Appendix 1 – Crew Lists of HIMS Vostok and Mirnyi

Home , Captain lieutenant, Georgy Stepanov, Ivan Shestakov, Mikhail Lazarev, Smolensk Governorate, Vokrug sveta

The crew lists were translated from (CL) but without the pay rates. Five names added from Two Seasons or the post-voyage report on crew status (Moller, 1821) are marked with asterisks. The lists do not give patro- nymics and do not identify any cooks. The statement that Nikita Il’in was of ‘officer rank’ (TS, 1: 9) may simply mean that he was a gentleman but not yet a commissioned officer. The crew status report confirms the presence of a third, unidentified servant on Vostok and so corroborates Bellingshausen’s tally of 189 people without the chaplain (TS, 1: 7–9), in short 190 people.

Crew of HIMS Vostok

Commanding officer: Junior Captain Bellingshausen Captain Lieutenant: Ivan Zavodovskii Lieutenants: Ivan Ignat’ev; Konstantin Torson; Arkadii Leskov Midshipman: Dmitrii Demidov Astronomer: Ivan Simonov* Artist: Pavel Mikhailov* Clerk: Ivan Rezanov Gardemarine: Roman Adams* Navigator: Yakov Paryadin Warrant officers: Andrei Sherkunov; Pëtr Kryukov Master’s mate: Fëdor Vasil’ev Staff surgeon: Yakov Berkh Surgeon’s mate: Ivan Stepanov Quartermasters: Sandash Aneyev; Aleksei Aldygin; Martyn Stepanov; Aleksei Stepanov Butcher: Grigorii Diyakov Drummer: Leontii Churkin Seamen, 1st Class: Semën Trofimov (helmsman); Gubei Abdulov; Stepan Sazanov; Pëtr Maksimov; Kondratii Petrov; Olav Rangoil’; Paul Yakobson; Leon Dubovskii; Semën

214 Crew Lists 215

Gulyayev; Grigorii Anan’in; Grigorii Yelsukov; Stepan Filipov; Sidor Lukin; Matvei Khandukov; Kondratii Borisov; Yeremei Andreyev; Danil Kornev; Sidor Vasil’ev; Danil Lemantov; Fëdor Yefimov; Khrestian Lenbekin; Yefim Gladkii; Martyn Lyubin; Gavrila Galkin; Yusip Yugupov; Gabit Nemyasov; Prokofii Kasitkin; Ivan Krivov; Matvei Lezov; Mafusail’ Mai- Izbai; Nikifor Agloblin; Nikita Alunin; Yegor Kiselëv; Ivan Saltykov; Ivan Sholokhov; Demid Antonov; Abrasim Skukka; Fëdor Kudryakin; Ivan Yarengin; Zakhar Popov; Filimon Bykov; Vasilii Kuznetsov; Aleksei Konovalov; Semën Gur’yanov; Ivan Paklin; Ivan Grebennikov; Yakov Bizanov; Mikhail Tochilov; Matvei Popov; Yelizar Maksimov; Pëtr Ivanov; Grigorii Vasil’ev; Mikhail Takhashikov; Pëtr Palitsyn; Denis Yuzhakov; Vasilii Sobolev; Semën Khmel’nikov; Matvei Rozhin; Savast’yan Chigasov; Danil Stepanov; Varfolomei Kopylov; Spiridon Yefremov; Terentii Ivanov; Larion Nechayev; Fëdor Razgulyayev; Vasilii Andreyev; Kiril Sapozhnikov; Aleksandr Bereshkov; Aleksei Shilovskii; Afanasii Kirilov; Matvei Gubin (blacksmith) Ship’s carpenter, 2nd Class: Vasilii Krasnopevov Farrier, 2nd Class: Pëtr Kurlygin Carpenter, 2nd Class: Pëtr Matveyev Caulker, 2nd Class: Rodion Averkiyev Sailmaker, 2nd Class: Danil Migalkin Cooper, 3rd Class: Gavril Danilov Gunnery warrant officers: Ilya Petukhov; Ivan Kornil’ev Bombardier: Leontii Markelov Gunners, 1st Class: Zakhar Krasnitsyn; Yan Yatsylevich; Yakub Belevich; Yegor Vasil’ev; Vasilii Kapkin; Feklist Alekseyev; Semën Gusarov; Semën 216 Appendix 1

Yatsynovskii; Nikita Lebedev; Gleb Plysov; Ivan Barabanov Servants: Mikhail – (‘Misha’)*, Khariton Gyupov*, and one other

Crew of HIMS Mirnyi

Commanding officer: Lieutenant Lazarev Lieutenants: Nikolai Obernibesov; Mikhail Annenkov Midshipmen: Ivan Kupriyanov; Pavel Novosil’skii Medical surgeon: Nikolai Galkin Navigator’s mate: Nikita Il’in Boatswain: Ivan Losanov Quartermasters: Vasilii Alekseyev; Nazyr Rakhmatulov Drummer: Ivan Novinskii Seamen, First Class: Abashir Yakshin; Platon Semënov; Arsentii Filipov; Spiridon Rodionov; Nazyr Apsalimov; Yegor Bernikov; Gabidunila Mamlineyev; Grigorii Tlokov; Pavel Mokhov; Pëtr Yershev; Fëdor Pavlov; Ivan Kirilov; Matvei Murzin; Simon Taus; Ivan Antonov; Demid Ulyshev; Vasilii Sidorov; Batarsha Badeyev; Lavrentii Chupranov; Yegor Barsunov; Yakov Kirilov; Osip Koltanov; Markel Yestigneyev; Adam Kuk; Nikolai Volkov; Grigorii Petunin; Ivan Leond’ev; Anisim Gavrilov; Larion Filipov; Tomas Bunganin; Danil Anokhin; Fëdor Bartyukov; Ivan Koz’minskii; Frol Shavyrin; Arkhip Palmin; Zakhar Ivanov; Vasilii Kurchavii; Philip Pashkov; Fëdor Istomin; Demid Chirkov; Dmitrii Gorev; Ilya Zagainov; Ivan Kozyrev; seaman Stepanov; Vasilii Semënov Senior steward: Andrei Davydov Surgeon’s mate: Vasilii Ponomarev Blacksmith: Vasilii Gerasimov Master’s mate: Vasilii Trifanov Master’s mate: Yakov Kharlov Senior gunnery warrant officer: Dmitrii Stepanov Crew Lists 217

Gunners, 1st Class: Pëtr Afanas’ev; Mikhail Rezvii; Vasilii Stepanov; Vasilii Kuklin; Yefim Vorob’ev; Ivan Sarapov Carpenters: Fëdor Petrov (2nd Class); Pëtr Fëdorov (3rd Class) Caulker, 2nd Class: Andrei Yermolayev Sailmaker, 2nd Class: Aleksandr Temnikov Cooper, 3rd Class: Potap Sorokin Chaplain: Hieromonach Dionisii Appendix 2 – Four Deaths

On 9 August 1821, in his villa at Romanshchina, the Marquis de Traversay finished writing a summary of Bellingshausen’s reports for the Emperor. As he did so, he noted that three men had died: ‘1 from disease, 1 fell, and another drowned during a storm’ (de Traversay, 1821, l. 22). Each of the three, and one more, deserves notice in this book.

Fëdor Istomin – 21 February 1820

Seaman First Class Istomin died from typhoid fever, a disease which is spread in human faeces. In those days it was a common infection ashore but less virulent at sea, where human excreta went overboard. In Bellingshausen’s opinion, surgeon Galkin’s efforts were defeated as much by the harsh climate of the Southern Ocean as by the disease itself. The particulars of the expedition’s first fatality appear in the official tally of personnel as of its return to Kronstadt (Moller, 1821). Bellingshausen also mentioned this death several times (B7, B10; TS, 1: 218). As shown in Chapter 9, the version given by Mikhail Lazarev (L1) was surprisingly inaccurate. Much later, Pavel Novosil’skii also claimed that, as of March 1820, everyone in the expedition was in the best of health (1853a: 62). Perhaps he meant, everyone still with the expedition. Vostok’s latitude was approximately 66º34′32″ S, headed north, and Mirnyi’s station was behind her. This hitherto unknown seaman thus turns out to have been the first person to die and be buried (at sea) in the Antarctic. And Hieromonach Dionisii was the first priest to conduct a funeral service there.

Matvei Gubin – Sunday, 14 May, to Tuesday, 23 May 1820

Seaman First Class Gubin was Vostok’s blacksmith. (For the misspelling of his surname, see Chapter 1: n. 7.) The date of his death was recorded in Two Seasons and in Moller (1821), but the date of his fall is unclear. In different places Bellingshausen said that Gubin died three, six, or nine days after falling. The third version, published in Two Seasons, has been followed here.

218 Four Deaths 219

Gubin fell about 14m from the top of the first section of the mainmast and landed on a belaying pin fixed at the main-knight, just behind the mast (B8; B10; TS, 1: 294; Moller, 1821, l. 4). Belaying pins were short metal or wooden rods fixed vertically into horizontal racks in different places on a ship, where they were used to make fast or ‘belay’ the running ropes. The knight was a structure abaft the mainmast in which massive posts, hold- ing the sheaves used for large lifting tackles, were linked and braced with such belaying pin racks (Luchininov, 1973b: 6, 14). Gubin was wounded severely in the buttocks and died from the resulting haemorrhage. When he fell, Gubin had been fitting some copper sheeting at the top of the first section of the mainmast, so as to prevent wear from the stropy. In both Russian and English nautical diction the common- est object to be called a ‘strop’ was one of the rope or iron bands used to bind and secure the countless blocks (pulley assemblies) that were needed to guide ropes and reduce hauling loads. But Bellingshausen identified these stropy by their location rather than by their function, as he would have done for blocks. So it is safe to infer, with Debenham (Bellingshausen, 1945, 1: 193), that he was referring to a well- known source of friction, the assembly by which the mainyard (or any other lower yard) was suspended, in front of the top of a mast section, from the frame which supported the next section (in this case the main topmast), a structure known as the trestle- trees. In larger warships of this date the centre of each wooden yard was bound with one or more iron collars, trusses or hoops (bugeli, beifuty) incorporating metal eyes to which short chains, known as slings, could be attached below the trestle- trees. According to Luchininov, however, who had seen her plans, Vostok used a simpler form of construction, in which the slings were passed directly around the yard (1973b: 9). And slings, as well as strops, were called stropy in Russian (Reehorst, 1849: 178). The crew status report explains that Gubin was working ‘under the maintop’, and that is confirmed by Bellingshausen’s statement that he fell from the catharpins (B10). Catharpins were short straps used to brace in the footings of the topmast rigging, known as the futtock- shrouds, which were passed outside the maintop (or trestle- trees) and then secured to the top of the mainmast just below it. Once that structure, supporting the topmast, was in place, access to the aft- side, in particular, of the top of the mainmast would have been extremely awkward. Although friction between mainmast and mainyard was confined to the front and sides of the mast, Gubin was perhaps trying to fasten the copper collar at the back. That would explain why he fell onto the main- knight, which stood behind the mast. 220 Appendix 2

There were two new hospitals in Sydney, and the squadron was due to call there again after a few months. Bellingshausen was minded to leave Gubin behind, but Vostok’s surgeon, Yakov Berkh, assured him that the patient would recover at sea. Three days after sailing, however, Gubin died.

Filimon Bykov – Monday, 11 September 1820

Fair wind; the Emperor’s name day. They held a service of thanksgiving and fired a salute. Then:

The weather allowed Captain Lazarev and the rest of the officers to spend the whole day with me on Vostok. We shared heartfelt reminiscences of our dear fatherland, our families and friends, bridging the immeasurable distance that separated us from them. Our session was just breaking up when we were sud- denly surprised by the unfamiliar cry of ‘Man overboard!’ from the forecastle. (TS, 2: 84–5)

Bellingshausen went on to explain that one of his prime seamen, Filimon Bykov, had fallen from the bowsprit after taking in one of the jibs. He lowered the jolly- boat with Lieutenant Annenkov, but they were travelling too fast, the light was going and the swell was too high for rescue to be possible. There were of course no searchlights or day- glo lifejackets in those days. (The version of the seaman’s name in Two Seasons, ‘Philip Blokov’, was another contribution from its first editors which can safely be ignored. The ‘Bykov’ in the crew list is confirmed in B10 and Kl.) Reading between the lines, the officers had been enjoying a well- earned day off and had certainly been drinking, because it would have been unthinkable for Bellingshausen not to entertain his comrades with the normal hospitality. Next, there was no commissioned officer on deck when Bykov fell. (For all we know, Bellingshausen may have been an officer short by that point – see below.) Lastly, just like men in other European navies Russian seamen had a daily ration of alcohol, usually spirits (Chapter 7). The crew probably received an issue on this occasion, and perhaps more than usual, and it was also normal for alcohol to serve as currency for gambling, bets etc. So Bykov may or may not have been drunk and he may or may not have been distracted or showing off in some way, but accidents often happen around alcohol. A Russian prov- erb reminds us that a drunkard can believe the sea is only knee-deep. The circumstances explain why de Traversay fabricated a storm out of a day which had been fine enough for Lazarev to take a boat over Four Deaths 221 to Vostok and remain there for several hours. It was a polite fiction by which he avoided telling the Emperor, who was unlikely to read Bellingshausen’s full reports, that a seaman had lost his life not only on the Emperor’s name day but also, at least in part, as a result of the celebration that marked the occasion.

Lieutenant Ivan Fëdorovich Ignat’ev (ex- Vostok) – January 1822

Lieutenant Ignat’ev died a few months after the expedition returned to Kronstadt, perhaps as a result of a psychological disorder which, according to Lazarev (L1), began during the voyage. The year of his death was confirmed by Kotukhov (1955: 27). The month, and a link between his mental illness and his death, were found on a generally reliable internet source (www.shiphistory.navy.ru), which adds that his condition presented late in the voyage. At some point in 1820 his servant, Khariton Gyupov, was transferred to work under Rezanov and then, in November, signed on as a seaman (Moller, 1821). Whether Gyupov’s transfer had any connection with Ignat’ev’s illness, it is now impossible to tell. Ignat’ev was still fit for duty, at some level, in December 1820 (TS, 2: 194, 201). Mental illness, sometimes fatal, was not unknown among sea officers under normal conditions of service. So Ignat’ev’s illness and subsequent demise may or may not have been caused or aggravated by physical and mental stress endured for long periods in polar conditions. But if it was, it was probably not the first such case in the history of polar exploration and it would certainly not be the last. Appendix 3 – Measurements and Money

Weights and measures

When speaking for himself the author has used the metric system. When conveying measurements recorded by the protagonists he has usually provided metric conversions. The Imperial Navy and its ship- builders measured length in feet and inches, which were the same in Russia as in Britain, and used a six-foot naval sazhen, or fathom, instead of the seven- foot civil sazhen. At sea, their mile was the nautical mile, a British unit intended to equate to the average length of one minute of latitude, but which they sometimes called the Italian mile. A vessel’s speed was expressed in knots. Their thermometers used the Réaumur scale, which converts to Celsius at (roughly) 1:1.25. Note that for general purposes a verst approximates to a kilometre.

Unit Equivalent/s 1 (Portuguese) arroba 14.688kg 1 (Russian) artillery pound 115 zolotniks / 490gm 1 Italian mile 1 nautical mile (nm) 1 knot 1nm per hour / 1.85km/h 1 nautical (Admiralty) mile1.15 statute miles / 6080ft / 1853.184m 1 pipe (Baltic) 5 vedros / 61.5 litres 1 pipe (British) 126 gallons / 573 litres 1 pood 16.38kg 1 (Russian) pound 0.41kg 1 sazhen 1 fathom / 6ft / 1.829m 1 ton (long) 2240lb / 1016kg 1 tonne 1000kg 1 vedro 12.3 litres 1 vershok 4.445cm 1 verst 1.067km 1 zolotnik 4.2658gm

222 Measurements and Money 223

Money

There are few online calculators with which to find the modern equivalent of a historic sum in roubles, for the good reason that the Russian currency has been reformed or reissued more often than the pound sterling or the United States dollar. There is also the considera- tion that, in the early modern period, the economy or perhaps better the economies of the Russian Empire were even less monetarized than those of western Europe or North America. The Russian Money website, however, provides a table of approximate values of the rouble from 1534 to the present day, expressed as multiples of the 2009 rouble, and based on past prices of consumer goods such as bread, beer, horses, etc. (http://www.russian-money.ru/). For this book, each historic sum in silver roubles could therefore be multiplied into its rough equivalent in 2009 roubles, using the nearest data point in that table. The resulting amount was then converted to sterling at the rate provided for the mid- point of 2009 (2 July) by the Free Currency Rates converter (http:// www. freecurrencyrates.com/exchange-rate-history/). Lastly, the sterling amount was adjusted to its 2013 value with the historic inflation calculator on the This is Money website (http://www.thisismoney.co.uk/). However awkward, the method was judged to yield more meaningful results than the alternative, which would have been to convert roubles to pounds sterling at contemporary exchange rates, and then use a sterling inflation calculator, constructed in terms of the British economy over the last 230 years, to find notional modern equivalents. The Russian Money website gives little attention to the matter of assignats, or paper roubles, merely stating that the domestic exchange rate was 3 assignats to 1 sr in 1812, but 3.5 assignats by 1839. A letter to The Times suggests that the second rate was in operation by 1820 at the latest, at least in London (The Times, 14 January 1820: 3). But since the amount to be elucidated in Chapter 2 dated from 1806, the higher value for the assignat was used for that calculation. The Russian Money table shows the historic purchasing power of the rouble. With a view to comparability, the modern value of past amounts in sterling was estimated with a purchasing power calculator on the Measuring Worth website (http://www.measuringworth.com). Within that calculator, the average earnings option was selected, as giving amounts broadly similar to those found for historic roubles by the method described above. The figures were then updated to 2013 in the same way. The value shown for Prussian thalers in Chapter 2 is their equivalent metal price in March 2013, and in Chapter 11 Spanish thalers were 224 Appendix 3 converted to Prussian at the contemporary exchange rate of 150% before making the same calculation. In Chapter 7, bonuses paid in thalers were compared with seamen’s pay via the relative metallic values of the Prussian thaler and the Hamburg mark, and then the latter’s exchange rate against silver roubles in 1820. All the resulting equivalents have been expressed as pounds sterling in 2013. They are shown in braces and italics in order to stress that they are at best ‘very rough ballpark’. Unreliable similarities, for example between the salaries of Cook and Bellingshausen, and dissimilarities, for example between the price of Bellingshausen’s book in roubles in 1831, and in thalers in 1840, are the inevitable result of such disjoined calculations. It is more straightforward to compare relative values between economies. For example, in 1831 Bellingshausen’s book cost about 166% of the annual wage paid to a Russian seaman ten years earlier, a wage which had probably changed very little in the intervening decade. By that standard a British seaman was better off, because a comparable work (Heber, 1830) would have cost him a shilling or two less than his annual wage. Appendix 4 – The Sizes of the Ships

The sources for the dimensions of Vostok and Mirnyi are Two Seasons, Luchininov’s accounts of original drawings of Vostok and indirect estimates of Mirnyi (1973b; 1973a), Veselago’s Register (1872), Golovnin’s description of Vostok’s sister- ship Kamchatka (1965), and Aleksei Lazarev’s description of Mirnyi’s sister-ship Blagonamerennyi (1950). Dimensions were expressed in feet and inches. In his introduction Veselago explained that length meant keel length, that is, the length of the upper deck between perpendiculars dropped to the keel, and beam was measured inside any outer sheathing. The two quantities were in general use at the time, and Bellingshausen confirmed that Vostok’s beam was measured in that way. Veselago and Bellingshausen also specified that depths were depths in hold. In Table A4.1 the length and beam of both ships and Mirnyi’s depth in hold come from Two Seasons (TS, 1: 3–5). The estimated depth in hold for Vostok is that given for Kamchatka by Golovnin, replacing the implausi- ble figure in Two Seasons (9ft 7in); the congruity is not certain, however, because Vostok’s draught was one foot deeper than Kamchatka’s. The figures for Vostok’s laden draught come from Luchininov’s account of the original sketches; those for Mirnyi are estimates, taken from Aleksei Lazarev’s description of Blagonamerennyi, because Luchininov could find no information about Mirnyi after her conversion from a transport whereas Lazarev did have such knowledge of Blagonamerennyi. Mirnyi’s origins as a transport are reflected in her laden draught, which was almost as much as Vostok’s although she was a smaller ship. The same is true of her (estimated) displacement. The burthen or tonnage of a ship was an estimate of her carrying capacity, aka Builders Old Measure (BOM). The version used for warships was explained by an authoritative contemporary source as follows (Steel, 1817: 130–1). First find the ‘length of keel for tonnage’ in feet by subtracting three fifths of the beam from the length of keel (above). Multiply by the beam, and again by half the beam, and divide by 100 (instead of 94 for merchantmen). That gives a tonnage of 588 for Vostok and 459 for Mirnyi. Bellingshausen gave Mirnyi’s tonnage as 530, presumably with a different formula (TS, 1: 4–5), but provided none for Vostok. Yet again, his editors – but enough said.

225 226 Appendix 4

Table A4.1 Overall dimensions of Vostok and Mirnyi in feet and inches

Draught (laden)

Length Beam Depth in hold Fore Aft

(metric conversions in italics) Vostok 129 10 32 08 17 00* 14 09 15 09 39.57 9.96 5.18 4.50 4.80 Mirnyi 120 00 30 00 15 00 14 05* 14 01.5* 36.58 9.14 4.57 4.39 4.30

* Estimated – see text.

The displacement of a ship is the volume of water she displaces when afloat in standard conditions. A displacement ton is defined as 35 cubic feet or one cubic metre (actually 0.9911m3) and the weight of that volume of standard seawater, considered to be 2240lb or 1016kg, is referred to as one long ton. The total weight of a ship in various states, such as loaded or unloaded, can therefore be given in long tons, and that is also called her displacement. Because displacement, in this sense, gives the weight of a ship, but the now outmoded figure called tonnage gave a formulaic notion of the weight a ship might carry, there is no reliable way to calculate the former from the latter. One crude method is to divide tonnage by three and multiply by five, so that displacement = tonnage × 1.66˙. In 1949 Bellingshausen’s editor, Admiral Shvede, published a table of the dimensions of Vostok and Mirnyi converted to metric scale. Ignoring the strange depth in hold for Vostok in Bellingshausen’s text he replaced it with the one from Kamchatka, as above. He gave Vostok’s ‘mean draught’ as 4.4m, whereas from Luchininov’s reading of the documents it was 4.65m. Golovnin gave Kamchatka’s burthen (gruz) as 900 tons; Shvede took that for her displacement (vodoizmeshcheniye), with good reason, and transferred it to Vostok. Turning to Mirnyi, he entered Bellingshausen’s tonnage of 530 as her displacement, which seems inconsistent with her other dimensions. Other authorities have given the respective displacements as 985 and 884 tons (Magidovich and Magidovich, 1985: 26). Those figures are close to the results of converting Vostok’s BOM tonnage and Mirnyi’s non- BOM or Bellingshausen tonnage. Table A4.2 first applies the rough The Sizes of the Ships 227

Table A4.2 Sizes of Vostok and Mirnyi

Tonnage (BOM) Displacement (approx.)

Vostok 588 980 Mirnyi (military) 459 765 (civil) 488 814

conversion to the military BOM tonnages. But Mirnyi was a transport. If we calculate her BOM tonnage by the civil rather than the military formula, the result moves closer to Bellingshausen’s figure and, as a corollary, her displacement moves closer to the estimate given by Magidovich and Magidovich. Aleksei Lazarev said little about the size of Otkrytiye in his memoirs (1950), but his brother Mikhail Lazarev likened her to the corvette Mel’pomena (L1), which leads us to the latter’s dimensions in (Veselago, 1872): length – 106ft 8in; beam – 28ft 9½in; depth in hold – 13ft 10in. In the second and third editions of Two Seasons (1949; 1960), however, Admiral Shvede gave Otkrytiye the same dimensions as Vostok. He seems to have missed Mikhail Lazarev’s statement as well as Veselago’s information that Otkrytiye had only 18 guns compared to Vostok’s 28, which suggests that they were not the same size. Aleksei Lazarev’s editor, Aleksandr Ivanovich Solov’ev, repeated Shvede’s assimilation of Otkrytiye to Vostok (Solov’ev, 1950: 22–3). In the English-speaking world, Debenham’s translation of Two Seasons was completed before and therefore without the benefit of Shvede’s edition. The contributors halved Mirnyi’s tonnage by reading a ‘5’ as a ‘2’. And by cutting out Bellingshausen’s clarifying ‘in hold’ they mistranslated glubina as ‘draught’ instead of ‘depth’ (Bellingshausen, 1945, 1: 7). (Two Russian words for ‘draught’ are uglubeniye and osadka. Neither occurs in this passage.) Later, Barratt cited Solov’ev’s repetition of Shvede’s questionable figures for Otkrytiye as if they came from Aleksei Lazarev, which was not the case (1988: 89). Appendix 5 – How Accurate Were They?

By combining different instruments and different methods, and by aggregating successive calculations, observers in Bellingshausen’s day could determine the latitude and longitude of a point on land with considerable accuracy. With less time and, often, inferior instruments, positions at sea were measured less precisely. The best way to compare Bellingshausen with his contemporaries is to set out their determinations of places on land alongside the approximate modern coordinates.

Remarks

The coordinates labelled ‘Dawes’ appear on Lieutenant William Dawes’s ‘Sketch of Sydney Cove, Port Jackson’, dated July 1788, which was first published as a separate sheet in London on 7 July 1789 (Stockdale, 1789: opposite p. 123). They represent a body of work carried out in 1788 at the temporary ‘tree stump’ observatory on what is now Dawes Point. The respective contributions to this measurement made by Dawes himself, or Lieutenant William Bradley, or Captain John Hunter, are unknown (Morrison and Barko, 2009). The values arrived at by Karl Rümker for the Parramatta Observatory also drew on work by other people, including Thomas Brisbane. But the bulk of the work had been his own. As noted in Chapter 4, Bellingshausen’s error of just 0.8″ of latitude compares favourably with Rümker’s error of 5″, given that Rümker made the most sophisticated, best equipped and lengthiest series of observations in New South Wales in the 1820s. The entries labelled ‘Freycinet’ and ‘Rümker’ were averages compiled by them from results obtained by other observers, sometimes after adapting them. Thus Freycinet reduced Cook’s values for Botany Bay in order to include them in his data for Fort Macquarie. As for the locations, Freycinet mentioned Fort Macquarie and Rümker mentioned Government House, and the modern reference points were chosen accordingly. Both sets should perhaps be seen as coming simply from the area east of Sydney Cove, or ‘Bennelong Point’ in general. Longitudes are shown from the Greenwich meridian. Both Simonov and Freycinet gave their results according to the Paris meridian. They

228 How Accurate Were They? 229

Table A5. 1 Latitudes and longitudes at Port Jackson, 1770–1828

Latitude S Longitude E

Dawes Point ‘Dawes’ – 1788 33º52′30″ 151º19′30″ Google Maps 33º51′16.8″ 151º12′32.5″

Kirribilli Point Bellingshausen – April, 1820 33º51′08″ 151º16′58″ Simonov – 1820 33º51′33″ 151º05′48″ Google Maps 33º51′07.2″ 151º13′06.3″

Parramatta Park Rümker – 1822–28 33º48′49.8″ 151º01′33.7″ Google Maps 33º48′44.8″ 150º59′43.2″

Fort Macquarie ‘Freycinet’ – 1770–1822 33º51′28.9″ 151º15′13″ Google Maps 33º51′24.3″ 151º12′54.7″

Old Government House ‘Rümker’ – 1806–22 33º51′58″ 151º14′17″ Google Maps 33º51′48.4″ 151º12′51.6″

Sources: Stockdale (1789); Two Seasons; Simonov (1828); Rumker (1829); Freycinet (1826). Modern reference points: Dawes Point: south pier of Harbour Bridge; Kirribilli Point: Admiralty House; Parramatta Park: observatory instrument pier; Fort Macquarie: Opera House; Old Government House: Conservatorium of Music. were converted by adding 2º20′ E, the Greenwich longitude for the Paris Observatory that was generally accepted at the time. The modern value is slightly larger, and William Dawes used a smaller value, 2º19′, when converting a Paris longitude sent to him by La Pérouse’s astronomer, Joseph Dagelet, in 1788. Bellingshausen and Simonov observed from different locations on Kirribilli Point and neither is known exactly. The relationship seems to have been that Simonov worked somewhere near the foreshore, perhaps because the cast-iron stove he used for an instrument base was heavy and the sand with which to fill it was either nearby or fetched by water, whereas Bellingshausen worked further uphill at the site of the expedition’s camp. Simonov’s latitude should therefore be fractionally greater, but although he used occultations and other astronomical refinements, and worked up his data over several years, his final figures were less accurate than Bellingshausen’s. These are incidentally Bellingshausen’s own figures, including a longitude obtained from 125 calculations of 230 Appendix 5 solar- lunar distance. He recorded other results obtained by his officers, but his were the most accurate in April. On the second visit, between September and November 1820, Lieutenant Lazarev and Midshipman Kupriyanov both did better, with longitude errors just over 2′ W of the true value. Another calculation, made by Bellingshausen together with Lieutenant Zavodovskii and Vostok’s master, Yakov Paryadin, during the second visit, was out by 3′13″ W. Because Bellingshausen was out by similar amounts in April and October, but in opposite directions, it so happens that when averaged they come to a remarkably accurate 151º13′25.5″ E. If Bellingshausen had taken that last step he would have beaten Rümker again, with a longitude error of about 19″ E compared to Rümker’s error of about 1′50″ E. But he did not. Appendix 6 – Ice Vocabulary

The list below does not reflect a formal classification, because several words occurred only occasionally. For example Bellingshausen only referred to ledyanyye gory, ice hills, twice in Two Seasons and in one passage (repeated three times) in the reports. His applications of ‘main’ to ice were also rare. Other words appeared in print but not in manuscript, or vice versa. For example Bellingshausen used gustota in a report to refer to what Scoresby called ‘crowded ice’, but he applied the related adjective gustoi in Two Seasons only to states of the atmosphere. Words preceded by an asterisk were applied to ice by Simonov but not by Bellingshausen. See also the Translator’s Note.

Nouns

башня bashnya tower бугры bugry hummocks глыба glyba block, lump горы gory hills, mountains гряда gryada belt, strip (of floating ice) громада gromada enormous mass густота gustota density, crowding исполин ispolin giant кусок kusok piece лёд lëd ice льдина l’dina floe льды l’dy ice fields, floes материк materik main *оплот oplot rampart, bastion остров ostrov island пластинки plastinki lamina, platelets поле pole field преграда pregrada obstruction, blockage, jam пространство prostranstvo expanse *свод svod dome (lit. arch, vault) сосулька sosul’ka icicle

231 232 Appendix 6

Adjectives

гладкий gladkii smooth, even, level достальный dostal’nyi remaining, longstanding ледяный ledyanyi ice, made of ice матерой materoi main мелький mel’kii small низменный nizmennyi low- lying обледеневший obledenevshii iced up обледенелый obledenelyi iced up плавающий plavayushchii floating разбитый razbityi broken сплошной sploshnoi continuous твёрдый tvërdyi solid, compact толстый tolstyi thick, heavy частые chastyye frequent Glossary

For units of measurement, see Appendix 3; for ice, Appendix 6. alidade sighting bar on an optical instrument arenda grant of a lease of state- owned property artificial horizon reflecting surface, often of mercury, for angular measurements assignats paper currency to bear up or away to let a vessel fall off the wind bearing an arc of the horizon between any distant object and the N–S meridian, with the angle read from North as the ‘top’; often summarized as an intermediate (or finer) point on the compass rose, such as ‘NNW’ brig a two-masted, square-rigged sailing vessel with a large fore-and- aft (gaff) sail on the mainmast by the wind towards or against the wind catharpins short straps used to brace in the footings of topmast rigging below the trestle- trees chainwales thick planks on the outside of a ship, alongside each mast, on which the metal chain- plates, to which much of the standing rigging was fastened, were mounted clue- garnet tackle used to haul the main sails (courses) up to their yards and trice them there when not in use course (sail) the lowest square sail on any mast, as ‘ forecourse’ etc. craton old, stable region of continental crust, with deep lithospheric roots into the mantle declination the angle between magnetic north and true north dimity hard- wearing cotton fabric, often with stripes or checks fore- and- aft sails see staysails gardemarine sea- borne private soldier, a rank given to cadets for training purposes

233 234 Glossary gunport (i) an embrasure in the side of a ship through which cannon could be fired, usually protected from the elements by covers known as half- ports or port- lids; or (ii) the whole arrangement just described heave to use the sails to collect opposing impulses from the wind, so that the ship lies stationary in the water idler member of a ship’s crew who does not stand watches in irons condition of a ship when she has been allowed to come up into the wind and lose her way, and with it steerage kasha porage made from buckwheat, barley, oats or other cereal knee large L-shaped timber joining vertical to horizontal parts of a ship (main-)knight a structure on the upper deck abaft the mainmast comprising heavy posts, in which halyard sheaves were mounted, and belaying pin racks long voyage in the Imperial Russian Navy, any voyage beyond the Baltic or Black Sea to luff to bring a vessel closer by (into) the wind maslin bread or flour comprising a mixture of grains, such as wheat and rye passage instrument see transit instrument quadrant 90º instrument for measuring angular distances reflecting circle 360º instrument for measuring angular distances road (roadstead) ship moorage open to the sea, usually near a harbour royal see topgallant royal sextant 60º instrument for measuring angular distances sheave the pulley-wheel in a block or other piece of tackle sloop- of- war a three-masted, usually square-rigged naval vessel with a gun or spar deck above a main deck containing the crew spaces, galley etc. stanchion pillar or other vertical strut staysails sails bent on the fore- and-aft stays, which are part of the standing rigging that supports the masts Glossary 235 strop a rope or metal band securing an assembly of parts such as a block tarantass an unsprung, four-wheeled carriage with a long frame, used by travellers on Russian post roads topgallant royal a royal sail could either be set on a fourth, royal mast above the main, top, and topgallant masts, or else at the top of the latter as a ‘topgallant royal’ transit instrument telescope mounted on a horizontal axis so as to rotate in the local N–S meridian against a vertical circular scale; used to determine the time and elevation (culmination) at which a celestial object passes (transits) the local meridian trestle- trees framework at the top of a mast section, on which the next section is mounted wale strong timber mounted along the ship’s side to stiffen the hull waist the central part of a ship, between the foredeck and quarterdeck Notes

For abbreviations in archival references, see Bibliography.

1 Port Jackson, April 1820

1. Much of the timber growing around Sydney Harbour was notoriously hard to work and reluctant to float. The Russians would have needed advice in selecting suitable species, and perhaps even access to the colony’s precious reserves of naval timber fetched from New Zealand and Norfolk Island. 2. The date in the margin of Two Seasons (1: 250) was overlooked in the English translation, which is not always reliable (Bellingshausen, 1945, 1: 165–6). The correct date was confirmed in Macquarie’s journal. 3. Sydney Gazette, 11 March 1820: 2. Unattributed shipping information in this chapter comes either from the Sydney Gazette or from Cumpston (1963). 4. The sources for these ship movements are fairly consistent. Aleksei Lazarev (1950: 148–9) and Governor Macquarie agree that Blagonamerennyi entered Port Jackson on 28 February and anchored in Sydney Cove the same day. Macquarie and the Sydney Gazette agree that the Cockburn sailed two days later on 1 March. Aleksei Lazarev’s date for that, 29 February, may be an example of yet a third calendar, the astronomical calendar which, according to Belov (1963: 25), was used on Blagonamerennyi, by which anything occurring before midday on 1 March (civil) would be dated to the previous astronomical day (see Chapter 4: n. 8). Applying the times of day provided by Lazarev, the Cockburn sailed about 30 hours after Blagonamerennyi arrived. So the Russians had plenty of time to accept the British offer – if they had only been ready to do so. (Unfortunately Barratt’s account of Blagonamerennyi’s arrival (1988: 93) is unclear. Most of the passage he attributed to Aleksei Lazarev is as he gave it, but the first five lines, giving the date of arrival as 3 March, could not be found. If substantiated, they would contradict both Macquarie and, bizarrely, Lazarev himself.) 5. Hobart Town Gazette, 3 February 1821: 1. Queen Charlotte should not be confused with a 60-ton government vessel, HM Brig Princess Charlotte, lost with all hands in about October 1820. 6. Sydney Gazette, 27 May 1820: 3. 7. The original documents, including Vostok’s crew list (Appendix 1), all spell the name this way. ‘Gumin’ (TS, 1: 294) is one of several misspellings in the first edition of Two Seasons which were probably not the fault of Bellingshausen. Another example was ‘Kond’ for the British astronomer John Pond. Some were and some were not corrected in Soviet editions. 8. The Times (London), 19 February 1821. 9. Caledonian Mercury (Edinburgh), 19 February 1821. 10. Personal communication from Yrjö Kaukiainen, 2 March 2011. 11. The receiving clerk’s annotation at the head of the document shows two dates, 10 April and 9 April (O.S.), with the first above the second. They were

236 Notes 237

probably the nautical and civil dates for the afternoon of 9 April (O.S.) (see Chapter 4). Belov’s date of 19 April (O.S.) was perhaps a misprint (Belov, 1961: 7). 12. The drafting process, and the return of the approved texts to the Ministry of Marine after publication, are documented at: SARN – F-166 O-1 D-660b ll. 250–253o, and F-203 O-1 D-813 ll. 1–4o.

2 The Commander

1. Besides his obituaries, sources for Bellingshausen’s life include the version of his service record in Veselago (1892), a short biography written by his son- in- law from first-hand information (G[erschau], 1892), Russwurm (1870), and Paatsi (1980). 2. For a vivid portrayal of Livländer society during Bellingshausen’s lifetime, see Kross (1992). 3. Their father, Lorenz von Folckern, died in 1788. 4. The date is suggested by the pattern of attendance at baptisms in the church register. The Bellingshausens switched from patronizing Hoheneichen to Lahhentagge baptisms in June 1778, and Suckni presumably wanted to take his new bride to his new house in July. 5. Luce promptly sold or let Lahhentagge to a Heinrich Ludwig Voigt. The narrative presented in this chapter attempts to confirm early published accounts of the family against parish records and census returns that can now be consulted online at the website of the Estonian National Archives: http://www.ra.ee/. The only major discrepancies concern Bellingshausen’s grandmother, Gerdrute Sophie, whom Hagemeister unaccountably described as Fabian Ernst’s daughter, rather than his mother (1851: 45), and who may have died in January 1778, according to the Geni.com genealogical website. If so, she could not have been party to any such transactions. On the other hand her death could have been a factor in Fabian Ernst’s decision to sell the two manors later that year. 6. This sequence of events can be traced in archival documents and is confirmed by an authoritative source (Feldman and Mühlen, 1985: 45, 284). It effectively refutes the myth that Bellingshausen spent an idyllic childhood roaming the broad acres of Hoheneichen (where he never, in fact, lived) and dinghy- sailing off the nearby coast (Fëdorovskii, 2001: 22–5). The author was unable to establish, however, just where Bellingshausen spent the four years between the ages of six and ten, after leaving Lahhentagge and before entering the Cadet Corps. The most likely answer is Arensburg (G[erschau], 1892: 374), but further research is needed. 7. The author interpreted the sterling figure to mean an allowance of 40 sr per month. 8. The ‘Billensgauzen’ variation occurs in the title written on the track chart of the expedition (Belov, 1963: Sheet 2). But although some sheets were annotated by Bellingshausen, the title cartouche was almost certainly inserted by a clerk. 9. On Russian naval ranks, see the Translator’s Note. 10. Emperor Paul’s reputation has received something of a makeover in recent years (Valishevskii, 2003). 238 Notes

11. Recent research suggests that Krusenstern was not always quite as influential as he liked to think (Tammiksaar and Kiik, 2012). 12. This document, and Bellingshausen’s own account, contradict Shvede (1960: 21). 13. The date of 4 July (O.S.) in Two Seasons (TS, 1: 43) conflicts with a report from the commander of Kronstadt, Admiral Fëdor Vasil’evich von Moller, and with other eye-witness statements. Commentators have assumed that Bellingshausen or his editors gave the nautical (p.m.) date instead of the civil one (Chapter 4). 14. The grant remained in effect until 1828, during which time its value rose to about 1500 sr {£106,100}: RSHA – F-379 O-3 D-640 ll. 3, 22. 15. Bellingshausen had already prepared a large-scale track chart of the Antarctic portions of the voyage before reaching home (Belov, 1963: 14). 16. The quotations are from Note 130 to Chapter 5. All such notes were added by the editor of the translation, Richard Haugh. 17. The Morning Post (London), 20 November 1826; Nederlandsche Staatscourant (The Hague), 25 June 1827. 18. Bellingshausen’s letter to Krusenstern was written and signed in Russian. The German translation given at (Reich and Roussanova, 2011: 723–4) appears to have been made by Friedrich Struve, director of the Pulkovo Observatory near St Petersburg, the second of three people through whom it was con- veyed to Gauss. 19. Belov (1966: 243) inadvertently omitted the first of two observations recorded on 1 February 1820 (O.S.). The correspondence shows that Bellingshausen’s journal had survived until at least 1840. 20. Apparently Gauss declined the option (Leibrock, 2007). 21. A copy of the engraving is held at the Naval Museum, St Petersburg, where the date is accepted, from (Bellinsgauzen, 1949), as ‘about 1835’. However the ‘XXXV’ service badge shows that the image was created by mid- 1833 at the latest. Matters are complicated by reproductions of a second, similar engraving, showing an ‘XL’ service badge, which therefore dates from 1837–38. The Naval Museum was closed in 2011, when the author visited St Petersburg, and no references to an extant example of the second version, reproduced in (Mill, 1905), could be traced. Although the two images are evidently related, the age difference looks to be greater than five years, and there are also stylistic differences. 22. A list of the arendas held by vice admirals shows that Bellingshausen’s was of average value and the same as that already being paid to his former junior, Mikhail Lazarev: RSHA – F-379 O-3 D-640 ll. 3–7, 9. 23. Kronshtadtskii Vestnik, 10 May 1868: 1–3. 24. There is good evidence that a fourth daughter, Maria, was born third of those children that survived into adulthood (Fëdorovskii, 2001: 11). She is said to have died in her twenties, before the draft family tree was compiled from which she may have been accidentally omitted.

3 Southward Ho!

1. Both Bellingshausen (TS, 1: 3) and Veselago (1872: 173) confirm that Vostok was built at Stoke’s yard. Notes 239

2. Known for the beauty of his ships, Le Brun had been employed by the Ottoman Empire until the Russians poached him in the early years of the century (Zorlu, 2008: 83–5). 3. Bellingshausen’s figures, given here, were two inches shorter in each dimen- sion than those recorded on the plans signed off by Amosov in 1819. 4. The Russian artillery pound was established by Peter the Great as 115 zolotniks, or 490gm, broadly similar to equivalent measures elsewhere in Europe. 5. The stores list for the First Squadron seems not to have survived. The quantities of dried peas (20,557kg), barley and buckwheat meal (7109kg) and biscuit (65,798kg) were calculated by subtracting the amounts allocated to the Second Squadron from the joint totals for the two squadrons, given in a related memorandum (A. Lazarev, 1950: 359–61). The expression ‘white and maslin’ appeared only in the memorandum; the stores list itemized oat, barley and rye biscuit. With no overall total for salt beef, the issue for 190 people (see Appendix 1) over two years was estimated as 28,320kg from the amount issued to the Second Squadron for 169 people over three. The provi- sion of spirits was estimated in the same way. The butter estimate is for a year’s supply for the First Squadron, whereas the Second was stored with butter for 18 months. 6. As published, Aleksei Lazarev recorded that the Second Squadron shipped 6.5 ‘pins’ of rum at Copenhagen (A. Lazarev, 1950: 105). But the pin was not a commercial measure for wine and spirits. If however he wrote (or intended to write) ‘pipes’, and if those were British pipes (given the Russian Navy’s propensity for using British units) rather than the much smaller Baltic ones, then Blagonamerennyi would have loaded 3102 of the 3492 litres of rum that the Second Squadron was due to acquire in Denmark, leaving 390 litres (about 86 gallons) for the smaller Otkrytiye. 7. Sydney Gazette and New South Wales Advertiser, 15 April 1820: 4. 8. Bellingshausen indented for ‘up to 10/t [10,000] roubles for both squadrons’: Bellingshausen to Minister of Marine, 10 June 1919 (O.S.). SARN – F-166 O-1 D-660b l. 372. The wording is ambiguous, but the amount was small even for one squadron, given that the mess allowances alone, for Bellingshausen’s officers, came to about 21,000 sr over two years, and cannot have been deferred completely. Most of the supplies and services obtained at London, Portsmouth and Rio must have been purchased by the respective consulates. (The Bank of England had facilitated similar arrangements for Golovnin’s expedition in 1817.) Part of the cash was transferred to Mirnyi after the squadron left Rio (TS, 1: 111). 9. Novosil’skii’s remark suggests that the assignats option was incentivized with an exceptional exchange rate of 4 to 1 (Appendix 3). 10. The number is sometimes increased to 25 by including two that were not circumnavigations, Golovnin’s first voyage to the Far East and Hagemeister’s RAC voyage (Ivashintsev, 1872). 11. The author is indebted in this section to the work of Barratt (1979a; 1979b; 1981; 1983; 1988), Gibson (1976; 2002), Kirwan (1959), Pierce (1976) and Vinkovetsky (2011). 12. By coincidence, Foreign Minister Kapodistrias set off from Kronstadt on board HIMS Hektor on 9 July 1819, six days ahead of the two expeditions. He was heading for talks in Britain, France and Prussia, having returned to 240 Notes

Russia after issuing a revolutionary ‘Address to the Greeks’ from his ancestral home, Corfu, in April. 13. The reversion to her original name may also reflect another visit to the shipyard for ‘de-modification’ back into transport mode before her next assignment, a delivery of supplies to Alaska for the RAC, again commanded by Mikhail Lazarev. 14. For an exposition of some broadly geographical exchanges between the Emperor and his advisers in 1818, which complements the wider political hypothesis suggested here, see Tammiksaar and Kiik (2012). 15. The voyage commanded by Henry Foster has not been included here because he spent relatively little time in the Southern Ocean. 16. The hunters did not attack South Georgia immediately after Cook’s new information became known in the 1770s, because they were only just moving into the southern hemisphere and large seal populations were available to butcher at easier locations, such as Más Afuera (Alejandro Selkirk) Island or the Malvinas/Falkland Islands (Jones, 1992b: 393; Dickinson, 2007: 61). 17. According to some sources, American sealers had found the South Shetlands by at least 1812, if not 1800 (Stackpole, 1955: 77–8). That idea has not been supported by recent research (Dickinson, 2007: 70–2). With no details about any sealing beyond South Georgia and the South Sandwiches before 1819, and no evidence for such voyages, however vague, itself predating 1819, Smith has retained the kudos of being the first ship’s master to publish, that is, ‘discover’ the geographical information. 18. ‘Important discovery’, Literary Gazette, 5 August 1820: 505–6. 19. Probably Bristol Island and Thule Island.

4 Wanted on Voyage

1. ‘List of sea voyages etc’, illegible signature, n.d.: SARN – F-166 O-1 D-660a ll. 492–3o. Barratt’s view, that the Russians could not avoid some gaps in their knowledge of Spanish voyages (1992: 4), is hard to reconcile with the fact that the 1819 expeditions, if not also Kotzebue before them, carried Spanish narratives with them, almost certainly translated into Russian or French. 2. ‘Puteshestviya’ [Journeys]: SARN – F-166 O-1 D-660a ll. 347–8. A typical entry was ‘The journey by Mr …’, and the spellings of some suggest dictation rather than literate stock-taking. One voyage was attributed to ‘Kabert’. 3. Presumably this curious piece of Kronstadt inventory was connected with the service of Barthélemy de Lesseps, the son of the French Consul General at St Petersburg, as a Russian interpreter on the La Pérouse expedition. 4. Golovnin obtained chronometers from the same makers in 1817 but said nothing about their performance (1965: 32). His narrative contains few longitudes overall, and he soon stopped referring to ‘longitude by the chronometers’. 5. Bellingshausen’s second fix for Kirribilli Point shows a gross northerly error of 2º latitude (TS, 2: 92). Perhaps the blunder arose from careless editing, but it was entered twice. It has been reproduced without comment in every subsequent edition. Notes 241

6. Lazarev reckoned the height of Vostok’s masthead above sea level as 136ft = 4145cm (TS, 1: 223). In that case X (distance to horizon in km) = √(4145/6.752) = 24.8km or 13.4nm from the mastcap. The formula includes a ‘refraction constant’ to allow for the bending of light rays, from objects beyond the physical curve of the earth, by the atmosphere. However refraction is not constant, and Bellingshausen sometimes described his range of visibility as up to 40nm. 7. There is general acceptance that Bellingshausen dated the first example in Belov’s Table 4 (1963: 26), the departure from Kronstadt, by the nautical calendar. But Belov’s other four examples concern morning events on Vostok, for which nautical and civil dates would be the same, and illustrate the astronomical calendar used on Blagonamerennyi (which Belov also explained), rather than the nautical calendar which may well have been used in Vostok’s log- books. 8. The Latin version ‘insula glacialis’ was also applied to Iceland and to what seems to have been an early notion of a north polar ice-cap. 9. People still needed to have the word explained to them in 1818: Caledonian Mercury, 7 May 1818. 10. Davis also determined the flotation ratio of ice, from experiment, 131 years before Hooke (1726). 11. Laing served on two whaling voyages under Scoresby’s father, with the son on board, in 1806 and 1807, and added information and excerpts from Scoresby (1818) to his journal before it was published. 12. Bellingshausen and his party stayed at the Hungerford Coffee House near Charing Cross, which had its own periodicals library and was much fre- quented by naval officers. The controversy over John Ross’s recent Arctic expedition was in full flow between that officer, Barrow, Sabine and Parry in the summer of 1819 (J. Ross, 1819; Sabine, 1819). It is inconceivable that the Russians would not have had their attention drawn to the latest books on polar exploration. 13. A term for floating blocks of ice, including those large enough to be considered icebergs. The root connotes falling, so that the word may have rec- ognized that an iceberg is often formed by the collapse of an ice-cliff, itself often the coastal terminus of a glacier. At one point Lomonosov used the phrase lëd-padun, which might mean ‘ice fall’ or simply ‘brash ice’. 14. The phrase was reprinted in later collections (Clarke, 1806, 2: 105). 15. In the 1820s some explorers, such as James Weddell in the Antarctic and William Edward Parry in the Arctic, agreed with John Ross that main ice was separate from land. However they also believed that far from being ‘immoveable’ its location was highly variable (Weddell, 1825: 117; Parry, 1828: 41). 16. It will be evident to some readers, from this necessarily brief discussion, that the author does not agree that Bellingshausen ever accepted, from Cook’s rather cryptic intimations, the idea that icebergs (as opposed to floes) were always formed on land – an interpretation proposed by Belov (1963: 35–7). As explained in the text, Bellingshausen carefully set out his view to the contrary towards the end of Two Seasons. 17. Today’s continental shelf criterion for a continental island was not part of the original definition. 242 Notes

5 First Season: December 1819 to September 1820

1. Rezanov was a Grade 13 naval clerk or ‘commissar’, roughly equivalent in rank to a second master. He was not in holy orders, as the erratic English translation of Two Seasons surmises (Bellingshausen, 1945, 1: 254; 2: 261). Bellingshausen wrote ‘klerk’, not ‘klerikal’. 2. See Chapter 1, note 12.

6 Second Season: November 1820 to August 1821

1. For example de Traversay gave the discovery date for Peter I Island as 11 January 1821 (O.S.), from B9, but Bellingshausen changed it to 10 January in B10. 2. de Traversay’s report looks like a hastily penned autograph, rather than a fair copy prepared by a clerk, and it was returned to him from the Imperial Cabinet on 16 August 1821, the day after the monarch had visited the squadron. The indications are that it was seen at the time as a preliminary account. But there is no evidence of official circulation, such as a reception date, on Bellingshausen’s final report (B10). 3. As Debenham was the first to point out, Bellingshausen and his companions may have been misled by Arctic terns, which migrate far out to sea across the Southern Ocean between December and February. 4. SARN – F-166 O-1 D- 660b ll. 350–1o.

7 The Able Seaman

1. SARN – F-166 O-1 D-660a, l. 93. 2. The beef tea happens to provide a rare cross-check between the First Squadron’s stores and the Second Squadron’s list. The same amount was allocated to each. 3. The ratio between a seaman’s wage and Bellingshausen’s salary of 2400 sr a year. In the comparison with Cook, a Russian seaman’s wage was taken to be the amount received after routine deductions but before any extra ones, if there were any of either, or in short as equivalent to a British seamen’s wage, in the 1770s, of 30/- a year. 4. The second figure included an element for ‘sea pay’, and Jane’s estimated amount may not mean that sailors were being paid less, 75 years later, but simply that Bellingshausen’s men were paid at the higher rate throughout, whereas Russian seamen usually went to sea for only part of the year. The British figures may also represent a (rarely achieved) full year at sea. 5. Readers studying this event in the English translation of Two Seasons should note that the ‘heavy rigging’ was in reality Bellingshausen’s old bugbear, the excessive spars, and ‘network’, in the entry for 20 May 1820, means the side nettings already referred to on the previous page (Bellingshausen, 1945, 1: 195).

8 The Astronomer

1. The numbers do not include students at technical colleges, like the St Petersburg School of Mines, but nevertheless illuminate the difficulties facing Notes 243

the scientific work of the expedition. By way of comparison, in 1808 there were perhaps as many as 5000 students at British universities, but since the population of the British Empire was over four times that of the Russian Empire, the supply of academic learning was at much the same level. Both countries drew heavily on German scientific expertise in this period. By 1836, a generation later, university student numbers in Russia had doubled, but the population had also risen by 70% to about 62 million. 2. One of Simonov’s early papers was criticized by Schubert for its marked lack of originality (Anon., 1824). And in a lyrical (non-professional) description of the night of Easter 1820, which he spent on board Vostok off the coast of New South Wales, Simonov once mistook the planet Jupiter for Mars (Simonov, 1990: 143; personal communication from Allan Kreuiter, Powerhouse Museum, Sydney Observatory, 19 November 2010). 3. Simonov’s long and lovingly polished narrative has sometimes been miscalled his ‘journal’ (M. K. Andreyev, 1951: 52). If only it were. 4. Australian members of the Russian Orthodox Church cherish an erroneous tradition that the first liturgy of their faith to be celebrated in New South Wales was the Easter mass of 1820, conducted in Sydney Harbour by the chaplain of the Bellingshausen expedition (Protopopov, 2006: 1–2). In fact the first Russian priest to visit the colony was Father Mikhail Ivanov, chaplain on the Vasil’ev expedition, who arrived on 28 February 1820, six weeks before Bellingshausen, and who doubtless celebrated one of the liturgies of Great Lent shortly after doing so. No Russian ships were at Sydney on Easter night.

9 The Lieutenant

1. One interesting exception was Lieutenant Golovnin, who sailed HIMS Diana past the blockade of Copenhagen in August 1807 and was then treated as an ally at Portsmouth, despite the fact that Emperor Alexander had just signed the Treaty of Tilsit with Napoleon. Golovnin’s voyage turned out to be a one-way trip, like Lieutenant Hagemeister’s RAC voyage in 1806. Otherwise both captains might have had more to fear from the Royal Navy on the way home than they had on the way out. 2. Sydney Gazette Extraordinary, 25 August 1814: 1. 3. Less, however, than Shishmarëv, who held the corresponding position in the Second Squadron but outranked Lazarev. 4. Simple forms of encryption were available. But it is unlikely that the Imperial Navy’s codebook was so sophisticated (and complicated) that Bellingshausen could hold private discussions with Lazarev about command decisions, at sea, by signal flags alone. 5. From whatever source the eminent oceanologist Valerii Lukin gained the impression that Lazarev’s well- known account of the events of 28 January 1820 comes from his ‘watch- keeping journal’ (Lukin, 2005: 76), he (Lukin) was seriously misinformed. No such journal has ever been discovered. 6. There is also a trivial problem with the first initials of two people named in the letter. Both look like ‘P’ but should have been ‘I’. The puzzles about the status of the document make it impossible to say whether those were original mistakes, poor handwriting, or later transcription errors. 244 Notes

10 Other Witnesses

1. Shvede listed the pamphlet and Barratt also mentioned but seems not to have found it. It is not listed online at the RNL or RSL and could not be found elsewhere. The matter is harder to resolve because part 84 of Syn Otechestva, containing the second instalment, is itself extremely rare and the author has only seen an incomplete copy which lacked the usual announce- ments of future publications at the end. The author previously stated that Syn Otechestva had received but failed to publish an account by Galkin of the first Antarctic phase (Bulkeley, 2011a). That was incorrect. The series only began with the expedition’s departure from Port Jackson, bound for the tropics, in May 1820. 2. The article, by L. A. Shilov, can be viewed at: http://www.nlr.ru/nlr_history/ persons/ 3. Panteon gave Novosil’skii’s name in its contents pages and at the end of the second piece, ‘Shestoi kontinent’, treating the latter as the third of three parts, in November 1853. The pamphlet versions appeared anonymously. 4. ‘The New Continent’, Literary Gazette, 14 October 1820: 668. The whole ques- tion was plunged into confusion because the first British reports, originating from Smith, used ‘mainland’ to refer to what appeared to be the main island of the group – a respectable nautical sense – but which might also turn out to be something larger. And the earliest maps were drawn accordingly, showing what soon became known as Livingston Island as a vast, indeterminate mainland with its chain of islets, Desolation, Zed, Ongley, Dee etc., ranged alongside it (Campbell, 2000: 44–5). When Smith and Bransfield carried out a more thorough survey in January and February 1820, Livingston was fixed as an island and a new mainland was conjectured (Campbell, 2000: 63–77), though it would be more than 100 years before it was definitively identified as the Antarctic Peninsula. 5. Campbell (2000) mistakes the date of the Act of Parliament cited on the chart (1822) for that of the chart itself. But it cannot have appeared before 1825 because one of its acknowledged sources was a survey made by James Hoseason in the austral summer of 1824–25. 6. Novosil’skii actually cited the ‘Laurie map’, and in one sense there was such a map, the one drawn by Captain George Powell (1822) and published by R. H. Laurie. However, Powell’s map did not show mainland to the south of the islands, whereas Norie’s map did so, complete with the ‘high mountain’ to which Novosil’skii referred. It is reasonable to conclude that Novosil’skii had seen both maps and got them confused. Norie (1825?) gave no date for the British discovery, though other early published sources did do so (Literary Gazette, 24 November 1821: 746–7). 7. The English translation of Two Seasons is misleading here. The word rendered as ‘ship’ should have been ‘squadron’ (diviziya) (Bellingshausen, 1945, 1: 18). 8. de Traversay to Prince Golitsyn, No. 52, 16 May 1819 (O.S.): SARN – F-166 O-1 D-660a ll. 213–213o; Memoranda from Department of Education for the Minister of Marine, 20 May and 22 May 1819 (O.S.): SARN – F-166 O-1 D-660a ll. 237–237o, and ll. 240–1. The third document specifies that not only the two naturalists but also the two astronomers, Tarkhanov and Simonov, had been recruited for ‘the expedition’. Since Tarkhanov was Notes 245

assigned to the Second Squadron under Vasil’ev and Simonov to the First under Bellingshausen, it is evident that officials sometimes treated the dou- ble, north and south exploration programme as a single enterprise. The two units were also handled together in some lists of stores and scientific materials, discussed elsewhere. 9. At least one modern commentator has endorsed the language used by officials at the time, declaring that the two expeditions constituted ‘a single, major scientific undertaking’ (Chernousov, 2011: 215). 10. According to Barratt, Mertens positively ‘applied to de Traversay to be included in the Pacific expedition of which news was current’ (1979a: 10). Barratt cited the Allgemeine deutsche Biographie as his only source for this. But neither entry in the AdB, for Kunze or for Mertens, mentions the Vasil’ev or the Bellingshausen expedition (Wunschmann, 1883; Focke, 1885). 11. Shvede could have known that Mertens sailed with Lütke, because Mertens’ report on the Carolinas had just been republished in a Soviet edition of Lütke’s voyage (Mertens, 1948). But in fairness, he was surely unaware of Mertens’ obituary, which gives us the marrow of the man. It was not included in the original atlas volume of biological illustrations (Postels and Ruprecht, 1840), and may never have appeared in Russian. The author found it by chance in a French account of the voyage by the naturalists.

11 Homecoming

1. Gentleman’s Magazine (London), 91(6), June 1821: 554; Monthly Magazine and British Register (London), 52(3), 1 October 1821: 229; The Times (London), 10 October 1821. See also Anon. (1821a). 2. Gazeta universal (Lisbon), 2 July 1821, no. 49: 1. 3. Mistranslated as Livia (Bellingshausen, 1945, 2: 461). 4. Caledonian Mercury (Edinburgh), 4 August 1821: 2.

12 Achievements

1. Confusingly, Shokal’skii’s article has a misprint of ‘19th’ for 9 January (O.S.) at this important point (p. 190). Compare (TS, 2: 238). 2. Several of the Kotzebues lived at Weimar and elsewhere in the German Confederation. The impressive subscription list for Otto’s book, which seems to have included half the nobility of Europe from the Dowager Russian Empress on downwards, probably owed more to the murder of his ultra- conservative father, the writer Augustus von Kotzebue, in March 1818, than to any sudden vogue for maritime exploration among the aristocracy. 3. The French translation (Cook, 1792, 5: 239), from which the first Russian translation was made, preserved the order of Cook’s thoughts that he had discovered ‘either a group of islands, or else a point of the continent’ (Cook, 1777, 2: 230). The author has not been able to check the first Russian translation, which Bellingshausen had with him, but it is inconceivable that Golenishchev-Kutuzov could have altered Cook’s frank and careful treatment of the matter, which he (Cook) was ‘sorry [he] could not determine … with greater certainty’ (Cook, 1777, 2: 226). 246 Notes

4. Chernousov’s statement, that the expedition sighted an ‘ice wall’ in January 1820, is regrettably vague (Chernousov, 2011: 219). Bellingshausen merely says that his passage south was blocked by continuous or near-continuous ice fields, with icebergs or hummocks, on 4, 16 and 21 January (O.S.) (TS, 1: 158, 172, 177). One can choose to describe the edge of such a field as a ‘wall’, but Bellingshausen used neither that word nor the one closest to it in his vocabulary, pregrada (Appendix 6), which he did use once or twice for conditions at the South Sandwich Islands in December. A typical floating ice edge might have been some metres high. But if it had been anything like the spectacular ice barriers and ice tongues that occur elsewhere in Antarctica, Bellingshausen would have described it as a new phenomenon, just as he did in fact do about three weeks later. 5. Bellingshausen’s editors may have found ‘ice hill’ too frivolous, because it also meant an artificial tobogganing slope, a popular form of winter recreation. The phrase occurs only twice in Two Seasons. 6. By coincidence, Dr Tammiksaar sent the author the first draft of his paper four weeks after the first draft of this book, presenting a more detailed argument for the same conclusion, was sent to colleagues for evaluation. 7. By the British Graham Land Expedition in 1936 (Hattersley-Smith, 2007: 196). 8. Nederlandsche Staatscourant (The Hague), 2 August 1824: 2. 9. Literary Gazette (London), 24 November 1821: 746–7. Bibliography

References to archival documents use the following abbreviations: ENA = Estonian National Archives; SARN = State Archives of the Russian Navy; F = Fond; O = Opis’ (series); D = Delo (piece or folder); l = list (folio); o = oborotnoye (verso), as in ‘l. 39o’. For citations of ‘Two Seasons’, ‘TS’ or ‘Atlas’ see (Bellinsgauzen, 1831).

Translated texts in order of appearance

B1 Bellingshausen to de Traversay, 28 August (10 Sept) 1819: SARN – F-166 O- 1 D- 660b ll. 68–68o. B2 Bellingshausen to de Traversay, 18(30) September 1819: SARN – F- 166 O-1 D- 660b l. 140. B3 Bellingshausen to de Traversay, 8(20) November 1819: SARN – F- 166 O- 1 D- 660b ll. 141–141o. B4 Bellingshausen to Admiralty College, 22 November (4 Dec) 1819: SARN – F- 166 O-1 D-660b ll. 169, 169o. B5 Bellingshausen to Count Lieven, 8(20) April 1820: SARN – F- 166 O-1 D-660b l. 254. B6 Bellingshausen to de Traversay, 8(20) April 1820: SARN – F- 166 O-1 D- 660b ll. 246–249o. B7 Bellingshausen to de Traversay, 8(20) April 1820: SARN – F- 166 O-1 D- 660b ll. 239–245o. B8 Bellingshausen to de Traversay, 21 October (2 Nov) 1820: SARN – F- 166 O- 1 D- 660b ll. 354–9. (The text is often clearer in the copy made for the Admiralty College: ibid., ll. 367–372.) Table 5.1 Bellingshausen to de Traversay, ibid.: SARN – F- 166 O-1 D-660b ll 360–361o. V1 Count Lieven to de Traversay, 19(31) May 1821: SARN – F- 166 O-1 D- 660b l. 349. B9 Bellingshausen to de Traversay, 5(17) March 1821: SARN – F- 166 O-1 D- 660b ll. 352–353o. T1 de Traversay to unknown, 23 June (5 Jul) 1821: SARN – F- 166 O- 1 D- 660b l 364. B10 Bellingshausen to de Traversay, 24 July (5 Aug) 1821: SARN – F- 203 O-1 D- 826 ll 1–15o. Table 6.1 Bellingshausen to de Traversay, ibid.: SARN – F- 203 O-1 D-826 ll 16–18o. K1 Kisilëv, Ye. (1819–21) ‘Pamyatnik prinadlezhit matrozu 1i stat’i Yegoru Kisilevu’ [The notebook belongs to Seaman 1st class Yegor Kisilëv]: MS 10897.8, F-178, Manuscripts Division, Russian State Library, Moscow. S1 Simonov, I. M. (1822) ‘Plavaniye shlyupa Vostoka v Yuzhnom ledovitom okeane’ [The voyage of sloop Vostok in the Southern Ice Ocean], Kazanskii Vestnik [Kazan Herald], 4(3) 156–65, 4(4) 211–16, 5(5) 38–42, 5(7) 174–81, 6(10) 107–16, 6(12) 226–32.

247 248 Bibliography

S2 Simonov, I. M. (1821) ‘Kratkii otchet’ [A brief report], Kazanskii Vestnik [Kazan Herald], 3(10) 98–107. L1 M. Lazarev to Shestakov, 24 September (6 Oct) 1821: SARN – F- 315 O-1 D- 775 ll. 1–6o. L2 M. Lazarev to Shestakov, 26 January (7 Feb) 1834: see (Lazarev, M., 1918b) below. O1 Anon., ‘Kronshtatskiya Novosti’ [News from Kronstadt], Otechestvennyye Zapiski [Annals of the Fatherland], July 1821, 7(2) 233–42. CL Crew lists of HIMS Vostok and HIMS Mirnyi, July 1819: SARN – F- 166 O- 1 D- 660a ll 92–97o. In chronological order, versions of several of the archival documents were first published as follows: for B6, see Bellinsgauzen (1821b) below; B7 (Bellinsgauzen, 1823) ((Bellinsgauzen, 1821a) was a summary rather than a transcription); L1 (Lazarev, 1918a); K1 (Kiselev, 1941 – extracts), (Kiselev, 1949 – near complete); B1, B2, B3, B4, B8, B9 and CL (Samarov, 1952).

Epigraph sources not referred to elsewhere

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General

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Items in lists and tables, or mentioned only in the Chronology, have not been indexed. Entries for: battles, birds, countries, Imperial Russian Navy, islands, places, rivers, Russian Empire, Russian monarchs, seas, ships, treaties, universities and wars have been aggregated.

Académie des Sciences 143 Varna, Siege of 21 Academy of Arts 179 Waterloo 184 Academy of Sciences 51, 142, 158 Behrens, Carl Friedrich 54 Admiralty Museum (see Naval Bellingshausen, Anna Catharina Museum) (née Folckern) 11–12, 23 alcohol 126–7, 220 Bellingshausen, Anna Dmitriyevna Amosov, Ivan Afanas’evich 26, 239 (née Boikova) 23–4, 211 Andreyev, Aleksandr Bellingshausen, Catharine 23 Ignat’evich 129, 131–9, 166 Bellingshausen, Elise 23, 211 Annenkov, Mikhail Bellingshausen, Fabian Ernst Dmitriyevich 198, 220 11–12 Anson, George 42 Bellingshausen, Faddei Faddeyevich Antarctic Circle 35, 52, 61, 182, 194, (aka Fabian Gottlieb Benjamin) 207, 213 passim Antarctic Convergence 53 letter to de Traversay (B6) 78–9 Arago, Louis 143, 197 portraits 2, 22, 238 Arctic and Antarctic Research reports 1819: B1, B2, B3, Institute 71 B4 74–7 arendas 18, 23, 172, 238 reports 1820: B5, B7, B8 77, Aristov, Vyacheslav Vasilevich 208 79–97 Arnold, John 43 reports 1821: B9, B10 100–23 Arnold, John Roger 43–4 Bellingshausen, Gerdrute Sophie Arrowsmith, Aaron 42, 86, 107, 157 11, 237 atmospheric pressure 42–3, 87, 107, Bellingshausen, Helene 23 147–8, 159–61 Bellingshausen, Hermann Avinov, Aleksandr Pavlovich 173 Friedrich 12, 24 Bellingshausen, Maria 238 Balleny, John 35 Bellingshausen, Otto Wilhelm 12 Banks, Joseph 43, 75, 142 Bellingshausen, Reinhold Johann 12 Baranov, Aleksandr Andreyevich 173 Belov, Mikhail Ivanovich 51, 187, Barratt, Glynn 32–4, 89, 108, 122, 198, 202–3, 236, 237, 238, 241 227, 236, 240, 244, 245 Berezin, Ilya Nikolayevich 142 Barraud, Paul Philip 43, 150, 158 Berge, Matthew 43 Barrow, John 31–2, 241 Bering, Vitus 36 Bartels, Martin 141 Bering Sea Tribunal 39 battles: Berkh, Yakov 29, 178, 220 Krasnogorsk 15 Bessel, Friedrich 18 Navarino 165 Billings, Joseph 36

267 268 Index birds: 128, 142, 145, 146–7, 149, 151, albatross, brown 145, 147–9, 188 162, 168–9, 173, 180, 181, 187, albatross, great 132, 138, 145, 190, 192, 245 147–9, 188 countries and provinces: cockatoo 188 (see also places; Russian Empire) cormorant 91, 110, 132 Australia 4–5, 29, 42, 62, 111, duck 149 133, 137, 151, 161, 170, frigate 91, 110, 154 187–9, 243 grebe 132 Brazil 29, 39, 77, 115–16, 131–2, parakeet, Macquarie Island 112 139, 167, 171, 188–9 penguin, chinstrap 80, 81–2, 104, Britain 7, 17, 20, 26, 28, 30–1, 148, 149 34–5, 37, 39, 44, 57, 76, 186, penguin, king 137–8, 148 200, 207, 222, 239 penguin, macaroni 81–2, 104, China 30, 64 132, 149 Denmark 9, 117, 239 pestrushki 147 Estland 9, 14, 126 petrel, 80, 145, 147 Estonia 8–9 storm 147 France 20, 30, 35–6, 130, 143, Prince Regent’s bowerbird 188 163, 197, 207, 239 skua, great 82, 104, 112, 132, Greece 20, 240 149–50, 157 Holy Roman Empire 9 swan 145, 148 Japan 30, 31 tern, Arctic 242 Kiribati 91, 110 Biscoe, John 36, 207, 212 Kurland 9, 18 Borda, Nicolas 160 Latvia 9, 18 Bouvet de Lozier, Jean-Baptiste 36–7 Livland 7, 9, 11, 14, 126, 237 Bransfield, Edward 35, 39, 100, 180, New Holland (see Australia) 182, 185, 203, 205–6, 244 New South Wales 3, 18, 41, 158, Brisbane, Thomas 49, 228 163, 195, 228, 243 British Graham Land New Zealand 89, 108, 134, 158–9, Expedition 182, 246 164, 169, 188, 193, 236 Buffon, Georges-Louis Leclerc Ottoman Empire 20, 34, 165, 239 57–8, 145 Peru 111 Bungaree 4 Portugal 18, 26, 39, 117, 132, Bykov, Filimon 117, 136, 220–1 139–40, 146, 189 Pskov 23, 211 Cabot, John 54, 63 Russia (see Russian Empire) Cabot, Sebastian 54, 63 Soviet Union 33, 125, 166 calendars 50–1, 76, 103, 144, 236, 241 Spain 34, 79, 86, 107, 124, 131, cannibalism 90, 134, 136 157, 168, 200, 240 chronometers 42–8, 75, 90, 110, 150, Sweden 11, 14, 15, 17, 146 157, 158–9, 169, 195–6, 240 Ukraine 173 Clerke, Charles 30 crew lists 29, 125, 128, 214–17, clothing 127–8 220, 236 Columbus, Christopher 32, 63–4, 199 Cook, James 25–6, 28–9, 30, 32–3, Dagg, William 7 35–9, 42–3, 48–9, 52, 54–5, 57, Davis, John 45, 54, 241 60, 73, 80–2, 86–8, 89–90, 92, deaths of seamen 7, 117, 133, 171, 93, 100, 103–4, 106–9, 124, 175–6, 194, 218–21 Index 269

Debenham, Frank 83, 106, 219, Gregory XIII 50 227, 242 Greig, Aleksei Samuilovich 21, 26, Delambre, Jean Baptiste 128, 165 Joseph 159–60 Greig, Samuil Karlovich 26 Demidov, Dmitrii Alekseyevich 3–4, Grinnell, Henry 33 91, 138, 140, 151–3 Gubin, Matvei 7, 93, 117, 133, 218–20 Dent, Edward 43 Gyupov, Khariton 221 de Traversay, Jean Baptiste Prévost de Sansac (Ivan Ivanovich) 6, 8, Hagemeister, Leontii Andrianovich 15, 17–18, 32, 34, 74–9, 88, 239, 243 99–102, 183, 218, 220, 242, Hall, Charles Francis 33 244, 245 Halley, Edmond 36 request for papers (T1) 99, 101 Hansteen, Christopher 42 diet 28–9, 76–7, 126–8, 239 Harrison, John 48 disease (see health) health 25, 76, 79, 87, 101–2, 107, Dokhturov, Pavel Afanas’evich 20 128, 168–9, 171, 173, 218 Dollond, Peter 43, 159 Heiden, Lodewijk (Loggin Petrovich) Dumont d’Urville, Jules Sébastien van 165 César 35–6, 39, 181 Hörner, Johann Kaspar 195 Duncan, Henry 186 Humboldt, Alexander von 143, 158–9, 196–8 Eichenwald, Eduard 196 hydrography 17, 24, 42, 86, 107, 164–5, 182 Filatov, Nikandr Ivanovich 173 Fischer, Friedrich 196 Ignat’ev, Ivan Fëdorovich 81, 104, Flinders, Matthew 42, 157 152, 172, 221 Folckern, Elisabeth 11 Ignat’ev, Ivan Nikolayevich 173, Folckern, Lorenz 11, 237 243–4 Forster, George 142, 146 Imperial Botanic Gardens 196 Forster, Johann Reinhold 135 Imperial Russian Navy: 3, 9, 15, 17, Foster, Henry 35, 240 20, 21, 24, 26, 30, 31–2, 36, Franklin, John 33, 180 42–3, 51, 68, 74, 77, 88 Freycinet, Louis de 137, 228–9 Admiralty 17, 19, 99, 101, 128 Frobisher, Martin 53, 55 Admiralty College 76–7, 98, 117 Furneaux, Tobias 86, 107, 134, 168 Admiralty Council 23 Baltic Fleet 20 Galkin, Gavrila 178 Black Sea Fleet 4, 20, 128, 165, 174 Galkin, Nikolai Alekseyevich 178–9 Naval Cadet Corps 13–16, 163, Gauss, Carl Friedrich 21, 141, 177, 166, 180, 237 196, 238 Naval Guards 21, 23 Glazunovs 21 Naval Library 173 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von 143 naval medal 22 Golenishchev-Kutuzov, Loggin ranks 69–70 Ivanovich 174, 245 St Andrew’s Flag 5, 20 Golitsyn, Aleksandr Science Committee, Naval Staff 21 Nikolayevich 183, 244 islands, atolls and islets: Golovnin, Vasilii Mikhailovich 26, (see also countries; places; seas) 30–1, 225–6, 239–40, 243 Alexander Archipelago 169 Gonneville, Binot Paulmier de 36 Amanu 90, 109, 134 270 Index islands, atolls and islets – continued Navigation 92, 111 Anaa 89, 135 Ono-i-Lau 92, 111, 136 Annenkov 198 Oparo (Rapa) 89, 108, 134 Año Nuevo 146 Ösel (Saaremaa) 9–11 Auckland 37, 39, 87, 107, 209 Ota(h)iti (see Tahiti) Ball’s Pyramid 93 Palliser, First 169 Bouvet 36–8 Peter I / the Great 33, 49–50, 60, Bristol 70, 82–3, 104–5, 124, 151, 99–100, 114, 138, 170, 176, 187, 240 182, 188–9, 204, 206, 242 Canary 48 Pickersgill 198 Candlemas 49, 82, 104, 150 Pukapuka 92, 111, 124, 136 Cap Circoncision (see Bouvet Rakahanga 91–2, 110, 136 Island) Rangiroa 91, 110 Carolinas 245 Rurik’s Chain 169 Chain 89, 169 Russians, Islands of the 204 Clarence 99–100, 190, 204–5 Sandwich Islands (Hawaii) 30 Company 86–7, 107, 157 Saunders 82, 104, 124, 150–1 Cook 91, 110 Sitka 173 Corfu 240 Smith’s 51, 199 Cumberland 89, 109, 134 Society 89, 108 Danger 92, 111, 124 South Georgia 37–9, 41, 49, Deans 91, 110, 175 79–81, 103–4, 132, 145–8, 162, Elephant 99, 100, 116, 190, 204–5 167, 175, 187, 198–9, 240 Ferro 48 South Sandwich 38, 39–41, 52, Friendly 92 78–82, 100, 103–5, 119–21, Gente Hermosa (see Manihiki) 132, 146–51, 167–8, 175, 181, Grande 80, 103 187, 189, 198–9, 202, 204, 246 Green 198 South Shetland 40, 99–100, 116, Hao (Harp) 134 124, 138, 170–1, 182, 185, 188, Kaukura 90, 109, 135 190, 193, 199–200, 204, 240 Kerguelen 38–9 Tahiti 49, 90–1, 93, 109–11, 124, Kotlin 12 135–6, 158–9, 164, 169, 175, Krusenstern 91, 110 188–9, 196 Late 93 Takapoto 175 Leskov 81, 103, 118, 149 Tasmania 7, 64, 86, 107, 157–8 Line 91, 110 Tenerife 75–6, 102, 131, 144, 159, Livingston 116, 244 161, 167 Lord Howe 92, 112 Thule 79, 82–3, 104–5, 124, 187, Macquarie 38, 100, 112, 137, 140, 240 170, 180, 190 Tikehau 91, 110 Makatea 90, 109–10, 135 Tikei 175 Malvinas / Falkland 79, 82, 87, Tonga 89, 92, 108 137, 146, 209 Torson (see Vysokoi) Manihiki 91–2 Tuamotu Archipelago 74, 124 Manuhangi 89, 109, 124, 134 Tuvana-i-Ra 92, 111, 136 Marquis de Traversay 82, 104, 118, Tuvana-i-Tholo 92, 111, 136 149, 189, 198 Tvistein Pillars 170 Más Afuera 240 Vancouver 32 Montagu 82–3, 104–5, 124, 151 Vandiemen (see Tasmania) Index 271

Vava’u 92, 111, 136 Lazarev, Mikhail Petrovich 4–5, Vysokoi 81, 103, 111, 149 17–18, 22, 26, 29, 43, 48–50, Wallis (see Willis’s) 79, 86–7, 93, 101, 105, 107, Willis’s 79–80, 103, 187 110–11, 118, 129, 140, 163–6, Zavodovski 33, 68, 81–2, 173–7, 186, 188–9, 200–1, 203, 103–4, 198 204, 206, 208, 209, 218, 220, Istomin, Fëdor 87, 107, 175–6, 218 221, 225, 227, 230, 238, 240, Istomin, Vladimir Ivanovich 165 241, 243 Ivanov, Mikhail 243 letter to Shestakov, 1821 (L1) Ivanov, Vasilii Ignat’evich 173 166–73 letter to Shestakov, 1834 (L2) 174 Kapodistrias, Ioannis 34, 130, 239 Lazarev, Pëtr Gavrilovich 163 Karneyev, Yemel’yan Le Brun, Jacques-Balthasard 26, 239 Mikhailovich 183 Le Maire, Jacob 136 Kater, Henry 43 Leskov, Arkadii Sergeyevich 81, 103, Kemp, Peter 35 145, 151 Kerguelen de Trémarec, Yves de 36 Lesseps, Barthélemy de 240 Khanykov, Pëtr Ivanovich 17 libraries 29, 157, 173–4, 241 Khvostov, Dmitrii Ivanovich 19 Lieven, Christoph Heinrich von 8, Kisilëv, Yegor 125–30 31, 34, 73 diary (K1) 130–40, 175, 200 letter to de Traversay (V1) 77, 98 Kleiner, Johann 12 Little Ice Age 11 Knutzen, Johan Adolph 12 Littrow, Joseph von 141 Kolokol’tsev, Ivan Mikhailovich 17 Lobachevskii, Nikolai Ivanovich 141, Körber, Martin 24 179, 197 Kotzebue, Augustus 245 Lomonosov, Mikhail Vasil’evich 54, Kotzebue, Otto (Yevstaf’evich) 24, 58, 60, 152, 241 91, 110, 142, 169, 175, 184, longitude 21, 37, 45–9, 74, 86, 92, 195, 240 99, 149, 160, 168, 169, 171, Kronstadt Naval Hospital 178 194, 195–6, 228–30, 240 Krusenstern, Adam Johann (Ivan Löwenstern, Yermolai Fedorovich) 13–17, 20–1, 30–1, Yermolayevich 16, 209 79, 128, 142, 186, 207, 238 Luce, Johann Wilhelm Kudryavstov, K. M. 101 Ludwig 11–12, 237 Kunze, Gustav 182–4, 245 Ludwig, Archduke of Austria 31 Kupfer, Adolf Yakovlevich 196–7 lunar distances 48, 145, 149, 152, Kupriyanov, Ivan Antonovich 49, 230 157, 160, 170, 196, 230 Lütke, Friedrich Benjamin (Fëdor Lacaille, Nicolas Louis de 160, 196 Petrovich) 184, 245 Laing, John 54, 241 La Pérouse, Jean François de Galaup Macquarie, Lachlan 3–7, 92, 108, de 42, 80, 103, 111, 229, 240 112, 236 Larsen, Nils 170 Magellan, Ferdinand 16, 32 latitude 45–9, 52, 74, 87, 144, 151, Magnitskii, Mikhail Leont’evich 159–60, 167, 228–30, 240 185, 197 Laurie, Richard Holmes 244 maps 16, 19, 36, 38, 42, 51, 75, 79, Lazarev, Aleksei Petrovich 163, 173, 80, 86, 107, 168, 169, 170, 171, 209, 225, 227, 236, 239 174, 182, 187, 190, 198, 205, Lazarev, Andrei Petrovich 163, 173 206, 229, 244 272 Index

Marion-Dufresne, Nicolas 36 Panton, George 7 Martens, Friedrich 53–4 Parker, Hyde 16 Maskelyne, Nevil 43 Parkinson and Frodsham 44 Meckel, Johann Friedrich 184 Parry, William Edward 7, 44, 143, Mendoza, Garcia Hurtado de 42 194–5, 241 meridians 45–8, 10, 80, 157, Paryadin, Yakov 81, 104, 230 158–9, 228 pay 29–30, 128, 132, 139, 140, 164, Merkel, Franz Josef 189 172, 224, 242 Mertens, Karl Heinrich 44, 182–4, 245 Pendleton, Benjamin 35 Mezzofanti, Giuseppe 143 pirates 76, 101 Mikhailov, Pavel Nikolayevich 19, places: 90, 93, 109, 118, 133, 179–80, (see also countries; islands; Russian 183, 186, 188–90, 200, 203, 210 Empire; seas) Military Medical Academy 178 Agathopolis (Ahtopol) 21 Mill, Hugh Robert 207 Alaska 31–2, 165, 240 Mitin, Lev Ivanovich 32–3 Arensburg (Kuressaare) 9, 237 money (see also arendas and pay) 13, Astrakhan 197 21, 74, 77, 116, 223–4, 239 Baltic Port (Paldiski) 163 Moller, Fëdor Vasil’evich von 17, 238 Brunswick 141 Morskoi sbornik 166 Buenos Aires 39, 170 Murav’ev, Matvei Ivanovich 31, 173 Burekhino 23 Calais 8 Nakhimov, Pavel Stepanovich 165 Cap Circoncision (see Bouvet Island) Napoleon 20, 31, 163, 179, 184, 243 Cape of Good Hope 7, 37, 116, 160 NASA 52 Cape Horn 37, 38, 41, 164, 173, Nautical Almanac 42–3, 47 193 Naval Museum, St Petersburg Copenhagen 17, 18, 29, 42, 44, 188, 238 63, 74, 102, 131, 140, 142, 144, Nelson, Horatio 16 161, 167, 176, 182–4, 239, 243 Nesselrode, Karl 34 Deptford 7 Nikol’skii, Apollon Göttingen 184 Aleksandrovich 19 Greenwich 44 Nootka Sound Incident 34 Halle 182, 184 Norie, John 43–4, 244 Hoheneichen (Pilguse) 10–12, 237 North Pole 45 Kazan 141, 143, 161, 178–9, 185, Novosil’skii, Fëdor Mikhailovich 197, 208, 210–11 23, 180 Kielkond (Kihelkonde) 10–11 Novosil’skii, Pavel Kirribilli Point 49, 229, 240 Mikhailovich 180–2, 201–6, Königsberg 18 209, 218, 239, 244 Kronstadt 12, 15, 18–19, 23, 26, 29, 36, 42–3, 51, 54, 101, 117–18, Obernibesov, Nikolai Vasil’evich 67, 130–1, 144, 166–7, 171–2, 176, 81, 104 178, 180–1, 186, 194, 213, 218, oceanography 53, 142, 195 221, 238, 239, 240, 241 Order of St Anne 172 Lahhentagge (Lahetaguse) 10–12, Order of St Vladimir 18, 172, 189 237 London 4, 6–7, 34, 42–3, 54–5, 58, Pagès, Pierre Marie François de 42, 55 74–5, 77, 81, 98, 99, 102, 117, Palmer, Nathaniel 35, 116, 182, 205 127, 184, 223, 228, 239 Index 273

Lübeck 10 Vienna 143, 165 Luga 99 Vladimir 129, 163 Montevideo 39–40 Plater, Gustav Ivanovich 173 Mühlhausen 22 Port Egmont hen (see birds, skua) Nakhimov Square 165 Powell, George 244 Nauditen (Naudite) 18, 23 priority 199–203, 205–6 Ostend 8 Prusak 40, 146, 199 Paris 143, 144, 184 Pulkovo Observatory 238 Parramatta 49, 228–9 Pushkin, Aleksandr Sergeyevich 19 Penza 179 Pernau (Pärnu) 23 Ratmanov, Makar Ivanovich 17 Peterhof 18 religion (see Russian Orthodox Point Venus 49, 91, 110, Church) 159, 175 Ritterschaft of Ösel 11 Port Dalrymple 7 rivers: Port Jackson 3–7, 41, 49, 70, Neva 19, 113 77–80, 87, 89, 92, 99–100, Plate 39, 80 107–8, 111–12, 116–17, 133, Tagus 18 155, 158, 159–60, 162, 168–9, Thames 7 174–6, 179, 185, 187, 189–90, Roché, Anthony de la 36 196, 228, 229, 236 Roggeveen, Jacob 91, 110 Portsmouth 4, 20, 30, 43, 74–5, Ross, James Clark 33, 35–6, 39, 61, 102, 128, 131, 144, 164, 167, 63, 180, 181, 204 186, 239, 243 Ross, John 33, 54–5, 58, 241 Reval (Tallinn) 13, 23 Royal Botanic Garden, Tenerife 161 Riga 17, 146 Royal Navy 4, 20, 26, 32, 29, 76, Rio de Janeiro 76–7, 80, 101–2, 126–8, 163–4, 182, 243 116–17, 132, 139, 144, 158–61, Rozhnov, Pëtr Mikhailovich 23 167, 171, 187 Rümker, Karl 49, 228–30 Romanshchina 99, 101, 218 Rumyantsev, Nikolai Petrovich Rostock 16 31, 195 St George mountain 170 Russian-American Company 18, 30–1, St Petersburg 8, 12, 16, 17–18, 19, 163, 173, 176, 239–40, 243 21, 22, 23, 26, 34, 71, 74, 99, Russian Empire: 141–2, 144, 146, 151, 173, 178, (see also countries; places) 179, 180, 181, 184, 186, 197, Imperial Cabinet 21, 242 238, 240 Ministry of Education 180, Sakhalin 16 195–6, 211 Sandwich Land Ministry of Finance 128 (see islands, South Sandwich) Ministry of the Interior 180 Sevastopol 17, 20, 164, 165, 173 Ministry of Marine 8, 73, 76–7, Sizeboli 21 99, 128, 184, 237 Spasskii 179 Russian monarchs: Suzdal 125, 129 Emperor Alexander I 8, 17–18, 20, Sydney 3–7, 29, 49, 137, 164, 185, 30–5, 186, 197, 243 220, 228, 236, 243 Emperor Nicholas I 20–1, 23 (see also Port Jackson) Emperor Paul I 16, 237 Valparaiso 170 Emperor Peter I 20, 26, 114, 239 Velikiye Luki 23, 211 Empress Catherine II 20, 30 274 Index

Russian Museum, St Petersburg Queen Charlotte Sound 89, 93, 179, 210 108, 158, 196 Russian nobility 14–15 South Atlantic 30, 36, 41 Russian Orthodox Church 15, 20, (South) Pacific 3, 16, 29, 30, 37, 23, 128, 138, 155, 158, 180, 41, 48, 92, 93, 108–12, 164, 218, 220, 243 175, 187, 204 Russkii Invalid 173 Southern Ice Ocean 4, 17, 52–3, 100, 112, 117, 122–3, 144, 189 Sabine, Edward 241 Southern Ocean 37, 41, 52, 54–5, sails 86–7, 106–7, 122, 133, 137, 147, 57, 87, 107, 112, 171, 218, 153–4, 156, 167, 169, 175, 209 240, 242 Saint Petersburg Mineralogical Straits of Gibraltar 20 Society 189 Senyavin, Dmitrii Nikolayevich 20 Saint Thaddei (Thaddeus) 15 serfdom 9–11, 14 salaries (see pay) Sevast’yanov, Aleksandr Santayana, George 207 Fëdorovich 196 Sarychev, Gavriil Andreyevich 36, 53 Shestakov, Aleksei Antipovich 165–6, Schröder, Ivan Nikolayevich 23 174–5, 201, 208 Schubert, Fëdor Ivanovich 42, ships: 141, 243 Admiral Cockburn 6, 236 Scoresby, William 54–5, 57, 59–60, Adventure 37, 134, 194 78, 143, 231, 241 Apollon 173 Scott, Robert Falcon 194, 213 Arab 81 Scott, Walter 149 Ayaks 173 seas, oceans, etc.: Azov 165 (see also countries; islands; places) Blagonamerennyi 6, 35, 144, 167, Adriatic 20 173, 209, 225, 236, 239, 241 Baltic 8, 9, 12, 16, 17, 18, 42, 163 Bounty 92, 111 Bass Strait 146 Diana 31, 243 Bering Strait 32, 173 Echo 81 Black 17, 164, 165 Flora 17 Bosporus 21 Hektor 130, 239 Bransfield Strait 205 Imperator Aleksandr I 22 Cook Strait 89, 108, 169 Indispensable 81 Dardanelles 20 Kamchatka 26, 30, 131, 225–6 Davis Strait 32 Kastor 167 English Channel 8, 18 Ladoga (see Mirnyi) Gulf of Finland 16, 22 Lady Elizabeth 116 Gulf of Riga 9, 11 Liffey 186 Mediterranean 20, 34 Mary Ann 81 North Atlantic 146 Mel’pomena 17, 167, 227 North Pacific 6, 19, 30–1, 34, 36, Minerva 17 179, 184, 195 Mirnyi 5–6, 17, 19, 26, 28–9, 35, Port Jackson 3–7, 41, 49, 70, 43, 60, 75–7, 80, 83, 87, 93, 77–80, 87, 89, 92, 99–100, 102, 100–2, 105, 107–8, 110–12, 117, 107–8, 111–12, 116, 117, 133, 128, 133, 135, 144, 147–8, 152, 155, 158–60, 162, 168–9, 174, 154–5, 164–9, 171–2, 175–6, 175, 176, 179, 185, 187, 189, 178–81, 186–7, 189, 194, 198, 190, 196, 228–9, 236, 244 216–17, 218, 225–7, 239 Index 275

Moller 179, 184 Smith, William 35, 39–40, 100, Nadezhda 16 116, 170, 171, 180, 182, 185, Olimp 130 199–200, 203, 206, 240, 244 Otkrytiye 6, 35, 144, 167, 172, Solander, Daniel 142 227, 239 South Magnetic Pole 21, 35, 42, Paramour 36 142, 195 Parizh 110 Sparrman, Anders 142 Parmen 110 spars 18, 25–6, 87, 101, 118, 137, Poluks 167 167, 175, 193, 212, 242 Princess Charlotte 236 spelling 14–15, 67–8, 125 Queen Charlotte 6–7, 236 Sprengel, Kurt 184 Rafael 157 Stanyukovich, Mikhail Recovery 81 Nikolayevich 184 Resolution 26, 193 State Historical Museum, Sarah 7 Moscow 179, 210 Senyavin 184 Stebbing, George 43 Smirnyi 20 Steinbach, Ulrich 22 Suvorov 163 Stoke, V. F. 26, 238 Tikhvinskaya Bogoroditsa 17 stores 25–6, 28, 29, 42–3, 75–7, 79, Tsar Konstantin 20 87, 102, 126–8, 167, 239 Tuscan 7 Strandrecht 10 Ural 140 Struve, Friedrich Georg Wilhelm 238 Velikii Knyaz’ 16 Suckni, Daniel Gottlieb 11–12, 237 Vostok 3, 5, 7, 17–19, 26–9, 35, Surville, Jean-François-Marie de 42 43, 58, 60, 75–6, 80–1, 87, Sushchev, Pavel Ivanovich 173 91–3, 100–1, 103, 107, 110–12, Sydney Gazette 236 114–18, 128, 130, 136–7, 144, Syn Otechestva 8, 178, 185, 244 152, 155, 158, 164–5, 167, 169, 171–3, 175–6, 178, 181, 186–9, Tammiksaar, Erki 15, 246 194, 214–16, 219–21, 225–7, Tarkhanov, Pavel Vasil’evich 183, 238, 241, 243 244–5 Vsevolod 163 Tarnopol’skii, Yakov Williams 116 Yevgenevich 123 Yelena 20 telegraph 17 Shishmarëv, Gleb Semënovich 6, temperatures 42–4, 81, 87, 107, 167, 243 131, 133, 138, 139, 142, 146–8, Shokal’skii, Yulii Mikhailovich 52, 150, 157, 159–60, 168, 189, 181, 194, 207, 245 195, 222 Shvede, Yevgenii Yevgen’evich 226–7, Torson, Konstantin Petrovich 244, 245 81, 103 Simonov, Ivan Mikhailovich 4, Traversay (see de Traversay) 18, 43, 45, 49, 67–9, 93, treaties: 103, 118, 140, 141–62, 179, Antarctic 53 183, 185–6, 195–8, 200–3, Protocol on Environmental 206, 209, 210–11, 228–9, 231, Protection 53 243, 244–5 Convention for the Conservation of journal (S1) 144–58 Antarctic Marine Living article (S2) 158–61 Resources 53 Sindrey, Edward 6–7 Tilsit 20, 243 276 Index

Troughton, Edward 42–3, 159 Wales, William 142 Tulub’ev, Irinarkh Stepanovich 173 wars: Two Seasons 22, 51, 60–1, 75, 79, Crimean 165, 180 83, 86, 89, 93, 100, 103, 106, Napoleonic (see Patriotic) 109–10, 112–13, 116–17, 119, Northern 11 124, 134, 142, 174, 177 Patriotic 31, 146, 163, 179, 184, 197, 243 universities: 141, 242–3 Russo-Circassian 165 Halle-Wittenberg 182 Russo-Swedish 15 Kazan 141, 143, 161, 179, 185, 211 Russo-Turkish 21, 28 Leipzig 182 Seven Years’ 11, 30 St Petersburg 180 Weddell, James 35, 181, 241 University Museum, Kazan 161 Wild, Frank 212 Uvarov, Sergei Semënovich 20 Wilkes, Charles 35, 39, 181 Wrangell, Ferdinand Friedrich Vancouver, George 80, 103, 108 (Petrovich) 24 Vasil’ev, Mikhail Nikolayevich 6, 28, 30–1, 33, 35, 41, 126, 144, 167, Zach, Franz Xaver von 142, 196 182–4, 243, 245 Zavodovskii, Ivan Ivanovich 4, 18, Vishnevskii, Vikentii Karlovich 141 67, 79, 81, 88, 93, 101, 104–5, Voigt, Heinrich Ludwig 237 117–18, 164–5, 172, 186, 230