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South African Struggle Songs, Poems and Plays: an Anthropological Perspective

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South African Struggle Songs, Poems and Plays: an Anthropological Perspective “LISTEN TO OUR SONG, LISTEN TO OUR DEMAND”: South African struggle songs, poems and plays: An anthropological perspective by GERT HENDRIK MAREE submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS in the subject ANTHROPOLOGY at the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA SUPERVISOR: PROFESSOR M DE JONGH COSUPERVISOR: PROFESSOR FC DE BEER March 2011 ii iii Student number: 450-725-8 I declare that “LISTEN TO OUR SONG, LISTEN TO OUR DEMAND”: South African struggle songs, poems and plays: An anthropological perspective is my own work and that all the sources that I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references. ……………………… …………………… SIGNATURE DATE (G H Maree) iv v DEDICATION A poem by Constantine Cavafy based on the return of Odysseus to Ithaca ITHACA When you set out on the voyage to Ithaca, pray that your journey may be long, full of adventures, full of knowledge. Of the Laestrygones and the Cyclopes and of furious Poseidon, do not be afraid, for such on your journey you shall never meet if your thoughts remain lofty, if a select emotion imbue your spirit and your body. The Laestrygones and the Cyclopes and furious Poseidon you will never meet unless you drag them with you in your soul, unless your soul raises them up before you. Pray that your journey may be long, that many may those summer mornings be when with what pleasure, what untold delight you enter harbours you’ve not seen before; that you stop at Phoenician market places to procure the goodly merchandise, mother of pearl and coral, amber and ebony, and voluptuous perfumes of every kind, as lavish an amount of voluptuous perfumes as you can; that you venture on to many Egyptian cities to learn and yet again to learn from the sages. But you must always keep Ithaca in mind. The arrival there is your predestination. Yet do not by any means hasten your voyage. Let it best endure for many years, until grown old at length you anchor at your island rich with all you have acquired on the way. You never hoped that Ithaca would give you riches. Ithaca has given you the lovely voyage. Without her you would not have ventured on the way. She has nothing more to give you now. Poor though you may find her, Ithaca has not deceived you. Now that you have become so wise, so full of experience, you will have understood the meaning of an Ithaca. vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS In setting a context in terms of which the meaning of rock art should be understood, Lewis- Williams and Dowson (1989:31-32) give an account of a shamanistic trance dance among the Bushmen in which the dancing is accompanied by the sounds of singing, clapping, thudding and rattles which, in terms of Bushmen beliefs, activate a potency that is inherent in the songs and the dancers themselves. It is believed that when properly harnessed, the potency can be useful, but if it is uncontrolled or if the intensity of the potency is too great, it can be dangerous and consequently the shamans have to control the potency for the good of all people. Dancers could heighten the level of their potency by facing rock paintings which shaman-painters had infused with potency by the use of paint that was mixed with the blood of highly potent animals. It was believed that the potency flowed from the animal, via its blood, to the rock paintings, and then from the rock paintings to the people. Rock painting sites were thus repositories of potency that made contact with the spiritual world possible, that facilitated healing and “gathered up all aspects of life in a spiritual unity” (Lewis- Williams & Dowson 1989:36). Rock art, as it were, constituted a bridge between different worlds. In many respects, the songs, poems and play of the Mayibuye Cultural Group similarly functioned as images of power and as a bridge between different worlds, not only for the members of the association and no doubt for some of their audiences, but also for me. The songs and poems invoked potent images of people who had died in the liberation struggle and of blood that had “paved the way to freedom”. By drawing on such images, members of the association heightened their resolve to “never abandon the struggle” and persisted in their efforts to transform South African society in the contexts in which they performed, and by so doing, transformed their lives as well. In facing (studying) the art of the association, i.e. the songs, poems and play of the association, my “potency” was similarly heightened. It paved the way to a formal qualification, but also transformed me personally. The journey enriched me with experiences that contributed tremendously to my growth as an individual. This growth would not have been possible without the unfaltering guidance of my two “shamans”, Prof Mike de Jongh and Prof Frik de Beer, who controlled my “potency” and reflected light onto my path and for that, my sincere gratitude. vii Similarly, the intensifying of my “potency” would not have been possible without the “singing”, “clapping”, “rattling” and “thudding” of my family, friends and colleagues. In particular I want to acknowledge and express gratitude to my mother for her unwavering belief in me and for her support, as well as my friends Drikus and Dena van den Bergh, Dineke and Cor Ehlers, Annie Heneke, Wynand Smith, Rhoda and Pieter Henning, Danie van Vuuren, Madi Ditmars, Marlize Lombard, Erika Lemmer, Kathleen van der Linde and Wilma Lombard- Maree for their ceaseless encouragement and for bearing the brunt of my frustrations. I also want to extend my gratitude to Prof Stephné Herselman, Prof Jan Boeyens and Dr Eulalie van Heerden for their interest in my work and for reading some of the chapters of this dissertation, as well as to my editor, Dineke Ehlers, for scrutinising the dissertation with her keen eye and for making adjustments under severe time constraints. A word of gratitude is also extended to my employer for subsidising the tuition fees and for granting study leave for the completion of the project. Last but not least, I want to acknowledge and thank the members of the Mayibuye Cultural Group, the producers of the images of power under discussion here. Without them I would not have been able to begin this journey. They invited me into their lives, trusted me, supported my research, were extremely patient with my constant stream of questions and shared information and themselves willingly with me. I dedicate this study to all of you. viii ABSTRACT Proceeding from the premise that the meaning of performances flows from contextual, textual, and nonverbal elements, this dissertation explores layers of meaning arising from performances of selected South African struggle songs, poems and plays. In particular, it focuses on performances of the Mayibuye Cultural Group which functioned as an adaptive mechanism in the changing sociopolitical landscape of the 1980s and early 1990s, and on contemporary performances. The analysis of the songs, poems and play underscores the importance of nonverbal elements for the interpretation of performances, and proposes that performances functioned as debate and as a discursive presence in the public sphere. In particular, the performances glorified a masculine conception of the struggle and of South African society which highlighted the fragile gender politics in South Africa, and functioned as a vibrant mechanism for the expression of sanctioned criticism especially for the marginalised and for those at the fringes of power. ix KEY WORDS AND PHRASES interpretive anthropology, performance studies, Mayibuye Cultural Group, Tembisa Cultural Group, common interest association, performance association, adaptive mechanism, South Africa, labour movement, struggle songs, song as discursive presence, Umshini wami, struggle poems, workshop play, gender equality, women’s rights x LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ANC African National Congress AZACTU Azanian Congress of Trade Unions AZAPO Azanian People’s Organisation BC Black Consciousness BOSS Bureau of State Security BPC Black People’s Convention CAWU Chemical and Allied Workers’ Union CODESA Convention for a Democratic South Africa COSAS Congress of South African Students COSATU Congress of South African Trade Unions COSAW Congress of South African Writers CUSA Council of Unions of South Africa CWLP Culture and Working Life Project DP Democratic Party DWCL Durban Workers’ Cultural Local FAWU Food and Allied Workers Union FCWU Food and Canning Workers’ Union FOSATU Federation of South African Trade Unions FRELIMO Frente de Libertação de Moçambique GWU Garment Workers Union ICWU Industrial and Commercial Workers’ Union IDASA Institute for Democracy in South Africa IFP Inkatha Freedom Party JATC Junction Avenue Theatre Company MAWU Metal and Allied Workers’ Union MDM Mass Democratic Movement MK Umkhonto weSizwe MPLA Movimento Popular de Libertação de Angola NACTU National Congress of Trade Unions NP National Party NUM National Union of Mine workers NUMSA National Union of Metal Workers of South Africa xi NUSAS National Union of South African Students PAC Pan-Africanist Congress POTWA Post and Telecommunication Workers Association SACC South African Council of Churches SACP South African Communist Party SACTU South African Congress of Trade Unions SADF South African Defence Force SAIC South African Indian Congress SAIRR South African Institute for Race Relations SANC South African Native Convention SANNC South African Native National Congress SAP South African Police SARHWU South African Railways and Harbour Workers Union SASO South African Students’ Organisation SAWCU South African Workers’ Cultural Unit SAYCO South African Youth Congress SPROCAS Study Project on Christianity in Apartheid Society TAWU Transport and Allied Workers’ Union TGWU Transport and General Workers’ Union UCM University Christian Movement UDF United Democratic Front UMMAWSA United Metal, Mining and Allied Workers’ Union of South Africa UNIPEC United People's Culture xiii TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 “WHEN I USE A WORD … IT MEANS JUST WHAT I CHOOSE IT TO MEAN”: NEGOTIATING TERMS OF REFERENCE AND DISCOURSE 1.1 EXPLORING THE PROBLEM................................................................
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