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Classificatie Van Planten – Nieuwe Inzichten En Gevolgen Voor De Praktijk

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Classificatie Van Planten – Nieuwe Inzichten En Gevolgen Voor De Praktijk B268_dendro_bin 03-11-2009 10:32 Pagina 4 Classificatie van planten – nieuwe inzichten en gevolgen voor de praktijk Ir. M.H.A. Hoffman Er zijn ongeveer 300.000 verschillende (hogere) plantensoorten, die onderling veel of weinig op elkaar lijken. Vroeger werden alle planten- soorten afzonderlijk benaamd, en was niet duidelijk hoe deze soorten ver- want waren. Tegenwoordig worden soorten conform het systeem van Lin- naeus ingedeeld in geslachten. Soorten die sterk verwant zijn aan elkaar hebben dezelfde geslachtsnaam. Geslachten worden op hun beurt weer ingedeeld in families en die op hun beurt weer in ordes, enzovoort. Op deze manier kent het plantenrijk een hiërarchisch indelingsysteem, met verwantschap als basis. Sterke verwantschap is meestal ook zicht- baar aan de uiterlijke gelijkenis. Soorten die veel op elkaar lijken en verwant zijn zitten in dezelfde groep.Verre verwanten zitten ver uit elkaar in het systeem. Om een plant goed te kunnen benamen, moet dus eerst uitgezocht worden aan welke andere soorten deze verwant is. Tot voor kort werd de gelijkenis van planten zen. Deze nieuwe ontwikkeling is van grote voornamelijk bepaald aan uiterlijke kenmerken invloed op de taxonomie en op het classificatie- van bijvoorbeeld bloem en blad. De afgelopen systeem van het plantenrijk. Dit heeft bijvoor- decennia kwamen daar al aanvullende criteria beeld invloed op de familie-indeling en de plaats zoals houtanatomie, pollenmorfologie, chemi- van de familie in het systeem. Maar ook op sche inhoudsstoffen en chromosoomaantallen geslachts- en soortniveau zijn er de nodige ver- bij. De afgelopen jaren hebben DNA-technie- schuivingen. Dit artikel gaat in op de ontstaans- ken een grote vlucht genomen. Aan het DNA wijze en het principe van ons huidige classifica- kan verwantschap tussen soorten worden afgele- tiesysteem en de grote invloed van nieuwe Hiërarchisch indelingssysteem plantenrijk (voorbeeld indeling Lavandula angustifolia ) Rang Voorbeeld Rijk Plantae (plantenrijk) Afdeling Embryophyta (landplanten) Klasse Spermatopsida (zaadplanten) Subklasse (clade) Angiospermae (bedektzadigen) Orde Lamiales Familie Lamiaceae Geslacht Lavandula Soort Lavandula angustifolia 4 Dendroflora nr 45 2008 B268_dendro_bin 03-11-2009 10:32 Pagina 5 DNA-technieken. Wat zijn daarbij de uiteinde- naamde binomiale (tweedelige) nomenclatuur. lijke gevolgen voor de naamgeving van onze Hierin wordt elke dier- en plantensoort aange- planten en gewassen voor de praktijk. duid met een soortnaam bestaande uit twee delen: de geslachtsnaam en een soortaanduiding Het ontstaan van (bv. Lavandula angustifolia ). Tot dan toe wer- classificatiesystemen den soortnamen gegeven die bestonden uit één of meerdere beschrijvende woorden. Dit tweede- Oude wetenschap lige principe werd in 1735 gepubliceerd in één Plantensoorten benoemen en indelen is al zo oud van zijn belangrijkste werken: “Systema Natu- als de mensheid. In eerste instantie was de inde- rae”. Hierin beschrijft Linnaeus de drie natuur- ling vooral praktisch; bijvoorbeeld planten met rijken Dieren, Planten en Mineralen. eetbare vruchten en geneeskrachtige planten. In 1753 publiceerde Linnaeus een tweedelig Een tastbare basis is gelegd in de tijd van de boek onder de titel “Species Plantarum”. Dit oude Grieken. Rond 300 voor Christus schreef boek is geaccepteerd als het startpunt van de Theophrastus van Eresus, student van Aristote- botanische nomenclatuur. Het boek beschrijft les, ‘Historia Plantarum’. Dit is de oudst beken- alle dan aan de wetenschap bekende planten. de botanische encyclopedie waarin planten wor- Linnaeus publiceerde gedurende zijn leven ca. den geclassificeerd in verschillende categorieën: 7000 plantensoorten. Zowel in “Systema Natu- bomen, struiken, lage struiken en kruiden. Hier- rae” als in “Species Plantarum” werden de soor- binnen werden de planten ingedeeld in bloeien- ten geordend op het aantal en de positie van de de of niet bloeiende soorten. Deze classificatie is vrouwelijke en mannelijke voortplantingsorga- tot in de 16 de eeuw (bijna 1000 jaar lang!) in nen van de plant. In dit zogenaamde “Clavis gebruik gebleven. Systematis Sexualis” werden 24 klassen onder- In de 16 de eeuw, de renaissancetijd, kwamen er scheiden (zie figuur). Een opzienbarend aspect nieuwe botanici met nieuwe publicaties en aan- van Linnaeus’ werk was het voor die tijd zeer gepaste classificatiesystemen. Hiervan waren vooral de Duitse botanici Otto Brunsfels, Hier- onymous Bock en Leonhard Fuchs belangrijk. Zij waren de eersten die uitgingen van eigen observaties en zich duidelijk losweekten van de meesters uit de oudheid. Zij werden door Linna- eus beschouwd als ‘de vaders van de botanie’. In 1554 publiceerde de Vlaming Rembert Dodoens het Nederlandstalige ‘ Cruydeboeck’ , een stan- daardwerk waarin hij zes groepen van gebruiks- planten onderscheidde. Kort daarna publiceerde de Italiaanse botanicus Andrea Cesalpino in 1583 “De plantis libri XVI”, waarin hij vooral bloemen, vruchten en zaden gebruikte voor zijn indelingssysteem. In 1596 werd door de Zweed- se botanicus Gaspard Bauhin “Pinax theatri botanici” gepubliceerd waarin meer dan 6000 planten waren opgenomen en geclassificeerd op een manier die te vergelij- ken is met de binomiale (tweedelige) nomenclatuur van Linnaeus. Belang van Linnaeus De Zweedse botanicus Carolus Linnaeus is de grondlegger van de zoge- 1. In het Nederlandstalige “Cruydeboeck”, een stan- 2. “Clavis Systematis Sexualis”: Indeling van het daardwerk van Dodoens uit 1554, werden zes groe- plantenrijk in 24 klassen naar seksuele kenmerken pen van gebruiksplanten onderscheiden Dendroflora nr 45 2008 5 B268_dendro_bin 03-11-2009 10:32 Pagina 6 uitgesproken gebruik van seksuele termen. Het belang van Linnaeus als vader van de moderne binomiale nomenclatuur staat buiten kijf. Zijn indelingssysteem in 24 klassen puur op voortplantingsorganen bleek echter al gauw ontoereikend omdat duidelijk uiteenlopende typen planten soms in dezelfde klasse vielen. Desondanks was zijn classificatiesysteem een belangrijke stap vooruit omdat het de weten- schappelijke beschrijving van de natuur verge- makkelijkte. 3. Darwins’ stelling dat ook de mens is ontstaan uit De Franse botanicus Antoine-Laurent de Jussieu een primitieve apensoort was erg schokkend voor publiceerde in 1789 het boek “Genera Planta- die tijd rum” waarin planten worden ingedeeld op basis van diverse morfologische kenmerken. Het clas- nen weer, of veranderen zo sterk dat wij ze tot sificatiesysteem van Linnaeus werd aangepast een andere soort gaan rekenen. Miljoenen jaren en verder verfijnd. De Jussieu voegde de niveaus geleden bestonden er hele andere dier- en plan- van genera en familie toe aan de hernieuwde tensoorten dan nu. Darwins’ stelling dat bijvoor- taxonomie. Deze classificatie is de basis van de beeld ook de mens is ontstaan uit een primitieve huidige classificatie. apensoort was bepaald schokkend voor die tijd. Zowel Linnaeus als de Jussieu hadden weliswaar Darwin stelt dat de gelijkenis tussen soorten de intentie om soorten die veel op elkaar lijken wordt veroorzaakt door de evolutionaire ver- bij elkaar te groeperen in klassen, families en/of wantschap tussen deze soorten, en dat dit dus de geslachten. Toch trachtten zij met hun indelin- basis moeten zijn voor de verschillende catego- gen niet een verwantschap tussen planten aan te rieën in de taxonomie. Vanaf dat moment tonen. Alle soorten werden, conform het tijds- begonnen de classificatiesystemen meer en meer beeld, beschouwd als individueel geschapen te dienen als weergave van de verwantschap tus- door god, met onveranderlijke kenmerken. sen verschillende soorten. De evolutietheorie van Darwin Classificatiesystemen in de 20 ste eeuw Ruim 100 jaar na Linnaeus’ gloriejaren, schreef Vlak na Darwin’s invloedrijke werk publiceer- Charles Darwin in 1859 zijn revolutionaire werk den Bentham en Hooker van Kew Gardens in “The Origin of species”. Hierin presenteerde Engeland “Genera plantarum ad exemplaria Darwin zijn bekende evolutietheorie. Het evolu- imprimis in herbariis kewensibus servata defini- tionaire denken was er niet ineens, maar werd ta” (drie delen, 1862–1883). Dit Bentham & vooral vanaf de tijd van Linnaeus in de 18 de en Hooker-systeem is een uitgebreid classificatie- 19 de eeuw geleidelijk ontwikkeld door onder systeem, maar Darwin’s evolutieconcept en de andere Georges de Buffon, James Burnet, Jean- moderne taxonomische opvattingen waren hier- Baptiste Lamarck en Georges Cuvier. Darwin in nog niet verwerkt. komt echter de eer toe omdat hij de evolutiege- “Die Naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien” van Adolf dachte compleet en in een overtuigende theorie Engler en Karl Prantl ( Engler-systeem ) was het presenteerde. eerste werk waarin de meest primitieve planten Evolutie is een langzaam proces van verandering vooraan stonden en de meer ontwikkelde planten in alles wat leeft. Door seksuele voorplanting is achteraan. Hierin was het evolutieconcept dus er variatie in de nakomelingschap. Daarbij heb- wel duidelijk opgenomen. Het eerste deel van ben de individuen die het gezondst zijn en het deze 23-delige serie is gepubliceerd in 1885, het beste zijn aangepast zijn aan de omgeving, de laatste in 1915. grootste overlevingskans en zullen weer de Daarna volgden diverse systemen, samengesteld meeste nakomelingen geven. Door het principe door diverse taxonomen en onderzoeksgroepen, van natuurlijke selectie zullen alleen de sterkste die elkaar in meer of mindere mate overlapten en individuen overleven: “Survival of the fittest”. beconcurreerden. Na Engler en Prantl waren er Hierdoor
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