Piroshkova: Racecraft and Racialization as Tools of Control

The Sociological Imagination: Western's Undergraduate Sociology and Criminology Student Journal 6(1)

Racecraft and Racialization as Tools of Control

Moria Piroshkova

Western University, Canada

Abstract

This paper seeks to make clear that it is beneficial to examine racism (as an institution of oppression) in terms of racecraft and racialization, as these concepts demonstrate how economic, social, and political power is distributed on the basis of socially constructed categories of race. These categories are created and maintained through institutional practices and discourses that treat racial categories and hierarchies as 'real' for the purpose of maintaining white supremacy (rather than arbitrarily established) (racecraft). Understanding racialization and racecraft helps us to dismantle the ideology of race and is therefore foundational to effective anti-racist practice, which must be centered around racism rather than race to dismantle the notion (upon which white supremacy rests) that race is real (Fassin). This dismantling power of understanding racism through racecraft and racialization will be demonstrated through an analysis of government policies, racial passing, scientific racism, and racial capital.

This paper seeks to make race to dismantle the notion (upon clear that it is beneficial to examine which white supremacy rests) that racism (as an institution of race is real (Fassin). This dismantling oppression) in terms of racecraft and power of understanding racism racialization, as these concepts through racecraft and racialization will demonstrate how economic, social, be demonstrated through an analysis and political power is distributed on of government policies, racial the basis of socially constructed passing, scientific racism, and racial categories of race. These categories capital. are created and maintained through Racecraft, first coined by institutional practices and discourses Karen E. Fields and Barbara J. that treat racial categories and Fields, describes how practices of hierarchies as 'real' for the purpose of racism produce a general belief in maintaining white supremacy (rather race as an inherently biological than arbitrarily established) category through the circulation of (racecraft). Understanding myths and ideas that rationalize the racialization and racecraft helps us to oppression of racialized people dismantle the ideology of race and is (Farbman). It was derived from the therefore foundational to effective word “witchcraft” to illustrate the anti-racist practice, which must be similarities between the belief in the centered around racism rather than occult, as seen in some colonized

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African societies, and the belief in laws, which legally legitimize racial race found throughout Western categories, serve to reproduce the society (Farbman). In both cases, ideology of race by treating it as a there is no logical causal explanation fixed and a defining trait that for what is taking place, and instead, differentiates people (Tallbear). there is a reliance on circular However, this rule was not applied to arguments to justify causation where other different ethnic groups, such as there is none (Farbman). Racecraft Native Americans, who are required also serves to justify racialization: the to at least one-fourth Native American practice of identifying another as a ancestry in order to hold Native person of color based on a belief that American status (Schmidt). The races entail behavioral and biological reason for these inconsistencies rests differences (Murji and Solomos). is the fact that under United States There is no scientific explanation that law, Native Americans are entitled to justifies the arbitrary categorization of various financial compensation and humans based on visual differences benefits from the government, such as skin color, but the ideology of whereas Black Americans were race attributes the social legally disentitled to the same consequences a racialized person inheritance, financial, and social experiences as a result of their skin benefits as whites (Piper). The color rather than the racism of the purpose of the one-drop rule, thus, offender (Haider). Racecraft points to was the exclusion of the largest the social construction of race and in possible amount of people to ensure turn allows us to identify flaws in the that "white privilege" and supremacy ideology of race in institutions such rested in the smallest possible as medicine and government that amount of hands (Piper). If the one- were used to justify the racialization, drop rule was treated as an accurate and subsequent oppression of form of racial designation, then it racialized subjects, in the interest of would include most of the white racial capitalism. population in America, as all of The inconsistencies in legal humanity evolved out of Africa, measurements of race are evidence effectively excluding them from the of the arbitrary lines on which race is social power they have enjoyed as a defined. This demonstrates how result of the racist social structures in racecraft is employed in policy, which place (Piper). The inconsistencies in can help one understand how racism blood quantum laws illustrate how the is rooted in institutions. Arbitrary legal ideology of race relies on racecraft measurements of race can be seen in and racialization as tools wielded to how Native American and Black maintain the social and economic blood people are/have been power of white people in society, racialized in the United States. The rather than identifying inherent or “one drop” rule, historically present in biological traits that differentiate the United States, identifies a person groups of people. Race, thus, when with any amount of African ancestry understood through the ideas of as Black (Piper). Blood quantum racecraft and racialization serves a http://ir.lib.uwo.ca/si/vol6/iss1/7 2 Sociological Imagination: Western's Undergraduate Sociology Student Journal, Vol. 6 [2020], Iss. 1, Art. 7

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specific purpose: determine and which is most common among those distribute power throughout society of mixed racial descent (Pile). The (Davis). It also serves as a presence of such racial ambiguity that justification for the oppression and allows for passing brings into exploitation of entire ethnic groups, question the legitimacy of racial and the denial of personhood to identity and points out the arbitrary people of color (Davis). lines on which it is defined, as the The ideas of racecraft and presence of choice about racial racialization can also be seen to identity makes its fluidity evident dismantle the notion of ‘real’ races (Pile). Moreover, the very possibility upon which racism is grounded of racial passing due to mixed through an analysis of racialized descent challenges the dichotomous people “Passing” for white. “Passing” nature of racialization, since one can refers to the process by which a non- identify with both races at once, white person takes on a white showing that race is understood as identity. This practice was often used something other than skin color as a means to escape slavery in (Davis). It is conduct, rather than America, as was done in the well- color, that is fundamental to the documented case of Ellen Craft and concept of "passing", and therefore her husband, William Craft in 1848. the question must shift to what is Ellen, who had light features due to black and white rather than who is her father and mother’s father being black and white (Davis). of white descent, pretended to be a Passing can be understood as white man, while her husband posed a radical process that plays with as her Black servant when they fled standard practices of racecraft and to Pennsylvania from their home state racialization because it threatens the of Georgia (Davis). This practice long-standing ideology of white enables racialized people to cross the supremacy that rests on binary dichotomous color line, contrary to divisions and dichotomies and the notion of fixed binary racial instead embodies the shared descent categories of "either you are black or of the human race (Davis). you are not", and encourages them to Furthermore, passing sheds light on begin identifying with their white the racialization and the de- ancestry in search of freedom racialization of people for the (Davis). "Passing", thus, can be maintenance of dominance and understood as a source of social subordination based on visible racial power and strategy of social mobility divides of either being white or other within a capitalist system to escape (Davis). The practice of passing and racial oppression and access the ability of some racialized people previously inaccessible benefits, such to pass, but not others, therefore as higher social status, increased demonstrates how categorizations of access to rights, liberties, and race and racism as an institution rely privileges. To "pass" for white, one on arbitrary uses of racecraft and must have a light enough skin tone to racialization for the distribution of be identified as white by others, social and economic power, rather

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than specific biological or genetic be divided into a hierarchy of five traits that differentiate groups of essential races, which all had their people. This helps to dismantle ideas own distinct characteristics (Kolbert). of race as ‘real’, and racism as rooted Whites were at the top of the in objectively measurable hierarchy as they were deemed the characteristics inherent to a person’s most intelligent, followed by East physical being, but instead as socially Asians, Southeast Asians, Native understood and constructed Americans, and finally Blacks distinctions. The myth of race has (Kolbert). Morton's ideas were been widely reproduced through prominently used to justify slavery in respected social institutions, the decades prior to the Civil War. especially medicine, to justify the Modern science and genetic studies continued oppression of people of have had two large implications on color that is intrinsic to western this theory, the first being that all capitalism. Historically, race was humans possess the same collection seen to have biological roots, that of genes, although with different resulted in inherent physical, social, variations of them, and secondly that and moral traits that one had the entire human population evolved depending on their race (Nix and out of Africa, with various groups Qian). The question of what defines migrating to other continents over the blackness and whiteness was centuries. Therefore, we are all of answered by Carl Lineau in his 1735 African descent (Kolbert). Both these publication ‘Systemaus Naturae’ accounts of scientific racism which classified Africans as “black, discussed above show that even the phlegmatic, relaxed; hair black, sectors of studies that are presumed frizzled; skin silky; nose flat; lips to be objective have historically tumid; women without shame, they participated and systemically lactate profusely; crafty, indolent, perpetuated racecraft through the use negligent; anoints himself with of blood and genetics to justify the grease; governed by caprice (Nix and discrimination of racialized people Qian)” and Europeans as “white, and superiority of non-racialized sanguine, muscular; hair long, people. flowing; eyes blue; gentle, acute, The scientific reality is that inventive; covers himself with close there is more diversity between vestments; governed by laws (Nix African populations than all the other and Qian)” Lineau’s work went on to continents combined (Kolbert). be the basis for much of the Studies of the genetics of current-day stereotypes of black laziness and Africans have found that the most white superiority still found today (Nix distinct differences between groups and Qian). are not between "races" such as Samuel Morton, a prominent whites and Blacks, as was commonly American scientist during the early theorized by scientists like Morton 19th century who is also referred to and Lienau. Instead, it was between as "the father of scientific racism" different African groups, specifically, (Kolbert), believed that humans could the Khoe-San of southern Africa and http://ir.lib.uwo.ca/si/vol6/iss1/7 4 Sociological Imagination: Western's Undergraduate Sociology Student Journal, Vol. 6 [2020], Iss. 1, Art. 7

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the Pygmies of Central Africa, who and Solomos) Racialization must be had spent tens of thousands of years understood as an active process splitting from one another, long others are subjected in the economic before the human population ever interest of white supremacy even left the continent of Africa (Martinot). The “metaphysical (Kolbert). Those who left Africa in necessity for Africanism” as later years and enabled the rise of described by Toni Morrison, refers to new populations and racial identities the presence of blackness being reflect only a minuscule portion of fundamental to the white identity and Africa’s diversity (Kolbert). Despite white power (Martinot). Racialization the social and political implications of is a dependency relation for white skin color, from a scientific people, who must rely on racialization standpoint, the only information skin and domination of other races to color denotes is the geographic ensure their continued superiority as location of one's ancestry. Those dominant (Martinot). The white closer to the equator have darker skin identity is informed by its domination tones because it is protective against of, and superiority over, other races, the large amounts of UV radiation without which the white identity as it from the sun. Lighter skin tones, is currently present in the United which promote the production of States would not exist (Martinot). The Vitamin D, were useful in regions creation of race to begin with, and the closer to the poles where sunlight subsequent subordination and was more scarce (Kolbert). Any other discrimination of Blacks in the United information that is gathered about a States, is thus, a necessary form of person based on their skin color is social control to maintain white social, political, and cultural, but supremacy throughout American cannot at all be considered scientific social structures and institutions (Kolbert). Thus, scientific racism, (Martinot). which was used to justify the The United States categorizes economic and social disparities citizens based on the binary between races in the United States, is categories of white and non-white, an example of racecraft at play. It is which are reinforced through useful to think of scientific racism in institutions such as education, terms of racecraft to discredit the economics, and marriage that actively racist discourse that was presented exclude non-white participants as scientifically sound, and make (Harris). The body, thus, becomes a evident the structural perpetuation of site of racial expression that is either racism in institutions that were meant visible (blackness) or invisible to represent integrity and rationality. (whiteness) (Fassin). Biracial persons Racialization refers to the who are able to successfully pass the categorization of someone as a color line and other structural barriers person of color or ascribing a racial must both acknowledge and embrace identity to a person based on a belief their white heritage to do so (Harris). of inherent biological differences that This is illustrated in the work of Franz constitute a physical category (Murji Fanon “Black Skin, White Masks”,

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which follows his own journey of for the benefit of white supremacy. In grappling with his racial identity. this way, while race remains fluid and Fanon points out that the experience arbitrary, the social, economic, and of blackness only manifests through political consequences of being interactions with whiteness: where associated with a racialized identity racialization takes place (Nielsen). are not (Onwuachi-Willig). Racialization, which takes place Racialization works to uphold through the process of ascribing a racial capitalism, an economic system fundamental difference on racial lines that enables the dominant group to to someone, works to override any collect the surplus value associated self-identity an individual may have, with non-whiteness (Leong). Racial resulting in a disparity between the capital is defined as “the economic racialized person must breach the and social value derived from an gap between how they see individual's racial identity, whether by themselves and how they are that individual, by other individuals, or perceived by others (Harris). This is by institutions (Leong)”. This value is shown throughout Fanon's recount of translated into economic, social, and his own experiences, where he writes political power that determine access "I wanted to be a man, nothing but a to resources and status based on man...I was walled in: No exception one’s racial classification (Leong). was made for my refined manners, or The dominant group (white, or non- my knowledge of literature, or my racialized people and institutions) are understanding of the quantum theory then able to engage in racial capital (Fanon)". His identity was still firstly by accessing and collecting the determined by his Blackness, which surplus-value associated with non- illustrate the lack of choice Fanon has whiteness (Leong). This is in determining his identity, which has demonstrated throughout higher been thrust upon him by others, and education institutions in the United dilutes his personhood to his ancestry States, where the diversity of the and skin color (Fassin). student body is often used as a In this way, racial assignment marketing tool to attract incoming is also a form of symbolic violence for students. A study conducted on the the racialized, who are judged on and use of non-white students for reduced to their skin color and the promotional materials of over 300 stigma, discrimination, and post-secondary institutions found that oppression it is associated with non-white students were increasingly (Fassin). Under racialization, the overrepresented (Leong). Out of all discourse of race shifts the act of the institutions sampled, 75% racism from the perpetrator to the overrepresented Black students in characteristics of the victim (Fassin). their materials, and on average, the Thus, racialization can be understood percentage of Asian and Black as a form of control that uses students that appeared in promotional racecraft to ensure the continued material was found to be over 50% subordination of racialized people higher than the percentage of Asian under structures that oppress them and Black students enrolled at those http://ir.lib.uwo.ca/si/vol6/iss1/7 6 Sociological Imagination: Western's Undergraduate Sociology Student Journal, Vol. 6 [2020], Iss. 1, Art. 7

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institutions (Leong). In this way, justifies the arbitrary categorization of schools can benefit from the label of humans based on physical features, "diversity" without actually following and instead relies on circular through with what that label entails arguments, much like beliefs in the (Leong). The use of non-whiteness occult (Farbman). Therefore, for marketing purposes by academic racecraft is used to racialize certain and predominantly white institutions groups in order to maintain racism makes evident the ways in which and white supremacy. institutions systemically engage in and profit off racial capitalism References (Leong). It is useful to think of racism Davis, Thomas J. "Identity In Passing: (as an institution of oppression) in RACE-ING And E-RACE-ING terms of racecraft and racialization as In American And African it makes clear how economic, social, American History". The Journal and political power are distributed Of African American History, through social processes that vol 101, no. 3, 2016, pp. 344- construct racial categories/hierarchies 355. University Of Chicago (as 'real'). This can be seen in how Press, the practices of racecraft such as doi:10.5323/jafriamerhist.101.3 flawed racist science, institutionalized .0344. racialization (arbitrary government policies), and the practice of Farbman, Jason. "How Race Is “passing”. Through analysis of these Conjured". Jacobin Magazine, practices, one can see that racism is 2019, an institutionalized form of social https://www.jacobinmag.com/2 control used to maintain the racial 015/06/karen-barbara-fields- hierarchy necessary for the racecraft-dolezal-racism/. development of western capitalism Fassin, Didier. A Companion To The (Haider). As a system of inequality, Anthropology Of The Body racism ensures a steady flow of And Embodiment. 1st ed., resources, rights, and power away Blackwell Publishing, 2011, pp. from racialized people towards a 419-431. dominant group. Here, racecraft is required by racism to racialize and Haider, Asad. Mistaken Identity: Race justify the racialization of people in And Class In The Age Of society (Fassin). Racecraft describes Trump. Verso, 2018. Harris, practices of and within racism that Keshia L. "Biracial American produce a general belief in race as an Colorism: Passing For White". inherently biological category through American Behavioral Scientist, the circulation of myths and ideas that vol 62, no. 14, 2018, pp. 2072- rationalize oppression( Farbman). 2086. SAGE Publications, doi: These myths and ideas (and Western 10.1177/0002764218810747. society’s belief in them) have no logical causal explanation that

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Kolbert, Elizabeth. "There’S No https://www.nytimes.com/room Scientific Basis For Race—It's fordebate/2015/06/16/how- A Made-Up Label". National fluid-is-racial-identity/ race- Geographic, and-racial-identity-are-social- https://www.nationalgeographi constructs. c.com/magazine/2018/04/race- genetics-science-africa/. Pile, Steve. "Skin, Race And Space: The Clash Of Bodily Schemas Leong, Nancy. "Racial capitalism." In Frantz Fanon’S Black Skins, Harvard Law Review, June White Masks And Nella 2013, p. 2182+. Gale Larsen’S Passing". Cultural Academic Onefile, https://link- Geographies, vol 18, no. 1, gale- 2011, pp. 25-41. SAGE com.proxy1.lib.uwo.ca/apps/do Publications, c/A335093898/AONE? doi:10.1177/14744740103799 u=lond95336&sid=AONE&xid= 53. bfdd94f3. Piper, Adrian. "Passing For White, Martinot, Steve. The Machinery Of Passing For Black". Transition, Whiteness. Temple University no. 58, 1992, pp. 1-29. Press, 2010, pp. 1-150. Murji, JSTOR, doi:10.2307/2934966. Karim, and John Solomos. Racialization: Studies In Schmidt, Ryan W. "American Indian Theory And Practice. Oxford Identity And Blood Quantum In University Press, 2008. The 21St Century: A Critical Review". Journal Of Nielsen, Cynthia R. "Resistance Anthropology, vol 2011, 2011, Through Re-Narration: Fanon pp. 1-9. Hindawi Limited, On De-Constructing Racialized doi:10.1155/2011/549521. Subjectivities". Routledge, Accessed 2 Dec 2019. 2011. TallBear, Kimberly. "DNA, Blood, and Nix, Emily, and Nancy Qian. "The Racializing the Tribe." Wicazo Fluidity Of Race: “Passing” In Sa Review, vol. 18 no. 1, The United States, 1880- 2003, p. 81-107. Project 1940". 2015, pp. 1-8. National MUSE, Bureau Of Economic doi:10.1353/wic.2003.0008. Research, doi:10.3386/ w20828. Accessed 1 Dec 2019.

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