ Third World, and technological pro¬ This is not merely a question of the forming industry all over the world, gress in the advanced industrial extension overseas of the long arm on the one hand increasing produc¬ countries. Together with mass edu¬ of the executive branch, thereby re¬ tivity, on the other increasing energy cation they stimulate societal change ducing the importance of ambassa¬ consumption and vulnerability to and fuel rising expectations. Con¬ dors and diplomatic missions. Of far economic and military disruption. stant political and economic adjust¬ greater impact are the multi-level The march of technology introduces ment becomes necessary to make channels of communications and an element of perpetual change into society work, introducing a compo¬ transportation that now bind socie¬ society, strongly accentuating the in¬ nent of instability into foreign re¬ ties together, and saturate them with terdependence factor, discussed be¬ lations, as well. information on every facet of politi¬ low. The convergence of these factors cal, economic and social life. The 4) Global Interdependence produces effects that make obsolete proliferation of news and informa- The voracity of advanced industrial the conduct of foreign relations as a 18 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. January. 1981 distinct and separate field of politi¬ interest pleading into the policy¬ office, under only the loosest of cal activity. Internal and external af¬ making process is of course given supervision by the State Department, fairs are now inextricably mixed up. full exposure by the press and mass which has neither the personnel nor Overseas developments frequently media, thereby reinforcing pressure the expertise to assert effective dictate popular responses at variance on members of Congress who might control. with. foreign policy goals or com¬ otherwise feel free to exercise inde¬ One little-noticed example of mitments; these translate into inter¬ pendent judgment. agency independence took place in nal political imperatives that cannot A second consequence has been 1975 when Secretary Kissinger was help but interfere with the steady the proliferation of non-governmental engaged in a delicate bit of carrot- pursuit of foreign policy goals. links between countries. Every re¬ and-stick trading with the Soviets. The points of impact where over¬ gion and especially the advanced in¬ Without informing State, the chair¬ seas developments strike the domes¬ dustrial areas, is now interconnected man of the US Maritime Commis¬ tic economy and social structure have with a complex network of econom¬ sion negotiated an agreement with now multiplied to the point where it ic, communications and societal ties the Soviet government establishing has become virtually impossible for no longer susceptible of containment reciprocal access to a limited num¬ an administration to consistently pur¬ within established channels of gov¬ ber of ports in each-country for US sue foreign policy goals without being ernment. The transactions of the in¬ and Soviet-flag vessels. Kissinger subject to pressure from special in¬ ternational banking community in was infuriated but had to back down— terest groups, usually applied through any given week now totally swamp the Maritime Commission is cov¬ Congress. the capacity of the leading industrial ered by a statutory mandate unlimit¬ nations to trace them, let alone con¬ ed in scope, its chairman is not part trol them. Technology flow proceeds of the executive branch. “The Departments of at so many levels, and by so many A side effect of the multiplication different routes, that the export con¬ of financial and eonomic relation¬ Justice and Treasury trol system can only hope to cover ships and the corresponding spread regularly conduct bus¬ major categories of military equip¬ of governmental regulation has been iness with counterpart ment and then imperfectly. the introduction of law and legal To the extent that states extend approaches into areas of foreign re¬ ministries overseas their regulatory coverage to a given lations hitherto the province of tradi¬ without going through field of activity, that coverage now tional diplomacy. Contributing has automatically spills over into foreign been the breakdown of European he¬ diplomatic channels.” territory, creating conflicts of juris¬ gemony and the challenge to the diction and ripple effects on foreign consensual methods of the old di¬ There is, of course, nothing new relations. The US government now as¬ plomacy posed in international fo¬ in the role that special interest pres¬ serts the right to regulate any over¬ rums by the socialist bloc and the sures play in the formation of for¬ seas economic activity, including more radical regimes of the Third eign policy—witness the effects of stock and commodity trading that has World. As a result, the American tariff policy and racial discrimina¬ a substantial effect within the United style of international agreement, tion on US relations with Japan dur¬ States. The statutory mandate of US based on a contractual model that ing the ’20s; of the China lobby'on regulatory agencies to enforce the an¬ aims at covering every conceivable US relations in East Asia during the ti-trust laws and curtail unfair trade contingency, is gradually replacing ’50s. What is different today is the practices has led them to police trans¬ the traditional European-style treaty degree to which the breakdown of a actions in the stream of US foreign or agreement, which tends to be native American ethos has lowered commerce that not only fall within tersely worded and aimed primarily resistance to ethnic, racial and special the jurisdictions of foreign govern¬ at defining the intent of the parties. interest particularity. This trend has ments but are regarded as perfectly Moreover, the multilevel nature of been so encouraged by governmental legal by those governments. international relationships has entan¬ demagoguery that decision-making, Some agencies of government, gled virtually every act of state in a both in the domestic and foreign hitherto regarded as exclusively do¬ thicket of legal complexity—witness fields, is in danger of being para¬ mestic in character, now conduct the recent inability of the US gov¬ lyzed by pressures at best irrelevant their own specialized forms of for¬ ernment to take prompt action in and at worst actually inimical to the eign relations, using State Depart¬ freeing Iranian government assets national interest. In the last four ment channels for communications and pursuing the ill-gotten wealth of years alone, the influence of the purposes only. The Departments of the shah. Greek lobby on arms sales to Tur¬ Justice and Treasury regularly con¬ The UN law-of-the-sea treaty, now key; of the Jewish lobby on West duct business with counterpart min¬ nearing completion, is perhaps the Bank settlement; of the farm lobby istries overseas without going through classic example of legalism in inter¬ on the grain embargo against the diplomatic channels, and frequently national relations run wild. With over Soviet Union; of the black lobby on make assertions of US jurisdiction 400 articles, and four separate judi¬ relations with South Africa; and of that are regarded by foreign govern¬ cial or quasi-judicial routes to dispute the steel and automobile industries ments as trespasses on sovereignty. settlement, the perceived need to re¬ on competing Japanese imports, has Base rights and status-of-forces fine the agreement even further will each been allowed total latitude of agreements are negotiated by the De¬ result in a body of rules and regula¬ influence, without regard to counter¬ fense Department, and scientific tions that will take another two years vailing strategic or political consid¬ agreements by the National Science of arduous negotiation and drafting erations. This intrusion of special Foundation and White House science after effective approval of the main FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January, 1981 19 instrument of regulation. assistance, and travel opportunities over in their baggage, has severely Within the United States the com¬ on a scale impossible for business damaged the American reputation for plexity of the subject matter of di¬ and professional men in other fields pragmatism, candor and moral prin¬ plomacy has opened the way to for¬ to match. Battening on government ciple. Their public pronouncements mation of a new foreign policy elite or industry grants, they have the mo¬ sometimes betray a shocking igno¬ of full-time specialists in defense and bility to shuttle from outside consul¬ rance of the Constitution and separa¬ foreign affairs matters, centered in tancies to inside policy jobs in a way tion of powers. Their personal traits, foundations, universities and think denied to professionals locked into ranging from paranoia and devious¬ tanks. Special interest pressures ex¬ corporations and law firms by busi¬ ness to loose-lipped braggadocio, erted through Congress and other ness commitments, retirement plans have repeatedly poisoned the climate public channels by business, labor or and shareholdings. Their continued of confidence so essential to a healthy farm groups at least reflect legiti¬ access to colleagues in power is relationship between colleagues and mate economic and societal interests assured by the community’s opera¬ allies. As a result, honest reporting that in any event would have to find tion as both personnel recruiting and the frank interchange of con¬ expression through the political pro¬ ground and source of future em¬ flicting viewpoints have been made cess. Their objectives are tangible ployment. extremely hazardous for senior offi¬ and their methods plainly visible. cials with careers at stake. Much more elusive are the goals and These strands come together in the methods of the new elite, which has “In the US, these choices phenomenal growth of the NSC, replaced the traditional establishment have been sharpened by headed by the president’s national of bankers, politicians and lawyers. the emergence of the security adviser, at the expense of the Its members employ words and ideas secretary and Department of State. as weapons, gauge success and failure new intellectual elite, The interrelationship between foreign by the influence they exert over the ready and eager to fill and domestic affairs, often invoked political leadership, and camouflage by apologists to justify this trend, a remorseless quest for power and any vacuums created by is not the determinative factor—that riches under a protective mantle of the incapacity of the connection is divisible by the very selfless scholarship. nature of government and, until re¬ The creation of an outside com¬ career services.” cently, was never permitted to di¬ munity of academic specialists cap¬ minish the supremacy of the secre¬ able of infiltrating the buraucracy The ascent to power of this new tary in his own sphere. The intract¬ and imposing its ideas on experienced elite has a conspiratorial side inimi¬ able new development is the en¬ military and civilian leaders is unique cal to good government. The financ¬ croachment of powerful departments to the United States. Orginally con¬ ing of some of its leaders has been and agencies with legitimate interests fined to areas of science, technology concealed from public view and is and independent statutory missions and advanced engineering, where ex¬ on a scale that leaves them in some in the foreign affairs field that give pert advice could only be obtained degree captive to the policy biases them a degree of operational auton¬ from outside the government, the of their patrons. The links between omy impossible for the department thirst for ostensibly objective scien¬ Kissinger, the Rockefeller interests to control. The need for a coordi¬ tific opinion has now spread to areas and the late shah certainly distorted nating mechanism to weigh the di¬ of foreign relations formerly reserved US policy toward Iran. The Trilateral verse interests and present balanced to the diplomatic practitioners. No Commission, while certainly not a policy options to the president is other country would permit the ca¬ conspiracy in the crude sense por¬ obvious. Repeated efforts to endow reer ranks of its government to be trayed by the right-wing fringe, was the secretary of state with enough infiltrated by theoreticians with free nevertheless converted into an in¬ authority to exercise a coordinating license to impose their ideas on for¬ strumentality advancing the political role have run into a wall of depart¬ eign policy and no accountability for fortunes of Governor Jimmy Carter at mental and congressional resistance. the success or failure of their advice an early stage of his presidential can¬ The rise of the NSC has been the except to the politician who for a didacy—with the predictable result inevitable result. brief period gives them employment. that after Carter was elected to of¬ What do these lessons portend for Unlike the old establishment, with fice key national security jobs were the future? Can diplomacy survive deep roots in society and no person¬ given to the commission’s director¬ the welter of conflicting forces that al advantage to be gained from pub¬ ate, headed by Zbigniew Brzezinski, threaten to swamp it? Will the ca¬ lic service other than enhanced who in effect dictated his options reer services disintegrate into an ag¬ standing in the community, the new in accordance with their own predi¬ gregation of specialists bound to¬ elite is dominated by ambitious in¬ lections and those of their sponsors. gether at the top by the small minor¬ tellectuals whose entire life is The creative talents of the more ity of managerial generalists who have wrapped up in their professional gifted members of the new elite managed to rise above the specialties achievements, and whose ambitions— should not blind the public to the that gave them a head start in the social and financial, as well as fact that they have imported values first place? academic—depend on the influence into government that are alien to the Before getting down to specifics, they can exert on the decision¬ American tradition in both the figu¬ an analogy to the British legal sys¬ making process. Secure in tenured rative and literal sense. Their addic¬ tem may be in order. Just as the positions, with no obligation to ac¬ tion to grand designs and resound¬ career diplomatic service of every tually educate, its more influential ing formulations, coupled with Old nation seeks to maintain a monopoly members are given facilities, research World affinities and hatreds brought on the conduct of foreign relations

20 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January, 1981 with other governments, so has the up to speed for the ’80s. Institute should be drastically up¬ elite corps of barristers sought to graded, both in the demands made Specialization, Graduate Education: remain the exclusive channel for liti¬ on students and the quality of cur¬ gating disputes between private par¬ Broader and more intensive lan¬ riculum and faculty. If there is no ties in the British courts. That sys¬ guage training, especially in “hard” other way to infuse it with academic tem is now in a continual state of languages, should be made a pre¬ rigor it should be moved under the crisis. As the subject matter of requisite not only for advancement wing of one of the local universities. commercial and financial disputes but for senior posts in the field. If The director should be a respected has grown in size and complexity, training cannot be completed before academic, not a tired, hard-shell bu¬ the necessity of prosecuting a claim arrival at a post, it should be contin¬ reaucrat waiting for retirement. Of¬ in the courts through an intermedi¬ ued thereafter until an acceptable ficers should not be assigned to the ary totally unversed in the technical level of proficiency is attained. It is institute as a way-station or rest-cure intricacies of the subject matter has disgraceful and ridiculous that at the but should apply on the basis of confronted the system with a dilem¬ time of the takeover of the US em¬ their intellectual capabilities and ca¬ ma. Either the issues must be broad¬ bassy in Tehran there were only a pacity to do advanced research and ened to allow a wide range of eco¬ few qualified Farsi-speakers in a writing of a standard up to publica¬ nomic and sociological data to be mission with over twenty substantive tion in scholarly journals. The State introduced as evidence, or the issues officers. Language proficiency should Department should exert unremitting must be narrowed and refined until also be made a precondition for pressure on the Defense Department they turn on a few critical questions promotion to become effective—i.e., to reform the National War College of law and fact capable of being without changing actual promotion in the same way. addressed by a classically-trained standards or procedures, no officer To the objection that ambassa¬ barrister and adjudicated by a class¬ should be confirmed in his higher dors and senior level career officers ically-trained judge (there are no ju¬ grade until he passes tests in his should be judged by other than aca¬ ries in British civil cases). The language specialties at the same level demic standards, the answer is that United States has taken the former of proficiency as before. advanced professional education is by route—the only feasible way of ren¬ Second, the department should definition academic. It should be of dering justice in anti-trust cases and broaden its personnel base by selec¬ as high a quality as can reasonably regulatory proceedings.The British tively recruiting at slightly higher be obtained in a government setting, have taken the other route, squeez¬ grades people with advanced degrees and officers unable to meet these ing out substance until they reach an in law, business administration, en¬ standards should be advised not to authentic legal question at the core. gineering and the sciences—rather apply; there will always be other The price, however, has been judi¬ like the navy system of recruiting routes to the top. cial restraint that amounts to retreat doctors, civil engineers and lawyers. A Broader Definition of the from the burning social and econom¬ These specialists would be primarily Diplomatic Calling: ic issues of British life. assigned to bureaus like ACDA, OES Diplomacy faces a similar predic¬ and economic affairs, or to overseas If the State Department wants to as¬ ament. Unless its institutions and posts like the international energy sume primacy over the full range of practitioners can master the complex and atomic agencies and NATO, official relationships binding the transactions making up the network until they gradually become integrat¬ United States to other nations, its of transnational relationships, they ed into mainstream economic and personnel will need to concentrate on cannot hope to deal with the dis¬ political work. To the objection that non-governmental levels of host putes that these transactions gener¬ such specialties are really applicable country societies to a greater extent ate. Once again, the options are to only a few advisory positions than has hitherto been regarded as contraction to preserve institutional at middle level, the answer is that part of the diplomatic function. It integrity versus diversification to the insights that specialists bring to would be a mistake to interpret this achieve broader horizons. In the complex matters will be useful to as a call for greater contact with the United States these choices have the department at every stage of their political opposition or dissident been sharpened by the emergence of careers. groups, important though this may the new foreign policy elite, ready Third, the department should in be in special situations. Of much and eager to fill any vacuums created time develop graduate training pro¬ greater long range benefit—especial¬ by the incapacity of the career ser¬ grams right through the Ph.D. de¬ ly for a civil servant looking down vices. gree. Assignments to universities from his secure perch of diplomatic The nation’s political leadership should be made as a matter of rou¬ privilege and economic security—is desperately needs credible answers tine in exactly the sahie proportion to develop sympathetic understand¬ to the complex problems that crowd for the civilian career services as the ing of the societal forces at work in in upon it from overseas. It cannot ratio of advanced degree candidates the host country and the motivations be expected to limit itself to the thin bears to serving officers in the of its citizens. This can only be gruel served up by the bureaucracy military—and justified to Congress done by broadening the personal when richer fare is constantly being (if the question arises) on the same contacts of mission personnel to in¬ offered up by the academic commu¬ basis. Apart from the obvious bene¬ clude youth, labor, intellectual and nity. What follows are a few of the fits to both the department and the clerical circles at one end of the ingredients, not necessarily in order officers concerned, this program spectrum, and private financial, bus¬ of priority, that might be incorporat¬ would help build up links with the iness and celebrity circles at the ed into a crash diet to bring US foreign policy community. other. Investment patterns and cur¬ diplomacy—and its practitioners— Beyond this, the Foreign Service rency transactions are especially

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. January, 1981 21 important—when local industrialists Operational Links with other De¬ ting—aimed at insuring that depart¬ start to liquidate their domestic hold¬ partments: mental responsibilities in the rest of ings in favor of Texas pipeline At the Washington end, two inno¬ the government are exercised with stocks, and generals’ mistresses start vations are needed: due regard for the more sensitive as¬ to gossip contemptuously about the There should be a concerted effort pects of US foreign policy. dictator’s wife, it may be a hint that to generate legislation and presiden¬ the mandate of heaven is about to be tial directives giving the department Operating in a Goldfish Bowl: withdrawn. primacy in policy-making and leader¬ Sooner or later the department is There is scarcely a society in the ship in policy-implementation. going to have to tighten its rules on world where indicators of impending In addition, the department needs public disclosure or risk having its change are not visible in every comer to inject itself operationally into hand forced at every turn of the —provided an embassy officer other official channels of US foreign diplomatic wheel. Foreign govern¬ speaks the local language, keeps relations in order to obtain a grasp of ments have now become quite expert himself open to unofficial contacts, the total picture. The assignment of at manipulating the media; and the and spends some of his time with in¬ Foreign Service officers on detail to media are now locked into a compet¬ telligent citizens instead of his bu¬ other departments and agencies has itive cycle that makes them willing reaucratic counterparts. Indeed, the collaborators. Absent official author¬ danger for an American diplomat ization, the standard reply of the lies more in being embarrassed by a “Statements on the working level to all requests for in¬ profusion of sycophantic or self- public record, no matter formation from the press should be seeking “friends,” pathetically “no comment,” and referral of the pouring out every shred of rumor or how opague or questioner to the department’s hearsay that will enhance their im¬ misleading, provide the spokesman. The “anonymous official portance, than in finding no one to only firm basis from source” label should be especially talk to. avoided: it has been thoroughly Another weakness that needs to be which to derive the abused by the press in the form of corrected is the narrow and formal¬ intentions of other unverifiable inventions. istic view of their functions taken by Even the most inflexible tradition¬ some of the less flexible types in the governments and frame alist now understands that policies Foreign Service, especially those the policies of and negotiating positions must be over-impressed by the symbolic im¬ formulated with unexpected expo¬ age of the diplomat. The author of one’s own.” sure in mind. Sooner or later, the this article was a principal negotiator proliferation of leakage points and in a multinational exercise to set up been of some help in this regard, but the compulsion of even the most a quasi-public international organi¬ only when the assignment has been authoritarian government to show zation in a central European coun¬ to a position affording a full view of achievement, or at least purposeful try. The organization in question had the agency’s foreign activities. This activity, makes disclosure inevitable. been endorsed by three presidents falls short of keeping a finger on Less understood is that the currency and was viewed by the Soviet Union the decision-making pulse, so that of private undertakings and corridor as so important that the deputy the department can exert timely in¬ assurances on which diplomats set chairman of the State Committee on fluence on policy formulation. such store is now of such transient Science and Technology—who was As a first step the department and uncertain value as to be almost also Premier Kosygin’s son-in-law— ought to make a thorough survey of worthless. Statements on the public had been assigned to the organiza¬ the statutory mandates of other de¬ record, no matter how opaque or tion as chairman of the board on a partments and agencies of the execu¬ misleading, provide the only firm virtually full-time basis. Throughout tive branch, as well as those of the basis from which to derive the inten¬ the final phase of negotiations with principal regulatory commissions, to tions of other governments and frame the host country, which was desper¬ determine the scope of their interna¬ the policies of one’s own. For a ately eager to see the organization tional responsibilities, especially in brief period at least, these represent located there rather than in a neigh¬ such critical fields as defense, ener¬ a commitment by the leadership to boring competitor, the senior mem¬ gy, finance, and uses of the oceans. its own people and the rest of the bers of the US country team barely Thereafter it should negotiate formal world. took the trouble to acquaint them¬ liaison arrangements with these gov¬ If any conclusion is possible, a selves with either the project or its ernmental bodies so that without in¬ prediction can be made that the dip¬ international implications, let alone terfering with their operational re¬ lomat of the future is doomed to to be of substantive assistance. Strict¬ sponsibilities the department can perform his functions in precisely ly speaking, it lay outside the prov¬ keep itself informed, and exercise the atmosphere that Harold Nicolson ince of their country-to-country man¬ guidance, with respect to activi¬ so justly abhorred. The profession date, and the negotiations involved ties that impinge on US foreign rela¬ has become both impossibly de¬ an intimidating amount of technical tions. This should not be allowed to manding and physically dangerous; detail. But the real reason for their turn into a sterile exercise in bu¬ the amenities and privileges to dip¬ indifference was that the project did reaucratic coordination—the inevit¬ lomatic life greatly attenuated. The not raise political problems with the able sequel of an attempt to cover consolation is that no other profes¬ host country—and therefore merited the full spectrum of agency interna¬ sion provides such a ringside seat to only low level administrative sup¬ tional activities. The approach should history in the making—and a chance port. be highly selective and discrimina¬ to make history oneself. 22 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. January, 1981 ‘The worst kind of diplomatists are missionaries, fanatics found in one individual. In recent years the managerial aspect of run¬ and lawyers; the best kind are the reasonable and humane ning a large embassy has become so skeptics.”—Nicolson important that executive experience, for instance, the running of a large university, has come to be regarded as a qualification for running an em¬ bassy. Managerial skills are certain¬ ly more readily transferable than dip¬ lomatic skills. This aspect of the question comes down to the one that has agitated also the medical profession (which I choose for parallels that could be cited with many other professions): Should a doctor or a managerial ex¬ Who Should pert be in chaige of a hospital? There are good arguments on both sides, but there is no argument whether a hospital administrator or a surgeon is better qualified to perform major Be an American surgery. In diplomacy, the manager of a diplomatic mission is also the surgeon who must “operate” in his conversations with the foreign min¬ Ambassador? ister and other elements of the power structure of the country to which he MARTIN F. HERZ or she is accredited. He must make difficult diagnoses, and sometimes The question is not, and has never deed, any country with important must prescribe (or recommend) risky been, whether professionals or interests abroad—requires high qual¬ therapy. nonprofessionals (“political appoint¬ ity in its foreign representation. It is We have said that the managerial ees”) should be ambassadors. It is, only good common sense to want functions can be more easily dele¬ rather, how one chooses or finds or the most vigorously selected, best gated than the diplomatic ones. To trains the best people to become trained and most highly skilled peo¬ come down to specifics: To appoint ambassadors. ple to man that first line of defense. the governor of a Middle Western “The best people?” Is there some But high quality is not a monopoly state to become United States am¬ undertone of elitism in that ques¬ of Foreign Service professionals. bassador to Mexico—a man who tion.? Yes and no. If it is elitism to Also, it is understood nowadays did not speak Spanish and had no want the best possible surgeon to that there are no “unimportant” posts background in foreign policy in gen¬ operate, to want the fastest-running to which one can assign unqualified eral or Latin America in particular— and highest-jumping athlete to com¬ or poorly qualified ambassadors. As would be about the same as to ex¬ pete, to have the best-trained and I shall demonstrate, there is plenty pect the governor of a South African temperamentally best-suited man or of damage that an unqualified man province to perform, in the Groote woman as an astronaut, then it is or woman can do in such a post— Schuur hospital in Capetown, the elitism also to want the best man or and in today’s world there is no heart transplant surgery that was pre¬ woman available to represent the guarantee that an American embassy viously performed there by Dr. United States abroad. But of course in a quiet, out-of-the-way country Christian Barnard. With the differ¬ it is not elitism in the snobbish sense may not suddenly become the focal ence that the nonprofessional dip¬ that is sometimes inputed to that point of American interests, perhaps lomat has at his side a team that word. It is, rather, a rational recog¬ in a wider regional context, which covers up for his mistakes and pre¬ nition that difficult and responsible requires expert work of the highest vents as many as possible; whereas tasks should be performed by the professional quality. the unfortunate effects of bungled most highly qualified people. What, then, do we mean by pro¬ open-heart suigery are more quickly Certainly the United States— in- fessionalism? Selection, training, apparent. But it would be appropri¬ experience, plus character and tech¬ ate to make a governor who is a nical skills. If I distinguish between good executive the director of a Martin F. Herz, Director of Studies of the “skills,” which are highly important, hospital—on the understanding, of Institute for the Study of Diplomacy, is a and the factor of “experience” (which course, that he would leave the med¬ retired Foreign Service officer and former ical work to doctors. ambassador to the People's Republic of of course helps to develop and Bulgaria. Among other posts he has held sharpen skills), it is because the job What is it that makes a good dip¬ were political officer in Austria, France, of an ambassador requires skills of lomat, and thus a good ambassador, Cambodia and Japan; political counselor in several kinds, only some of which in addition to the factors that were Iran; minister-counselor for political affairs are transferable from other profes¬ enumerated above? The kind of em¬ in South Vietnam; and deputy assistant secre¬ tary of state for International Organization sions or can be learned rather quick¬ pathy which comes from years spent Affairs. ly; and all of them are not always in cross-cultural communication. FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. January, 1981 23 Fingerspitzengefuhl (the feeling one matters most. Inevitably, someone worth Bunker. I have no hesitation has in the tips of one’s fingers) who has been through a dozen dip¬ in saying that they were more distin¬ which is sometimes acquired by am¬ lomatic crises behaves differently in guished than most of my career su¬ ateurs but is more frequently found one than someone who does not periors. David Bruce had been a among people who have had a great have that experience. FSO in his youth and came to his deal of experience. To use once In other words, professionalism first embassy from related work in more the medical parallel, there are pays. One can, of course, appoint a London and Paris. He was also a diagnosticians who use all the appa¬ businessman or politician to com¬ historian and had been a sub-cabinet ratus of tests and examinations but mand an aircraft carrier or an ar¬ officer. He thus was no neophyte in make their most important decisions mored division, and some may dis¬ foreign affairs. He went on to be¬ by intuition. play gifts of strategic intuition which come the only American to have A gynecologist, for instance, has make a crucial difference—and most, headed our three most important a patient who is brought to the hos¬ being surrounded by professionals, missions in the West (London, Bonn pital because of a suspicion of ec¬ will make no fatal mistakes; but the and Paris) plus Peking, NATO, and topic pregnancy, a potentially dead¬ chances of getting good results are a highly responsible negotiating as¬ ly complication. All the customary greater if an aircraft carrier or an signment. He had ready access to tests are made, and they are nega¬ armored division is commanded by the top, knew how to operate the tive. The old professor and chief of a man with specialized military ex¬ system, and possessed a personality the department, i.e., the old profes¬ perience. It can in certain cases be that radiated the best of American sional, says, “I think, nevertheless, only related experience: Admiral culture. He was a man of the world that hers is an ectopic pregnancy. Raymond A. Spruance, who had in the best sense of that term. We Take her to the operating room, we’ll commanded battleships, made an don't have enough of this kind, and open her up.” Which is done, and excellent transition to a carrier task we can never have enough of them the patient turns out to have ectopic force; and some professors of inter¬ in ambassadorial positions. pregnancy, notwithstanding the neg¬ national relations or diplomatic his¬ Douglas Dillon seemed a mistake ative indications given by the tests. tory have made serviceable ambas¬ when he was appointed ambassador The old professor is asked how he sadors. But the odds are that people to France. He didn’t even speak the knew. He doesn’t know himself. But trained for the job will give better language. ( His father had originally he has over the years seen tens of service. There are exceptions, which been sought for the post.) His main thousands of pregnancy women, in¬ we will next discuss—for there have qualification seemed to be that his cluding large numbers whose preg¬ been terrible professionals and some family owned a famous vineyard in nancies were ectopic. He could excellent, even very distinguished, the Bordeaux area. But he surprised “smell” the symptomatology, includ¬ American ambassadors who were us by being an extraordinarily quick ing elements that were not tested but completely, or largely, inexperienced study, displaying empathy that was which probably had been present in when they came to the task. equal to that of many professionals, previous cases that he had seen. and making decisions and recom¬ First the Good News Experience paid, and a life was mendations that could not have been saved. It would thus be a great mistake surer and wiser. He went on to be¬ The same very often holds in the to say, as fewer and fewer profes¬ come undersecretary of state and field of diplomacy. The thing that is sionals are saying, that all American secretary of the treasury. He learned not present in the equation is noticed ambassadors must be professionals; on the job, deferred to experts as by someone who has learned to and some presidents have chosen long as he felt insecure, and when notice also what is not there: the wisely among non-professional can¬ the first crisis came displayed excel¬ inflection of the foreign minister in didates for ambassadorships. lent judgment. I would consider him saying something signals an opening Roosevelt’s choice of Averell Har- to be an exception because he lacked to the experienced professional which riman to be ambassador to the Sovi¬ relevant background and experience is missed by the amateur. An ob¬ et Union was such a choice. It prob¬ even in a related field. (A more scure reference to past history con¬ ably helped that Stalin, believing recent exception of the same kind jures up the memory of a useful that the United States was run from may be Geri Joseph, our current precedent. The right tone, the right Wall Street, also believed that Har- ambassador to the Netherlands, who word, the right moment are utilized, riman was one of the wire-pullers seems to have a natural aptitude for not only by intellectual judgment who controlled the White House. diplomacy in spite of, not because but through familiarity with conver¬ He thus accorded him access of the of, her background in journalism.) sations of similar kinds in which kind which greatly helped Harriman Exceptions of that kind should make things turned out right or went off in the accomplishment of his mis¬ us humble about generalizing. the rails. A “feel” for what is about sion (as did the fact that the US was Ellsworth Bunker is a different to happen may be derived from a an ally of the USSR at that time). case. He was chosen to be ambassa¬ lifetime of sniffing the political at¬ Harriman went on to a multiplicity dor to Argentina at the age of 57, mosphere of foreign countries. The of diplomatic posts in which he ac¬ and went on to become one of our crisis, which inevitably is the first quired additional experience, and most experienced ambassadors, serv¬ diplomatic crisis to the newcomer, is there is no question that he acquitted ing also in Rome, New Delhi, in reminiscent in many ways of crises himself with distinction in all of Washington as ambassador to the experienced before by the profes¬ them. OAS, then in Saigon for six grueling sional—he knows what comes first I have served under three distin¬ years, until at 79 he undertook one and what not to worry about and is guished non-professionals: David K. of the most difficult and demanding thus able to concentrate on what E. Bruce, Douglas Dillon, and Ells¬ negotiating assignments in helping

24 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. January. 1981 to bring the Panama Canal treaty to the amateur William C. Bullitt, en¬ Not only did he help to bring about completion. I am devoted to him thusiastic for intimate relations with the ruin of a generation of China and believe he will not take it amiss the Soviet Union, first went over¬ Hands but he contributed massively when I remark that in his first dip¬ board in favor of the Soviet Union— to American public misconceptions lomatic post, where he is credited only to become so disenchanted that about China and Chiang Kai-shek with “masterful inactivity,” he was later, as ambassador to France and which placed a heavy mortgage on probably less qualified than would afterwards, he could see Russia only American policy in the Far East for have been a professional and also as an eternal enemy. “General” Pat¬ decades. less qualified than he was in later rick J. Hurley, an oil lawyer and Perhaps the most notorious ap¬ posts. We can learn something from millionaire, who had been Hoover’s pointment of an unqualified ambas¬ his case: When someone is superbly secretary of war, was appointed am¬ sador in the years immediately after gifted in the field of diplomacy, his bassador to China during World War World War II was President Eisen¬ best accomplishments are apt to hower’s nomination of Maxwell come after the customary age of Gluck, proprietor of a chain of la¬ retirement. 1 would put Bunker at 80 dies’ dress shops, as ambassador to up against any professional aged 50. Ceylon, now Sri Lanka; but Gluck At 80, in fact, he had longer high- was not the worst appointment and level diplomatic experience than any became notorious only because the American professional has ever had “If the president of Senate Foreign Relations Commit¬ at age 50 or even age 60. In his tee, in a rare departure from its case, too, we can thus say that “ex¬ the United States wants custom, acutally inquired—very perience pays.” to appoint a horse’s briefly—into his qualifications. Hav¬ Among more recent appointments, asterisk (or words ing written extensively on that ap¬ who could cavil at the nomination of pointment [Journal, May 1978] I Senator Michael J. Mansfield to the to that effect) as wish to record here that Gluck was post of ambassador to Japan where ambassador, he is not even the worst ambassador the by all accounts he has turned in a US has sent to Ceylon; and many superior performance? It may be that entitled to do so.” another political appointee, ques¬ a professional like Marshall Green tioned as Gluck was questioned by could have done as well; certainly he Senator Fulbright, would have been knows more about Japan—but Mans¬ shown up to be equally ignorant and field knows more about Washington perhaps even more so. Gluck was and he has had 24 years of experi¬ asked whether there was any connec¬ ence in following Far Eastern affairs II under circumstances that have tion between his nomination and the from Capitol Hill. (The only irony been most aptly summarized by fact that he had contributed $30,000 of his appointment is that Green was Barbara Tuchman as follows: to the political campaign; he retired at 63 whereas Mansfield, his squirmed. He was then asked about cumulative experience standing him Hurley was just what [Generalissimo] Ceylon and turned out to know vir¬ in good stead, became ambassador Chiang had always wanted in an envoy— tually nothing about it. When asked a man with direct access to the president the name of the prime minister of at the age of 74.) Similarly, though and no experience of China, who was not on the same level, the appoint¬ easy to manipulate through his vanity. Ceylon he did not know it; and when ments of Kingman Brewster to Lon¬ When Ambassador Gauss [a career pro¬ asked who was the Prime Minister don and Robert F. Goheen to New fessional] resigned at the time of Stil- of India (Nehru) he said he knew Delhi, each from positions of uni¬ well’s departure, Chiang was only too but couldn’t pronounce the name. versity president, were distinguished pleased to ask for Hurley as succes¬ In the colloquy in the Foreign ones. Brewster seems to have worked sor . . . Relations Committee that ensued. out well, whereas Goheen was some¬ The aftermath involved one of the Senator Fulbright said he had not thing of a disappointment; but no greatest disasters of American di¬ wanted to embarrass Gluck by asking one can say that either of these men plomacy (all of which, however, him to spell Nehru after the nomi¬ lacked stature or was appointed in must not be attributed to Hurley). nee had said he was unable to pro¬ return for money or as some other As Tuchman summarized the situa¬ nounce it, adding: “Anyway, 1 am kind of payoff. tion, “Hurley accepted no guidance not going to make a big fight about from his staff. Because he was over it. Iam simply saying that—following Now the Bad News his head in the ancient and entan¬ up on the chairman’s (Senator Theo¬ Ambassadorships have also, alas, gled circumstances which he pro¬ dore Francis Green’s] letter, I think gone to people who not only lacked posed to settle, he fiercely resented the department ought to be a little any visible qualifications for the job and refused the counsel of anyone more concerned about sending— but were clearly awarded the post in more knowledgeable about China especially to India and that area, return for favors financial, political than himself. When the coalition Ceylon—a man with no qualifica¬ or both. Let us look first at ap¬ blew up in his face and he found tions. That ought to be a position pointments of the ’30s and ’40s: Chinese affairs resisting his finesse, there for a professional man. I will The millionaire Joseph P. Kennedy, depriving him of the diplomatic suc¬ grant that sending a man like that to pro-German and isolationist, was cess he had counted on, he could Belgium can’t do much harm, be¬ American ambassador to Great Brit¬ find an explanation only in a para¬ cause the Belgians know us and can ain at a time when that country had noid belief that he was the victim of overlook such things. 1 don't think to steel itself against Nazi agression; a plot by disloyal subordinates ...” the Ceylonese or Indians will over-

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. January. 1981 25 look a man who is totally unaware litical situation and other unfavorable tee, Senator Sparkman. (“I don’t of things that are important to our consequences. Ruth B. Farkas, the think there will be any question,” relations with them.” wife of a department store execu¬ one senator is supposed to have said I submit that what Fulbright said tive, gave $300,000 and became am¬ about the impending hearings on to his colleagues after the hearing bassador to Luxembourg, following Marvin Warner; “there better not was much more significant than what in the footsteps of such previous be." Washington Post, June 7, 1977). transpired between him and the hap¬ unqualified political appointees as As indicated earlier, some of the less nominee, for it foreshadowed Perle Mesta, the Washington hostess Carter appointments were distin¬ the attitude he took when he became sent there by Harry Truman; Wiley guished. In addition to Mansfield, chairman of the Foreign Relations Buchanan, the Texas millionaire and Brewster and Goheen who have al¬ Committee—that there were some art collector sent by Eisenhower; and ready been mentioned, the appoint¬ countries where qualified ambassa¬ Kingdon Gould, the Washington ment of Thomas J. Watson, Jr., for¬ dors were desirable and others where parking lot magnate appointed by mer president of IBM, to Moscow is their qualifications didn’t matter; and Nixon. (Luxembourg, by the way, interesting because of the reasoning later he extended that tolerant view had an excellent idea: It finally let that seems to have underlain it—that to one which, according to someone it be known—discreetly, of course— in an era of detente, the develop¬ who was closely associated with that it was fed up with being a ment of business relations by a him, boiled down to saying: If the dumping ground for unqualified businessman-ambassador would be president of the United States wants moneybag ambassadors—-and as a re¬ especially felicitous. While there is to appoint a horse’s asterisk (or sult got a professional, James G. no question that Mr. Watson is a words to that effect) as ambassador, Lowenstein, who was well familiar person of substance, the reasoning he is entitled to do so. The derelic¬ with the concerns of that NATO behind his appointment overlooked tion of the SFRC in that respect de¬ ally.) these facts: 1) that even if detente serves to be highlighted, for it would The situation had become so had not run up against the invasion not have taken many hearings like that smelly that Jimmy Carter, during his of Afghanistan, the major American of Gluck to persuade the Eisenhower 1976 election campaign, vowed that concern in relations with the Soviet administration—and subsequent ad¬ he would put an end to it. In an Union is survival, not money; 2) that ministrations—that it is politically interview with C. L. Sulzberger of sure judgment in the prediction of risky to nominate unqualified candi¬ the New York Times in August, 1976 future Soviet behavior is among the dates for ambassadorial positions. he said he was interested in “im¬ most important contributions of an “Senatorial courtesy” is another pro¬ proving the quality of our major American ambassador in Moscow; blem, especially when members of diplomatic appointments. I want and 3) that the promotion of busi¬ the committee are themselves be¬ these to depend firmly on merit. I ness, as shown by the Japanese, holden to the nominee. am not under obligation to anyone, French and German record, is more and I don’t believe people should be And the Worse News effectively entrusted to experienced paid off for helping elect a president diplomats than to businessmen. The While there were shocking ap¬ by getting embassies.” On November business of businessmen is business; pointments by the Eisenhower and 9, 1976, after he had been elected, the business of diplomats is to influ¬ Kennedy administrations, undoubt¬ he said: “I plan to appoint diplomat¬ ence foreign governments; and the edly the worst record in terms of ic officials who have superb creden¬ “big ticket” items in business can be simony was established by the Nixon tials, strictly on the basis of merit, most effectively promoted by people administration which literally auc¬ not reward people for political fa¬ with intimate knowledge of the work¬ tioned off ambassadorships (or vors. And that’s a commitment that ings of foreign governments and who “chances” for ambassadorships) ac¬ I’ve made on my word of honor. I’m are willing to use political skill to cording to precise information de¬ not going to break it.” support the work of businessmen. veloped in connection with the And then he nominated, among Still, it is certainly true that a Watergate investigation. There would his first ambassadorial appointments, businessman-ambassador would be no purpose in mentioning more Mr. Philip H. Alston, Jr., a lawyer probably have an especially high than a few cases—they were too from Atlanta, Georgia, to be ambas¬ motivation to be of assistance in numerous. Arthur K. Watson, am¬ sador to Australia; Governor Patrick promoting business. bassador to France, contributed J. Lucey of Wisconsin to be ambas¬ A novelty of the Carter adminis¬ $300,000 to the Nixon campaign in sador to Mexico; Ms. Anne Cox tration was the creation of a Presi¬ 1971 and early 1972 but had also Chambers, chairman of the board of dential Advisory Board on Ambas¬ made earlier contributions. He was Atlanta Newspapers and of the Cox sadorial Appointments, chaired first not one of our most successful am¬ Broadcasting System, to be ambas¬ by Governor Reubin O. Askew and bassadors to France. Vincent De sador to Belgium; and Governor more recently by Clark Clifford. The Roulet, son-in-law of the owner of John C. West of South Carolina to board did not comment on all nomi¬ the New York Mets, contributed (to¬ be ambassador to Saudi Arabia. He nations since the president and the gether with his father-in-law) some also appointed to Switzerland a secretary of state decided which $183,000 before and after becoming building contractor named Marvin countries should go to career offi¬ ambassador to Jamaica where he did Warner whose only plausible claim cers and which should involve mul¬ major damage to our relations due, to the position was the fact that he tiple candidacies from non-career inter alia, to an ill-considered pub¬ had made contributions to the elec¬ persons among whom the board is lic remark that he had the prime tion campaigns of both senators from to choose one for recommendation minister in his pocket, which of Ohio plus the then chairman of the to the White House. There is no course led to an overturn in the po- Senate Foreign Relations Commit¬ doubt that the idea of the board had

26 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. January. 1981 potential—it enabled, for one, the didates from the career service, the their “image” than they should be, president to tell an insistent candi¬ odds are that two or three may turn and too often want so desperately to date that he personally would have out to be weak or perhaps even mis¬ “succeed” that they violate Talley¬ loved to nominate him but that the fits. Among ten non-career candi¬ rand’s warning against excessive board, to his intense regret, had cho¬ dates, the odds are that the number zeal. Case studies of ambassadorial sen someone else. Also, the board will be considerably greater, espe¬ failures on the job (career as well as itself, theoretically, could delve into cially if they do not come from non-career) would bring this out with the background and qualifications of fields closely related to foreign af¬ telling conclusiveness. nominees and advise the president fairs. Experience counts—therefore, 3. Beware of Vanity. It is the to desist from sending their names to the extent that potentially out¬ greatest enemy of a good diplomat— to Capitol Hill ( and in some cases standing chiefs of mission can be and of a bad one, too. Even superb this was apparently done). But the identified early in their careers, to professionals have fallen victim to composition of the board, which was the extent that they can count on it, letting a personal slight, for in¬ heavily weighted in favor of politi¬ having more than one ambassador¬ stance, color their judgment of the cians, representatives of minorities, ship, the odds on developing out¬ person who administered it; or fail¬ ing to report (or reporting inaccu¬ rately) developments which cast an unfavorable light on themselves. But vanity is found less often in a disci¬ “I would be less than candid, however, plined career service than among if I failed to note that there have also non-career people some of whom been career officers in ambassadorial become light-headed when addressed as “excellency” and begin to suspect positions who . . . began to think of them¬ that they are omniscient. A career selves as a combination of Jesus officer has learned the benefits of staff work and is more likely to Christ, Talleyrand and Napoleon.” listen to professional advice than a non-career appointee. Some of the most horrible gaffes committed by neophyte ambassadors occurred be¬ and others who knew little or nothing standing ambassadors improve. cause of their unwillingness to use about diplomacy, was disappointing Bringing along the most brilliant and their staffs. I would be less than from the beginning, notwithstanding competent officers to responsible po¬ candid, however, if I failed to note some excellent and well-qualified sitions in younger years—which is that there have also been career offi¬ members in its ranks. The board increasingly happening at present— cers in ambassadorial positions who approved, even recommended, some gives the best promise of good re¬ lost their moorings, displayed symp¬ of the obviously unqualified ap¬ sults. The same is true, of course, toms of hypomania, and began to pointees of the Carter administration of non-career ambassadors. Only the think of themselves as a combina¬ such as the Mr. Warner mentioned most outstanding candidates should tion of Jesus Christ, Talleyrand, and above, Milton A. Wolf (a construc¬ be considered. Even then, if Thom: Napoleon. Such men—regardless tion company president) to Vienna, as J. Watson, Jr., for instance, could whether career or non-career—must and the unfortunate Richard Kneip have had prior apprenticeships as be swiftly brought down to earth, who became ambassador to Singa¬ ambassador to Upper Volta and and home. pore and there astounded his staff by Bulgaria, he no doubt would have 4. Beware of Ethnic Appoint¬ such questions as “You mean, there functioned considerably better in his ments. It is a fallacy to believe that has been a war between India and position in Moscow. appointing an American of Polish Pakistan?” and “Did you say there 2. Consider Character. Nicol- extraction (such as former Postmas¬ are two separate Koreas? How come?” son’s dictum about character being ter General John A. Gronouski) to the most important ingredient of a Poland will flatter the Poles; or that What is to be done? successful ambassador is still true. appointing someone of Italian de¬ If we don’t want the best, then Yes, he also has to be an operator, scent (say, John A. Volpe) to Italy nothing need be done. But if we do, but there is a distinction between will flatter the Italians; or that we—the readers of this article and skill in the organization game and appointing a black will flatter a others who are concerned and wish cutting comers or buying favors or black African country; or that ap¬ to raise a voice in favor of upgrading otherwise engaging in sharp practice. pointing an American Hispanic (say, the quality of ambassadorial appoint¬ Moral courage is the first require¬ Julian Nava) as ambassador to Mex¬ ments—can take into account some ment of a good ambassador. It is ico will flatter the Mexicans. of the following considerations: found among both career and non¬ Whether they are flattered will de¬ 1. Give Weight to Experience. career candidates—but not as often pend on the qualifications of the Career officers do not have a mo¬ as one might think. The idea that appointee (quite aside from the ques¬ nopoly on qualifications for ambas¬ career people are too often “bucking tion whether flattery is a good rea¬ sadorial positions. However, experi¬ for promotion” (or incentive pay) son for any diplomatic appointment). ence in several Foreign Service posts whereas non-career ambassadors are If a Gronouski turns out not to speak and positions is more likely to point past such considerations is poppy¬ Polish and a Nava turns out to know to such qualifications than experi¬ cock. Non-career ambassadors are little about Latin American politics, ence in other work: Among ten can¬ sometimes more concerned about the host country will be adversely

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. January. 1981 27 impressed. The same goes for ap¬ his lavish entertaining as necessary for serve the president as an alibi for pointing a general to represent the the conduct of diplomacy with your turning aside some “terrible” would- United States in a country run either leadership. 1 cannot imagine why an be nominations, enough terrible ones by a military dictator or by a politi¬ American ambassador needs to prove to have been certified to discredit the cal leader with a military back¬ his guests by the opulence of his table entire enterprise. If or when we have or the number of footmen that the Unit¬ ground. When President Kennedy an honest and courageous president ed States is a wealthy country. sent General James M. Gavin as it should not be necessary to have a Suppose an American ambassador in¬ ambassador to France, for instance, board to protect him against weak¬ vited only 12 people to a dinner instead ness, cowardice, or ignorance. Staffs he no doubt thought that de Gaulle, of 64—perhaps that would give him more being a general, would appreciate of a chance to talk with his guests; and are supposed to do that. If a presi¬ having an American general to talk as for the maintenance of Winfield dent wishes to live up to the Carter with—but de Gaulle did not consid¬ House I suppose that if the government statement that he would only appoint er himself a general. He had nothing had its choice between an ambassador people with “superb credentials,” but contempt for “mere” generals, who is an amateur but who keeps the “strictly on the basis of merit,” he regarding himself to be far more, grounds impeccably, or an experienced will need a body of a different com¬ namely the embodiment of La professional who allows them to run position to tell him who they are. France. Charles (“Chip”) Bohlen, a down a little, perhaps it would not fol¬ 7. Wake Up the Senate. The low your implied advice and would opt man who knew European history Senate, and especially its Foreign for the man of intellectual and profes¬ Relations Committee, has been dere¬ backwards and forwards, spoke sional substance, rather than pecuniary French fluently, and had met most substance. lict in not looking into the qualifi¬ of the European movers and shakers Meanwhile all this has been prov¬ cations of ambassadorial nominees of the last thirty years, was a much en by the successful tenure of Ar¬ and into undesirable reasons, such more effective representative in thur A. Hartman, a career officer as political favors or campaign con¬ France. He was also a more effective with no private fortune, as ambassa¬ tributions, that might be behind their nominations. The information is avail¬ ambassador to the Soviet Union than dor to France. Elliot Richardson, able, in copious detail, that would any non-professional could have not a career officer but also without permit at least a modicum of scruti¬ been at that time. It is true, on the a personal fortune, was not daunted ny to take place. It is not even nec¬ other hand, that a person of stature by the financial requirements in will run no risk of being overly essary for this purpose that the ex¬ London. Mike Mansfield, and be¬ impressed by persons of high rank; amination of candidates be in great fore him Douglas MacArthur II and so there is merit in appointing to a detail. Superficial examination, as Edwin Reischauer, managed in Tokyo major post someone who has rubbed the Gluck case and the gaffes of without personal reserves expended shoulders with important people. more recent appointees amply dem¬ by Robert Ingersoll. Chip Bohlen in Both career and non-career candi¬ onstrate, would bring out the most Paris was able to make out, perhaps dates can fill that requirement. glaring lack of qualifications in a with some discreet support from the 5. Money is no qualification. number of candidates. This, in turn, department at a time when the House Should the possession of money (as might lead to greater circumspection distinguished from the payment of appropriations subcommittee was on the part of the White House and it) be a qualification for appointment still especially niggardly with repre¬ the political leadership of the State to the large embassies where repre¬ sentation funds. In any case, the Department and would make them sentational requirements are impor¬ burden of proof is now on those put the brakes on the kind of scan¬ tant? The answer is that the United who believe that one has to be dalous nominations that have been States is wealthy enough to meet the wealthy to be ambassador in one of getting by without so much as a legitimate expenses of ambassadors— the world capitals. If I were given question. As indicated, the custom and that it is doing so right now in such a position and found it impos¬ of “senatorial courtesy” is a prob¬ most cases. The Economist a few sible to make ends meet, I would lem. One way to solve it would be years ago, noting that Ambassador cheerfully cancel the Fourth of July for the SFRC to adopt a rule whereby Walter Annenberg had said that he in favor of more small luncheons any of its members who have been spent $250,000 a year of his own and dinners—without any impair¬ recipients of money from a candi¬ money to live in London in the ment of relations. date should automatically disqualify ambassadorial style he considered ap¬ 6. Scrap the Board. The Presi¬ themselves from consideration of his propriate, and that he had contribut¬ dential Advisory Board on Ambas¬ nomination. ed $1.5 million to refurbish the res¬ sadorial Nominations, so promising Support the Chief. Finally, idence, concluded that “there is no at first, must be judged a failure. It there is a question of the loyalty doubt that the job in London is ex¬ lacked the qualifications to deter¬ owed by the deputy chief of mission pensive.” Writing at that time under mine the qualifications of ambassa¬ and the section chiefs and all the a pseudonym, since he was still on dors, consisting as it did of a large rest of an embassy’s personnel to active service, the author of the majority of people who never had the ambassador who is, after all, the present article suggested in a letter to anything to do with diplomacy (al¬ personal representative of the presi¬ the editor (printed in The Economist though it did, fortunately, include a dent and is entrusted with large re¬ in January, 1973) that few members like Averell Harriman, sponsibilities. This question has Dean Rusk, Carol Laise and one or been raised in connection, for in¬ None of the expensive things that Mr. stance, with the publication by the Annenbetg did and which you list in two others who know from first¬ your article seemed essential for the hand experience what the require¬ Foreign Service Journal of a functions of an ambassador, unless you ments are). While I have it on good “whistle-blowing” article about the regard his giving of expensive gifts and authority that the board managed to (Continued on page 68)

28 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January, 1981 A Plan for Reforming Our Foreign Policy Institutions: Part 1

WILLIAM CLEVEN VEALE

For over three decades the turbu¬ down the role of the State Depart¬ in the interests of the American peo¬ lent winds of a changing world ment and absorbing the Foreign Ser¬ ple. have tested the mettle of the De¬ vice into the Civil Service. Unless The first order of business, then, partment of State and the Foreign the department and the Foreign Ser¬ is to define the problem of organi¬ Service. The record of those years vice embark at once on a vigorous zational ineffectiveness in ways that suggests to many that both institu¬ and forceful effort to assert a leader¬ meaningfully point to solutions; the tions are severely wanting. The many ship role in solving the problem, second and more difficult one, is to studies and recommendations from those kinds of alternative solutions convince the president that, as Chip that period give testament to the will ultimately prevail. Indeed, while Bohlen pointedly indicated to Ken¬ wide range of views about what the the Department of State’s influence nedy, he is a central part of the problem is and what needs to be has been on a long decline since the problem and bears the chief respon¬ done to make the department and end of World War II, we have seen sibility for developing a sustained the Foreign Service more effective in the past four years an accelerating interest in solving it. instruments for developing and con¬ erosion of State’s organizational as¬ ducting our foreign policy. Well- sets. The Real Dimensions of intended measures for organizational Henry Kissinger, as secretary of the Problem reform and for improved personnel state, made much of hi intention to policies have invariably peaked and “institutionalize" his foreign policy, The central problem facing the faded away after a few years, feed¬ but the task was never completed. Department of State is that it repeat¬ ing expectations that future measures The structural and human limitations edly fails to gain the confidence of are doomed to a similar lack of of the organization he commanded the presidents it should serve'. To a lasting impact. Some even refuse to precluded carrying out or sustaining lesser degree this is also true for the see serious problems, and remain such an ambitious goal. Yet Kissin¬ Foreign Service, collectively, al¬ confident that both institutions will ger was not the first secretary, nor though post-war presidents have re¬ be able to continue “muddling will he be the last, who would want lied heavily on individual Foreign through.” to do so. And clearly, presidents, Service officers. The Foreign Ser¬ Not only have the department and too, will come to office seeking, as vice, however, unlike the department, the Foreign Service been unable to did John Kennedy, a dynamic, re¬ has been able to compensate for this make proposed solutions to the prob¬ sponsive foreign policy apparatus at general lack of confidence by see¬ lem stick, but they also have been their disposal. How much longer ing itself as the Foreign Service of unable to define the problem in ways State and the Foreign Service can the United States, only one of the that point to real solutions. Mean¬ continue to entertain pretensions duties of which is to serve the insti¬ while, in other quarters of govern¬ that they can play the role expected tution of the presidency. Predictably ment, alternative solutions are ad¬ of them, and then fail repeatedly, the reaction of presidents was to vanced aimed at further whittling depends in large measure on the promote other instruments for devel¬ successes frustrated presidents and oping and conducting foreign poli¬ secretaries have in finding alterna¬ cy, finding in the process institu¬ Bill Veale is a career FSO currently serv¬ tive ways to make and conduct for¬ tions in which they can place confi¬ ing as executive secretary of the priorities eign policy. The record of failure dence. For much of the post-World policy group in the under secretary for man¬ agement's office of management operations. has grown so long that presidents War II period, these have been chief¬ He has degrees from Georgetown University and secretaries could understandably ly the CIA, the Defense Department, (BSFS ’64. MSFS ’71) and served as an resign themselves to accepting a the Joint Chiefs, and the NSC sys¬ army officer in Germany and Vietnam. His more modest role for the State De¬ tem in various forms. Presidential Foreign Service assignments include Geneva and Vienna with the Arms Control and Dis¬ partment and the Foreign Service. reliance on these agents to a degree armament Agency, Strasbourg, the Soviet desk But it would be a serious mistake for greater than on the State Depart¬ and. most recently, the bureau of politico- the department to allow this to hap¬ ment, may go a long way to explain military affairs. His "Communication Re: pen. The consequences for the way the nature of our emphasis on co¬ Foreign Service Compensation" appeared in our foreign policy is developed, co¬ vert action and military measures in the May 1977 Journal. The opinions expressed in this article are ordinated, and implemented would devising responses to foreign crises. those of the author. be far-reaching, and unlikely to be And, over-reliance on the NSC for

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. January. 1981 , 29 coordination and follow-up may also hamstrung by its own internal pro¬ riod has wreaked havoc with the help explain why we have had such cess, the State Department has for¬ department’s ability to focus its ef¬ large gaps between our ability to gotten the importance of seizing and forts in ways which might begin to conceptualize approaches to foreign keeping the initiative. Indeed, some permit it to play a more central and problems, and our capacity for im¬ are content with a role for the de¬ assertive role. Over-extended in some plementing designs produced by partment that relies upon other agen¬ areas, underutilized in other areas, such a system. Ultimately, the lack cies to propose initiatives and that, State muddles through, somehow of presidential confidence in the de¬ in theory, lets the department steer convinced that it does so by rightly partment and the Foreign Service these initiatives in desired directions, focusing on “only the essentials.” has created a vicious circle with the or to present counterviews, on the Over the years, this method of opera¬ very causes of that lack of confi¬ assumption that State’s voice will tion has served to build a bureau¬ dence. What specifically are those nearly always be deferred to. In cratic culture in which it is honor¬ causes and how do they interrelate practice however, this has meant that able to have dissipated one’s energies with each other? the State Department has increasing¬ in futile efforts to deal with all the First, the department has been un¬ ly played a reactive role. essentials. More important, it has able to effectively implement for¬ Fifth, the cumulative effect of engendered a degree of superficiali¬ eign policy through its embassies State’s inability to implement and ty in Foreign Service work that often and missions because ambassadors coordinate foreign policy effective¬ approaches dilettantism, and this have not had full authority over all ly, its reputation for unresponsive¬ trend does not go unnoticed by other the agencies operating in the host ness, and its frequent disinclination agencies eager to move in on State’s country, particularly the CIA and to seize the initiative, has been to turf. the military. Although the country team approach has been applied in some areas, the concept was essen¬ tially stillborn from the beginning because of the failure to apply the “The simple but memorable same concept in Washington to force¬ words of Walt Kelly’s Pogo fully backstop chiefs of mission. Second, the Department of State’s seem starkly appropriate: ability to coordinate foreign policy ‘We have met the enemy, and overseas has been seriously impaired for the same reasons. In Washing¬ he is us.’” ton, the limited organizational assets which State actually commands, the passive acceptance of a modest poli¬ cy support mission in the shadow of reduce its influence in the foreign Last, the department has shied the NSC, and the failure to make ex¬ affairs community, particularly in away from demonstrating its poten¬ tensive use of senior career FSOs in foreign economic policy. Lacking the tial to play a central role in integrat¬ aggressive interagency coordination will to protect its influence, to carve ing domestic factors into its foreign roles, work to keep the department out a determining role on such is¬ policy recommendations. An aggres¬ from performing the coordination sues, the department at the same sive assumption of such a role by functions it otherwise might. time is unable to lay claim to the the department might go a long way Third, presidents have frequently resources that would enable it to do to establish presidential confidence complained that State has not been so. Unable to engage other agencies in the department as the rightful responsive to their needs, delivering in depth across a broad front, State lead agency for developing and con¬ a product unwanted or too late to be seems to lapse into doing what it ducting a domestically supportable useful. The extensive system of often can to obtain at least symbolic ges¬ foreign policy. indiscriminate clearances associated tures of deference by other agen¬ Thus, there are many interrelated with excessive compartmentalization cies, gestures which these other and mutually reinforcing dimensions and bureaucratic layering are, of agencies can readily afford to dis¬ to the problem of institutional in¬ course, partly to blame for this. In pense when doing so essentially buys effectiveness at State. The result is a addition, however, the organizational them a free hand to proceed as they vicious circle which can only be nature of the department and the wish. broken by an act of will by those other foreign affairs agencies are Sixth, the decline in State’s influ¬ who come to know the system at its such that they discourage the resolu¬ ence has been an important factor in worst. The simple but memorable tion of problems at the working the sagging morale of the Foreign words of Walt Kelly’s Pogo seem level, unnecessarily forcing upward Service. It may also affect the de¬ starkly appropriate: “We have met parochial views for mediation by the partment’s ability to attract highly the enemy, and he is us.” top echelons. Under these circum¬ qualified people, and the chances Before launching any comprehen¬ stances, too often what has been are thereby reduced for a positive, sive effort at reform, however, we done before becomes the lowest internally-generated effort being must consider four factors: common denominator, and creativi¬ mounted to reverse the factors con¬ (1) The nature of the relation¬ ty suffers. tributing to State’s waning influence. ship between the secretary and the Fourth, preoccupied with defend¬ Seventh, improper and inadequate president: The secretary of state ing its shrinking turf in the face of staffing of the department and its must have the full confidence of the the onslaught of other agencies, and overseas posts over a prolonged pe¬ president, and he must be the exclu- 30 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. January, 1981 sive spokesman and advisor to the sive use of modem management and of the department and the new reali¬ president in foreign affairs. productivity-enhancing techniques ties of the NSC system have led (2) Relations between the execu¬ aimed at closing the gap between many in the Foreign Service to ra¬ tive and legislative branches: Con¬ policy and resources. tionalize the new situation by nar¬ gressional attitudes, level of interest What follows are some specific rowly defining the department’s role and tolerance for reform must be thoughts on how things might be set as simply one of offering advice in carefully gauged. A period of keen right. Some are new; others have our relations with foreign countries. congressional interest in foreign af¬ been proposed repeatedly over the This meant an aloof, detached role fairs, and its immediate aftermath, years. Some are provocative, far- in Washington bureaucratic struggles would seem like the best time to reaching and unsettling; they are and a reportorial and representational point out how reforms could help bound to be controversial and, frank¬ role abroad. It meant that “a few improve future performance. ly, require a new mind-set about good generalists” could tackle this (3) Tolerance in the Foreign State’s role. Others are familiar, job, and that other agencies could be Service for reform: Widespread more limited in scope, and easily permitted to provide the specialists awareness of the transient nature of accommodated by the present sys¬ necessary to serve what were re¬ past reform efforts makes any new tem. All are advanced here to be garded as more parochial interests. call for reform highly suspect. Yet, seen in a total context, and perhaps The sad story of the years since development of the Foreign Service to help turn thoughts into action. World War II is the department’s Act of 1980 revealed extensive in¬ failure to play the leadership role The Mission of the terest in solutions to the full range others expected of it, and its failure State Department of problems. to develop career patterns suited to (4) The movement for govern¬ Clearly, the president is responsi¬ staffing such a role. Lacking confi¬ mental reorganization: The public’s ble for the conduct of our foreign dence in itself and unwilling to play interest in more efficient and pro¬ relations, but to help him meet those an assertive role, these failures cost ductive government was behind the responsibilities from the inception, the department the confidence of Carter administration’s reorganiza¬ Congress established a secretary and presidents. As a result, the NSC tion efforts. To the extent that the a department. Indeed, in recognition system, grafted at first on the policy public continues to see a need to of the central importance of this advising organ of the department, strengthen our foreign policy, the function, the Department of State but growing ultimately into the White support for institutional reform ex¬ was made the senior cabinet depart¬ House centralized Nixon-Kissinger ists. But, the department and the ment, and the secretary of state the process, assumed more and more Foreign Service must demonstrate to senior cabinet official. Presidents responsibility for what was once the the public and any incumbent ad¬ have nearly always set the tone for comprehensive mission of the De¬ ministration that it is worthwhile to our foreign relations, however, and partment of State. Yet, the evidence strengthen their role. in the early years of our national suggests that the NSC-centered sys¬ If we conclude that the time is development, the mission of the De¬ tem . is overburdened and incapable right for a holistic approach to com¬ partment of State was easily formu¬ of performing all the tasks inherent prehensive reforms, then our efforts lated and accomplished. Then, as in the assumption of a comprehen¬ should be directed along five main America became more intimately in¬ sive mission. axes: volved with the world around us, Only the secretary of state and his 1. The redefinition of the mission presidents came to find, particularly department have a realistic potential of the Department of State to broad¬ in the course of global wars and for performing a comprehensive for¬ en its responsibilities and affirm its ensuing competition, that there were eign affairs mission. The changing mandate to speak and act for the other instruments at their disposal, nature of America’s role in the world president in all aspects of foreign outside the Department of State, and of our ability to influence events affairs. which could be used to achieve our will increasingly demand a new set 2. The design of a new relation¬ foreign policy objectives. of finely-tuned policies arrived at ship with the White House that With the full emergence of the from hard necessity; we no longer clearly establishes the secretary of United States after World War II as a can expect to formulate policies with state as the chief coordinator of all superpower with global interests, the the luxury of a wide range of easy foreign operations of the US gov¬ Congress passed the National Secu¬ choices. And this means that there ernment. rity Act of 1947, precisely to insure will be an increasing premium on 3. The structuring of organiza¬ that, in formulating foreign and de¬ the need to insure, not just fully tional assets in the foreign affairs fense policy, the president had to coordinated policy planning, but also community under the Department of avail himself of alternative sources fully coordinated implementation of State so as to maximize the effec¬ of advice. This organizational mod¬ policy. In short, the Kissinger years tiveness of the secretary in foreign ification of the traditional relation¬ taught us that one man just can’t do affairs. ship between the secretary of state it all; the task of institutionalizing 4. The strengthening of the per¬ and the president, combined with foreign policy still lies ahead. sonnel resources available to the sec¬ the post-war onslaught of wave after In this light, the first step is to retary and the president for develop¬ wave of new and complex interna¬ re-assert State’s mission in a broadly ing and conducting foreign policy, tional problems, has shaken the con¬ conceived way that helps answer building on the Foreign Service Act fidence of the department in its what organizational assets State of 1980. mandate and in its ability to carry should command, and helps define 5. The improvement of operation¬ out its mission. the relationships with the White al effectiveness through more exten¬ Indeed, the limited wartime role House and other executive branch FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. January. I9SI 3 1 agencies. A comprehensive mission involved in choosing between them. sumes national security policy, arms for State would assign it the domi¬ To do this effectively, the depart¬ control policy, international econom¬ nant, and where appropriate, the ex¬ ment will also have to be given much ic policy, international scientific and clusive responsibility in four areas: more direct control over all person¬ technical cooperation, international Foreign Policy Planning and For¬ nel engaged in foreign operations. communication activities, and for¬ mulation: State should have exclu¬ Domestic Interests: For too long eign intelligence operations. sive responsibility for foreign pol¬ the department has accepted Presi¬ Deference, but all too often only icy planning, and the predominant dent Truman’s admonition to the ef¬ deference, is paid now to a pro forma responsibility for formulating policy fect that State should stick to advis¬ State role in all these areas. In reali¬ options in cases where presidential ing on foreign policy, and leave the ty the National Security Council, decisions are required. This is criti¬ assessment of domestic implications Defense, CIA, Treasury, Commerce cal where bilateral relationships are to the White House. Much of the and other agencies have become concerned but of growing impor¬ presidential discontent with State powerful baronies in a feudal patch- tance in multilateral diplomacy as stems from the fact that State’s ad¬ work of countervailing power. Those well. vice on foreign affairs seems to come other agencies, often well-endowed Foreign Information Gathering: out of an ivory tower far removed with money and programs that are With its worldwide access to foreign from what presidents see as the real¬ easily understood and responsive to decision-making circles and opinion- ity of domestic politics. Few presi¬ manipulation, can bend policy to suit molders, State is already well- dents come to power with an under¬ their parochial interests; through equipped to support foreign policy standing of the limits of American their greater resources they can planning and formulation. However, influence in foreign affairs; their own subvert State’s efforts to carry out because of the impact which our foreign intelligence collection efforts can have on foreign policy, State should have the controlling respon¬ sibility for gathering information “The only institution with the from foreign non-technical sources. bureaucratic potential to State could then perform its policy planning and formulation function take full responsibility for the with a picture of the world based on president’s duties in foreign affairs something more than the perceptions is the Department of State.” of foreign elites and, at the same time, insure that collection efforts are consistent with our foreign poli¬ cy objectives. Foreign Operations: State must be prior experience in the field most policy. Lacking adequate resources given full and complete authority often involved using foreign policy itself, but most importantly lacking for the conduct of all foreign opera¬ issues to serve their immediate do¬ influence, State is often unable to tions of the US government in non¬ mestic political needs. That this ap¬ counter these moves effectively. In¬ wartime situations, excepting only proach should persist in the White stead, the department deludes itself the internal administration of over¬ House is only natural, and is per¬ into believing that the fealty paid to seas specified and unified military haps a valuable feature of a democ¬ its figurehead role affords it a true commands. State’s responsibilities racy’s foreign policy process. None¬ policy coordinating role. This situa¬ would include all foreign operations theless, State should be in a position tion has created a void at the pinna¬ relating to representational and re¬ to provide not only advice On how cles of government, recognized years porting functions, negotiations, con¬ foreign conditions shape our courses ago by those enjoying the National sular services, development assis¬ of action, but also advice on the Security Council’s perspective, and tance, communications and educa¬ degree of domestic support that ex¬ rationalized away by State. Yet, the tional-cultural functions, security ists, or that can be created, for rec¬ presidency had to be served. assistance, environment, energy, ommended policies. The NSC staff and its functions trade promotion, financial coopera¬ have expanded enormously over the The White House Connection tion, scientific and technical coop¬ years to fill the most critical parts of eration and assistance, and covert The secretary of state in both name the void—other agencies are in com¬ actions. However, this is a tall order; and fact must be the president’s petition with each other and with to effectively orchestrate all these principal agent and senior adviser in State to fill the rest. But, the system diverse and sometimes divergent op¬ the conduct of US foreign relations. does not work well, does not insure erations State must be endowed with This means that the Department of effective coordination, and drops far greater organizational assets than State is the chief agent of the presi¬ entirely too many balls down the it presently commands, and its cen¬ dent for formulating, coordinating, cracks between contending agencies. tral mechanisms for planning, coor¬ and carrying out foreign policy. It No NSC staff functioning as part of dination, monitoring and decision¬ means that in all matters bearing on the White House can possibly do the making must be drastically over¬ foreign relations the Department of whole job, and therefore neither can hauled. More than ever before the State’s voice is the determining fac¬ the man supported immediately by department staff will have to insure tor, unless the president rules oth¬ that staff, the assistant to the presi¬ that principals see and understand erwise. And, most importantly, it dent for national security affairs. The real alternatives, and the tradeoffs must mean that foreign relations sub¬ (Continued on page 62)

32 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. January, 1981 “The doctrine and practice of nonpartisanship in and the consistent direction of the foreign policy is a very practical political expendient, two secretaries of state were identi¬ cal. Both the differences in style designed to moderate asperities inherent in our and the similarities in policy are constitutional system.”—Dean Acheson seen in four elements of their part¬ nership before, during and after the two years of bipartisanship, notably 1) in their close relations to the pres¬ ident, 2) in their selective use of the department’s resources, 3) in the ca¬ pacity to dominate institutional com¬ plexities, commanding in times of crisis, and 4) in connection with their use of the media. Through all of the years of decision their strong LESSONS characters are evident. Their shared aims were closer than the positions of their parties. The OF THE bipartisanship of 1950 and 1951 was feasible because of the recognition of extraordinary need for workable relations with Congress and the pres¬ MIDCENTURY sure for action in relation to Japan and Europe. Working relationships under Arthur Vandenberg’s coopera¬ tion had helped in the early stages of postwar leadership but had not suf¬ ficed to quiet the bitter arguments over the China policy of the admin¬ ELEANOR LANSING DULLES istration in 1948 and 1949. More¬ over, Vandenberg’s mortal illness re¬ duced the moderating influence. Thus the Democrats, finding in Dulles a competent and experienced When the secretary of state left over the years a series of reorganiza¬ expert, who had supported ■ NATO the impressive building next to tions of the institution but none of and the Marshall Plan in his short the White House which State shared them had kept pace with the grow¬ time as senator from New York, with War and Navy in the 1940s for ing demands on the capacities of the accepted him as assistant in develop¬ the characterless building on 21st secretary and the major expansion ing the policies of the ’50s. The fact street, he took with him large re¬ of personnel yet to come. that Dulles was appointed consultant sponsibilities.* The increasing range in April 1950 and then in May given of tasks had not been imagined by One can take arbitrarily, but with the assignment of drafting and nego¬ Jefferson and Adams, or even by some substantive justification, tiating the treaty of peace for Japan their later successor William Seward. the years of Acheson and Dulles as was of major importance in bringing For approximately 160 years there the beginning of the modem period. the Pacific area into the new era of had been a dignified, orderly han¬ In these years a number of facts and postwar cooperation. The treaty was dling of foreign affairs following the relationships are notable and serve signed in San Francisco on Septem¬ lead of England and concerned as as guides to future conduct of for¬ ber 8, 1951. During these months first priority with Europe, then with eign affairs. Dulles helped in supporting recon¬ the Far East. There had been little Though there were vast differ¬ struction and security in Europe and attention to Africa, the Middle East ences in style, the fundamental aims elsewhere. The partnership with or other parts of the world. Acheson, while not on a close per¬ sonal basis, was of great effective¬ The portfolio which he carried to Eleanor Lansing Dulles who currently lives 21st street included matters related in Washington has been an economist, politi¬ ness. to the United Nations, Bretton Woods cal scientist, professor and writer. Her pro¬ he termination of bipartisanship financial organizations, plans for fessional association with the State Depart¬ T ment dates from 1942 but she has known of in 1952 as the presidential cam¬ NATO, the reconstruction of dis¬ its problems from earlier years through her paign gained momentum was inevi¬ tressed areas and with some score of grandfather, John W. Foster, her uncle, Rob¬ table and had been anticipated by treaties designed to bring peace to a ert Lansing and her brother, Allen, who was President Truman. The collaboration distressed world. There had been a Foreign Service officer for ten years. She was much involved with the reconstruction of had not neutralized the criticisms of Austria and Berlin. She is the author of Far Eastern policies in the Senate *The address of the State Department from thirteen books. The most recent is Eleanor and made more evident the need for 1800 to 1801 was 2109 Pennsylvania Avenue. Lansing Dulles: Chances of a Lifetime, A The building has recently been razed. See Memoir. This article is based on the manu¬ better communication between the article by Andor Klay in the Washington Star script of Acheson and Dulles. The Improba¬ Executive and Congress as the vot¬ of October 22, 1980. ble Partnership, to be published. ers gave the new president a special

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. January. 1981 33 mandate. This experience in mid¬ is now recognized. Those who inclined to think the daily work of century made clear the conditions worked closely with Acheson knew many in the department is wasteful under which partisan foreign policy of his trust and confidence. Those and unnecessary. could be moderated and the extraor¬ who were in the intimate circle of The shift from what seems to be dinary possibility of meeting press¬ Dulles’s advisers had a similar feel¬ routine to what is crucially impor¬ ing needs in an effective manner. ing of easy communication with tant—for readiness for action in the Such occasions are political inter¬ their chief. This situation is one that case of Korea, in the Lebanon cri¬ ludes not easily duplicated. is often misunderstood. The top man sis, in Berlin challenges—is impres¬ What emerged clearly from the cannot deal with hundreds—he must sive. It is not clear if this took place leadership of both Dean Acheson, pick and choose and have special on the occasion of the occupation of secretary of state from 1949 to 1953, consultants. The choices inevitably the American embassy in Iran. and Foster Dulles, secretary from aroused criticism—but the critics are The crises of the period from 1947 1953 to 1959, was the importance of unrealistic and somewhat blind to to 1959 are revealing in respect to working closely and on completely the realities of the demanding task— the ability of the secretary and the responsive terms with the president. the impossible burdens on the secre¬ preparedness of the institution. The The most striking characteristics tary of state. Dulles brought in some tone of the response to sudden need of the Acheson-Dulles tenures in of¬ who had not before served in Wash¬ has varied from instance to instance. fice and one not duplicated on other ington. His selection was natural but occasions was the closeness of the was not congenial to some of the old In a review of the Acheson-Dulles men to the president. The frequent Washington hands. Both had to find years the reaction to critical events telephone calls, the visits to the Oval was at a high level with the nation Office and the unbroken channels of quickly maintaining and reaffirming communication were notable. There “The confidential its support of security, reconstruc¬ had been no period before, and tion and the strengthening of weak probably none since, when the ease backgrounder was not nations. It seems, on balance, that of exchange, the smoothness of re¬ a fully safe the system was backed by the leaders, porting and the promptness of af¬ instrument though and the leaders benefited by the sys¬ firmative action have been so tem. The general result was the marked. Acheson had a warm per¬ it was useful to clarity of policy which some con¬ sonal feeling for Truman. At the the press in enlarging demned as they tried to deny the time of the Truman Doctrine in 1947, realities of the Cold War, while oth¬ creation of NATO in 1949, the their understanding.” ers recognized as benefits in the Korean attack in 1950 their relations onward progress of the nation newly had been harmonious and effective. chargedwith large responsibilities. It Dulles telephoned Eisenhower early, easy associates. Changes in com¬ is clear as Khrushchev suggests, often met with him at midday— mand after assuming office with the where quoted in Khrushchev Re¬ stopping at the White House fre¬ help of close aides made it possible members*, that the message as to quently on his way home. When out to avoid the “layering” of which the US position and the will to act of the country he sent a long cable Dean Rusk has complained. In a quickly, consistently and in coopera¬ from foreign stations summarizing time of crisis, even more than in tion with the Allies was widely read his talks and actions. He did not day-to-day operations, rank does not and genuinely understood. They show the same close affection that establish series or stages of action. were able to achieve public support characterized Acheson’s letters to “the The lowest echelon meets with the even when Congress was difficult. boss,” but he always spoke of Eisen¬ highest and the title and grade is The use of the public media and hower with respect and admiration. ignored. Here again the quality of particularly the news conference Both of them indicated in conversa¬ the secretary, his instincts and his was of growing importance under tions with me that the high regard understanding are paramount. Acheson and Dulles. Much can be was mutual. Roosevelt did not have The instruction to condense rec¬ learned from studying the techniques comparable good fortune—perhaps ommendations into short statements in their use of the varied means of he did not want it. No president of is sometimes ridiculed. The infer¬ communication. There were advan¬ recent times has had the same solid ence drawn is that the president and tages in having special confidants friendship. the secretary cannot read. The truth among reporters and also dangers. of the matter is that consideration of The confidential backgrounder was The apparatus of the department the summary statement branches out not a fully safe instrument though it and other Washington agencies very quickly into a wide variety of was useful to the press in enlarging was sprawling and to many confus¬ more detailed studies. The art of the their understanding. There were ing, but both Acheson and Dulles expert in giving the proper emphasis many cases in which the time pres¬ had a perceptive understanding of to the salient points is the result of sure on the reporter led to a superfi¬ where in the apparatus expertise and long experience in dealing with is¬ cial development of misleading wisdom could be found and how to sues and the knowledge of past ac¬ phrases and unbalanced interpreta¬ dominate institutions, including the tion and commitments. The wealth tions. There are two examples worth National Security Council. The of material stored in the minds and noting. In these cases false impres- choice of people who could give files of many officers is brought to a (Continued on page 65) quick and practical advice at what¬ sharp focus to help narrow the op¬ ever rank and wherever posted was tions. This process of applying poli¬ *Edward Crankshaw. (Boston: Little Brown important. The insight both men had cy is little understood by the outsider and Company, 1970). 34 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. January, 1981 Association News HOSTAGE ANNIVERSARY QUERY ON IDCA As the nation observed the anni¬ ceived from several posts of special This interesting question from John versary of the taking of the Iran events that had taken place. In Sperling, AID representative on AFSA's hostages, hopes for their early re¬ Belgrade the ambassador met with Board, and response from Jim Kraus, lease were rekindled. Since that date over one hundred embassy employ¬ chief, labor relations staff, had to be negotiations have appeared to accel¬ ees on November 4. In Naha a ser¬ omitted from December’s “Dialogue on erate amidst still stronger feelings of vice of remembrance consisted of a AID" for space reasons, hope. flag raising, prayers by naval chap¬ Missions had a variety of sugges¬ lains, addresses by military leaders, tions and concerns about how best and the singing of the navy hymn. to mark the anniversary. Buenos In Nouakchott the AFSA representa¬ Aires asked if AFSA/W could offer tive placed a yellow ribbon at the guidance for observing the anniver¬ entrance of the embassy compound. sary. The embassy had already held In Quebec, the consulate general commemorative meetings and be¬ hosted an anniversary dinner. In Sperling and Kraus decked embassy trees with yellow Seoul a vigil ceremony was held at ribbons. The status of a proposed which the AFSA representative pro¬ Q. I don’t know if you can speak to hostage postage stamp was ques¬ vided a brief recapitulation of events this or not but just a little over a year tioned. Jerusalem AFSA members of the past year. A book available ago IDCA was formed with high had discussed the possibility of hold¬ for signatures and eventual trans¬ expectations. In recent months we ing a prayer service. Lahore called mittal to the hostages contained the have had a tremendous amount of for a symbolic gesture to emphasize simple message, “We remember.” feedback from our members asking the bond felt by millions of Ameri¬ Also looking beyond the immedi¬ us why in the world IDCA was ever cans including the members of the ate occasion, Quebec urged that rec¬ created. They point out that IDCA entire foreign service with our col¬ ognition be given to Canadians in was a good idea and would have leagues. Lima asked AFSA/W what the ceremony marking the appoint¬ added greatly to the delivery and measures if any were being consid¬ ment of Ken Taylor as Candian con¬ coordination of foreign assistance if ered to commemorate the 4th of sul general in New York. Martinique the originally envisioned wider au¬ November. thoughtfully suggested that AFSA or thorities had been obtained. Given AFSA/W responded on November the department might extend on its that IDCA was cut back in its au¬ 2 with a circular telegram express¬ behalf a very warm invitation to any thority many of our members feel ing hope for an early release of the of our colleagues who are released that there is precious little chance of hostages and suggesting appropriate from captivity in Iran to spend a them gaining the additional authori¬ low key events such as religious ser¬ couple of weeks or more in Marti¬ ties need to do their job well. Put vices, display of yellow ribbons, nique as honored guests. Martinique simply, they question whether IDCA prayer vigils, etc. On the postage thought the tranquil Caribbean envi¬ should continue to exist. Frankly, stamp for the hostages AFSA had ronment might help in the recupera¬ our members have been appalled by learned that an eighteen-month lead tion process. Not a bad idea! the fact that out of around 50 em¬ time was required to process new In summary, our hostages are re¬ ployees in IDCA there are two or stamps, so that it would not be prac¬ membered. Our hopes are with them. perhaps three very lonely Foreign tical to achieve issuance of the stamp Having transcended the sad anniver¬ Service employees helping to make during the probable time of their sary, we now look forward to a policy on our foreign assistance. captivity. happy date of safe return. This is astounding. The convention¬ After November 4, word was re- al wisdom is that IDCA has delayed the process, has produced very lit¬ tle, and in fact, we would do better NOTICE TO AFSA MEMBERS FROM AFSA ELECTIONS COMMITTEE by retaining the IDCA authorities and eliminating it as an institution. The 1981 AFSA Governing Board the elections. Do you have any comment? elections will soon be upon us. The The Election Call, in accordance A. I can only comment on your election process will get underway with AFSA Bylaws, will require that remarks from a labor relations per¬ with the publication of the Election nominations be received by the Elec¬ spective. The scope of authorities Call in the February Foreign Service tions Committee not later than March and relationship between IDCA and Journal, as provided in the AFSA 2, 1981. The Elections Committee AID are set forth in Reorganization Bylaws. The Election Call formally hopes that this advance notice will Plan #2. It sets forth the goals and notifies all AFSA members of the be helpful to all AFSA members in expectations of the various relation¬ opportunity to participate in the their election planning, and that they ships. I believe that condemnation nomination and election of members will make their nominations promp¬ of IDCA at this early stage is prema¬ of the Governing Board to take tly, once the Election Call has been ture and quite harsh, considering that office on July 15, 1981 and pre¬ issued. the organization has been in existence scribes the terms and conditions of for only one year.

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January, 19SI 35 AWARDS CEREMONY SCHEDULED AFSA SCHOLARSHIP AFSA has announced the winners of mission in Bogota, during the WHO —For dependent children of of the Christian A. Herter, the period Ambassador Diego Ascencio FS families who are serving William R. Rivkin, and the Averell was held hostage by a terrorist group or have served abroad Harriman Awards which are given in the winter of 1980. Mr. Crigler HOW —Apply to the AFSA Schol¬ annually to senior, middle-grade, has been a member of the Foreign arship Programs Adminis¬ and junior Foreign Service officers Service since 1961. trator, by letter or phone respectively. Each award carries an The William R. Rivkin Award: To (202-338-4046) giving FS honorarium of $1,000. Ray L. Caldwell for his exemplary affiliations and type of These awards are in recognition achievements as head of the internal scholarship —Merit, Finan¬ of extraordinary accomplishment, re¬ division of the political section of cial Aid, of both. flecting outstanding initiative, integ¬ the American Embassy, Madrid. Mr. WHERE—AFSA, 2101 E Street, rity, intellectual courage, and creative Caldwell joined the Foreign Service NW, Washington, D.C. dissent. The presentations of all in 1971. 20037 three awards are being made at a The Averell Harriman Award: To ceremony on January 9, 1981, as Mrs. Geraldeen G. Chester for her WHEN—IMMEDIATELY! All ap¬ part of a program commemorating extraordinary contribution as a key plications must be received the Department of State’s 200th an¬ member of the team negotiating the at the AFSA office by Feb¬ niversary. Panama Canal treaty and its subse¬ ruary 15, 1981. The award winners are: quent implementation. Mrs. Chester Merit Awards are for graduating The Christian Herter Award: To was in private law practice before 1981 High School seniors or ju¬ Trusten Frank Crigler for his out¬ joining the Foreign Service in 1972. niors, based on academic excellence. standing performance as deputy chief Financial Aid Awards are for un¬ dergraduate students based on need. ATTENTION STAFF CORPS AFSA’S PAT GUILD FS personnel in the lower grades are All Staff Corps employees who encouraged to apply. have had to pay customs duties with¬ HELP! in the past three years into countries The MIC needs additional volunteers to which the US accords free entry to tackle bread & butter issues fac¬ privileges may have cause for a ing all FS employees. Won’t you grievance. According to 2 FAM 240, spare an hour or two a week to: the United States extends customs • negotiate with management on courtesies and free entry privileges regulations to foreign diplomatic and consular • assure fair administration of exist¬ officers and employees on a recipro¬ ing policy cal basis. • follow up on concerns from the 2 FAM 243 states: 243 Securing Reciprocal Courtesies field. and Privileges. Where foreign govern¬ This is not an altruistic mission: ments are not disposed to grant to US YOU and all employees benefit from diplomatic and consular officers and our work and MIC members have employees customs courtesies and free the personal satisfaction of being in¬ entry privileges similar to those enjoyed strumental in making the “system” If you’ve been to the AFSA office by that country’s representatives in the function better. Call AFSA on 632- in the Department lately, the first United States, this discrepancy is brought 8160 or stop by at N.S. 3644 to the attention of the foreign govern¬ person you’ve probably met is Pat ment by the American diplomatic repre¬ Guild, our indispensable staff secre¬ F.S. TASK FORCES sentatives in that country. If the foreign tary. As first impressions go, it’d be The new charter for the Foreign government will not grant the same ex¬ hard to think of a nicer one, pos¬ Service becomes effective February emptions and courtesies to our represen¬ sessing, as she does, an abundance 15, 1981. An enormous amount of tatives abroad as are granted the repre¬ of cheerfulness, helpfulness and work is ahead as AFSA prepares its sentatives of the government concerned boundless patience. Pat graduated positions on the issues entailed in a in the United States, the US government from Sweet Briar college in 1979 massive overhaul of the regulations, will, of necessity, have to withdraw such with a major in psychology (which and negotiates with management to exemptions and courtesies extended to that foreign government’s representatives has unquestionably stood her in good implement them. Task forces have in the United States. Representations or stead), and we found her through the been organized to address provisions protests of this sort are reported imme¬ Washington Business School. She of the Act, and are open to interest¬ diately to the Department. says she admires Foreign Service ed members. The task forces are: I. In many cases the United States people and finds them “strong- Employee/Management Relations and has not withdrawn such exemptions willed”—(the present Governing Grievance Procedures, II. Conver¬ and courtesies. If you have been Board may have played a part in sion Procedures, III. Flow Through affected by this, AFSA wants to forming that impression!). (intake, promotion and retention), know about it. Contact Emmett For the future, Pat says she may IV. Senior Foreign Service, V. Train¬ O’Brien, OC/TR, in care of the go back to school someday, but we ing/Career Development, and VI. AFSA office. hope that someday is a long way off. Allowances.

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RETIREMENT LEGISLATION HOME LEAVE CASE BOX SCORE On December 10, 1980, the US home leave. Section 933 of the For¬ Court of Appeals for the District of eign Service Act of 1946, as amend¬ Before adjournment the 96th Con¬ Columbia heard oral aigument on ed, provides that the secretary shall gress finally passed the budget rec¬ deductibility of home leave expenses order on home leave a member of onciliation bill which had been stalled for Foreign Service personnel in the the Service as soon as possible after over the election recess. In its origi¬ case of Teil and Brewin v. Commis¬ the completion of three years of con¬ nal form this measure would have sioner. Sitting for the Court were tinuous service abroad. The Foreign eliminated one of the semi-annual Judges Robinson, MacKinnon, and Service Act of 1980, contains the cost-of-living adjustments (COLA) June Green. Murray Belman argued same provision in Sec. 903 of that applied to federal retirement annui¬ the case for the Foreign Service. He Act (cited as 22 U.S. Code Sec. ties. It also would have done away stated that he is “cautiously optimis¬ 4083). with the “look back” provision under tic” about the result. We don’t know AFSA has provided financial sup¬ which the amount of a prospective when the decision will be issued. port for the appeal. Individual con¬ retiree’s annuity could be calculated The chief aigument for deductibility tributions are welcome. For your con¬ to include the last COLA, as well as of home leave expenses as ordinary tribution to be tax-deductible, make the provision permitting retirees to and necessary business expenses checks payable to the Thomas Legal receive the full amount of the first (Sec. 162 of the Internal Revenue Defense Fund and state in your let¬ COLA following their actual date of Code) is the compulsory nature of ter that you are an AFSA member. retirement. In the original version of the bill all of these changes would LET’S COMMUNICATE have become effective on the date Since the signing of the Foreign Ser¬ will expect you to honor that com¬ the bill became law. vice Act on October 17, a series of mitment. If hired non-worldwide, The president signed this legisla¬ briefings have been arrranged for com¬ management proposes to convert you tion on Friday, December 5, 1980. municators stationed in Washington. to Civil Service. If converted, the In its final form it provided the Many communicators have not been able act requires that you be converted to following: to attend the various AFSA or manage¬ the “type of appointment which cor¬ 1. The present semi-annual COLA ment briefings either because of their responds most closely in tenure to work schedules or because they work was not changed. Moreover, since away from the Main State building. the type of appointment under which President-elect Reagan is on record Therefore, these special briefings were you were serving immediately prior as favoring its continuation in a let¬ set up to fill the informational void and to conversion.” If you are career ter to the National Association. of to give employees the chance to hear the FSS/FSRU, you will become career Retired Federal Employees sent prior question AFSA’s representatives. GS. If you are on probation or do to the election, there appears to be a The following are excerpts from the not have your U, you will convert to good chance that the semi-annual December 3 briefing given to communi¬ career conditional status. COLA will be retained. cators in the Fullerton Complex, SA-7, There will be all sorts of permuta¬ 2. Those who retire on or subse¬ Programs and Engineering staff. AFSA tions—worldwide available for quent to December 5 will receive a was represented by Vice President Thea whom there are no positions over¬ pro-rata share of the first COLA de Rouville and OC Keyperson Emmett O’Brien. seas, “domestic-hire” whose skills following their retirement equal to are needed overseas. These will have Ms de Rouville opened the meeting one-sixth of the amount of that with a thirty-minute summary of the act to be dealt with on a case-by-case COLA for each month they have as it relates to communcators’ interests basis. The regulations for conversion been in retirement status. With the and concerns. This was immediately fol¬ are currently being negotiated be¬ next COLA scheduled for March 1, lowed by the question and answer period tween AFSA and management, so 1981, anyone retiring in January, excerpted below: it’s impossible to be more precise in 1981 for example would be eligible Q. How does the Foreign Service dealing with individual cases. How¬ to receive two-sixths, or one third, relate to the Civil Service under the ever, the act is very clear—To re¬ of the March i increase. act. If you talk to four different main Foreign Service, you must be 3. The “look back” provision was people, you get four different an¬ worldwide available and there must extended for 45 days following the swers. How is conversion from our be a need for your services overseas. date that the bill was signed. Conse¬ present status in the Foreign Service If you cannot meet these criteria, quently, anyone contemplating re¬ linked to Civil Service under the you will be converted without loss tirement in the near future must be act? of grade or salary and will be in retirement status not later than the A. One of the main purposes of the protected from downgrading so long 44th day—or January 18, 1981—to act is to provide a clear distinction as you do not voluntarily leave your take advantage of this arrangement. between those who are worldwide current position. Within these pa¬ available and have skills needed over¬ rameters, regulations can be worked seas and those who are not world¬ out to deal with the anomalies fairly wide available and/or for whom there and helpfully. Don’t miss the February issue of the are no positions overseas and there¬ Q. If you can switch to GS from FS Journal fore no need for their services abroad. and keep your Foreign Service retire¬ At present the categories overlap. A ment, it seems that there will be a As in the past, the February Journal great deal depends on the status huge influx into the Civil Service. will feature an update on tax infor¬ under which you were hired. If hired A. No, because you can’t switch mation for FS employees. worldwide available, management just because you want to. You have

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. January. 1981 37 to be in a category that is declared vice situation. The special provisions post differential or instead of? domestic. The current position de¬ of the Foreign Service Act take pre¬ A. In addition to. It is intended to signation of the job you are in as cedence and have no time limits. help out hard-to-fill posts. FS or GS has no direct bearing on You have, in effect, rank in person, Q. What is going to happen to conversion. and you will keep that rank in per¬ in-grades under this new act? Right Q. What about secretaries and com¬ son when you convert as long as you now, we have two systems, where municators who are worldwide but remain in the same position. If you FSRs and FSOs get their in-grades want to go GS. What do we have to are the FSR equivalent of GS-12 on a given date and FSS a year from do, resign? whatever position you go into will their last. A. Currently, yes, you would have be graded GS-12 and will remain A. It will now be the same for to resign from the Foreign Service GS-12 so long as you are in it. If the everyone—you have to be 52 weeks in order to compete for a GS posi¬ position is audited and downgraded, in step or grade in steps 1 through tion. The act’s purpose is to sepa¬ the downgrading will apply only to 9, 104 weeks for steps 10 through rate out the '‘domestic” employees the person who comes after you in 13. Anyone who has been in grade and keep the worldwide employees that job. For you, so long as you do at steps 1-9 more than 52 weeks, or in the Foreign Service. The protec¬ not leave voluntarily, it will remain at step 10 more than 104 weeks will tions on conversion extend only to a GS-12. get an in-grade increase on February those who are converted involuntari¬ Q. We have engineers who are 15, the effective date of the act, ly. If you choose to convert from Foreign Service but are sitting in assuming satisfactory performance. worldwide, you are on your own. positions which are to be Civil Ser¬ Q. And it will then be on the Q. Then a worldwide communicator vice positions. Since there are no FS same date from then on? or secretary couldn’t voluntarily engineering positions overseas, these A. Yes, except if you are promot¬ convert and still receive protection employees will have to convert. But, ed next year, your next one would under the act. we are told that because the jobs are then be 52 or 104 weeks from the A. That’s right. designated Civil Service, they will promotion date, depending on your A. If you are domestic and convert, be put on the register. We are told step. do you have to do it right away? that the people who are in these Q. If by law we are eligible for A. No, you have three years from positions and must convert have to certain benefits and management February 15, 1981, before you have go on the register and compete and says “sorry, we don’t have any mo¬ to convert. Even if you want to stay be picked up if they are converted. ney,” what recourse do we have? Foreign Service and your appeal is In other Words, they are converting A. To try and get the money. denied, you still have the three years. from FS to GS at their own request Certain things, like salary and re¬ That is specified in the act, and and will lose the conversion protec¬ tirement benefits, are entitlements don’t let anyone tell you otherwise. tion. and must be paid. Others, such as Q. What about worldwide availabili¬ A. No way. If you must convert many allowances, are not, and if ty? Suppose you have a medical and are in a Civil Service job, you Congress does not appropriate the problem Will you have to go to GS? do not have to compete for the job funds, the authorization to pay doesn’t A. No, because you are worldwide with other GS, and it is not a volun¬ really mean very much. However, available and there are jobs for you tary conversion. You are protected. we have friends up on the Hill now, abroad. Section 2104 (a)(2) of the Foreign people who are well aware of the Q. If someone is converted, can Service Act provides that such an problems of Foreign Service people the position (and therefore your individual “shall be appointed to and sympathetic to them. Working grade) be downgraded after conver¬ such position without competitive through them, we will attempt to get sion. examination.” However, if the peo¬ the money. It will take work and A. No, that grade is yours as long ple sitting in these positions are time, but we think it can be done. as you do not voluntarily leave this worldwide available and wish to re¬ Q. On selection out, is the grand¬ position. Even if the position is main Foreign Service, I would be fathering period ten years from now? downgraded, it wouldn’t matter—for very surprised if that couldn’t be A. Ten years from February 15, your purposes it will remain at your worked out. or until eligible for an annuity, grade as long as you do not volun¬ Q. Did you say that those convert¬ whichever comes first. This applies tarily leave it. If you wanted a pro¬ ed will lose their tenured status? only to FSS who were not previous¬ motion, however, you would have to A. No, I said that everyone who ly subject to selection out, and only find another GS job at a higher comes in initially after February 15 to sub-standard performance. TIC is level, compete for it and get it. At will come in untenured and will go a different matter. that point, since you would have left through a probationary/career candi¬ your original “conversion” position date period and be tenured after sat¬ voluntarily, you would lose the pro¬ isfactory completion of that period. Editor’s Note: At another meeting sim¬ tection against downgrading. But if you are career FS now, and ilar to the interview Thea de Rouville had you convert, you will be converted Q. But if you convert, and the job with representatives of September 17 (see is downgraded, wouldn’t your salary to career status. The act requires October issue), August J. Bleske (OCIP), be lowered in two years? that you be converged to the type of William O. Weatherford (OC/T) and Em¬ A. No, this is an entirely different appointment which corresponds in mett O’Brien (OCITR) raised more ques¬ thing. The two-year downgrading tenure to the one you held prior to tions regarding concerns of communica¬ protection you are thinking of ap¬ conversion. tors. This interview will appear in next plies only to the “pure” Civil Ser¬ Q. Is incentive pay in addition to month's Journal.

38 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. January, 1981 NANCY MATTHEWS

This is a story about Foreign Service Madrid, plays tennis in Kenya, blue gown, between two friends, the wives—who they are, who they were and dances in Moscow, sings in a choir seated figure of Martha Washington who they will be. It is a story with a group in Mexico. She belongs to the and the taller, more youthful Martha beginning but no end, a story that each PTA in Washington, is a den mother Jefferson Randolph, daughter of individual continues to live out in her and drives car pools to ballet class. Thomas Jefferson. Her smallness of own way. It is a story that is the sum She dresses up in elegant clothes stature, the slightly wistful ex¬ total of all those lives. and attends receptions and dinners pression she wears and her look of Windsailors in the world’s capitals; she dresses fragility seem to deny the inner Emissaries have played significant in faded jeans and brushes away strength that sustained her. roles in the histories of their mosquitoes in the steaming jungles Bom and brought up in strict New countries ever since the beginnings of South America. She tries to put England, granddaughter and daugh¬ of contact between peoples. But it away boreddm in the desert heat of ter of Congregational ministers, but was not until modem times, with the the Middle East, wilts in the winter without formal education, she sus¬ establishment by most nations of a dark of Scandinavia, blooms in a tained home and family in the most corps of career diplomats charged Japanese garden. She is strong, she difficult times during the birth pangs with the responsibility for conduct is weak, she is beautiful, she is of our country, when she was separ¬ of foreign affairs, that wives and plain. She is from Kansas, New ated from her beloved husband mote families needed to be reckoned with. England, Vietnam and Colombia. than she was with him. Her deter¬ Today the United States Foreign Ser¬ She speaks French sometimes, or mination to hold together all that vice has become a vast network of German or Arabic or Chinese. Or was dear to her, and her total dedi¬ professionals who cannot be consid¬ she speaks only English, except for cation to the cause for which her ered in any context without concern kitchen necessities. Whoever she is, husband labored, never left her for for their families. To this group of she has one thing in common with more than a fleeting moment, nor wanderers, Foreign Service has be¬ all of her sisters—she chose to tie did her devotion to him. Fortunately come a way of life. her life to that of one whose career Abigail was a prolific letter writer, Today’s Foreign Service wife has is the Foreign Service of the United and her correspondence with her many faces and many personalities. States. husband, family and friends gives an intimate glimpse into her character She is the wife of the American Putting to Sea ambassador in Paris and the mother and leaves for history a fascinating of a small baby in Chieng Mai. She The story of the American For¬ chronicle of the times. works for a salary in an office in eign Service wife really began in Her eight months in Paris and two Cairo, as a volunteer in a hospital in 1784, when Abigail Adams sailed years in London as the wife of an for Europe aboard the sailing ship American minister were experiences Active. After a long separation, she for which she was at first ill-prepared. Nancy Matthews’ Foreign Service experience was to join her husband in Paris, Although her life had rarely been has included posts at Palermo, Zurich, Madrid,. Saigon (two years of separation where he was American joint com¬ easy, she had not expected to be during which she spent a month at post), missioner at the Court of France, called upon to deal with the many Mexico City and Egypt. During her Washing¬ one of our young country’s first re¬ frustrations she encountered in trying ton years she twice served on the board of presentatives abroad. This remarkable to run her household and doing what AAFSW and was a member of the original woman was the formidable predeces¬ she considered her duty in a foreign planning group in 1961. She was president of the Embassy Women's Group in Mexico sor of a long line of courageous country. She rose to the occasion, City. In Cairo, after editing the Embassy women. Her figure stands now in however, with characteristic resolve. Newsletter for three years, she founded an the dimly lit hall that houses the Arriving in France after an irk¬ English language bi-monthly journal. Cairo collection of first ladies’ inaugural some and disagreeable four-week Today, which is now an established publi¬ cation in that city. She is married to FSO gowns at the Smithsonian’s Museum voyage, and a short sojourn in Eng¬ H. Freeman Matthews, Jr., deputy director of History and Technology. She land, her first impressions were dis¬ of the office of management operations. stands demurely, in her time-faded mal. “It is the very dirtiest place I FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. January, 1981 39 ever saw .... To have had Paris els, her servant problems, the din¬ she did successfully for the next tolerable to me, I should not have ners and entertainments, her presen¬ twenty-eight years, until her death. gone to London,” she wrote to her tation to the queen at court, where, She did so with charm, dignity, and niece, Lucy Cranch. Settling into a she wrote, she would never “set my good humor, in spite of hard times house in Auteuil was difficult. She foot if the etiquette of my country and separations which in today’s spoke no French and though she did not require it. But whilst I am in world would not have been easily gradually overcame her dislike of a public character, I must submit to tolerated. the French, she constantly railed at the penalty.” Yet she grew to enjoy Going from the old-world charm the expenses the Adamses were ob¬ London and her life there, and short¬ and the relatively easy life of Buda¬ liged to incur. “Every American who ly after her return to America two pest in 1927 to the then-remote city comes to Paris, no matter from what years later she wrote to a friend in of Bogota, Colombia was an experi¬ State, makes his visit and pays his England, “I have sometimes been ence unlike any she had ever pre¬ respects to the American Ministers; suspected of partiality, for the pref¬ pared for. The journey took nearly all of whom, in return, you must dine erence which I have given to En¬ as long as Abigail’s voyage on the .... in short, there is no end to the gland; and, were I to live out of Active. In the days before the air expense which a person in public America, that country would have travel we now take so much for character is obliged to be at.” But, been my choice.” granted, ships were a necessity ra¬ at the end of eight months, when it At Full Sail ther than a luxury. Accompanied by was time to move on, she writes, their Doberman pinscher, the couple “Delightful and blooming garden, In September, 1925 a young For¬ made the trip by banana boat from how much 1 shall regret your loss.” eign Service officer, on home leave New York to Puerto Colombia, call¬ In London she began househunting from his first post in Budapest, mar¬ ing at various ports along the way. once again. From the house in which ried a pretty girl from a town on the From there it was a short but expen¬ they finally settled on Grosvenor Hudson after a whirlwind courtship, sive train ride to Barranquilla, where Square, she wrote many letters de¬ and took her back when he returned they boarded a little paddle-wheel tailing her experiences and her trav¬ to share his new life with him. This steamer for the two-week journey up the Magdalena River to Girardot. Cabins on the boat were minute, ventilation non-existent, mosquitoes thick and the jungle heat intense. Food consisted mostly of rice and bananas. What meat they had was provided by the periodic slaughter of one of the cows being towed behind on a barge for the purpose. After two weeks of winding through the steaming jungle, the little boat final¬ ly arrived at Girardot where, next day, another train took the exhaust¬ ed travelers to their final destination, the 8,000-foot-high city of Bogota, their home for the next three years. Their furniture arrived months later, almost in ruin. In those days it was shipped at one’s own expense and the insurance company paid up only after more months of waiting. But they nonetheless settled in to a pleasant, interesting—and challen¬ ging—life. Their first son was bom at home the next winter, while his fa¬ ther lay in another room critically ill with typhoid. Fortunately, a Ford Foundation doctor saw them through both crises, as local medical facili¬ ties were far from adequate. Later the mother took her young baby with her on a trip home for a necessary operation, all at their own expense, of course. During this painful separa¬ tion of several months, communica¬ tions were slow; letters consigned to ships of the United Fruit Company Courtesy Xcu York State Historical Assoc wtum, Coopt rstoun took a circuitous route to their des¬ Abigail Adams by Ralph Earl. Painted bv Earl when Abigail was in London in 1785. tinations. 40 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January. 1981 That introduction to Foreign Ser- vice life was followed by many years way of help and support, she was not adjust to the conditions I found— of experiences—in Cuba, in France always understanding. She never a drab and drafty second-floor apart¬ and Spain, in Vichy and wartime made unreasonable demands as did ment with rats screeching in the London. As the storm gathered for some senior wives of that era, when arbor over the door, a crude icebox World War II, a period of many sepa¬ personal lives came second to the filled daily with filthy, melting rations began. Poignant letters dur¬ embassy’s need. Good hostess, good chunks of ice, flies everywhere, a ing these times are uncomplaining, sport, good-natured, good wife and language I could not understand, a always looking forward to reunions, good mother, she was gentle and two-bumer hotplate to cook on, daily but often with an undercurrent of ladylike at all times. She also had a power failures and, before many days the plaguing dilemma of whether very strict sense of duty and was had gone by, a baby who was severe¬ she should be with her husband or convinced of the necessity of being ly ill. After three weeks I had lost her children. There was much shut¬ a partner in her husband’s work. She pounds, not cooked a single meal tling back and forth in these years, did so with pleasure. She was a role for my poor husband nor written a at personal expense. Few of these model for her young, green and very word to our anxious parents. One expenses could have been met on a inexperienced daughter-in-law. day at noon my husband came home young officer’s salary alone. Fortu¬ But I still had much to learn, and and found me crying uncontrollably. nately, the couple’s financial status the background was motion. I told him I wanted to go home. It permitted this, and there was a large was the lowest point I have ever Whitecaps and Rough Waters family willing to take responsibility reached and I have thought about it for the children in her absence. When I graduated from Connecti¬ many times when things seemed dif¬ Those were days that tempered a cut College in 1949, I had absolute¬ ficult. woman’s steel and strengthened a ly no plans. My only awareness of Fortunately, I did not go home, the Foreign Service had come the previous April, when one of the girls on my floor in the dormitory had left school to marry a young Foreign Service officer in Kashmir. She was to honeymoon on a house¬ boat, floating among the flowers. I vividly recall how the romance of it captured the imagination of us all. We gave little thought to what her life might be like after the honey¬ moon. But the very weekend after Newlyweds, pre-Budapest my graduation, the direction of my Palermo 1954 life was established in an instant. I character already solid, overcame a met the man I was to marry, and the but tearfully agreed to try it just a fragility which she refused to allow Foreign Service soon became a real¬ little longer. Of course, once I faced to interfere with her determination. ity to me. reality I began to be able to cope. She was well prepared when her A visit to my future in-laws in Eighteen months later as we sailed husband was appointed American Sweden the following Christmas out of Palermo Harbor on the Pos¬ ambassador to Sweden in 1947. thrust me pleasantly into embassy tale bound for Naples and ultimately This woman became my mother- life—at the top. The confection of a Switzerland, I felt very sad. 1 was in-law in June, 1950, when I mar¬ Swedish Christmas enchanted me sure there would never be another ried the son bom on that chill New and I was excited at the prospect of place like it. And I was right. For it Year’s Eve in Bogota when his fa¬ a life spent abroad. was here at our very first post where ther nearly died of typhoid. Her in¬ Just a few short months after our I really prepared myself for the fu¬ fluence upon my innocence was marriage in 1950 I found myself ture and met the friends who would enormous. It was from her that I alone, with my new husband back be closest to me for the rest of our learned about devotion to the For¬ in the army and headed for Korea. I career. eign Service, which in those days moved to Washington to stay with In those early days Palermo was a was an expected and accepted atti¬ my in-laws and got a job at the State large post where the refugee relief tude. I also learned about compas¬ Department. Now my education re¬ program was being administered by a sion. In both posts where her hus¬ ally began. I learned what the State number of young vice-consuls. We band served as ambassador during Department did and. what the For¬ young wives were all required to her lifetime, as well as during his eign Service really meant, and was call on the wife of our consul gen¬ tenure in one of the most senior deeply impressed by the dedication eral soon after our arrival. Gloved State Department positions, she was and devotion of both of my hus¬ and with cards, we took the bus into an inspiration to young wives who band’s parents to it. town, worried about leaving our ba¬ came into the Service, often bright¬ Later, the war over and a year in bies with strange and inexperienced eyed, but insecure and uncertain as Washington behind us, we left with maids, and terrified of making some to what was expected of them. Al¬ our small son for our first assign¬ mistake. It turned out to be a gentle though she herself usually gave a ment in Palermo, Sicily, and I found introduction into protocol, for our gentle briefing to new embassy that nothing had prepared me for my consul general’s wife was Mrs. wives, during which she explained first real-life experience. James Hugh Keeley, one of the what she hoped for from them in the From the first day, I simply could kindest women I have known. Still, I

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January. 1981 41 remember the experience as being That same year, two-week sessions as stated in a Management Reform very frightening. of the Foreign Service Institute’s Bulletin dated June 3, 1971, that During three years in Switzerland “wives course” brought participants, “Hardly any wife has chosen this as I operated with more confidence, most of whom were going out to the her own way of life; most have ac¬ but latge amounts of entertaining field, up-to-date on the thinking in cepted it gracefully as a by-product cost us more money than we should many areas of American life. In one of their choice of mate.” The rec¬ have spent from our own pockets. lecture on the country team concept, ommendations of this Task Force However, we enjoyed it and thought we were told, “It is a new kind of exerted enough weight to bring about it worthwhile, As we subsequently diplomacy. It is complete diplomacy the famous and world-shaking “72 rose slowly in the Service, responsi¬ as it has never been before. It in¬ Directive.” In Mexico it came to my bilities became more awesome, per¬ volves everyone, including wives desk on the yellow-banded paper of haps, but they continued to be dealt . . . International relations are peo¬ an administrative announcement. with within the framework of un¬ ple and women are becoming very Someone had written on top in red questioning duty for some years. effective in international relations.” ink, “Alleluia!” Another speaker, Mrs. Mary Hil¬ No more were wives asked to as¬ A Fresh Breeze ton, pointed to a “new pattern” sist at embassy functions and fake Back in Washington again in 1960- quietly evolving in the lives of part in representation. The ambas¬ 1962, a movement had begun to American women. “A woman how sador and his wife now invited em¬ incorporate the Foreign Service completes her education, works until bassy couples to official functions wives who met periodically for lunch married or until her first child is as guests (although they were usual¬ into an association with a character bom, withdraws until the youngest is ly not invited back again if they and a purpose. June Byrne was the of school age, then seeks full or acted like guests. The same kind of catalyst and I was a member of a part-time employment or volunteer help was still needed and there were small group that met to lay the work.” She continued that a number still many who enjoyed the oppor¬ groundwork. The effort was a suc¬ of women were beginning to com¬ tunity to meet new people). cess, and the Association of Ameri¬ bine roles. “The goal,” she said, “is In January, 1973, just one year can Foreign Service Women was free partnership with men in the after the directive was issued, a bom and given official status as a sense that there is free choice of meeting was held which was to be non-profit organization. Among its where one thinks her best contribu¬ an open discussion of concerns re¬ early goaJs were to provide a struc¬ tions can be made.” lating to the new role of women. It ture for discussion and exchange of In ther same year, 1962, I made a evolved into two camps, one of information, and to contribute the speech to a women’s organization in which was content, but felt the group results of its fund-raising efforts to my home-town. In it, I tried to ex¬ should be more active. The second, scholarships for Foreign Service plain to women who had never been mostly made up of younger wives, children. a part of it just what the life of a voiced strongly their desire to be Mrs. Charles E. Bohlen attended Foreign Service wife was like. allowed to work, something that at some of the planning sessions to Although the talk was given al¬ that time was almost impossible for give the group the benefit of her most 20 years ago, the description a foreigner in Mexico. I left Mexico wisdom and support. A contempo¬ of some of the qualities of such a before any answers were found, and rary of my mother-in-law and a very wife are still valid: Willingness to I doubt that I realized at the time the fine woman, Avis Bohlen was the adapt, to pull up stakes often, to far-reaching importance of the con¬ wife of one of the department’s most adapt to new cultures, to face possi¬ cerns voiced in the residence living distinguished ambassadors. She had ble problems with uprooted children. room that morning. recently given a speech to some As far as the obligations I stressed, I A New Course young wives whose husbands were would now change must to may in brand-new FSOs. She talked about areas such as helping the ambassa¬ Today, eight years later, in a busy the duties of the ambassador and his dor’s wife, participating in “repre¬ office on the seventh floor of the State wife. “It is part of her responsibility sentation” and entering into local Department sits a very attractive blonde to make the wives be busy and happy activities. The rewards, I believe, woman named Barbro Owens: Barbro and contributing, because if the are still the same; a sense of being was bom in Finland and was the youn¬ wives are unhappy or homesick or present when history is made, travel gest member ever of the city council not fitting in, they can very quickly and learning experiences for the fam¬ of Helsinki when she met her husband affect the morale of their husbands ily and, for many a satisfying feel¬ John, a Foreign Service officer as¬ which then means an effect on the ing of participation in the chosen signed to the embassy there. Today, work of the embassy as a whole.” career of one’s husband. Barbro is an FSO, one of the two Wash¬ The “duties and. responsibilities” of ington aides to Donald McHenry, am¬ Winds of Change the ambassador’s wife, she said, are bassador to the United Nations Her basically the same ones of other By the time we went to Mexico in husband has recently gone to Bermu¬ wives, but on a much grander scale. 1970, profound changes had begun. da as consul general. This couple rep¬ She also emphasized the positive as¬ The Association of American For¬ resents a new phenomenon in the For¬ pects of Foreign Service life as she eign Service Women, against a back¬ eign Service, the tandem couple, each saw them and added, “If at the be¬ ground of women’s liberation and pursuing their own careers and hoping ginning you learn the rules and know drastic changes in attitude, had seen to find assignments at the same post. what is expected of you, from then the necessity for redefinition of They are becoming more and more on everything that happens is a the role of the wife. A Task Force numerous. Although,the department plus.” was organized to deal with the fact, has been very sensitive to the needs of

42 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January. 1981 tandem couples, it seems inevitable that helped to define women’s legal rights many different directions. career developments may sometimes in certain situations, the group has One of the most serious of these require hard choices as both rise in worked for changes in the Foreign Ser¬ is brought about by the fact that, the Service. A decision may have to vice Act which would give spouses even though the Foreign Service wife be made as to whether the two are more benefits under its provisions. has been given her freedom from willing to work at different posts. The Importantly, the new amendment now such duties as once occupied her, Owenses decided in favor of this ar¬ firmly cements the AAFSW positon. there are still certain responsibilities rangement. The result is that Barbro The AAFSW as a result of its work to be met, particularly as one’s is now playing two roles. She works over the past decade has gained re¬ spouse rises to senior levels. Some¬ long hours in her job. Then, every spect and credibility with both the one has to do these things. In many other weekend, she takes the one-and- Department of State and members of countries a failure to do so would be a-half hour flight down to Bermuda, Congress. It functions as a strong badly misunderstood. And a Foreign at her own expense, and becomes the voice for Foreign Service women. Service wife is still her husband’s consul general’s wife, seeing that the Uncharted Depths partner; necessarily, she is more house runs smoothly, entertaining, visible in the Foreign Service. Those being entertained and turning her at¬ And now, after many years of fol¬ basics have not really changed; they tention to family matters. That this is lowing patterns and traditions, the were the same for Abigail Adams a demanding existence Barbro ad¬ Foreign Service wife has been and for Mrs. Bohlen and my mother- mits. But, she says, it is also stimulat¬ in-law as they are for Barbro Owens ing and exciting. and for me and for all the young In another office in the Department women who are coming into the of State sits Marilyn Holmes, director Service today. of the newly created Family Liaison I have had no easier time than Office, a direct result of the Forum others in dealing with these themes. Report prepared by AAFSW recom¬ My own solution has been to take mending such action. Marilyn is the what I have learned from years as a wife of a Foreign Service officer and traditional Foreign Service wife and grew up, so to speak, in the era of use it to adapt to a new style. Re¬ traditional roles. Today, building on cently, after my children had all the work of her able predecessor, Janet begun lives of their own, I, too de¬ Lloyd, Marilyn is responsible for the Spain 1964 cided to work and pursue a career growing number of FLO offices in overseas with some success. It has embassies around the world. Abroad, awakened and liberated. Legislation been enormously rewarding and has they are dealing in areas especially and updated regulations have made enriched my life in many ways. But I affecting the Foreign Service family Foreign Service life easier to cope remain also a traditional wife in the as a unit and its members as individu¬ with. Strides have been made in the sense that I still believe in certain als. In Washington, the office tries to areas of education allowances, de¬ obligations to the long partnership I keep up with the big issues. A store¬ pendent travel, medical care and have had with my husband in his house of information is being built, a separations, with more under study. career. job-skills bank maintained for use And she is no longer made to feel Today each individual woman, worldwide, and an eye kept on devel¬ duty bound in a job in which her each Foreign Service wife, must de¬ opments relative to FLO interests. As contributions were traditionally taken fine her own role as wife, woman, Marilyn describes the service, “We try for granted. mother and private person—and do to help you help yourself.” She finds In another sense, she has been set it in her own style. How to meld the challenge tremendous as FLO adrift. The framework has been pro¬ together old values and loyalties with charts a course in untraveled waters. vided for her to do as she wishes, new thought and new direction is a Although these two positions repre¬ and yet there are still many limita¬ question for the ’80s. We should not sent different aspects of an almost tions. Those who have careers can¬ fear changes and uncertainties, but revolutionary change in status for For¬ not always follow them abroad. Those address ourselves to the dilemmas eign Service women, they both came who do not wish to or are not in a and try to work them out with the about as the natural result of times in position to follow a career are faced tools at hand, and with a measure of which consciousness has been raised with the aftermath of the ’72 Direc¬ gratitude to our predecessors who about the rights of women and just tive, which in effect gives the For¬ have inspired us and prepared the where they fit into society. Someone eign Service wife “non-status.” Al¬ way. who has fought hard to see these though those who work may get Abigail Adams wrote these words changes in attitude come about and efficiency reports or ratings, those as she tossed about the Atlantic become law is Lesley Dorman, presi¬ who do not, or who do only volun¬ Ocean on her way to the adventure dent for the past four years of AAFSW. teer work abroad, may not be recog¬ that awaited her in Europe, “I begin That organization, now well estab¬ nized or mentioned as part of the to think that calm is not desirable in lished and ever increasing in scope, “team” the department once felt was any situation in life. Every object is has under her leadership been respon¬ so important. Add to that the new more beautiful in motion.” sible for bringing to the attention of facts of life which include evacua¬ So it is with the Foreign Service the department some of the important tions and terrorism, even assassina¬ wife, this woman of infinite variety, concerns of Foreign Service women. tions, as a threat to Americans over¬ whose story has been and continues Besides the aforementioned Forum seas. Many unresolved dilemmas to be so important a one in the Report and a legal seminar which have resulted from this tugging in so annals of American history.

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January. IVH1 43 “Always hold on tight to nurse For fear of finding something worse." —Hilaire Belloc

Many people, aware that the For¬ book” and thereby compromise their eign Service is my second ca¬ own potential to find a creative solu¬ reer, have asked how I would com¬ tion to a problem. pare my experience in the Foreign FRANCIS XAVIER CUNNINGHAM If this characteristic is in relative¬ Service with previous experience in ly short supply among FSOs, why industry. I have always begged off by so? Are the FSO selection, reten¬ saying I haven’t been in the Foreign tion, and promotion processes load¬ Service long enough to give a useful which is sometimes labeled “empire ed in favor of the “well behaved” opinion on the subject. But, since I building.” It is seen in the scramble who passively accept the system, or now have seven years of Foreign to grab a new area of responsibility is the “empire builder” trait extin¬ Service experience, both overseas for oneself. It’s a characteristic of guished in the managerial milieu in and in the department, perhaps I can an industry executive at any level which FSOs live and work? make a few observations which may who wants, and intends, to move After going through the selection be of interest, may cause anger, or up. Although it often leads to in¬ process in 1973, I realized that it may sound like sour grapes. I record fighting and politicking, it receives identified people who were widely them here for whatever they may be at least tacit approval from manage¬ read, with catholic interests and very worth. ment because it signals a personality retentive memories, who were good A common question concerns which is considered essential to a students and, in general, heavily what I think of the general level of dynamic, growing business. An ex¬ oriented toward academic interests. I capability of people I have met in ample is seen in the marketing rep¬ think this may still be true, although the Foreign Service, and how they resentative who exceeds his or her I know there is a continual effort to stack up against executives in indus¬ authority and quotes a lower price to revise and improve the selection pro¬ try. I can respond without hesitation a customer, or a higher quality, in cess. But perhaps we should first that in the Foreign Service, and in order to beat the competition. He decide what we want the selection the State Department, I have come won’t be fired. On the contrary, process to do, and before this deci¬ across people who are as good as, if management appreciates his aggres- sion we should agree as to what an not better than, any in industry in sivness in getting the business. He FSO does during his career. Do we terms of judgment, maturity, ability may offer the production plant a want creative people who are idea- to analyze problems, creativity, deci¬ severe challenge in making good on oriented, or do we need logical peo¬ siveness and general intelligence. the quotation, but this stretches its ple of good judgment? (A psycholo¬ I’ve also come across people who capability and makes it grow and gist might tell us that the two cate¬ are as bad as any I met in industry. management knows this. But he has gories are mutually exclusive)-—or But, on balance, 1 am convinced to be willing to stick his neck out to some mix of the two? Maybe the that in many ways Foreign Service do it. selection process should merely re¬ officers are clearly superior to their I’m talking about the same per¬ quire a basic level of intelligence opposite numbers in industry. sonality that recognizes that rules and emphasize motivation, with the There is one characteristic, how¬ are made to be broken; that any expectation that highly motivated in¬ ever, which I think is much more individual who would consider him¬ dividuals will bloom on the job (as common among industry executives, self to be a professional must know Harry Truman did); or that they can a trait which I’ve been surprised to when and how to break them. The be shaped to the right form. But in note seems often lacking among “system,” the framework of “rules,” any case the selection process, until FSOs. It’s a form of aggressiveness is constructed to handle the ordinary, now, may have been giving us a routine situation. The real pro will preponderance of “academic stu¬ Mr. Cunningham joined the Foreign Service never hesitate to break a rule in dents” among our FSOs, and thus a in 1973, after experience in the navy and with the interest of efficiency, justice, built-in bias against the brash, ag¬ private industry in the fields of chemistry and and, yes, humanity, and that’s really gressive, empire builder. I know that rocket propulsion. He was assigned to Brus¬ sels in 1974 and now serves as liaison officer why he’s there. Anyone can blindly academic faculty can be afflicted for the United Nations environmental pro¬ apply the rules. Too often, FSOs in with “empire builders,” but students gram. any cone insist on “going by the are accustomed to playing a relative- 44 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. January. 1981 ly passive, non-aggressive role in well-chosen remarks in the supervi¬ and political capital. In an inflation¬ the classroom, and maybe we’ve sor’s sector of the OER. This pro¬ ary period the existing value of fu¬ overstaffed the Service with people cess would give FSOs more feeling ture results is subject to the exceed¬ who have been conditioned to accept of participating in their own review ingly high discount rate of inflation the status quo. process (and relieve supervisors of which, in effect, means that no re¬ I think a case can also be made the onerous burden of preparing sults more than a year or two ahead that the department’s hierarchal en¬ OERs). Going beyond the OER it¬ have any present value whatever, vironment may kill aggressiveness self: Why should a panel in Wash¬ whether value is defined in econom¬ in the FSO. ington decide on retention or pro¬ ic or in political terms. It is there¬ Modem management theory makes motion of a junior officer in Manila fore not a period in which either a broad distinction between the whom they have never even seen, industry or the policy maker can hierarchal and the participative ap¬ and know only through the written take risks. Drucker says that there¬ proaches to management. In the word? Could not the consul general fore both industry and the govern¬ hierarchal system authority and di¬ at post (who probably has had 25 mental policy makers in an infla¬ rection flow from the top down, years of experience and is in the tionary period concentrate on small there is little or no information best position to evaluate the officer) but sure and immediate payoffs;.that flow upwards, lines of authority are make the promotion decision? Sure¬ is, on what can be calculated with very clear, decision making occurs ly the consul general has been se¬ high probability. at high levels. This system is typi¬ lected with great care for his or her I think we can see many examples fied in military structures, and it heavy responsibility, and surely the of Drucker’s concern right here in tends to be efficient, but it stifles department has great trust in his abil¬ the State Department. We see it in individual initiative. The participa¬ ity. Couldn’t he even be allowed to examples where the “budgetary tail” tive system emphasizes participation promote a junior officer from 0-7 to ends up wagging the “program dog.” in decision making at the lowest 0-6? If we could be less hierarchal,* For instance: Every year an arbitary practical level, unobstructed informa¬ maybe our FSOs would become decision is made as to the total tion flow upwards (as well as down¬ more “aggressive” as they became amount to be requested of the Con¬ wards), everyone’s viewpoint is val¬ more participative. gress for voluntary contributions ued and needed, and lines of autho¬ Maybe it is because we operate in to international organizations and rity are blurred. This system, on the a milieu which is dominated by fi¬ programs. The State Department other hand, tends to produce imagi¬ nancial considerations that initiative, then takes this total amount and dis¬ native and creative approaches to aggressiveness and empire building tributes it as voluntary contributions problems. And although decision¬ tend to be stifled. Peter Drucker, in to the various international programs. making may be slower in the partici¬ his commentaries on modem Amer¬ But this is backwards. The needs for pative process, once decisions are ican business management, identifies the program should be determined made they are carried out much more a shift in the concerns of American first. The individual programs should effectively because those who must managers from the creation of receive contributions depending on eventually do the work are the same wealth-producing resources toward need and US self-interest in th’e pro¬ people who took part in the deci¬ immediate payoffs. He describes this gram, and a total budget should be sion-making process (explaining the as a shift in cost effectiveness from determined from that. increased efficiency of US workers emphasis on effectiveness to empha¬ In the chemical industry, if pro¬ in Japanese-managed assembly sis on cost, and he has suggested gram managers have an excellent plants). that this trend is perhaps a good deal idea for a new program or a new Now the whole Foreign Service more pronounced in government product line, the decision to go system of retention and promotion today than it is in business. He ahead will be made on a number of by review panels on the basis of thinks that a reason for this shift bases, most important of which will OERs, of selection-out, of time-in¬ may be the increasing pressure, es¬ be the potential return from going class I understand to be modeled on pecially in an inflationary period, to into the new product line. One shud¬ the military personnel system, with produce results fast. An inflationary ders at the thought of what would its built-in strong hierarchal, rather period by definition is one that happen to a financial vice president than participative, philosophy. (I have erodes and destroys both industrial sitting in a meeting of the top execu¬ no idea what logical linkage there is tives of the Dupont Fibers Division, between the Foreign Service and the *lncidentally, this hierarchal attitude is very when it was decided that a new navy, although many of the younger evident in day-to-day operations in Main Orion plant should be built to take FSOs do wear bell-bottom trousers.) State, (a) Working hours were changed by advantage of the high market poten¬ fiat, but few knew why. Perhaps the new tial for the product. If the financial But the Foreign Service should be hours fit better with Metro schedules, or looking for chances to be more carpools would cause less traffic congestion, vice president stood up and said, participative, with a view to encour¬ or maybe energy savings would result from “I’m sorry, you had better scratch the aging initiative and imagination (and fewer work hours after dark. When the new whole idea of a new product. We hours were announced it would have been don’t have the money to undertake a empire building) among its officers. nice to give the reasons for the decision, (b) For example, the OER should be Hot water has been cut off in the washrooms. new initiative,” I think he would be written by the rated officer (who is Could we not have been given a estimate of fired. His job is not to tell manage¬ more interested in doing it?), not dollar or oil savings expected when the deci¬ ment what can’t be done; his job is to his/her supervisor. For those who sion was made? and could we not have tell management how it can be done. periodic reports on savings accruing from In such an event I’m sure the com¬ may scoff: We are all our own the reduced lighting in offices and hallways? severest critics and personal puffery Improved morale could be the result of such pany president or the board chairman can be easily devastated by a few consideration. would say, “Look, Charlie, your job FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. January. 1981 45 is to get the money. Now go out and Foreign Service. For example, may¬ agers” because they have responsi¬ get it! I don’t know whether you be {just maybe!) most Foreign Ser¬ bility for many millions (or billions) have to get a loan, or use retained vice officers, being “specially se¬ of dollars, and for many people. (It earnings, or sell more stock, or lected and highly dedicated,” should is even suggested that they should be what. That’s your job and that’s why be FSO-ls. I don’t know why we carefully selected for their ability to we’re paying you. But don’t tell us have to live by the pyramid concept manage these resources!) Again fi¬ we can’t go into the profitable new of personnel structure. A pyramid is nancial considerations are dominat¬ product which holds potentially great a unique geometric figure: extreme¬ ing and distorting the department’s returns for us. Rather tell us how ly stable; the most difficult construc¬ concept of the ambassador’s job. you’re going to get the money to tion to overturn or move (is this “Management of Resources” is not enable us to do this.” It seems to me significant?). But it doesn’t neces¬ some mysterious function understood this should be the job of our finan¬ sarily describe the distribution of only by certain people who have cial people. A financial manager talent among FSOs. If it’s going to been initiated into the nether regions who merely sets a target figure, and be “expensive” for 3,000 Foreign of knowledge. We have, or can get, tells everybody they have to live Service officers to be distributed many people who can very efficiently within that target, regardless of what among the FSO-2 and -1 levels, and very nicely manage resources, is to be accomplished, is abdicating that’s a worry that our budget people and we need not saddle the ambas¬ have to face. They’ve got to get more sador (and the DCM) with worries money so we can do it. But the about resources. Certainly the ad¬ answer (to their problems) is not to ministrative counselor should be able adjust our system for rewarding the to do enough worrying for all. The best people by keeping deserving administrative counselor has a pre¬ “The idea that industrial individuals at lower pay levels and possessing title, is highly experi¬ managers would be so lower responsibility levels than they enced, and is very able. He can deserve (it is a “rank-in-person” sys¬ manage resources efficiently and unaggressive that they tem after all). Again this is a symp¬ effectively under the general policy must be urged to ask for tom of the disease that Peter Drucker guidance of the ambassador. (Do we has put his finger on for both indus¬ remember Mettemich for his ability more resources and trial and government managers. But to “manage resources?” Was Chip urged to extend their I think it’s worse in the Foreign Bohlen so effective because he was Service. Can you visualize an indus¬ able to “manage resources” effici¬ activities into new areas trial manager saying, “Joe, we all ently and thus earn the plaudits of of responsibility!” agree you should be promoted to a A/?) The ambassador must represent level commensurate with the great the United States to the country to job you do for us, and that you which he is accredited and represent should be rewarded accordingly. But that country to the United .States. the accountants say we can’t pro¬ We should select him on the basis of mote you because they can’t find the imagination, dedication, analytic his responsibility. A child can do money. So please stay where you are ability and whatever else is neces¬ that; we don’t need a highly paid indefinitely until they decide I can sary to carry out and interpret US executive to set a figure and be promote you?” policy in terms of the government unable to change it or even make an This budgetary mind-set is spread that he is accredited to, and to inter¬ input of creative ideas to the dia¬ throughout the entire department, pret that government’s policy in logue. and I think it sometimes results from terms which are meaningful to the In fairness to the budget and finan¬ the lack of creativity and aggres¬ United States government. That says cial people, however, I should point siveness in FSOs. The Congress had it all and it’s a mouthful. But he out that in practice we are really to tell the State Department of the should not worry about the embassy talking about relative priorities. The need for more consular officers in budget, junior officer training, mo¬ Congress sets spending levels based certain areas and that they should rale, “resource management,” or any on a mix of political, financial and ask for more support for consular of the myriad of administrative con¬ program priorities! Program officers activities! This is something unheard cerns inherent in an operating entity have to be aggressive in making sure of in industry: The idea that indus¬ like an embassy. that the value and impact of their trial managers would be so unag¬ Perhaps I’ve completely missed programs receive full appreciation gressive that they must be uiged to the reason why FSOs are less ag¬ vis-a-vis political and financial con¬ ask for more resources, and urged to gressive than industrial executives. siderations when the decisions are extend their activities into new areas Or maybe I’m completely wrong in made. If the financial viewpoint of responsibility! Executives who are my assessment of the FSO personal¬ seems to dominate in decision¬ that passive would never survive in ity because the statistical universe making we should criticize ourselves industry. But the fact remains that I’ve sampled is too small. But also for failing to sell our programs as we FSOs passively accept the idea maybe there could be some changes well as they deserve. The budget peo¬ that we can’t do things unless the in the management style of the de¬ ple are only doing their job in em¬ budget people think they’re worth¬ partment which would lead to im¬ phasizing the need for financial pru¬ while. proved performances, efficiency, and dence. We can see the tail wagging the effectiveness. Perhaps the real ques¬ We see the budget tail wagging dog again in the idea that ambassa¬ tion is whether the department itself the program dog elsewhere in the dors should be good “resource man¬ can manage change.

46 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. January, 1981 WOMEN IN THE FOREIGN SERVICE: A QUIET REVOLUTION

BARBARA J. GOOD

Any role for women in United tary of the Treasury Albert Gallatin, 1921, but alas, failed both the writ¬ States foreign policy and diplo¬ that women in public office were an ten and the oral examinations, which macy is recent. Until just a decade innovation for which neither the citi¬ were then given together. In 1921-23 ago, the Foreign Service to a large zenry nor he was prepared. there were ten instances when wom¬ degree, and the domestic service to The first female employee of the en took the Foreign Service exam¬ a lesser, reflected and applied all of Department of State was one Mrs. inations—six for the diplomatic the traditional prejudices against em¬ March, according to the historian exams and four the consular exams. ployed women known in American Homer L. Calkin in Women in the But it was Lucile Atcherson of Ohio society as a whole. Department of State: Their Role in who became the first woman to pass Discrimination began when the American Foreign Affairs. On Sep¬ the examinations and become an of¬ Department of State itself began, tember 28, 1804 she received six ficer in the US diplomatic service in under our first secretary of state, cents a copy for “folding, stitching 1922. Ms. Atcherson ranked third in Thomas Jefferson, in 1789. His staff and covering with cartridge and blue the examination with a score of of seven clerks did not include any paper” each of 3,467 copies of the 86.60, only .57 percent behind the women. Jefferson as president (1800- laws passed by the first session of the highest scoring candidate. A second 1808) declared in a letter to Secre- eighth Congress. This modest begin¬ woman entered the service in 1925. ning was auspicious only in one re¬ One senior officer (male) subse¬ spect: there was no discrimination in quently proposed a ban on admitting pay; Mrs. March received the same more women. He thought it a good amount given one William Duane idea to wait and observe the useful¬ for similar work. Still, for many ness of those already in before open¬ FSRU Barbara J. Good is assistant cultural years, no woman could be employed ing the “floodgates,” even though affairs officer designate to Calcutta on loan to by the department except on a part- Secretary of State Charles Evans ICA. Joining the Foreign Service shortly after graduating from the University of California time basis, and usually the work was Hughes, in 1924, had supported fair at Berkeley, she served in Italy, Bolivia, done at home because women were treatment of all persons. Argentina, Japan, France as a Foreign Ser¬ not allowed on government premises. The “flood” of women recruits vice secretary. Assigned to the department The common task was that of copy¬ was at best only a trickle. Between for the past 15 years, she served as a Foreign Service recruiter and chief of the recruitment ist, the forerunner of today’s typist. 1921 and the onset of World War II, branch's publicity unit. In the bureau of Slowly, however, major barriers only six women were appointed as international organization affairs she has fell until one remained—the permis¬ officers via the examination process. worked with the secretariat for the US Na¬ sion to join the diplomatic service. The all-male establishment had many tional Commission for UNESCO and her most simplistic and paternalistic notions recent assignment has been as director of During the 19th century a number of international women’s programs and alter¬ women unsuccessfully sought ap¬ about women. It was convinced, for nate delegate to the Commission on the Sta¬ pointments to US diplomatic and example, that women serving abroad tus of Women and the OAS Inter-American consular missions abroad. In 1909 would be “compromised” by male Commission of Women. From 1970-1974 she Frederick Van Dytje explained the officials in the country of assign¬ also served as a member of the AFSA Board of Directors, briefly as vice president, and at problem as diplomats then saw it. ment, that in Moslem countries they the same time was a founder and member of He wrote: “Perhaps the greatest ob¬ would be faced with purdah, and the board of directors of the Women's Action stacle to the employment of women that women could not function in Organization serving as president from 1978- as diplomatic officers is their well: the traditional “macho” societies of 1980. Latin America. Women in the For¬ The views expressed herein do not neces¬ known inability to keep a secret.” sarily reflect United States government policy. The women’s suffrage movement eign Service would, it was thought, This article is excerpted from a chapter and World War I in all likelihood also come in contact with the “wrong prepared for an anthology of essays, entitled gave women inspiration and oppor¬ elements”; consular work overseas Facing the Fearful Father: Essays in Theory tunity to enter more fields of em¬ could mean dealing with rough and and Strategy for a Nonsexist Future, edited by Professor Margaret Murry of Mississippi ployment. A woman took the exam¬ tough sailors, police officials, and State University. ination for the diplomatic service in prisoners. Furthermore, the depart-

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. January, 1981 47 ment believed that foreign affairs Women’s Action Organization (WAO) the world. Even though the work ministries abroad might not take a represented not only the Depart¬ itself was routine and boring, by that woman seriously as a political offi¬ ment of State, but the Agency for time the glamour, excitement, and cer. Finally, when women were ad¬ International Development (AID), wanderlust of the foreign service life mitted as Foreign Service officers, it and the then-United States Informa¬ had captured me. Assignments took was understood that they would re¬ tion Agency (USIA)*, both agencies me to South America and the Ori¬ main single; a marriage certificate sending employees abroad and mod¬ ent. Despite my growing sense that required a letter of resignation— eling their personnel policies almost management and my colleagues in policy which, though unwritten, re¬ entirely on those of the State De¬ the Foreign Service did not particu¬ mained for almost 50 years; that is, partment. larly favor women, I decided to make until mid-1971. When the reemergence of the the most of it. The policy of “femina non grata” women’s movement provided a fa¬ In 1965, the Department of State was not equally true for secretaries. vorable climate for activism, I was assigned me back to the office of Few men were willing to do secre¬ fortunate to be in a position to help personnel in Washington as a For¬ tarial work, except in the earliest days eign Service recruiter, traveling of diplomacy when private male sec¬ around the country promoting - the retaries entered the service. Those Foreign Service and interviewing men accepted secretarial duties as a young men and women candidates. means for entrance into an elite, if “The members of the This job was a turning point for me. ill-paid, diplomatic service. Warren AFSA board that year It was then I really learned for the Frederick Illchman in Professional first time how disproportionately dif¬ Diplomacy wrote: “The preeminently were already known as ficult it was for women to overcome masculine calling of diplomacy was the ‘young Turks’ be¬ the hurdles as candidates"' for the exposed after the war to the ‘on¬ Foreign Service and subsequently as slaught’ of the liberated and newly cause, contrary to past officers. Fortunately, being on home enfranchised American women.” behavior, they raised territory gave me the opportunity to A shortage of manpower during become an activist. I realized how World War II and rapidly expanding voices of protest in an difficult achieving change from with¬ global diplomatic relations after the institution that prided it¬ in was going to be. Working alone I war gradually increased the number found that my repeated efforts and of women serving in foreign affairs. self on discipline and suggestions were eventually ground A few women even managed to rise obedience.” down in the bureaucratic mill. My to senior positions, among them, experience was not unique. Some of Ruth Bryan Owen, who was named the finest women officers had ex¬ minister plenipotentiary to Denmark pressed great frustration. One wo¬ by President Franklin D. Roosevelt man assigned to the department’s in 1933. Frances E. Willis served as found the WAO. In 1951, as a strug¬ equal employment office, and who ambassador to Switzerland, Norway gling artist just out of Berkeley with consequently knew the rather grim and Ceylon (now Sri Lanka); Mar¬ no funds to continue my studies statistics on the status of women in garet Joy Tibbets, ambassador to abroad as planned, I had jumped at the State Department and the obsta¬ Norway; Carol C. Laise, ambassa¬ the chance to join the State Depart¬ cles to promotion and Change, ex¬ dor to Nepal and later the first ment for a foreign assignment. My pressed her hopelessness by resign¬ woman director general of the For¬ first job was as a cryptographer ing from the Foreign Service. eign Service. Many of these women which sounded intriguing and im¬ In 1968 the department’s profes¬ have since retired. With peace and portant, though I was quickly to sional association, the American return to “normalcy” the male-domi¬ discover its limitations. All Foreign Foreign Service Association nated establishment reasserted its Service employees must agree to (AFSA), began a thorough reevalua¬ traditional attitudes. Recruitment of serve worldwide; I requested Rome tion of the conduct of our nation’s women into the Foreign Service re¬ so I could continue my studies. foreign affairs in response to the mained at the suspiciously constant Luckily, I was assigned there. In challenges posed by the dramatic low level of about seven percent for those days the dolce far niente phi¬ technological innovations of the elec¬ more than a decade prior to 1971. losophy still permeated Italy, but it tronic age. None of the AFSA rec¬ Among the few recruited, the rate of stopped short at the gate of the US ommendations dealt even peripher¬ promotion was only a third that of embassy. There the Protestant work ally with women’s role and con¬ men as late as 1969, and only a ethic prevailed. I soon found that cerns. Some women expressed in¬ scant few managed to move to the constantly-changing work shifts pre¬ dignation at this lack of attention to top. The number in the Foreign Ser¬ cluded any courses at the School of their aspirations and potentials. One vice reached its lowest point at 4.8 Fine Arts. This displeased me, but of them was Jean Joyce, then senior percent. These facts, plus the dy¬ by then I realized that life as a reports advisor in the bureau of edu¬ namic resurgence of the nationwide serious woman artist would mean far cational and cultural affairs (CU), women’s movement in the late ’60s greater' sacrifice than the possibility who told the president of AFSA that and early ’70s spurred women in the of the prospect of spinsterhood in a even in CU (where women were State Department to organise in order career that would take me around usually numerous) there were no to redress the long-standing discrim¬ women attending top policy-making ination and to demand equitable *Now the International Communications meetings. No woman in CU was treatment. The reform group, the Agency (ICA) ever promoted to the position of 48 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January. 1981 office “director”—the level at which August 1970, Mrs. Marcy arranged ent organization. First, it was for¬ such meetings were held. for the ad hoc committee to meet mally agreed that we should serve At that time (1970), I was the with the State Department’s deputy all categories of women in the three lone woman on the AFSA board of undersecretary for management, foreign affairs agencies. Other ex¬ directors and Jean’s observations William B. Macomber, to state our tremely important decisions were were passed to me. As the staff case. We were fortunate to have such that we would be a voluntary organi¬ corps’ representative on the AFSA a man in such a crucial post at that zation within State/AID/USIA which slate, I was the only member repre¬ time. Secretary Macomber was will¬ could act independently and quick¬ senting the interests of the non¬ ing and able to listen sympathetically ly; but also that we would work, not officer group which consisted large¬ and to lend effective support to our by sharp confrontations or militan¬ ly of women— secretaries, com¬ proposals for policy changes. cy, but by dealing directly with man¬ municators (cryptographers), and We asked for an opportunity for a agement, putting on and keeping on other clerical and administrative el¬ broad meeting of women employed pressure to bring about reform. Our ements. by all three foreign agencies. At Sec¬ target continued to be chiefly per¬ A majority of the members of the retary Macomber’s request, the ad sons in the top management of the AFSA board that year were already State Department—such as, for ex¬ known as the “young Turks” be¬ ample, Undersecretary Macomber cause, contrary to past behavior, they since, as noted earlier, State person¬ raised voices of protest in an institu¬ nel policies set the pattern for the tion that prided itself on discipline “In calling women pushy other two foreign affairs agencies. and obedience. They were interested By November 1970 the Ad Hoc in changing old patterns of diploma¬ or abrasive when they Committee formally became the cy; they were tired of the “striped are properly ambitious, Women’s Action Organization (WAO) pants” image in an age of shirt¬ men are using a double of State, AID and USIA. During sleeve diplomacy. Some were liber¬ this early period of WAO one of the als who had been active in the civil standard that does reforms we called for—and got— rights movement of the ’60s and women in the Service was an end to the ban on marriage were becoming sensitive to human for women in the foreign affairs rights as well as women’s rights. great disservice and agencies. This new policy subse¬ While the AFSA platform was not ultimately men in the quently permitted the foreign affairs specific on women’s issues, I never¬ agencies to employ working couples. theless thought this would be an Service dishonor.” Other reforms included a reduction appropriate time to challenge atti¬ of the inequity between allowances tudes toward the staff corps and granted men and women in living women in general . The “young Turk” arrangements and other perquisites, reformers promised me that they and a reduction of discrimination in would work for more equitable treat¬ hoc committee worked very hard to hiring and assignment practices. For ment of men and women in the staff gather the necessary information on these initiatives, our ad hoc commit¬ corps. I thus began to work with women’s status and needs for inclu¬ tee was given a management award Jean and others to help organize a sion in each of the 13 departmental in 1972 by the president of the Unit¬ quiet revolution on broader women’s task force reports. When the results ed States. Mary Olmsted, our first issues. We found nine like-minded of our combined efforts were pre¬ president, received the coveted women from State, USIA and AID sented at the meeting, many man¬ Christian Herter Award in the same who were prepared, in spite of risks agement officers appeared taken year for “intellectual courage.” to their careers, to organize to do aback by the repeated inequities More and more of our proposals battle for the elimination of sex which we cited and which they were were adopted and old inequities discrimination. Outstanding among forced to face for the first time. Of righted, and our worldwide member¬ them was Mary Olmsted, a high- course no ready answers were avail¬ ship rose to over 1,000. We realized ranking officer of the elite career able, but at last the unspoken issues that we were being helped not only service who agreed to serve first as had been definitively raised. by a cooperative undersecretary for our spokesperson and later, after we Our early successes and the now- management, but also by the grow¬ organized more formally, as our first obvious willingness of management ing strength of the women’s move¬ president. Acting first in the sum¬ to work with us led us to consider ment nationwide. Women’s reform mer of 1970 as the ad hoc commit¬ what kind of a more permanent or¬ movements were being pushed ev¬ tee to improve the status of women, ganization would 'best serve our erywhere, especially in the organized we steadily added new members needs. Should we be a committee professions and unions, and were until by mid-August, we numbered with AFSA, a group linked to the making front-page news almost about 50 from all ranks. Mildred American Federation of Government daily. The State Department’s politi¬ Marcy, then in charge of women’s Employees, or one that would be cally astute Undersecretary Macom¬ affairs at USIA, was brought into totally autonomous and represent ber realized he was facing a nation¬ our deliberations by Bernice Baer, women in all categories? The AFSA al, not a purely internal, social revo¬ one of the ad hoc committee mem¬ president, William Harrop, wisely lution. bers who early on had attempted to agreed with many of our members Our work as an organization inde¬ involve others from USIA in our that we should become totally au¬ pendent of AFSA was also facilitat¬ quiet revolution. On the 50th anni¬ tonomous. It was felt that our voice ed by the establishment in 1968 of versary of Women’s Suffrage Day in would be strongest as an independ¬ the Federal Women’s Program by

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. January. 1981 49 the federal government. Agencies son Office (FLO), to deal with the ond decade (and the State Depart¬ were directed to appoint a women’s many special problems and stresses ment’s third century) must include program coordinator to monitor and of Foreign Service families. the fact that WAO has had some implement the program. WAO has also worked persistently failures, as well as successes, and Finally, in August, 1970, and spe¬ to secure less sexist treatment of has sometimes been criticized for its cifically in response to demands women employees. Here, equality in moderate position. For example, made on it by WAO members, the women’s working conditions at posts when the ad hoc committee was first State Department appointed a part- around the world is an important moving in 1970, our early meetings time women’s program coordinator, goal. For example, WAO has urged included Alison Palmer, mentioned Elizabeth Harper, as well as an offi¬ an end to exclusion of women offi¬ earlier. She chose, however, to pur¬ cial committee. Jean Joyce, Alison cers from overseas all-male clubs sue a militant course independently Palmer and I were among those where important information is often of WAO, and brought the first for¬ asked to serve on this first commit¬ exchanged, and valuable local con¬ mal discrimination complaint against tee. By 1972, the coordinator posi¬ tacts made. Ambassador Robert the Department of State. She charged tion was made full-time with the title Strausz-Hupe served as a pioneer in discrimination against women in as¬ of special assistant to the deputy this area by influencing the all-male signment to posts abroad which, as undersecretary of management. The American Club of Stockholm to ac¬ in her own situation, hampered ca¬ first woman to hold that high-level cept women members. Other such reer advancement. Her victory in position was an oustanding manager clubs have now opened their doors 1971 was a landmark event for all and feminist, Gladys P. Rogers. She to women, including the American Foreign Service women, resulting in recognized the tremendous value of Club in Madrid, Spain where Am¬ a management directive categorically a pressure group like WAO and, al¬ bassador Terence Todman declined outlawing all discrimination in as¬ though a management representative, the traditional honorary membership signments. While this directive ben¬ she worked closely with us in top¬ afforded to chiefs of mission until efited all women employees, not all pling the many blatant and archaic the club charter was revised to drop viewed Alison sympathetically when policies which discriminated against discrimination. she subsequently became the mov¬ women. The timing of the mandated WAO has recently been stressing ing force behind a class action suit program greatly facilitated WAO’s the importance of implicit and ex¬ on behalf of women Foreign Service effort to press for change. plicit bias in the Foreign Service’s officers. WAO, after long discussion, WAO’s years since 1973 have been performance evaluation and promo¬ joined her in that 1975 effort, which less dramatic since the most glaring tion system. These performance rat¬ caused a temporary split in our inequities and practices, such as the ings often institutionalized discrimi¬ ranks. Some WAO members believed ban on marriage, were eliminated nation against women, and remain that we had taken a “confrontation- early. Nevertheless, under a succes¬ crucial obstacles to the achievement with-management” posture in viola¬ sion of committed presidents and of equal opportunity and promotion. tion of our “work-with-management” with a growing worldwide member¬ Lois Roth (IGA) wrote a paper for philosophy. Although the WAO ship, WAO has had plenty to do. WAO entitled “Nice Girl or Pushy wounds have healed, we remain a Discrimination against women con¬ Bitch: Two Roads to Nonpromotion,” somewhat silent partner in the suit, tinued and persists today. Correcting which said, in part: For instance, which has now dragged on without a such problems requires changes both “kind and supportive” remarks about decision into its fourth year. Mean¬ in basic attitudes and in the power women officers often perpetuate while, in all activities and contact structure itself. myths and values that get read in the with management, we continue to One particular field of concentra¬ promotion process as weakness, and work “within the system” in a policy tion among the younger officers and that, in calling women pushy or of moderation, using sustained pres¬ their spouses, grouped in a depart¬ abrasive when they are properly am¬ sure to achieve our aims. ment-sponsored oiganization called bitious, men are using a double As to WAO’s shortcomings, we the Open Forum, was the demand standard that does women in the clearly do not have enough low- for.greater recognition of the profes¬ Service great disservice and ulti¬ ranking women and minority women sional (as contrasted with the “tea- mately men in the Service dishonor. among our members nor enough pourer”) status of spouses. WAO In reflecting upon WAO’s first high-level women. In some in¬ moved quickly to support their posi¬ decade and its achievements, we are stances, facing women who have tion. We also focused on the need to aware that our very existence is “made it” in the system can present use the professional skills of For¬ unique. To my knowledge, and from special problems. Some who have eign Service spouses and initiated my conversations with UN col¬ been successful in invading the vir¬ the first spouses’ “skills bank” which leagues, in no other career foreign tually all-male “room at the top” Cynthia Chard, a Foreign Service service in the world have women often help perpetuate male-dictated spouse and WAO board member, organized with men voluntarily to attitudes. both pioneered and carried out. This accomplish similarly—and equally There are many people, men and “skills bank” became the forerunner needed—reforms. WAO in this sense women, in power points at the top for the department’s creation of a might be said to serve as a model for echelons who similarly are not ready long-needed office, the Family Liai- the rest of the world. WAO is also for equal rights. While it may not be unique in that, unlike some feminists within WAO’s power to change atti¬ *Mary Olmsted, 1970-1972; Dorothy Stans- in other fields, we have encouraged tudes and behavior at all levels, we bury. 1972-1974; Annette Buckland, 1974- men to join us and to serve on our 1976; Marguerite Cooper King, 1976-1978; are certainly greatly indebted to Barbara J. Good. 1978-1980; Jean Mam- board of directors. those few outstanding men and wom- men, I980-. Reflection as we go into our sec¬ (Continued on page 67)

50 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January, 1981 AN INTERVIEW BY JOHN J. HARTER career always put me in the eye of a storm, until I retired from the For¬ eign Service just after World War II. Q: The Foreign Service changed a lot during those years. . . . A: It certainly did. We were pitifully understaffed in 1912, when the whole State Department had only as many people as one of our larger embassies had in 1946. My initial DIPLOMACY salary was $1,200 a year—and even as a frugal bachelor in Constanti¬ nople, I had to spend several times that much to live. The Rogers Act, AND WAR twelve years later, improved matters, but not nearly enough. Q: Were written and oral examina¬ tions required for entrants into the Foreign Service in 1912? IN THE TWENTIETH A: Yes, we have had fairly stiff en¬ trance examinations since early this century, for those entering at the bottom. But for many years, for po¬ litical reasons, the president, on the CENTURY recommendation of a senator, had to designate an applicant before he was allowed to take the exams. Q: You knew your senator from Cal¬ ifornia? A: Slightly. Anyway, I called on The Foreign Service Senator Phelan to say goodbye, just before leaving Washington for my Career of first post. He asked if I had met Secretary of State [Philander C.] Cornelius Van H. Engert Knox. I laughed, and said there was no reason I should. He said, oh, yes, you should—and he telephoned for an appointment, right then. We immediately went together, and the senator introduced me to the secre¬ tary, who cordially shook my hand. Then they embarked on a political Cornelius Van H. Engert entered the When I arrived at my first post, discussion that had nothing whatev¬ Foreign Service in 1912 and retired Constantinople, in 1912, Turkey was er to do with me or foreign affairs. in 1946. After tours in the late 1940s at war with Italy over Libya. During Q: Did you meet any other interest¬ with the United Nations Relief and Reha¬ the two Balkan wars that followed, ing individuals before leaving Wash¬ bilitation Administration and the Inter¬ Constantinople was in imminent ington? national Bank for Reconstruction and danger of being captured by the A: Yes, Henry Adams—one of the Development, he helped establish the American Friends of the Middle East. At Bulgarians, and I could occasionally most interesting scholars America 94, he travels extensively and lectures hear the guns quite plainly. This ever produced. My favorite history frequently. The following edited excerpts culminated in World War I, the Al¬ professor at the University of Cali¬ from interviews conducted in his Wash¬ lied attack on the Dardanelles, and fornia, Henry Morse Stephens, had ington apartment between September the disastrous British Gallipoli cam¬ given me a letter of introduction. and November reflect insights into key paign of 1915. I crossed the Atlantic Adams said he envied me for going 20th century events and personalities: twice in 1917, after the United States to Constantinople because, he said, Q: You once said that having expe¬ entered the war, and narrowly es¬ that was a major center of European rienced the San Francisco earthquake caped being torpedoed. I spent eight diplomacy and the gateway to Asia. and fire was excellent preparation years in disturbed Latin American He said Asia, from one end to the for your long career in the Foreign countries in the 1920s, I was in other, is like a mass of jelly—you Service. What did you mean? Peking during the Sino-Japanese War touch one end, and the other end A: Well, I witnessed one of histo¬ and the invasion of Manchuria, and quivers. He realized, even then, that ry’s greatest natural catastrophes be¬ I was in Addis Ababa when Musso¬ the world in general and Asia in fore entering a Foreign Service ca¬ lini’s troops conquered Ethiopia— particular were shaping up toward a reer that went from one calamity to and I had to defend my legation new era. another—and was always exciting. there against rioters. It seemed my Q: Based on your observations in

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, Januarx, 1981 5 1 Constantinople, why do you think main after hostilities broke out. The then representing US interests—that the first world war came about? Turks suspected them of being spies, I was under arrest somewhere in A: I recently found a letter I wrote and there was concern they might be Asia Minor. On receiving the mes¬ my mother from Constantinople dur¬ ill treated. I got them all out, al¬ sage, the Swedish ambassador told ing the first Balkan war in 1913 in though I had no means of compel¬ the Turks the entire Turkish embas¬ which I said a world war seemed ling the Turks to take action. I could sy staff in Washington would be almost inevitable. The kaiser’s am¬ only apply persuasion. detained until I was released—and I bitions in the Middle East and his Q: That sounds like quite an was then set free. determination to make Germany into achievement. Did it bring you a spe¬ Q: What was your next assignment? a world power were already contrib¬ cial promotion? A: I returned to Washington, look¬ uting to a war-expectant psychology. A: No, of course not. Nobody ever ing forward to my first leave in five Q: Do you believe better diplomacy even mentioned it. After all, virtual¬ years. The department, on learning I in 1913 and 1914 could have fore¬ ly every achievement during war is was going home to California, asked stalled the first world war? unusual. me to accompany Assistant Secre¬ A: Yes, I think if politicians in the Q: But didn’t that assignment in¬ tary Breckinridge Long on a mission world’s capitals had heeded their volve risks? to meet Viscount Ishii of Japan in professional diplomats more—and A: Yes, but I wasn’t married, and I San Francisco. He later signed the their military advisers less—subse¬ had lived a dangerous life. I had Lansing-Ishii Agreement, by which quent developments might have been played polo, and climbed mountains. quite different. I always felt, for A person who has frequently had to instance, if President Wilson had make sure he would not be swal¬ “Actually, we never cabled the kaiser that Belgian neu¬ lowed up by a crevice or killed by a trality was of great interest to the pony falling on top of him learns to fought the Turks, but United States, the kaiser might have sort things out. the embassy was closed hesitated to take military action Q: Did you go out on any other against Belgium. special missions from Constantin¬ after they broke off Q: You were at the Dardanelles for ople? diplomatic relations awhile, were you not? A: Yes. My regular job at the em¬ A: Yes, shortly after the war broke bassy kept me pretty busy for a year with us, when we out, I was sent there to represent our or so, but early in 1917, the de¬ declared war on embassy and the other Allied pow¬ partment sent me on a special mis¬ ers, after their embassies closed sion overland to Syria and Palestine. Germany.” down. The Dardanelles controlled The United States was still neutral the entrance to the Black Sea from then, but Washington was afraid the the Mediterranean, and Britain and Turks might break off diplomatic the United States recognized that France wanted to keep it open to relations with us and Americans in Japan had special interests in China, ships destined for Russia. They en¬ that area might be unable to leave. I had never heard of the viscount, visaged a naval assault on the Turk¬ They wanted me to evacuate as many and knew little of the issues, but the ish batteries there. as possible, and I was able to get a department evidently saw they could Q: Were there actual military hos¬ number of them out overland, after have my help at very little cost. tilities while you were there? the British blockaded all ports in the Q: And after that? A: Yes, some, although not so much area. A: When I asked for an assignment as later. One lovely Sunday morn¬ Q: You were under 30 then—quite that would involve me in the war ing, as there was no traffic on young for such an assignment. Were effort, Under Secretary William Phil¬ the straits, I rowed myself out a way, you sent because you had demon¬ lips told me the department wanted and heard a terrific explosion, just strated courage and imagination at someone to help keep track of de¬ behind me. I turned around, and the Dardanelles? velopments in our war with Ger¬ saw a big Turkish cruiser, which had A: No, because I was considered many. He apparently felt the semi¬ been lying at anchor only a quarter expendable. Actually, I nearly didn’t intelligence work I had already done of a mile away, turn turtle. A come back, because Turkey did might help—and so I went to The British submarine had penetrated the break off relations while I was still Hague from 1917 to 1919. mine fields and torpedoed it. I rowed in Syria. In fact, about that time, I Q: Just what did you do there? toward it, where Turkish sailors were actually saw the Turks and the Brit¬ A: Well, The Hague was second drowning. A few were floating ish fighting near Gaza in Palestine. only to Berne as a principal center around, and as they grabbed and On my return trip, the Turks yanked of Allied intelligence work on Ger¬ hung onto my boat, nearly swamping me off the train, and placed me many. We had a small staff, and as it, I rowed them to shore as quickly under arrest, completely ignoring my third secretary, I did a good deal of as I could. By then, the Turks had diplomatic passport. After a week or donkey work. I didn’t actually deal launched a rescue operation to pick so at Afion Kara Hissar, they put me with our opposite numbers in Ger¬ up as many survivors as possible. on a train for Constantinople, but man intelligence. We had no CIA Q: What was your function at the the moment I got there, I was again then, but I was expected to keep Dardanelles? placed in custody, and sent right track of information about Germany A: I was to help evacuate the Brit¬ back to Asia Minor. A Greek barber developed by British intelligence in ish, French, and Italian consular of¬ at the railway station promised he The Hague. I don’t know whether ficers who had been forced to re- would inform the Swedes—who were the State or War Departments had 52 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. January, 1981 intelligence agents in Germany, but A: In retrospect, we know that was Tehran as charge d’affaires, from their experts did maintain contact a pivotal moment in Iranian history. 1937 to 1940, and I saw him every with Germans who passed informa¬ The British had discovered oil in the few years after that. tion about military matters to us at Persian Gulf toward the end of the Q: What was he like? the Dutch frontier. first world war—a discovery that led A: He understood the Iranian peo¬ Q: Didn’t you return to Constanti¬ to the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company. ple—as his father did. He was acute¬ nople in 1919? They had one or two people there ly conscious of his father’s lowly A: Well, I was assigned to go to when I arrived, but more staff grad¬ origin. And he had a deep feeling Iran then, but just before I left Wash¬ ually trickled in. They established for Iran’s lowest classes. He realized ington, the department asked me to an oil refinery in Abadan, and an¬ his father—despite great will power stop off in Constantinople to help other at Khorramshar. and common sense—had been too our high commissioner, Admiral Q: Were there significant political ignorant to be a first-class ruler. The Bristol, reopen our embassy there. developments in Iran during that pe¬ older shah sent his son to school in Actually, we never fought the Turks, riod? Switzerland, when he was about fif¬ but the embassy was closed after they A: Oh, definitely. Reza Shah, the teen or sixteen, and when he re¬ broke off diplomatic relations with father of the late shah, became ruler turned as crown prince, he resolved us, when we declared war on Ger¬ through a 1921 coup d’etat. That to avoid his father’s mistakes. His many. The admiral’s tour as high was an almost bloodless revolution, life only took a tragic turn in late commissioner in Constantinople and the world little noted it, but the 1973, when the dance of the billions stretched out for several years, since British were watching it closely. began, after oil prices began to sky¬ we didn’t conclude a peace treaty Having been bled white during the rocket. Before that, he had never with Turkey until 1923. first world war, they did not want to handled more than a few millions at Q: How long were you there? commit massive funds or troops to a time, and Iran was modernizing on A: About a year—and I was the Iranian defense, as they would have a fairly even keel. But after that, only civilian on the admiral’s staff in the 19th century. The Tudeh some people took advantage of the during that time. After the post was (Communist) Party was founded just situation—and the shah, who was open and functioning, I proceeded to about that time, and the British feared always open to advice. I often spoke Iran. The first part of the trip—to it might threaten their position, so to him myself, and he always listened Alexandria—was easy enough, since they picked the older shah as the to my views, as he did to other Admiral Bristol put a destroyer at man to hold Iran together. Actually, American advisers. my disposal for that. Then I caught Reza Khan, as he was then known, Q: Why did you go to Afghanistan a commercial steamer to India and was of very humble origin, and he in 1922? Basra, where I got a river boat up was almost completely illiterate. But A: I became acquainted with the the Euphrates to Baghdad. But a the British saw he was a competent, Afghan ambassador in Iran, who local revolt there detained me for energetic, and ambitious soldier. He wanted the United States to establish two summer months in daytime tem¬ had risen through the ranks to head diplomatic relations with his counry, peratures that stayed between 110 a “cossack” brigade that was origi¬ as a newly independent nation. He and 120°F. Eventually, the British nally founded by the Russians, and said Britain no longer controlled Af¬ sent in General Ironside—later Field he had the support of the men under ghanistan’s foreign affairs, as it had Marshal Ironside—with a small con¬ his command. The dynasty he over¬ for 150 years. Remember, the Brit¬ tingent of troops, presumably as a threw—the Kajar Dynasty—is al¬ ish had taken over Afghanistan’s for¬ token to show the Russians they most completely forgotten today, al¬ eign policy in the mid- 19th century, would protect Iran if the Russians though it had ruled Iran for some fearing it would be annexed by Rus¬ should attempt to take over, and the 150 years. sia, which had already assimilated situation stabilized. Anyway, when Q: With your extraordinary sense Bokhara, Samarkand, and Tashkent. Ironside heard I was stranded in of history, you must have sent some Q: How did Afghanistan regain con¬ Baghdad, he invited me to ride on fascinating reports to Washington trol over its own foreign affairs? his armored train to the Iranian bor¬ about this. . . A: Well, in 1919, the British had a der, and then to Tehran in one of his A: Frankly, I haven’t the vaguest little war with Afghanistan, on cars. recollection of what I said. I cabled India’s northwest frontier. They really Q: What kind of post did we have many reports to the State Depart¬ relinquished control as a voluntary there? ment, but Washington’s principal gesture, but the Afghans claimed A: It was a small post, had been source for detailed information was they defeated the British militarily. there since the 1880s. I had one the press, particularly Reuters and They are good fighters, by the way. secretary, and the two of us were the the Times of London, which had Q: Had the Afghans already estab¬ entire staff. Even routine reporting, excellent reporters in Iran, even lished diplomatic relations with other under those circumstances, takes a then. The American press didn’t countries when you went there? lot of time—and that, plus admin¬ consider these developments very A: They were just beginning to. The istrative and representational chores, important. Russians were there, and the Brit¬ kept me busy. From that time on, by Q: Did you know the younger shah? ish, the Turks, the Iranians, and the the way, I was charge d’affaires at A: Yes, very well, all his life, from French. The Italians had just sent a most of my posts—eighteen years, the time he was five. I used to play mission there to establish diplomatic out of the twenty-five years before I with him, when he was a little boy relations. The Afghans, in fact, sent became minister. and he and his father occasionally a mission to Washington, trying to Q: What was happening in Iran at had lunch or tea or dinner with me. open diplomatic relations with the that time? I also knew him when I returned to United States. On the whole, I think FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January, 1981 53 we should have responded earlier and the British external affairs de¬ Q: Why did the United States estab¬ than we did—but we waited until partment there offered me stacks of lish diplomatic relations with Af¬ World War II. Anyway, the depart¬ material. Finally, my bride and I ghanistan at that time? ment authorized me in 1922 to go spent nearly every free evening in A: For a time, it appeared the war home via Afghanistan, so long as it 1923 at the Library of Congress, might actually spill over into Afghan¬ entailed no extra cost for the gov¬ digging up additional information istan. In fact, if the Russians had ernment. So I paid for it myself— Q: You were married about that not stopped Hitler’s forces at the and I told the department I would time? Caucasus, the Germans might well report later on what I found. I made A: Yes, shortly after I returned from have overrun Iran and cut the Allied it clear to the Afghans that my trip Afghanistan. I had met my wife supply lines to Russia. If that had was purely private. I was only the some years before that, in Califor¬ happened—and by that time the third American to visit Afghanistan; nia. She was a very plucky woman, United States was in the war—the the first two were electrical engineers and never hesitated for a moment to Allies probably would have found it who set up a hydroelectric power go even to posts that seemed un¬ necessary to open an alternate supply plant. pleasant. We were married nearly 50 route through Afghanistan. In any Q: Did you get to know the amir? years, and about half that time we event, Afghanistan remained neutral A: Oh, yes—Amanullah controlled were in the Foreign Service. throughout the war, and my princi¬ everything. Nobody entered Afghan¬ Q: I recently read your published pal task there was to counteract the istan without his permission. I was report on Afghanistan at the National machinations and propaganda of the his guest for about a month in the Archives, where they told me their German, Italian, and Japanese min¬ spring. He gave me a little house to one copy seems to be the only one isters in Kabul, all of whom were stay in, with a couple of servants, that survived. Shouldn’t it be repub¬ very active. Three years later, by the and sent food from his kitchen every lished? way, I had the satisfaction of receiv¬ ing the keys to their respective lega¬ “For hundreds of years, Czarist Russia tions from them as a token of their surrender. That, in fact, capped my was a power that threw out tentacles Foreign Service career. toward the Black Sea, the Q: Your next assignment, after you Mediterranean, the Baltic, and even left the Middle East in 1922, was in Washington? the Indian Ocean. Then in 1917, it A: Yes—and that was my first and fell under the control of a strange only tour at the State Department. Allen Dulles asked me to work for anti-Western government.” him, and I remained on his staff for two years. We worked on a number day. Each time I talked with him, A: I wouldn’t object. I know of no of things—on the Treaty of. Sevres he urged me to ask the department to other copies. I had one for years, with Turkey, which was signed in establish diplomatic relations with but it was lost when the ship carry¬ 1923, for example. Also oil was him. His minister of foreign affairs ing 47 cases of my household ef¬ beginning to be important during pressed the same point, and I assured fects was torpedoed during World that period, and I did some work on them I would convey their message War II. It was originally sent to every that too. to those in authority in Washington. US embassy and legation, as a confi¬ Q: Wasn’t it unusual to have only Q: Your sojourn there apparently dential document, but it was declass¬ one tour in the department? aroused your interest sufficiently that ified many years ago. I think it does A: Not in those days. Remember, you wrote a couple of reports about shed light even on recent develop¬ during the two world war periods— it. . . ments—it shows, incidentally, that some ten years—few Foreign Ser¬ A: I prepared a short interim report, if the British had not been in India, vice officers received Washington as¬ just after I returned to Washington. the Russians would have moved into signments or could even get home Allen Dulles, who then headed the Afghanistan in the middle of the leave, and some spent their entire Near Eastern division and was my 19th century. careers overseas. chief, found it interesting, as did Un¬ Q: You returned to Afghanistan dur¬ Q: Did you then return to the Mid¬ der Secretary Phillips and others. I ing World War II, didn’t you? dle East? prepared a longer report in 1923, A: Yes, I was minister there, from A: No, I asked for an assignment to which the department published. 1942 to 1946, after we finally estab¬ Latin America, because I felt one Q: That longer report was really a lished diplomatic relations. I was must know something about that area book—and an extraordinary piece of the first head of mission to reside in order to understand American di¬ scholarship. How did you come to there, and had to take an unfinished plomacy. I was there eight years— write it? house, built for a relative of the about two years each in Havana, San. A: Weil, I began to pick up infor¬ king, who was then Afghan ambas¬ Salvador—where my son was bom, mation on Afghanistan in Iran. Then sador in Paris. When I first saw it, it Santiago, and Caracas—my daugh¬ I entered Kabul through India, and had no windows, no doors—nothing ter’s birthplace. the British viceroy there—with whom except four walls and a roof—and it Q: Did you do any deeper historical I stayed—gave me more material, took nearly six months to get it research there, comparable to your and I spent much of my time in ready to live in. Meanwhile, my report on Afghanistan? Kabul doing research. On my way wife and I stayed in a tiny rented A: Yes, I started a comprehensive home, I passed through India again, bungalow. political survey of El Salvador, be- 54 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January, 1981 cause I could find no good scholarly Q: Did you get to know Chiang 1946, as a guest of ambassador compendium on that country. I did a Kai-shek? Averell Harriman, on my way home lot of research on that, but my from Afghanistan. But many of my A: Yes, fairly well. I last had tea manuscript—which was more than posts were in countries acutely with him and his wife, Meiling, in half finished—went down to the bot¬ aware of the Russian threat. Certain¬ Taiwan in 1968. In the early 1930s, ly from 1919 on, I had absolutely tom of the Mediterranean with my I often went to Nanking, which was other belongings. no illusions about Russian aims, China’s capital for about ten years, purposes, or methods. Here was an Q: How would you summarize your and I usually saw him there. I think absolutely ruthless, totally unscrupu¬ impressions in Latin America? he was one of the greatest political lous government, with immense leaders of the 20th century, and he power. I first saw this, when I re¬ A: I think we, as a country, never has not been given enough credit for adequately understood that area, turned to Constantinople in 1919, his efforts to rule under impossible and saw the complete collapse of even though it is at our doorstep, conditions for about fifty years. Czarist Russia and the rise of Bol¬ partly because we never studied its Q: Apparently you sent dispatches shevism. I saw Russians arriving history enough. Too many Ameri¬ to the department mentioning a little there in 1920 after they fled to avoid cans assumed parallels between its band of revolutionary leaders, in¬ past and our own that simply did not being arrested or killed. Every day cluding Mao Tse-tung and Chou exist. For example, Latin America we saw well-born Russians arriving En-lai. . . did not inherit the political wisdom who had to sell everything they pos¬ from Spain that we did from Great A: Yes, they acted as reformers in sessed to survive. There was com¬ Britain in our colonial days. They those days, and even Chiang Kai- plete chaos and confusion in Russia, but the Bolsheviks were getting a did inherit the Catholic church, shek believed them until about 1926. whose missionaries exercised a great There was a third man—Chu Teh, firmer hand every day. civilizing influence on Latin Ameri¬ who was then almost as prominent. Q: Do you think the problem is ca. But I discovered that even 150 I would never have guessed that this Russia as Russia, or Russia as a years of independence doesn’t nec¬ triumvirate would eventually become communist state? essarily produce wise governments. 1 the principal actors on the China A: It’s the combination that makes think we missed tremendous oppor¬ stage. They were still ensconced in communist Russia such a danger. tunities, over the years, to help Latin West China then. I knew little about For hundreds of years Czarist Russia America informally, and to demon¬ them, except that they were in close was a power that threw out tentacles strate our sincere interest in their touch with Moscow, and received toward the Black Sea, the Mediter¬ political and economic progress. funds from the Russians. But they ranean, the Baltic, and even the clearly had brains and special politi¬ Indian Ocean. Then, in 1917, it fell Q: Your next assignment was China? cal skill, and they took advantage of under the control of a strange the general breakdown of China. anti-Western government. A: As a Californian, I always had an inner compulsion to go East. In fact, Q: Does this suggest anything about Q: Where did you go after China? I had studied Chinese at the Univer¬ what Foreign Service officers should A: I was in Cairo in 1934 and 1935. sity of California. I had a brief stop¬ focus on? Politically, Great Britain controlled over in China in 1922, on the way A: Well, they have to concentrate Egypt then, and it was important home from Iran. I was assigned to on the government—but they because of the Suez Canal. And Peking in 1930, and I remained there shouldn’t neglect the opposition, or after that, I was minister resident in nearly four years, during a very trou¬ even its “revolutionary” fringe. But Ethiopia. I arrived there some time bled period in Chinese history. Most this was not a characteristic situa¬ before the Italian invasion. Foreign Service officers then in tion. Normally, political leaders last China—including our minister—had Q: Did you have any premonition no more than a dozen years, but that war was coming? spent their entire careers there. I Mao and Chou lasted half a century. think the department may have sent A: Oh, yes, the Italian preparations me to present some new perspec¬ Q: You were in China in 1931, were so obvious that nobody who tives. when the Japanese invaded Man¬ was there could doubt that the inva¬ China is so vast that even the churia. Do you recall your reaction? sion was imminent. Only interven¬ concept of China becomes an ab¬ A: Distinctly. I remember telling my tion by the great powers could have straction. And it embraces a multi¬ wife that we were witnessing the stopped it. The United States could tude of contrasts. I remember walk¬ beginning of the second world war. I perhaps have brought enough pres¬ ing through a village some distance was convinced of that. The world sure on Mussolini to force him to from Peking, and being shocked by powers were watching. Hitler and abandon his plans, but we weren’t its squalor. The unmitigated misery Mussolini were flexing their mus¬ willing to get involved. and filth were worse than anything I cles in Germany and Italy, and wish¬ Q: Did you alert Washington to had seen in the Middle East or Latin ing Japan success. what you saw? America. But China has also pro¬ duced, under the patronage of its Q: A lot of your Foreign Service A: Yes, I even sent a personal cable emperors, marvelous works of art, career was in next door neighbors of to President Roosevelt, shortly be¬ and some of its citizens have been the Soviet Union. Were you ever in fore the storm broke. I stressed that highly civilized. Even after four Moscow? the great powers must put united years there, I will always regard A: Yes, twice, but I never served pressure on Mussolini, if war was to China as inscrutable. there. I spent about a month there in be avoided. A year and a half later—

FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January, 1981 55 when it was all over, and the em¬ ly, and financially. It has only grad¬ Of our 20th century career diplo¬ peror had fled—I sent another mes¬ ually dawned on us—as the differ¬ mats, I think Joseph C. Grew was sage to the president. The Italians ences between the poor and the one of the most outstanding, closely had taken possession of Addis Ababa relatively rich broadened into a tre¬ followed by William Phillips. Grew and I suggested to the president that mendous gap—that economic devel¬ held a variety of posts before he was we should decline to recognize opment is a major foreign policy appointed under secretary. He is best Italy’s conquest of Ethiopia. That’s issue. known today for his ten-year stint as exactly what he did. The British Q: Weren’t you a founding father of ambassador to Japan in the 1930s. finally reconquered Ethiopia and put the American Friends of the Middle He served again as under secretary the emperor back on his throne in East? toward the end of World War II. 1941. A: Yes, after the State Department Phillips entered the Foreign Service Q: Did you know Haile Selassie? suggested I take an interest in that about the same time Grew did, and A: Yes, I saw him often, over a area in 1950, when I left the World he also served as under secretary for two-year period. He was a remark¬ a number of years. He served at able man, with a great deal of shrewd various times as ambassador to the common sense. He knew the Netherlands and Belgium, and he strengths and limitations of his peo¬ was our ambassador in Italy while 1 ple, and he had their loyalty. was at Addis Ababa. He too had a Q: You have already explained that “My generation in the great deal of charm. Allen Dulles you were charge d’affaires in Iran Foreign Service saw the was also outstanding and attractive. from 1937 to 1940, after you left I knew him well as a young man, Addis Ababa. What did you do after United States become, and almost to the day he died. He that? for the first time, had an uncanny knack of sizing up A: I was in Beirut from 1940 to war-minded, because we complex situations in a nutshell. 1942. The Germans were then trying Among the ambassadors I served to get a foothold in the Middle East, felt we were in danger under, I was particularly impressed having already put planes in Aleppo, of being defeated.” by William Woodville Rockhill, my just north of Beirut. They were about first chief at Constantinople. He was to occupy Baghdad by paratroops. a Chinese scholar who had traveled Lebanon was nominally still a “man¬ in Tibet. His successor, Henry Mor- dated” territory, administered by genthau—the father of our World France, and the French administra¬ War II Treasury Secretary—was also tors then represented the Vichy re¬ Bank, some people in the depart¬ very able. But I was personally clos¬ gime. I assumed the department ment had become very concerned est to my chief at The Hague, John wanted me to encourage the Lebanese about the tense relationships between W. Garrett. He was an extremely to help the Allies as much as possi¬ Israel and the Arabs. Some of us human person, and genuinely inter¬ ble. I represented British interests with long experience in the area felt ested in and fond of his work. Our there while we were still neutral— there was a genuine need to show friendship lasted all our lives and I through most of 1941—and they the Arabs that many Americans were often went to see him at his home in were actively supporting the Free their friends, but we also felt the Baltimore after we both retired. French. So I was inevitably involved White House or the Congress or Q: In the light of your own career, when the Allied forces attacked and both might object if the department would you today advise young Amer¬ defeated the Vichy French in Le¬ took a public position on this at that icans to enter the Foreign Service? banon. De Gaulle came there sever¬ time. As private citizens, we were A: I have repeatedly done so. It is al times, by the way, and I conferred able to get others interested, includ¬ the most fascinating career in the with him about his aims there. ing Dorothy Thompson, its first world, and I have never regretted a Beirut was politically and militarily president, and Kermit Roosevelt. single hour I spent in the Foreign a strategic center, being a key link Q: Who were the most impressive Service. But one must not have ex¬ betwe'en Turkey, which was neutral, people you knew at the State De¬ aggerated expectations. A Foreign and Egypt, which was under British partment during your career? Service career can never lead to domination. A: I think Charles Evans Hughes wealth, and it does not necessarily Q: Following your retirement from was perhaps our most outstanding lead to high office. When I entered the Foreign Service, you served with 20th century secretary of state. He the Service, no diplomatic secretary the United Nations Relief and Re¬ was secretary in the early 1920s, had ever been made a minister or habilitation Administration, and later and before that, he was governor of ambassador. The hardships are often with the World Bank. During that New York, and he was the Republi¬ great, especially for Foreign Service period, you saw economic develop¬ can candidate for president in 1916. wives, and promotions may be few ment in the Third World coming to He later became chief justice. Among and far between. Even without wars, dominate a large part of US foreign other things, after the first world diplomacy has always been a haz¬ policy. How would you relate this to war, he helped to improve US rela¬ ardous occupation. My immediate the historical trends you observed in tions with Latin America, and he predecessor in Beiruit was assassi¬ the Foreign Service? pressed for the Rogers Act of 1924, nated and one of my successors in A: Well, the term “Third World” which virtually created our modem Kabul was also murdered. Today in¬ hadn’t even been coined during my Foreign Service. And beyond his ternational terrorism has made di¬ career, and those countries seemed personality and brain power, Hughes plomacy even more hazardous. The unimportant, politically, economical- had a great deal of charm. (Continued on page 66) 56 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January, 1981 trusted to an American delegation.” tributed appreciably to President As Smith points out, the US del¬ Nixon’s re-election. Then, in the Book Essay egation was made up of “hard-nosed memorable period of “reconcilia¬ cold war veterans.” In addition to tion” which followed this event, the Smith himself—with his service rewards were handed out. Smith felt under John Foster Dulles and other compelled to resign; many of his THE GLORIOUS ATTEMPT Republican credentials—there was colleagues were forced out of their Paul Nitze, representing the secre¬ jobs; and his small agency had its tary of defense; there was Air Force budget cut by 30 percent. This will certainly be a landmark General Royal Allison, representing But what about the substance of work not just for scholars and those the joint chiefs of staff; Llewellyn the SALT I negotiations? The ABM who have to negotiate with the Rus¬ Thompson, former ambassador to (defensive weapons) Treaty—nego¬ sians, but for those who are con¬ the Soviet Union; Graham Parsons, tiated almost entirely by the delega¬ cerned about the future security of a conservative professional diplomat, tion—has been widely cited as a the country. At least by implication, representing the secretary of state; sound and well-drafted instrument. it raises serious questions about the and Harold Brown, president of Smith nevertheless observes that, in ability of our existing governmental CalTech (later to become secretary the final analysis, the United States set-up to separate real national secu¬ of defense). The alternate chairman needlessly handed the Russians a rity interests from mere vested inter¬ of the delegation was Smith’s depu¬ gift. He and his fellow “arms con¬ ests. ty at ACDA, Philip J. Farley, who trollers” had favored a complete ban had a background of long service on ABMs; but the administration Simultaneously with the signing of with NATO. rejected this idea, and the final trea¬ the Non-Proliferation Treaty— Nevertheless, the trust which Pres¬ ty allowed each side two ABM sites. negotiated in 1968 by William C. ident Nixon placed in his fellow The number was later reduced to Foster, first head of the Arms Con¬ men did not seem to include “arms one for each side (by an additional trol and Disarmament Agency controllers”; and he encouraged his protocol in 1974); and then Con¬ (ACDA)—the Johnson administration special assistant for national security gress directed that the one and only announced that agreement had been affairs, Henry Kissinger, to involve United States ABM site (at Grand reached with the Soviets to start the himself deeply in the SALT nego¬ Forks, N.D.) be mothballed. All this SALT negotiations “in the nearest tiations—sometimes behind the back presumably makes little or no dif¬ future.” of the US delegation, and along lines ference militarily; but as Smith The Non-Proliferation Treaty spe¬ that were at variance with the dele¬ comments, “We have in effect im¬ cifically called on the great powers gation’s instructions. Indeed, Smith posed an ABM ban on ourselves to negotiate mutual arms restraints— reproaches Kissinger not only for while the Soviets retain their Mos¬ in a spirit of reciprocity for the for¬ meddlesomeness but for sloppy di¬ cow ABM defense.” bearance shown by other countries. plomacy, much of it carried out The SALT agreement on offensive But what probably led the Soviets to without benefit of sufficient mili¬ weapons—the final version of which decide in favor of SALT was the fact tary or other expertise, and com¬ was negotiated largely by Kissinger that they had finally reached a kind pounded by failure to keep proper and his staff at the hectic 1972 of rough parity in strategic weapons records. (Example: Kissinger at one Moscow summit—has proven to be with the United States. point told the Soviets that the United considerably more controversial. In The actual beginning of SALT was States was willing to exclude sub¬ part this was because it spelled out to be further delayed for many marine missile-launchers from limi¬ (perhaps unavoidably) and thus rec¬ months—first by the Soviet invasion tations, and that there need be no ognized the higher number of sub¬ of Czechoslovakia, which made the limitations on modernization. Ac¬ marine-based missile launchers which United States unwilling to proceed; cording to Smith, the US delegation the Soviets had begun to build be¬ and then by the advent of the Nixon was able to redress these lapses only fore the long-delayed freeze took ef¬ administration, which wanted to un¬ after much time and considerable fect. However that may be, Smith dertake its own set of preparations. effort.) Moreover, while the delega¬ says the “major failure of SALT I Meanwhile, Gerald Smith, the new tion wasted months, under Kissin¬ was that MIRVs (multiple warheads] director of ACDA, was also desig¬ ger’s direction, in trying to negotiate were not banned” [emphasis added]. nated to be chief US negotiator. non-negotiable ABM proposals, So¬ He and his arms control colleagues The prospect of SALT had gener¬ viet factories were continuing to turn (but not all members of the SALT ated a good deal of public enthusi¬ out strategic offensive weapons. delegation) had favored such a mea¬ asm, both in the United States and When Smith raised objections about sure, and there seems little doubt internationally; and when Smith and some of Kissinger’s actions, Presi¬ that—through a ban on testing—it his colleagues finally began the dent Nixon, perhaps not surprising¬ would have been technically feasi¬ SALT process at Helsinki in the fall ly, sided with the special assistant. ble. But the US military opposed of 1969, President Nixon sent them (The president ended the conversa¬ this idea, and so finally did the an open message of most unusual tion by shouting “Bullshit!”—the administration. Given the larger size cordiality. It said in part: “You are title of one of Smith’s chapters.) of Soviet missiles, it was inevitable embarking upon one of the most In spite of these and other vicissi¬ that when the Russians later devel¬ momentous negotiations ever en- tudes, conclusion of the final SALT oped this technology themselves, I agreements in 1972 was hailed they would be able to place a much DOUBLETALK—The Story of SALT I, by around the world as a stunning larger number of MIRVs on them, Gerald Smith. Doubleday, $17.95. achievement—and it certainly con¬ thus threatening the existence of US FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January. 1981 57 fixed land-based missiles. As a re¬ 1974) has a first hand acquaintance designs of governments, and system¬ sult, Americans are now confronted with the subject; he came to know ic with relief based on the spasmod¬ with the prospect of having to build and admire the Poles when his reg¬ ic, band-aid approach. “The very a rather grotesque MX mobile mis¬ iment, the Fifth Fusiliers, fought be¬ concept of permanent emergencies sile system, at colossal expense. side them in North Africa and Italy; underlines the shallowness of the Smith is objective enough to say in 1945, as MP for Lewes, he went traditional forms of disaster relief.” that perhaps the Russians finally to Poland and warned in a series of Green’s theme, therefore, is that would not have bought a MIRV ban articles that Stalin’s Yalta promises the disaster relief community, the either. And yet, there is fairly strong of free elections and non-interference UN, governments and volags must evidence that they would have. were worthless; after further visits to renovate the system and fast. Beyond On the face of it, it looks as if Hungary, Rumania and Bulgaria he the obvious improvements, Green some non-military people—Smith wrote Must Night Fall?, an account recommends an international con¬ and his arms control colleagues— of the methods used by the Kremlin vention akin to the Geneva Conven¬ had better ideas about the real needs to set up puppet regimes in those tions of 1949 on the Rules of War of American security than the mili¬ disparate, formerly independent making disaster relief a human right, tary did. But whether or not we countries in complete disregard of where relief would be routinized, share Smith’s views about these British and American protests. His coordinated and guaranteed and, now-historical ABM and MIRV is¬ co-author, Guy Hadley, was for many above all, free from the political sues, we are left with some trou¬ years a distinguished BBC foreign whims of both donor and recipient. bling questions. Was all this just an correspondent, who reported widely The inevitable question of sovereign¬ episode of “the Nixon years,” or is and in depth from Eastern Europe. ty, Green believes, might be dealt it apt to be repeated in other forms? Together, they have assembled an with by extending the concept of the If in the future a small agency like impressive array of facts, pointing “common heritage” from resources ACDA just happened to come up out the weaknesses in the Soviet to human life, itself. with a good idea for national securi¬ position, especially of an economic This is not a book for the disaster ty that ran counter to a major vested nature, which they assert could and buff. It is a book for the statesman, interest in a more powerful organiza¬ should be used by the West to bring the diplomat and the concerned citi¬ tion, how much of a chance would about concessions on human rights zen and should be required reading the idea stand? At this point the if the Communist nations are to ben¬ for the Global 2000 task force. prospects don’t look very reassur¬ efit from Western technology, grain —ROBERT K. OLSON ing. supplies and trade credits. —RALPH STUART SMITH A foreword by Edward Crankshaw Hell Bent for War stresses the differences in the satel¬ THE PUGNACIOUS PRESIDENTS: WHITE lite regimes and the common error HOUSE WARRIORS ON PARADE, by Thomas of lumping them together. In the A. Bailey. MacMillan Free Press, $17.95. wake of Afghanistan and the clash Thomas A. Bailey has been for over human rights at the conference years one of our “standard” histori¬ Bookshelf in Madrid,, the book has a relevancy ans. His A Diplomatic History of even greater than intended. the American People has become the The Soviet Position —HENRY S. VILLARD authoritative text in the field. A pro¬ fessor at Stanford, he has trained THE KREMLIN’S DILEMMA, by Tufton Disaster Prone? Beamish and Guy Hadley. The Presidio and guided many young American Press, $12.95. INTERNATIONAL DISASTER RELIEF, To¬ historians into the craft. ward a Responsive System by Stephen His new book—The Pugnacious No more timely topic can be Green. McGraw-Hill, 1980’s Proj- Presidents—has all the earmarks of imagined than the struggle for human ect/Council on Foreign Relations, a historian’s pot-boiler: Transparently rights in Eastern Europe, brought paperback $3.95. timed for publication in an election into the recent headlines by events If you liked the ’70s you will love cycle, it is essentially a short, in Poland. The Kremlin’s Dilemma the ’80s. During the ’80s, writes thoughtful essay overinflated and is aptly named for it describes, in director of UNA-USA policy panel stretched to book length. lucid detail, the essence of the prob¬ on disaster relief, Stephen Green, Bailey draws some obvious con¬ lem faced by Moscow today: wheth¬ with populations of disaster-prone clusions. Presidents and their parties er to continue its policy of supres- areas exploding, with eneigy short¬ are not demonstrably linked with in¬ sing national aspirations in the satel¬ ages and the prospect of adverse volvement in wars, major or minor; lite states and risk an explosion or climatic change, “. . . increasingly no president, no group of presidents, allow some degree of relaxation large areas of the developing world and no political party can be stigma¬ which might get out of hand and put become vulnerable to disasters of a tized as “hell bent for war,” recent in peril the Communist monopoly of scale hitherto unknown,” megadisas¬ campaign rhetoric notwithstanding; power and satellite allegiance to the ters which will, in turn, create polit¬ the United States was more pulled Soviet Union. ical instability and conflict. Disas¬ into already existing wars than insti¬ The authors believe that Poland, ters are largely unavoidable. But the gating them. Protection of American Czechslovakia, Hungary, Rumania, obstacles to effective relief are pri¬ lives and property or the perception East Germany and Bulgaria are now marily organizational, involving of a threat to national honor or in¬ becoming more of a liability than an waste, duplication, and lack of co¬ terest appear to have been the basic asset to their Soviet masters. Tufton ordination, political where the needs cause leading to US involvement in Beamish (Lord Chelwood since of the victims are displaced by the little or big hostilities. 58 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January. 1981 A few observations are of particu¬ tion of twenty other books, twenty pugnacity in a president: this is lar interest though not fully ex¬ additional revisions and more than a particularly misleading in assessing plored. America’s status as a major score of annotated articles. Organiz¬ a president—designated by the Con¬ world power has always convention¬ ing a voluminous amount of materi¬ stitution as Commander in Chief of ally been dated from the Spanish- al and information into individual the Armed Forces of the United American War; Bailey suggests that, chapters on each president, Bailey States, empowered to make treaties, well before that time, the United attempts to reach conclusions as to and sworn by oath to defend the States was behaving like a major the pugnacity of each—and there Constitution. Pugnacity, in other power and was so being perceived. are few surprises. words, appears to be a built-in de¬ The two most pugnacious presidents What Bailey doesn’t address in siderata for any president at any —Andrew Jackson and Theodore this book is the shaping power of the time. Roosevelt—were “discreet or lucky presidency on the White House —PRATT BYRD enough” to stay out of all major incumbent—how did it change him? The Middle East Revisited wars. While Roosevelt and Woodrow We’ve seen through the Brady pho¬ THE MIDDLE EAST IN WORLD AFFAIRS Wilson both were awarded Nobel tographs the toll taken on Lincoln by by George Lenczowski. Cornell Univer¬ Peace Prizes, Wilson led the nation the Civil War and his awesome re¬ sity Press. into one of its bloodiest wars. sponsibilities and to a certain extent, Some 28 years ago I used Geotge Bailey acknowledges the special the same kind of phenomenon with Lenczowski’s The Middle East in character of his book in his bibliog¬ FDR, and to a lesser extent, with World Affairs as the text for my first raphy. He has dispensed with the our current incumbent. Bailey doesn’t course on that part of the world. footnotes so beloved by the historian deal with the increasing complexity This year his fourth edition was pub¬ “because the major episodes in Unit¬ of the presidency or attempt to mea¬ lished. The first edition was 459 ed States history that relate to wars sure the demands of 19th century pages in length; the present edition are matters of general knowledge.” presidencies with those after Hiro¬ has 862 pages—and smaller print. That there were more than 160 shima. Neither does Bailey adequate¬ The index and the bibliography are armed interventions by the United ly deal with “fate,” luck, or whatev¬ also longer. I cite these data to sug¬ States from 1798 to 1970 is perhaps er would account for those factors gest that there has been a quantum not so generally known. Bailey also outside a president’s control which increase in the volume of informa¬ confesses that most of the informa¬ dictated or called for presidential re¬ tion about the Middle East. Profes¬ tion in the book was garnered in a sponses identifiable as pugnacious sor Lenczowski has organized this lifetime of studying and teaching or not. Finally, Bailey doesn’t estab¬ material in his customary workman¬ American history and in the prepara¬ lish any kind of measuring stick for like and scholarly fashion. Of the

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FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January. 1981 59 textbooks dealing with the Middle rights of free speech and assembly, ography nevertheless provides a fas¬ East, this one, in my opinion, con¬ describes better than any history cinating inside picture of the Court tinues to be the very best. book the American political ethos in operation, as well as of its most It is rare to catch the author in and its view of the individual in re¬ famous members. Much better than error, but I respectfully note that he lation to the powers of the state. the semi-fictional best-seller, The is incorrect in describing the Ameri¬ The justices of the Supreme Court, Brethren by Woodward and Arm¬ can observers in the Sinai as “radar whatever the eminence of their re¬ strong, it sets out the way decisions technicians.” The Sinai Field Mis¬ spective legal talents, are not usually are reached and how the personal sion had no radar. the stuff from which an interesting, philosophy of individual justices can —JAMES H. BAHTI let alone thrilling, biography can be tip the scale one way or the other. Justice is Served woven. Except in a narrow profes¬ Independent Journey by Professor sional context, their opinions are Simon provides a different route to THE COURT YEARS: 1939-1975: The Autobiography of William O. Douglas. more important than their personal¬ the same end. Obviously less opin¬ Random House. $16.95 ities. Justice Douglas was different ionated than the highly opinionated on two counts. He was a political autobiography, it sets the accom¬ INDEPENDENT JOURNEY: The Life of personality in the best sense, whose plishments of Justice Douglas against William O. Douglas, by James F. Simon, strong libertarian philosophy was un¬ the backdrop of the New Deal and Harper & Row, $16.95. ashamedly reflected in his judicial post-war readjustment. It also gives The Supreme Court occupies a opinions; and his personal life and the reader a frank and not always place in our government without par¬ acerbic manner kept him continually agreeable picture of the man. Stated allel in other societies. Acting as in the limelight, and occasionally on bluntly, Mr. Justice Douglas in his mediator between the policy choices the edge of impeachment. The author personal relations was inconsiderate, of state legislatures, Congress and of over twenty books on a variety of contentious and thoroughly spoiled the president on the one hand, and subjects from mountain climbing and by his rapid ascent to power as the Constitution on the other, it con¬ conservation to political philosophy chairman of the SEC and youngest tinually redefines the meaning of —many of indifferent quality—this justice (at 42) appointed to the court that historic document in terms of posthumous work is one of the best since the early 19th century. Impos¬ the economic and social conditions he ever wrote. Although criticized sible to live with as a person, he of the time. A careful study of the by legal scholars as misrepresenting nevertheless was indispensable in his court’s decisions in such areas as the thrust of some of the court’s crusty devotion to the Bill of Rights the police power of the states, re¬ most famous decisions, including and Jeffersonian democracy. lations between the races, and the opinioris of his own, the autobi¬ —CHARLES MAECHLING, JR.

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60 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. January. 1981 Paris Peace Conference conference are short and well- tions are basically technocrats (tech¬ written; the emphasis is, however, nical bureaucrats), and the consum¬ THE END OF ORDER: Versailles 1919, on the characters and their fumbles, mate politician as actor on the inter¬ b\ Charles L. Mee, Jr. E.P. Dutton, ineptitudes, and the pageantry of the national stage is a vanishing phe¬ $15.95. occasion. nomenon. The End of Order is a well-made Major international conferences These changes are not necessarily book, beautifully printed, well writ¬ multiplied after Versailles. There bad; they make it increasingly diffi¬ ten, and handsomely covered with a were the naval and disarmament con¬ cult, however, to view, as Mee does, detail from one of Monet’s paintings ferences in the ’20s and ’30s; the international politics as drama and of the poppy fields. abortive meetings of the League of political leaders as actors. Somehow, The author, betraying some of his Nations; the conferences of Munich/ Mee makes it all hang together and instincts as a dramatist, sees the Berchtesgarten, Yalta and Potsdam: his book is a success. Small wonder Paris Peace Conference as a piece of San Francisco, Bretton Woods, Hel¬ that it has been picked up both by theater. He brings his characters in sinki and Belgrade; and, finally, the the History Book Club and the Book and out of center stage and gives standing international conference in of the Month Club. them good lines. He chooses little the UN, its general assemblies, se¬ —PRATT BYRD vignettes of conversation and com¬ curity councils, and countless other ment as his dialogue, moving quick¬ UN meetings and assemblies. ly from one short scene to another. As yet, we have no equivalent Mee’s conclusions about the con¬ chronicles on these later conferences ference which ended the then world’s and peace-making ventures. The greatest war are not particularly writing has been largely autobio¬ novel or even original. He sees Paris graphical, self-justifying, critical, or and Versailles as the finale of the predominantly polemical in nature. old international system and, at the There were no poppy fields at Hiro¬ same time, the beginning of the new shima and no Monet to paint them. unordered one. He has done volu¬ The deck of the Missouri is not a minous research in the original works Hall of Mirrors; allied occupation of as well as in the secondary sources, Germany is not the same as bringing knitting both of them into a tapestry a German delegation to France of color, incident, and comment. through the desolate battlefields. The His summary conclusions about the large -delegations of the United Na¬ I

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FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. January, 1981 61 BREAKOUT significantly affect foreign relations. would take part at the discretion of from page 32 The scaled-back NSC staff and its the president. However, the secre¬ only institution with the bureaucrat¬ director would support this function tary of state would be the executive ic potential to take full responsibility only, providing a neutral point for agent of the council, giving State the for the president’s duties in foreign preparing issue papers for presiden¬ dominant and final voice on foreign affairs is the Department of State. tial decision. economic questions before the pres¬ To establish a new relationship The Carter administration estab¬ ident. with the White House that clearly lished two high-level committees Foreign Policy Advice and Staff puts the secretary in a position sec¬ under the NSC: a special coordinat¬ Support: It is a healthy axiom of ond only to the president in foreign ing committee (SCC), chaired by democratic methodology that the affairs, three steps need to be taken: the presidential assistant, to advise president should have alternate • The role of the NSC must be the president on cross-cutting issues, sources of advice. And he needs a narrowed. and a policy review committee small, politically-sensitive group that • A similar cabinet-level foreign (PRC), chaired by the secretary of can protect his interests, prod the economic policy council must be state to address chiefly bilateral pol¬ bureaucracy to meet deadlines, fol¬ created. icy. This division now provides the low-up, etc., but that does not play a • New mechanisms for foreign poli¬ basis for taking the PRC out of the major substantive role in formulat¬ cy advice and staff support for the NSC system and placing it at the ing and coordinating policy. Two president must be created. apex of a revived interagency struc¬ innovations at the White House could ture under the secretary of state. meet these needs: The NSC Role: The first task is Foreign Economic Policy: To 1) A Foreign Policy Advisory to redefine the relationship between more effectively coordinate foreign Council: This small permanent State and the White House in ways economic relations with foreign pol¬ council would be established by leg¬ that build on direct lines of authority icy, a new foreign economic policy islation as a White House office and confidence. This means return¬ council, analogous to the NSC, akin to the council of economic ing the National Security Council to should be set up. It would be chaired advisers. Its chairman would be the its earlier, more limited role as a by the president and include as stat¬ senior Foreign Service officer in ac¬ forum for resolving certain political- utory members the vice president, tive status, and its four or five other military issues, specifically, issues the secretaries of state, treasury, members would be senior career requiring presidential intervention labor, energy, commerce, agricul¬ FSOs, chosen to achieve a mix of when defense programs directly and ture, and transportation. Others geographic and functional area ex-

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62 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. January. 1981 perience. The president would ap¬ realistic limits of our ability to in¬ be greatly enhanced. point the chairman and the member¬ fluence foreign events, especially for In addition, there would be three ship for renewable two year terms, domestic political purposes. subordinate staffs lodged in the ex¬ subject to the advice and consent of 2) An Executive Office Secretar¬ ecutive office secretariat, each head¬ the Senate. The council would pro¬ iat for Foreign Policy Staff Sup¬ ed by a director: vide the president with a direct port: This new oiganization would Director, Foreign Policy Adviso¬ source of professional advice on for¬ be headed by an executive assistant ry Council Staff. This very small eign policy separate from the non- to the president, appointed directly administrative support staff would career, politically appointed layers by him. Its core staff would consti¬ assist the FPAC members in moni¬ of the Department of State. The tute a politically-sensitive group that toring foreign policy issues and council would be analogous in part would seek out and protect presiden¬ would serve chiefly as a bridge to to the military’s joint chiefs of staff, tial interests, conduct follow-up the expertise of the specialized staffs but it would not have operational checks on the implementation of of other agencies, namely, State. responsibilities as the chiefs do in presidential directives, prod on dead¬ Director, National Security Coun¬ their roles as the heads of individual lines of papers to be submitted to the cil Staff. As a scaled-down version armed services. The council chair¬ president, and selectively monitor of the present NSC staff, this body man should enjoy direct, easy, and foreign operations. Its chief purpose would provide staff support to the informal access to the president, as would be to provide direct and cen¬ president on political-military, intel¬ the assistant for NSC affairs does tralized staff support to the presi¬ ligence, and technology transfer now. The chairman would also pro¬ dent, and as directed by him, to the questions for NSC meetings. vide advice, but not policy or opera¬ secretary of state when the latter Director, Foreign Economic Pol¬ tional guidance to the secretary of must act in the name of the presi¬ icy Council Staff. While this staff state. The key feature of the institu¬ dent to coordinate and direct the would support the president in his tional arrangement would be to pro¬ supporting activities of other gov¬ role as chairman of the FEPC, it tect the independence of the chair¬ ernment agencies engaged in foreign would also give the council’s execu¬ man, allowing him to convey to both relations. By providing a White tive agent—the secretary of state—a the president and the secretary the House-based organization capable of vantage point from within the White viewpoint of the professional dip¬ bolstering the secretary in his deal¬ House to coordinate the foreign eco¬ lomat. In effect, this would help ings with other departments, the nomic activities of other depart¬ bolster the status of naysayers who secretary’s role as the chief agent of ments. could help inform presidents of the the president in foreign policy should To be continued next month.

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FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. January. 1981 63 DIPLOMAT’S VIEWPOINT, from page 15 Life and Lfve in the Foreign Service domestic arguments (e.g. Gladstone vs. Disraeli about by S I. Nadler morality in foreign policy), but the main lines were clear and continuous, and no one doubted England’s intention to pursue her interests. In the United States today, as a diplomat sees it, we have moved towards a fragmented and dis-unified foreign policy to the extent that many, at home and abroad, doubt our will to pursue—steadfastly—our national interest. Can we afford a division between executive and legisla¬ tive which leaves the world uncertain of the president’s authority in making foreign policy commitments? Can we afford a system of policy-making in which independent organizational entities contest a unitary, agreed policy line? Can we afford a system of leaks and press inquiry in which it is assumed that official policy is an adversary to be attacked? Can we afford the politicization of foreign policy in which electoral considerations refuse to stop at the water’s edge? Mind you, I am not criticizing or prescribing. The professional diplomat accepts his country and its political system and carries out declared policy to the best of his ability. I am merely acting as witness to history, and in that role I fear I see our cohesiveness in foreign policy deterio¬ rating at the same time as greater pressure demands more steadfastness in response. Times are changing, mostly for the worse, it seems all too often, and we may not enjoy all the freedom of choice we would like to have, in foreign policy as in other things. These are serious, hard-pressed days, and I fear we cannot afford not to be totally serious "This may have something to do with the leak to the press about foreign policy today. you’ve been wondering about."

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They were LESSONS OF the administration to lessen its reli¬ the sons of ministers, brought up in THE MIDCENTURY ance on conventional defense and simple middle-class homes, imbued from page 34 place its major dependence on the with a sense of public service and use, or threatened use, of nuclear blessed with a love of nature. In sions were gained by the press and arms. This was not the Eisenhower- each case innate intelligence was en¬ not fully clarified in subsequent dis¬ Dulles policy but it was never possi¬ hanced by sound education. Both cussions. One was the Acheson ble to eradicate the idea from the boys traveled abroad with their fa¬ speech of January 12, 1950 to the public debate and the thought still thers when they were young. When National Press Club and another was lingers. Acheson was eighteen he joined a Dulles’s address in New York, Janu¬ The increasing use of the media work gang building a railroad in ary 1954, before the Council of For¬ to spread information and educate Canada. When Dulles was nineteen eign Relations that occasioned the the public has thus, in these two he went as his Grandfather Foster’s debate about “massive retaliation.” cases, and in some others that might aide to the second Hague Peace Con¬ In the case of Acheson in 1950 it be cited—gotten out of hand. The ference. The total impression of their is widely believed that the Com¬ advantages were real but the dangers youth was one of security, stimulat¬ munists in Moscow and in Peking were always present. ing occupations and the intention of concluded that the United States There is no complete solution to fulfilling their duty as citizens. would not take strong measures if the problems in foreign relations. The This kind of upbringing would be North Koreans invaded the South. two secretaries were able—they de¬ hard to duplicate—but the qualities This conclusion was taken as en¬ served better from the press but they which were basic to their accom¬ couragement to action and so was sometimes failed in a subtle and plishments are needed now to carry held to be a cause, at least in part illusive way to prevent the misun¬ out the arduous and demanding re¬ of the outbreak of hostilities. The derstanding which came with com¬ sponsibilities of a secretary of state. unfolding tragedy did not become mentators’ superficial treatment of In any case strong characters and evident until some weeks later but serious issues. vigorous personalities are essential the blame was placed on Acheson— to a successful performance. There the press did not cease its criticism In all the major decisions and is one overriding conclusion and les¬ of a remark which seemed to have events in midcentury the impor¬ son of paramount significance, that far-reaching consequences. tance of the personalities of the men is—there is no room for vagueness In the case of Dulles’s speech in are clear. The qualities of leadership of purpose or confusion in com- 1954, there was a fallacious inter¬ were the result of strong characters

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FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January. 1981 65 DIPLOMACY AND WAR danger of being defeated. The dis¬ I believe the crying need in the IN THE 20TH CENTURY tressing developments associated present confused world is to edu¬ with war made everything we did for cate public opinion to understand from page 56 the government seem much more that, whether we like it or not, two supreme thought in the mind of important, and we took life much world wars have made the United every young officer must always be: more seriously than people in other States a world power, and we must every day I spend in the Foreign times. But I feel that the White act accordingly. If we don’t we run a Service I am helping my country to House—under any adminstration— lot of risks. I would say day-to-day survive in a dangerous world—and and the State Department have too decisions in foreign policy are not that, in itself, may be very interest¬ frequently been inclined to pursue nearly as important as long-range ing and colorful. what I have called a grasshoper planning. Western civilization is Q: In summary, did you have any policy—a tendency to jump from passing through a serious crisis, and criticisms of the State Department one crisis to another, instead of in a democracy like ours, Congress while you were in the Foreign Ser¬ trying to see how crises in particu¬ insists upon exercising an influence vice that may still be valid? lar areas can be avoided or dealt upon foreign policy that may not A: Well, frankly, I think the de¬ with by considering their interre¬ always be wise. It is perhaps too partment and the Foreign Service lationships with political and eco¬ much to hope that there will ever have done a very good job, especial¬ nomic developments in other areas. be bipartisan support for all aspects ly considering that we have always Also, I think we tend to personalize of any comprehensive foreign policy been the stepchildren of Congress. I public affairs too much—we see in¬ in a period of rapid change like the shall never forget hearing a con¬ dividuals, rather than large historic present, but I would hope we would gressman, in opposing increased forces, as dominating the world. always bear in mind that not only appropriations for the State Depart¬ Perhaps that’s why the American our own welfare is at stake, but that ment, exclaim that he saw no reason press tends to define foreign affairs our decisions may affect the future diplomats should get more money to in politico-military terms, emphasiz¬ of the entire world. We shall need enable them to go to “pink teas and ing civil wars, revolutions, and other intelligence, patience, and persis¬ dinners with duchesses!” violent developments as central to tence to make democracy endure— I think my generation in the For¬ history. Whenever there’s a crisis, and above all, we need leaders who eign Service saw the United States people in Washington notice it—but will avoid as much as possible mak¬ become, for the first time, war- they are often blind to large historic ing world affairs part of our domes¬ minded, because we felt we were in trends and influences. tic politics.

66 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January, 1981 WOMEN IN THE Marshall Green played a major role tion rates), female representation at FOREIGN SERVICE in developing this directive, whose the incoming junior level went from 9 percent to 20 percent in eight from page 50 first dramatic sentence by Secretary Vance reads: “A key objective of years—reflecting, I believe, reforms en who, despite their high rank, US foreign policy is to advance like elimination of the “no-marriage” have given us crucial help and en¬ worldwide the status and condition rule and a more active recruitment couragement. For example, in my of women.” With the formulation of of women. As to women in the de¬ opinion, Secretary of State Cyrus this foreign policy directive, one re¬ partment’s civil service, while there Vance was possibly, until his res¬ cently reaffirmed by Secretary of has been no progress at the top, ignation in April 1980, the most State Edmund Muskie, women’s there has been a more than 6 percent enlightened and aggressive leader rights have now become internation¬ gain among women in middle-level the State Department has ever had ally an integral part of the US human posts earning from about $25,000 to on the subject of equal employment rights policy. $50,000. opportunity. He came to the position Improving the condition and rights In the 36 years from 1933 (when understanding the problems, and one of women, both in the United States the first woman, Ruth Bryan Owen, of his first tasks was to establish a and worldwide, is a formidable task; was named chief of a United States special executive-level task force on we are aware that we have embarked mission abroad) to 1969, 11 women affirmative action. WAO spent hun¬ on a long journey where progress is have served in that top role (seven dreds of hours helping this task force hard to measure. But, looking back were political appointments, just as with studies and recommending re¬ over the last decade, progress is vis¬ men have long been similarly chosen, medies. Secretary Vance frequently ible while far from enough. When and four were career officers). In the took time, in spite of his tremen¬ the Foreign Service women began to decade before October 1980, 26 dous other burdens, to review prog¬ organize to safeguard and enhance women, one of them our first WAO ress and problems with us. their status in 1970, less than 5 president, Mary Olmsted, were One of the major accomplish¬ percent of the Foreign Service offi¬ named to ambassadorial posts (14 ments of the past two years has been cer corps was female; at the end of political and 12 career), a dramatic the development of a new foreign 1979, women constituted 11.5 per¬ change reflecting, again, in my opin¬ policy directive on the worldwide cent of that elite group—proportion¬ ion, the positive impact that WAO status and rights of women, the first ately over twice as many. While in¬ and the women’s movement have had of its kind in the history of the creases at the top levels were min¬ on the United States foreign affairs Department of State. Ambassador uscule (due to slow career promo¬ agencies.

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FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January, 1981 (jl WHO SHOULD BE number one are enormous. If he approved policy is quite another. AN AMERICAN AMBASSADOR? trips, he must be sustained. If he Those who wish to disagree in pub¬ makes mistakes, they must be cov¬ from page 28 lic should resign and not expect to ered. If he sleeps, he must not be be protected by their career status gaucheries, gaffes, and general in- wantonly disturbed. If he is no against the consequences of indisci¬ good, he must be pole-axed. But competencies of an egregiously un¬ pline. Nothing that has been said suited political appointee. The au¬ this last extreme process cannot be carried out every day; and certainly about an officer’s overriding respon¬ thor of that article had been the not in the days just after he has sibility to the country should be ambassador’s deputy. Is it right for been chosen. misinterpreted as recommending li¬ such a man (or woman), whose very cense to carry policy disagreements— proximity to the chief of mission In other words, loyalty to the chief whether within an embassy or be¬ involves the sharing of knowledge in of mission cannot be at the expense tween an embassy and Washington— a position of personal trust, to lift of the larger loyalty to the country outside the official family. The presi¬ the veil and reveal the feet of clay? and to those who govern it. Lest dent must have continuing good In my opinion the answer is no, it is there be any misunderstanding let grounds to count on the loyalty of not fair, it is not right, it is an me make clear that “lifting the veil” every one of his appointees, and of extremity to which one should resort on the chief has nothing to do with course every Foreign Service officer only in desperate circumstances. “lifting the veil” on policies with is a presidential appointee. The pres¬ Presidentially appointed chiefs of which one disagrees. An ambassa¬ ident must also be able to count on mission, even when they are incom¬ dor, or any of his subordinates, who their discretion—in not, for instance, petent, should be able to count on believes such policies to be misguid¬ rushing into print as soon as some¬ the loyal support and discretion of ed has a duty to bring his views to one has left his post and “returned all their subordinates, and especially the attention of Washington—and to private life.” their DCM—unless it becomes there are channels for this. But for Presidential recognition of the necessary to tell the truth about the dialogue between Washington absolute loyalty of the Service to their incompetence. As Winston and the field to be constructive it any administration—because it is Churchill wrote in connection with must be confidential. “Whistle¬ nonpolitical—will also increase his appointment to become prime blowing” or policy criticism in a presidential confidence in career of¬ minister early in World War II: classified communication to the de¬ ficers as desirable appointees to man partment of state is one thing, pub¬ the country’s first line of defense, The loyalties which centre upon lic disagreement with presidentially our diplomatic missions abroad,

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68 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. January, 1981 costs 5.39 times the amount charged pating in the Great Decisions pro¬ for the “self only” plan. Clearly, I gram. Letters am unhappy about this discrimina¬ The Great Decisions program tion and do not feel that my wife sponsors grass roots discussion groups who review at least eight News Wanted and I (no children) should be subsi¬ dizing my more reproductive col¬ international issues annually (usual¬ After reading recent articles on life leagues. ly January to March), collects bal¬ in a Foreign Service family 1 began While such subsidies are not, as lots on the issues from the partici¬ to wonder what happened to people Dr. Mumford points out, uncommon pants (50,000 in 1980) and provides I went to school with in Japan. I am in group health plans, recognition of a summary of the ballot results to particularly curious about those of the problem is the first step toward the secretary of state, the White us who attended Canadian Academy resolution. I believe strongly that House and the Chairmen of the For¬ (1957-60) in Kobe. My three-year AFSA should press for group health eign Relations Committees of the stay there was the longest of any insurance which does not force small Congress. The non-partisan Foreign school I ever attended. More recent¬ families to pay the costs of laiger Policy Association administers the ly I worked at Tehran International ones. As our present foreign assis¬ Great Decisions program through School (Iranzamin) (1970-1975) and tance policy encourages lesser de¬ volunteer state and community coor¬ am curious about former students veloped countries to offer positive dinators countrywide and publishes a and faculty there too. incentives to their citizens to reduce booklet for the use of participants in If any of your readership know family size, the pronatalistic aspects the program which gives the pros and how to acquire the above news or of US government personnel policies cons of each of the eight issues. have news themselves I would be should at least be amended to offer The Great Decisions topics for grateful for the information. a consistent, positive example. 1981 (the 27th year of the program) MARTHA (HERNDON) (SANII) DAVID A. COHEN are: WILLIAMSON Georgetown, Guyana 1. THE US AND THE SOVIET 2681 Fitzhugh Road UNION: Dilemmas of Power J P^^CC Winter Park, Florida 32792 an( 2. FROM CAIRO TO KABUL: Oil, Foreign Service Stamp Pronatalization? Islam, Israel—and Instability 3. CHINA AFTER NORMALIZA¬ I read your ad on the 200th anni¬ I have just read an interesting TION: How Good a Friend for versary of the Foreign Service and monograph by Dr. Stephen Mumford the US? decided to draw a 1981 commemo¬ entitled: “Population Growth and 4. SOUTH AFRICA: Can Race War rative stamp for the Foreign Service. Global Security: Toward an Ameri¬ Be Avoided? I am 14 years old and I collect US can Strategic Commitment.” Dr. 5. CENTRAL AMERICA AND Mumford makes a number of impor¬ THE CARIBBEAN: New Politi¬ tant observations in his paper, in¬ cal Earthquake Zone cluded among which is a description 6. FOOD: Humanity’s Need, Amer¬ of a pronatalistic organization. ica’s Interest I quote: “Pronatalistic means en¬ 7. MADE IN USA: Is US Compet¬ couraging births either intentionally itiveness Slipping? or unintentionally. There are many 8. THE WORLD IN 1981 pronatalistic organizations in the Dr. Mughisuddin of American United States, many of which are University is the coordinator for the unintentionally pronatalistic. An or¬ greater DC. area. Community co¬ ganization providing goods or ser¬ stamps. I have hoped for an ad like ordinators are: vices for a family on a schedule that this to come along since last sum¬ D.C.: Gene Solon 484-1184 is not based on cost per child is mer. I hope you like my stamp. I Md.: John Erskine 530-8152 pronatalistic . . . Most medical in¬ also hope that I will win and my Va.: James Roush 528-4553 surance companies . . . can thus be stamp will be issued in 1981. Being an AID retiree, and theo¬ regarded as pronatalistic. If an in¬ SCOTT NUGENT retically having lots of time, I would surance company, or an employer in APO San Francisco be willing to be a contact for retirees its group medical insurance package, or for foreign service personnel requires all employees to share in abroad who may wish to start a the costs of child-bearing . . ., then discussion group locally or inform that company or employer can be Taking Part in Great Decisions their friends and relatives in the US viewed as pronatalistic.” of the name and address of the Great This publication crossed my desk The campaign rhetoric and the Decisions Coordinator in their area. at the same time as information on TV interviews of ordinary citizens Participating in the program not the 1981 Health Benefits Open Sea¬ illustrate graphically the need for the only will bring more realism into son. Not only does the Foreign Ser¬ public to be much better informed the discussions but will also open up vice Benefit Plan increase more than on international issues. Members of a new Dissent channel. twice as much for the “Self and the foreign affairs community, active JAMES ROUSH Family” option (74.7%) as it does and retired, at home and abroad, Fdn.for P.E.A.C.E. for “Self Only” (34.8%), but also have a special opportunity to help in P.O. Box 118 the “Self and Family” option now this effort by fostering and partici¬ Arlington, Va. 22210 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL, January. 1981 69 Jernegan. John D. Jemegan, retired ambassador, died on November 7 in Carmel Valley, California. Ambas¬ REAL ESTATE sador Jemegan entered the Foreign Marriages Service in 1936 and served at Mexi¬ FLORIDA—WATERFRONT; CONDOS—HOME—INVEST¬ co City, Barcelona, Tehran, Tunis MENTS—LAND. Helen Clark Realty, Realtor, 353 Tilden Hartwell-Dorman. Leslie Ann Hart¬ and Rome before his appointment as St.. Dunedin. Fla. 33528. Tel. 813-734-0390 eve well, daughter of FSO and Mrs. 733-9428. Ralph B. Hartwell, was married to ambassador to Iraq. He then served as political adviser to the Air Uni¬ David Brent Dorman on October 18, versity, as ambassador to Algeria, as in London. Mr. Dorman is a former RETURNING TO THE US? diplomat in residence at Emory Uni¬ Marine security guard, having served versity and as political adviser to After 30 years in the F.S., I un¬ in Colombo and Paris. derstand your needs. Let me help McArdle-Fendrick. FSO Patricia CINCLANT before his retirement in you find a home. Write me. 1972. He became a career minister Lynn McArdle was married to FSO in 1962. Ambassador Jernegan is MT. VERNON REALTY Reed Jackson Fendrick on Septem¬ ber 14, in Glen Echo, Maryland. survived by his wife, Mary, of 118 428 S. Washington St. Rancho Road, Carmel Valley, Cali¬ Alexandria, Va. 22314 Ms. McArdle is assigned to INR/ fornia 93924 and four children. TEL.: (703)549-8700 NESA and Mr. Fendrick to INR/A A. I will send you a kit with maps, information on areas Jorzick. Elizabeth Jorzick, FSO- in northern Va., schools, taxes, etc. and pictures of Births retired, died on November 27 in homes for your selection. Clarke. A daughter, Aurelie Cathe¬ Washington. Miss Jorzick joined rine, bom to FSO and Mrs. Walter OWI in 1944 and State in 1946. She HOUSE FOR RENT IN ANNANDALE. Five bedrooms, three Clarke on October 20 in Alexandria, served at Peking, Tokyo and Rome baths, large family room, plenty storage space, gas Virginia. Now in Lagos, where her before her retirement in 1962 as heat, C/A, backyard leads to county woods. Neighbor¬ public affairs officer attached to the hood swim and tennis club down the street. Shopping father is politicial counselor. and schools nearby. Excellent bus-subway service to Far Eastern desk. She is survived by ICA, State, Commerce and Pentagon. Just off Braddock Deaths two sisters, Mrs. Reed Gerard of Road, one mile outside Beltway. Rent $475. Minimum Washington and Mrs. G. Thomas Howland. Harold E. Howland, FSO- two-year lease. Available July 1. Contact; Thomas F. Love, of Louisville. Johnson, PGM/TA PHB-0013, ICA Washington. retired, died on November 30 in Tampa, Fla. Mr. Howland joined the Loupe. Sylvain R. Loupe, FSO- AUSTIN, TEXAS. John and Gisela Oiggins are Realtor State Department in 1951 and the retired died on July 1. Mr. Loupe Associates who can help solve your housing needs by Foreign Service in 1959, serving at their Foreign Service experience and personal service. entered the Foreign Service in 1946 Tel Aviv and Amsterdam before his and served at Paris, Bonn and Rio C/o Dorothy Wallace. Realtor, 4107 Medical Parkway, retirement in 1972. He also served as Suite 215, Austin, Texas 78756 or phone office 512- de Janeiro before his retirement in 454-5149; home 512-346-1872. deputy assistant secretary of state. 1967. He received the Meritorious He is survived by his wife, Eliza¬ Service Award in 1950. There are beth, of 405 Dove Circle, S.W., FREE no known survivors. Vienna, Virginia, two sons, Harold, Morning Coat, Striped Trousers, Waistcoat, Etc. Formal Jr., of Vienna, and Charles, of Fort day wear; worn only twice; tailormade in Tokyo. Made Roman. Edwin Nelson Roman, FSR- for a man 6'5" and 180-190 lbs. Call: Mrs. R.P. Myers, Florida, a daughter, Carol retired, died on November 6 in Wheeler, 1658-A Beekman Pl„ N.W., Washington, D.C. Pittard, of Columbia, Md. and a Bluemont, Virginia. Mr. Roman 20009 (202) 387-0123. brother, George, of Williamsburg, joined the Department of State in Va. 1948 and served at Ankara, Venice BOOKS and Mexico City before transferring HOME EXCHANGE to USIA in 1956. He then served at IF YOU ARE LOOKING for an out-of-print book, perhaps Dacca and Santiago before his re¬ I can find it. Dean Chamberlin, FSIO-retired, Book SABBATICAL? Rent/exchange housing wnrldwide. Cellar, Freeport, Maine 04032. Loan-A-Home, 18F Darwood, Mt. Vernon. N.Y. 10553 tirement in 1972. He is survived by his wife, Valerie, Route 212-B1, Bluemont, Va. 22012, two daugh¬ CURRENT PAPERBACKS airmailed within 5 days at EDUCATION ters, Lynn, of Seattle and Jane, of reasonable prices. Send for monthly list to Circle Hawaii, and a son, Allen, of Salem, Enterprises, Box 1051, Severna Park, Maryland 21146 WASHINGTON ETHICAL Oregon. SOCIETY HIGH SCHOOL ASIA, CHINA. ARAB MID-EAST, PERSIA. Old and rare enrolling now for spring semester. Spinks. Charles N. Spinks, FSO- books bought and sold. Write for catalogue or send us 7750 16th St., N.W. retired, died on September 14 in your offers. ASIAN RARE BOOKS INC., 507 Fifth Ave.. Florida. Dr. Spinks joined the For¬ (307), N.Y., N.Y. 10017. Washington, D.C. 20012 eign Service in 1948 and served in Telephone: (202) 829-0088 Tokyo, then Bangkok on detail to USIA. He later served in Djakarta TAX RETURNS • small, private, non-sectarian and Canberra and again in Bangkok. TAX PR08LEMS, returns and representation. T. R. • concerned with the growth of in¬ He is survived by his wife, Martha, McCartney (ex-FS) and John Zysk (ex-IRS), Enrolled dividuals in an atmosphere that of Regency West, Apt. 533, 5575 Agents. Business Data Corp., P.0. Box 57256, promotes academic success Washington, D.C. 20037. (703) 522-1040. Gulf Blvd., St. Petersburg Beach, Fla. 33706.

70 FOREIGN SERVICE JOURNAL. January. 1981 cTVIore than 50 yeans in the foreign Service

One of the most common of occurrences nowadays is These increases translated into an actuarial basis the ever increasing cost of things that we need, even meant that our premiums had to be increased 35 per¬ insurance, and particularly health insurance. cent. As you know, premiums for'insurance are based pri¬ The premium cost for the Self Only subscription, both marily upon the actual experience of claims made and the employee and the government share, was increased benefits paid in the preceding year. 35 percent, raising the biweekly cost to the member Last year (1980) the American Foreign Service Pro¬ from $3.44 to $4.64. tective Association not only was able to avoid an in¬ However, the impact on Self and Family enrollment crease. but to effect a substantial decrease in premiums. was greater. There is a maximum government contribu¬ And for that Foreign Service Benefit Plan subscribers tion computed each year as per FPM Supplement 890-1 can thank themselves. Federal Employees Health Benefits; Appendix A, Chap¬ But that was last year! ter 89, Title 5. US Code Section 8906. In 1981 this Unfortunately premiums for 1981 are up substantial¬ maximum amount is $35.64, effectively limiting the ly, and while it won’t reduce the costs, at least some government participation and thereby throwing the addi¬ explanation might be helfpul. tional premium cost (above $35.64) onto the employee. The first jolt was that for the first six months of 1980, This results in a Self and Family biweekly premium our Self Only claims were up 79.5 percent and Self and increase from $14.32 to $25.01 for 1981. Family claims were up 100.3 percent.

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