Muslims of Andalus After the Fall of Granada: the Catholic Policy of Destruction of Islam (898-934 Ah /1492-1525 C.E.)

MUSLIMS OF ANDALUS AFTER THE FALL OF GRANADA: THE CATHOLIC POLICY OF DESTRUCTION OF ISLAM (898-934 AH /1492-1525 C.E.)

PUTEH NORAIHAN BINTI A RAHMAN

A dissertation submitted in fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Human Sciences (History and Civilization)

Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences International Islamic University Malaysia

JULY 2011 ABSTRACT

This research is an introduction to the historical investigation of the fall of Muslim civilization in al-Andalus Western Mediterranean, after almost 800 years of rise, rapid growth and later a sluggish decline. Most of the modern Muslim historians concentrate on the “Golden Age” of the Andalus at the expense of the other periods of its history. This work examines the nakbah (catastrophy) and ibādah (annihilation) of Muslims in Andalus. The end of the “Moorish Spain” is relatively well known to the readers of world history. Therefore, this research is a study on the dark period of the Christian Europe. This era of planned and sustained policy of total eradication of Islam from the southwestern Europe was authorized by the medieval popes, the European Roman-Catholic kings and emperors and overtly implemented after the surrender of the last Muslim state of Granada in 1492 CE.

ﺧﻼﺻﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﺤﺚ

ﺗﻌﺪ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻷﻃﺮﻭﺣﺔ ﻣﻘﺪﻣﺔ ﻟﻔﺤﺺ ﺍﳌﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﺭﳜﻴﺔ ﺣﻮﻝ ﺳﻘﻮﻁ ﺍﳊﻀﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻹﺳﻼﻣﻴﺔ ﺑ ﺎﻷﻧﺪﻟﺲ ، ﻭﺫﻟﻚ ﺑﻌﺪ ٨٠٠ ﻋﺎﻡ ﺗﻘﺮﻳﺒﺎ ﻣﻦ ﻀﺘﻬﺎ ﻭﺗﻘﺪﻣﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺴﺮﻳﻊ، ﰒ ﺍﳓﺪﺍﺭﻫﺎ ﻭﺍﳓﻄﺎﻃﻬﺎ . ﻭﻳﺮﻛﺰ ﻣﻌﻈﻢ ﺍﳌﺆﺭﺧﲔ ﺍﳌ ﺴﻠﻤﲔ ﰲ ﺍﻟﻌﺼﺮ ﺍﳊﺪﻳﺚ ﰲ ﺍﻫﺘﻤﺎﻣﺎﻢ ﺍﻷﻛﺎﺩﳝﻴﺔ ﺑﺎﻷﻧﺪﻟﺲ ﻋﻠﻰ " ﺍﻟﻔﺘﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﺬﻫﺒﻴﺔ" ﻋﻠﻰ ﺣﺴﺎﺏ ﺑﻘﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻔﺘﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﺎﺭﳜﻴﺔ ﺑﺎﳌﻨﻄﻘﺔ . ﳍﺬﺍ ﲢﺎﻭﻝ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻷﻃﺮﻭﺣﺔ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺪﺭﺱ ﺍﻟﻨﻜﺒﺔ ﻭﺇﺑﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﳌﺴﻠﻤﲔ ﰲ ﺍﻷﻧﺪﻟﺲ، ﻭﻗﺪ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺎﻳﺔ ﺍﳌﻮﺭﻳﺴﻜﻴﲔ ﺑﺄﺳﺒﺎﻧﻴﺎ ﻣﻌﺮﻭﻓﺔ ﻟﺪﻯ ﺩﺭﺍﺳﻲ ﺗﺎﺭﻳﺦ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﱂ ﻭﻭﻗﺎﺋﻌﻬﺎ، ﻓﺎﻷﻃﺮﻭﺣﺔ ﺳﺘﺪﺭﺱ ﺇﺣﺪﻯ ﺍﻟﻔﺘﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﳌﺄﺳﺎﻭﻳﺔ ﺍﳌﻈﻠﻤﺔ ﰲ ﺃﻭﺭﻭﺑ ﺎ ﻓﻔﻲ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻔﺘﺮﺓ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ ﺳﻴﺎﺳﺔ ﺍﻹﻋﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﳌﺨﻄﹼﻄﺔ ﻭﺍﳌﺴﺘﻤﺮﺓ ﻟﻠﻘﻀﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﻨﻬﺎﺋﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻹﺳﻼﻡ ﰲ ﺟﻨﻮﺏ ﻏﺮﺏ ﺃﻭﺭﻭﺑﺎ ﳐﻮﻟﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ ﺑﺎﺑﺎﻭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﻮﺳﻄﻰ، ﻭﻣﻠﻮﻙ ﻭﺃﺑﺎﻃﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﺮﻭﻣﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﺛﻮﻟﻴﻚ ﰲ ﺃﻭﺭﻭﺑﺎ، ﺣﻴﺚ ﻧﻔﹼﺬﺕ ﻋﻠﻨﺎﹰ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺃﻥ ﺳﻘﻄﺖ ﺁﺧﺮ ﺩﻭﻟﺔ ﺇﺳﻼﻣﻴﺔ ﰲ ﻏﺮﻧﺎﻃﺔ ﻋﺎﻡ ١٤٩٢ ﻣﻴﻼﺩﻱ.

iii APPROVAL PAGE

I certify that I have supervised and read this study and that in my opinion it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a dissertation for the degree of Master of Human Sciences (History and Civilization).

……………………………….. Ataullah Bogdan Kopanski Supervisor

I certify that I have read this study and that in my opinion it conforms to acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a dissertation for the degree of Master of Human Sciences (History and Civilization).

………………………………. Ghassan Taha Yassen Examiner

This dissertation is submitted to the Department of History and Civilization and is accepted as fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Human Sciences (History and Civilization).

……………………………….. Arshad Islam Head, Department of History and Civilization

This dissertation is submitted to the Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences and is accepted as fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Human Sciences (History and Civilization).

……………………………….. Badri Najib Zubir Dean, Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences

DECLARATIO

I hereby declare that this dissertation is the result of my own investigations, except where otherwise stated. I also declare that it has not been previously or concurrently submitted as a whole for any other degree at IIUM or other institutions.

Puteh Noraihan binti A Rahman

Signature……………………… Date……………………..

INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA

MUSLIM OF ADALUS AFTER THE FALL OF GRAADA: THE CATHOLIC POLICY OF DESTRUCTIO OF ISLAM (898934 AH /14921525 C.E.)

No part of this unpublished research may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without prior written permission of the copyright holder except as provided below.

1. Any material contained in or derived from this unpublished research may only be used by others in their writing with due acknowledgement.

2. IIUM or its library will have the right to make and transmit copies (print or electronic) for institutional and academic purposes.

3. The IIUM library will have the right to make, store in a retrieval system and supply copies of this unpublished research if requested by other universities and research libraries.

Affirmed by Puteh Noraihan Binti A Rahman

……………………………. ……………….. Signature Date

DEDICATIO

For ‘Abdul Rahman Abdullah, Puteh Saroja Ishak

& Saiful Khairi Kamarudin

vii ACKOWLEDGEMETS

Alhamdulillah, My utmost gratitude to Allah S.W.T. for His blessings and opportunity, finally I have completed this thesis. An enormous thank to my supervisor, Prof. Dr. Ataullah Bogdan Kopanski who has assisted me in the quest of this precious knowledge. His sagacious guidance, insightful criticisms, patience and encouragement aided the writing of this thesis in incalculable ways. I would also like to express my bottomless gratitude to my husband, Saiful Khairi Kamarudin for his understanding and kind cooperation throughout my journey of writing this thesis. Next, I want to express a great appreciation to my examiner, Prof. Dr. Ghassan Taha Yassen for examining this paper intensely and also his dedicated support. Not to forget, for my parents and son for being the light inspiration and encouragement in order for this task to be accomplished. Last but not least, endless appreciation to my family, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Arshad Islam, Sister Azura, Sister Radziah, colleagues, friends in IIUM and those involved in this project.

viii TABLE OF COTETS

Abstract ...... ii Arabic Abstract...... iii Approval Page ...... iv Declaration ...... v Copyright Page ...... vi Dedication ...... vii Acknowledgements ...... viii Table of Contents ...... ix List of Tables ...... xi List of Figures ...... xii

CHAPTER 1: ITRODUCTIO ...... 1 1.1 Background and History ...... 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem ...... 3 1.3 The Objectives of the Research ...... 5 1.4 Research Questions ...... 6 1.5 Justification of the Problem ...... 7 1.6 Literature Review ...... 8 1.7 Research Methodology ...... 12

CHAPTER 2: SURREDER OF THE LAST ISLAMIC STATE I THE FAR WEST ...... 14 2.1 Introduction ...... 14 2.2 Islamic State in the Far West ...... 14 2.2.1 Geographical Background of Andalusia ...... 14 2.2.2 The Muslim Military Intervention During the Civil War Among the Visigoths in Spain: alFutuhat of 93 AH / 711 C.E. . 15 2.3 Betrayal of Jihad ...... 21 2.4 The Rise of Castilians ...... 26 2.4.1 Castilian Besieged Muslim Dominions ...... 32 2.4.2 Reactions from the Muslims in Malaga ...... 40 2.4.3 Invasion of the Castilian King ...... 41 2.5 The Capitulation of Abu Abdallah Muhammad “ the Unlucky” ...... 54 2.5.1 The Articles of the Capitulation ...... 56 2.5.2 Granada after The Capitulation ...... 61 2.6 Aftermath ...... 64 2.7 Chronology of the Caliphates and Emirates of the Iberian Peninsula .... 66 2.8 Conclusion ...... 68

CHAPTER 3: MORISCIZATIO OF THE ADALUSIA MUSLIMS ...... 70 3.1 Introduction ...... 70 3.2 Culture Change of the Muslims after the Fall of Granada ...... 70 3.3 Humiliation and Discrimantion of Mudejares after the Capitulation .... 76 3.3.1 Destruction of Mosques ...... 81

ix 3.3.2 Ximenes de Cisneros’ Cruelty and Fanaticism. The Ban of Veils of Muslim Women ...... 82 3.3.3 Implementation of the Catholic Policies: Forcible Baptized Muslims ...... 84 3.4 The Catholic Monarchs’ Policy of One Choice for the Surviving Muslims: Baptism or Expulsion ...... 86 3.5 Edict of Grace ...... 93 3.6 The ‘Infinite Contempt’ of Moriscos & War with Charles V ...... 101 3.7 Conclusion ...... 108

CHAPTER 4: MODUS OPERADI OF THE HOLOCAUST OF MUSLIMS I SPAI (1492 C.E.1525 C.E. AD AFTERMATH) ...... 110 4.1 Introduction ...... 110 4.2 Inquisition of the Medieval Catholic Church ...... 111 4.3 Spanish Inquisition ...... 113 4.4 Modus Operandi of Torturing by the Inquisitors ...... 119 4.5 Popular Modus Operandi ...... 126 4.5.1 Water-torture (Water Boarding) ...... 126 4.5.2 Vuelta de Trampa, Mancuerda and Potro or Rack ...... 128 4.5.3 Flogging ...... 135 4.5.4 Enslavement in the Spanish Galleys...... 139 4.5.5 Reconciliation ...... 142 4.5.6 The Perpetual Prison ...... 144 4.5.7 The Sanbenito ...... 148 4.5.8 Disabilities ...... 151 4.5.9 Auto da fé: Burning “Relaxed” Alive ...... 151 4.5.10 Burning of Books ...... 155 4.6 Conclusion ...... 155

CHAPTER 5: THE CRYPTOMUSLIMS FIAL SOLUTIO ...... 157 5.1 Status of Mudejares ...... 157 5.2 Relationship between Muslims with Jews and Christians ...... 159

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 164

GLOSSARY ...... 167

x LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Page No.

2.1 Chart shows the timeline of the Muslims presence in al-Andalus...... 19

xi LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Page No.

2.1 Map showing the location of al-Andalus which comprised of the main cities such as Granada, Cordova, Toledo, Murcia, Valencia, Seville and etc 15

2.2 The map at the left shown the location of Gibraltar. 16

2.3 On the rightside is the image of the rock that Muslims army landed in May 711. 16

2.4 Potrait of Abu Abdallah Muhammad XII. He was known to Spanish chroniclers as Boabdil elChico (“the Chicken”). Abu Abdallah Muhammad XII was the last king of Granada 20

2.5 Map showing the shrinking territory of Islamic al-Andalus from 790 CE until 1300s CE onwards 25

2.6 Ferdinand V of Castile and Leon, also called Ferdinand II of Aragon 30

2.7 Map showing that on the second half of the thirteenth century, Moorish power in Spain was reduced to the Kingdom of Granada, which survived for over 200 years. Each of the four Christian Kingdoms of the peninsula, Portugal, Castille, Navarre and Aragon also took on separate political entities. 50

2.8 The wedding portrait of Ferdinand and Isabella, c. 1469 C.E. 54

2.9 Map showing the ruling of Caliphate of Cordova 66

2.10 Map showing the areas under taifa ’s rule (independent states) except, Leon, Castile, Pamplona, Aragon, France and Barcelona.These kingdoms were too weak and the taifas’ kings always request help from Almoravids 67

2.11 Map showing the Al-Murabitun (Almoravids’) Islamic state 67

2.12 Map showing the Al-Muwwahidun (Almohads’) emirate extention from North Africa up to border with Christian states like Portugal, Leon, Castile and Aragon 68

3.1 Treaty of Granada. Painting showing Abu Abdullah Muhammad (Boabdil) confronted Isabelle and Ferdinand. 78

xii 3.2 Illustration of Francisco Ximenes de Cisneros (1436-1517 C.E.) who implemented terror and harsh policies towards Muslims in Spain. 83

3.3 This illustration of mudejares in Valencia, Murica, Aragon and Castile 93

4.1 The garrucha or pulleys or known in Italy as the strappado 125

4.2 Sketch showing the waterboarding, which was the painful technique of torturing by the Inquisitors 126

4.3 Illustration of the Christian torture-chamber where the Muslims and “heretics” had been badly tortured. 133

4.4 Sketch showing the whipping in a Spanish prison. 137

4.5 Illustration showing the life imprisonment of the immured Muslim woman 145

4.6 Sanbenito was a public humiliation for the Muslims because they had to wear a garment two yellow crosses, one on the breast and the other on the back 149

4.7 Burning people alive by the Inquisitors. 153

xiii CHAPTER 1

ITRODUCTIO

1.1 BACKGROUD AD HISTORY

The collapse of the last stronghold of Islamic civilization in al-Andalus is a well- established tragic fact in the collective memory of the Ummah but poorly analyzed by the modern Muslim academia. The well-planned, systematic and sustained anti-

Islamic crusade of the united Roman Catholic kings and popes that ended with genocide has also been scrutinized by Jewish, Christian and secular historians but only trivialized as “expulsion of Moriscos” or “Morisco problem” of the final

“reconquista”. Nationalists and fascists of the modern Spain and Portugal celebrate the

Holocaust of Muslims during the reigns of Aragonese Fernando II, Isabel of Castile,

Carlos I (Carl V), Philip II, Philip III as the final “liberation” of the Catholic

Visigothic-Roman Spain from “the Moorish-Arab occupation”.

“The creeping decadency, collaboration with the northern Catholic crusading states and above all the insane power struggle among the ruling clans and dynasties of the Islamic Far West (Andalus and Maghreb) weakened the whole infrastructure of tamadun to the point of open treason and apostasy. In 1491 C.E., the ‘failed state’ of the Nasrid kingdom of Granada - a pitiful remnant of once rich and sophisticated

Islamic regional power, stretched from Atlas Mountains in Morocco to the valleys of the Swiss Alps – invited the Christian invasion from the warlike North. It was an

1 ironical reversal of the situation of 711 C.E., when the Catholic Visigothic Spain invited the Islamic futuhat led by Tariq ibn Zayad and Musa ibn Nusair.” 1

Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabel I of Castile ended eight centuries of Muslim rule in the Iberian Peninsula in December 31, 1491C.E./897AH tragically. Despite the steadily declining political power of Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula and the Nasirid

Granada's fall in 897AH /1491C.E., the end of Muslim rule in the Peninsula did not mean the end of Islamic faith and culture for nearly half a million Muslims who became coerced subjects of the Catholic Monarchs' power (out of a total Iberian population of circa nine million). “These mudéjar (i.e., “tamed” or “subjugated” by

Christian rule) communities were most numerous in and around Granada and

Valencia, though there were also large “ jamaat ” in Aragon and smaller, more de-

Islamized groups scattered throughout Castile”. 2

Dragged under the Catholic yoke by the sword and fire, the conquered

Muslims were Arabic speakers, and there were numerous camps of Granadan refugees around the Mediterranean protected by the powerful Osmanli Turks. The pseudo- autonomy conquered Andalusian Muslims who as new subjects of the Castilian crown, were tolerated de iure but not de facto by the churchmen. The Toledan

Archbishop Francisco Jiménez de Cisneros, known for his fanatical Islamophobia decided to baptize the Muslims of Granada by force. His “holy water” ( santa aqua ) and widespread Christian abuses had provoked the First Muslim Intifadah in the

Alpujarras, which was savagely pacified. King Fernando and Queen Isabel issued their order in 908AH /1502 C.E. requiring all Muslims in Castile and Leon to convert

1 Kopanski, A.B, The fall and the holocaust of Andalusian Muslims , (1490-1614CE/896-1-23AH): Lesson of History which always will be repeated if it is not learned or became neglected, (Penang: Pusat Islam Universiti Sains Malaysia, 2011), 3. 2 Ibid., 2-3. See detailed study of Mudejars, in Mark D. Mayerson’s, The Muslims of Valencia in the Age of Fernando and Isabel , (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991), 61-99, 143.

2 to Roman Catholicism or leave the Spain immediately. The same edicts were issued for Navarre in 921AH/1515 C.E. and Aragon in 932AH /1525 C.E. The royal orders were executed in the atmosphere of terror of forcible mass baptisms. The violent

“conversion” of Iberian Muslims to Christianism of the Roman Catholic sect (the

Muslim majority and Jewish communities of Portugal had been expelled from that kingdom in 903AH/1497 C.E.) was violently executed and under duress, and the nominally ‘New Christians” continued to practice Islam as they had before.

This mass ethnic cleansing led to a demographic shift and the Final Solution of

"cuestión morisca ." The Catholic clerics and monks advocated enslavement of

Morisco children and wives in cases of their refusal of “full assimilation into the

Spanish Christian society”. However, many Aragonese and Valencian noblemen, whose large estates depended extensively upon Morisco slave labor, called for patience and systematic tactics in their Christianization. The Dominican and

Franciscan orders of monks called for total extermination or expulsion of the Moriscos from the united kingdom of Spain and Portugal.

1.2 STATEMET OF THE PROBLEM

This study focuses on the Catholic policy of destruction of Islam which occurred between 898-934 AH /1492-1525 C.E. In December 31, 1491 C.E./897 AH,

Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabel I of Castile ended the 800 years-long Muslim rule over the Iberian Peninsula. After the fall of Granada in 1492 C.E. until 1525 C.E., the forcibly baptized Muslims and Crypto-Muslims were forced either to desperate armed resistance, survival and civil disobedience, or they were victimized by numerous anti-

Islamic edicts, bans, unbearable tortures, imprisonment, public burning alive ( autoda fe ) and daily harassments by the Catholic courts, governors and clergymen and in the

3 end to the final expulsion of the surviving dehumanized and de-Islamized “ moriscos” .

The royal edicts were issued for Navarre in 1515 C.E. and Aragon 1525 C.E. orders were executed by the terror of forcible mass baptism. Thousand of Muslims preferred hijrah and the Muslim population of Spain had been reduced to nearly zero. Anwar G.

Chejne writes : “Born and reared in the Iberian Peninsula of mixed ancestry (Spanish,

Jewish, Berber, Arab, and other ethnic groups), the Moriscos were considered aliens in their own land, heretics, who presented an imminent danger to both church and state. Edict after edict reinforced this attitude and relegated the Moriscos to the margin of Christian society.” 3

The 400 year-long violent ‘rolling back’ of the Islam (know to the Muslims as istirdad and to the Spanish Catholics as reconquista) from the northern frontier of the

River Ebro (thugr alaqsa) to the last Muslims strongholds of the Nasirid kingdom of Granada and Alpujarra Mountains was also marked by many killing fields and pillages but the fanatical ferocity, cruelty and systematic subjugation and extermination of the enslaved Muslims by the “Holy Office” and municipal tribunals of the infamous Inquisition between 1492 and 1616 C.E. became a unique pattern of the total destruction of entire population on base of religion and ‘ purity of blood’

(limpieza de sangre ).

The papal bulls (stamps), royal instructions, ecclesial registers, political advises, clerics’ sermons of this second dark age of the Christian intolerance are chilling records of inhumanity and barbarity. Ironically and gloomy enough, this age

3 Chejne, Anwar G., Islam and the West. The Moriscos. A Cultural and Social History , (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1983), vii.

4 of anti-Muslim atrocities in the Spain is called by the western historians as the

“Renaissance” or the Age of Humanism. 4

1.3 THE OBJECTIVES OF THE RESEARCH

The objectives of this research are to conduct an investigation on the actual number of the killed, tortured and expelled Muslims in the re-Catholicized Spain and also to examine historical evidences and documents on the planned ethnic-cleansing of the

Muslims by the Papacy, Spanish clergy and monarchs.

The third objective is to argue with the controversial western deniers of the expulsion of Muslims in the medieval and early modern Spain by examining biblical scriptures and the papal bulls which authorize the burning alive, enslaving, and extermination of the non-Christian peoples.

The fourth objective is to analyze the Spanish Muslims’ expulsion as the model for latter Christian atrocities and genocide against Muslims in Kipchak, Hungary,

Crimea, and Balkans. In addition, this study also aims to inform readers the history of the economical and financial degradation of once rich, industrious and prosperous

Muslims who were as a consequence, enslaved by the Catholic system of power.

Next, the help from other Muslim states like Osmanli Turks will also be examined. This is important to see if there were any contacts, aids and assistance from other Muslim rulers to the Andalusians.

Apart from the above, the comprehensive, composite history of the last medieval crusade against Islam in the Far West needs the collection of evidences from both sides. This initiatory research is the first monographic treatment of the

4 Benjamin, Z. Kadar, Crusade and Mission: European Approaches toward the Muslims , (Princeton: University Press, 1984), 14.

5 destruction of Islamic al-Andalus by the Catholic churchmen and monarchs written from and not nationalistic, secularized or even Eurocentric viewpoint but rather from the Islamocentric standpoint. My investigation is devoted not to the exploration of the well-known facts through works of the western and eastern historians but to locate the tragic Muslim Expulsion from the collective memory of the ‘postmodern’ academia as well as to the Islamic ummah . As a very pioneering endevour, it cannot do more than just draft an outline for future full-length study of the hideous acts of the western

Christian state, people and society maddened by Islamophobia in the historical period called as the Age of Discovery, Humanism, Reformation and Renaissance in Europe.

In addition, the genocidal policy of Ximenes de Cisneros against Islam will also be thoroughly investigated.

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIOS

There are several research questions imposed in this research. These questions are useful to facilitate my research work.

First, how many Muslims were killed by the Inquisition? This question will need evidence on the numbers and data of the killing of Muslims in various parts of

Spain.

Secondly, the question that can be asked is how many mosques, libraries, and madrasahs had been destroyed and burnt down? The collected data regarding this issue will form a bulk of evidences for the violence acts against Muslims.

Third, who helped the Andalusians during the chaotic situation? This question will lead to the issues of the resistant movements in al-Andalus and the aids that

Muslims got from the other parts of the world and these questions will be answered with the help of the primary source.

6 How successful was Hermandez Ximenez de Cisneros in his policy of destruction of the physical, spiritual, economical, political and religious power of

Islam in Spain?

Apart from that, the political and religious plan deserves some questions like, who was involved in the extermination of Muslims in Spain. Did the Papacy play the most important role in religious and ethnic cleansing in Spain? Again, collected literature of sources will help to answer those issues.

In terms of Catholic policy, several questions need answers. First, how many

Muslims were burned alive at the stakes? How many Muslim children were kidnapped? How many Muslims were force to exile or gathered in concentration camp? How many mosques and madrasahs were destroyed? Lastly, how many libraries were burnt down? The answer can be established through Anwar G. Chejne’s and Charles Lea’s literature.

1.5 JUSTIFICATIO OF THE PROBLEM

In spite of the existing primary sources and rich secondary literature on the plight and

Holocaust of the Muslims in the re-Catholicized Spain, produced by the Muslim,

Christian, Jewish and secularist authors, there is no single work which comprehensively investigates the final phases of the total destruction of Islamic civilization in the Far West. Modern Muslim historians of al-Andalus prefer the comfort of praising the “scientific and cultural progress of the Islamic Spain” when the Christianized West was still in the darkest age of its own history than to examine the darkest pages of the end of this “splendor of Moorish Spain”. Additionally, the modern Muslim historians have not yet analyzed the “rise and fall of Moorish Spain” in the context of the religious violence inside the medieval or the early modern

7 Christendom. Studies on the Muslim victims of the infamous Catholic Inquisition are embryonic stage and further investigations are needed.

1.6 LITERATURE REVIEW

The first task is to explain thoroughly the term genocide in order to understand the root of this issue. For instance, Raphael Lemkin, a controversial Jewish lawyer (1900–

59), coined the modern term-neologism of genocide with the Greek “ genos,” (race), and the Latin “ cide ,” (killing). “Genocide” is defined as the total destruction of large communities based on their collective identity, a pre-planned “final solution” aiming at the obliteration of vital foundations of the life of the condemned community.

Genocide is double-pronged: destruction of the cultural pattern of the oppressed and the imposition of the cultural pattern of the oppressor. Apart from that, I refer to dictionaries like McMillan and Oxford to explain more on genocide terminology in relation to Pope’s policy, which was to kill a large number of Muslims. This act is termed as genocide.

Books by Henry Charles Lea are the best source of information on the genocides’ policy of the Catholic kings. He used manuscripts from AHN in Madrid in his monumental work (four volumes) on the history of the Spanish Inquisition, published in 1901. In his writing, he showed the real situation of the forcibly baptized

Muslims in Spain. For example, he stated that “At Olivia, the soldiers of Orihuela drove the Moors in droves to the church of baptism, striking and robbing them, while the latter were crying “Sancta Maria, have mercy, the hour has come!” Subsequently a good frail of el Pi armed with a crucifix brought in a little band of 20 or 30 to save their lives; dead Moors lying on the roadsides, the Moreria of the Olevagra was set on fire and two sick Moors were burnt in their homes. At Grandia, on the very day of the

8 rout, the Agermanados celebrated their victory by killing some Moors and dragging the rest to the church, shouting “Death to the Moors!” and “Dogs be baptized!” 5 Many evidences like this support the occurance of the extermination and expulsion of

Muslims in Spain. Furthermore, he refuted the apologetic and nationalist approach in the studies of the Spanish Inquisition.

J. Aranda Doncel and R. Carrasco published valuable articles and statistics on the 80-year-long period of forcible baptism and terror of Inquisition in which the persecuted Spanish Crypto-Muslims still continued to practice Islam and survived as communities. Their works were published in Los Practicas Musulmanas des los

Moriscos Andaluces 14521605 (The Muslim practices of Andalusian Moriscos, 1452-

1605), edited by Abejelil Temimi (Zaghouan, Tunisia, 1989.) The controversial method of survival by taqiyya (“concealment of faith”) i.e., the dispensation by which a Muslim under compulsion or threat of injury, death and destruction is relieved of his or her overt observance of saum of Ramadan, salat , and halal diet, had been adopted by the Crypto-Muslims in the re-catholized Spain. The production of traditional narratives, copied clandestinely in the Castilian and Aragonese dialects of the Spanish language but handwritten in the Arabic script known to modern scholars as aljamiado

(Arabic adjective ' ajamiyya , which means, "non-Arabic," or "Others"), played a very important role of “collective memory” within the enslaved Morisco ummah . This book shed a significant light in explaining the actions taken on the Muslims by the

Catholics. The problem with this book is that it has no sufficient data in numbers.

However, other books like Meyerson, Monter and Hennigst provide support for this case in terms of the statistic of the deportation to North Africa.

5 Lea, H.C., The Moriscos of Spain: The Conversion and Expulsion, (New York: Burt Franklin, 1901), 65.

9 British historian Henry Kamen in his Spanish Inquisition (1965), which he revised and published in 1985 as the Inquisition and Society in Spain in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth centuries, cannot satisfy the Muslim readers of history because of his apologetic style of writing.

William Monter in Spanish Inquisition from the Basque lands to Sicily (1990) explored archives of Zaragosa, Navarre, Barcelona and Valencia tribunals governed by the Aragonese Secretariat of the “Holy Office” created in 1517-1618 CE to persecute “Moriscos”, Crypto-Muslims, Protestants, “witches”, Illuminados and the baptized Jews. The Crypto-Muslims made the highest percentage of Inquisition’s victims. His work provides me with good data bank for this case study. The best quantitative history of the inquisitional terror presents Gustav Hennigst who examined 50 000 trial records of twenty-one Spanish tribunals dealing with

‘blasphemy’, ‘opposition to the Holy Office, ‘unrestricted sexual behaviour’ (i.e.

Muslim tradition of polygamy) and “propositions” (insulting the Catholic dogmas).

Anwar M. Chejne with his studies on Crypto-Muslim literature written in

Aljamiado published in Islam and the West. A cultural and social history of

Moriscos (1983) is very helpful. His writing contributes to this research in many angles; one of them is in terms of the Muslims torture by Catholics soldiers. Anwar

M. Chejne once stressed that:

Cisneros came prepared with expensive gifts for Muslim leaders whom he hoped to employ in converting the masses. He succeeded in baptizing some of them and three thousand other Muslims in a single day. He imprisoned many, among them their proud leader, Zegri, who starved until he begged for conversion under the name of Gonzalo Fernandez Zegri. Cisneros ordered the main mosque of Albacin to be converted into a church, had all Arabic religious books burned, and transferred Arabic books in philosophy to the University of Alcala de Hanares, which he had founded. In 1501, a royal ordinance was issued calling for the conversion of the Muslims of Castile to choose between baptism and exile. In 1516, Cisneros not only insisted on force baptism, but

10 instituted an ordinance calling for the abandonment of Moorish dress and customs. 6

Besides torture, this book contains a lot of survey and analysis of self- expression of the Moriscos as what can be seen in the Aljamiado literature. It provides me with the evidences of Crypto-Muslims’ struggle for survival, with reference to the ideology conflict, the clash of religions and cultures and differences in mutual perceptions.

The best primary Muslim narrative source to the study of tragedy of these enslaved Muslims of Spain is chronicle afh attib min gusn alandalus arratib wa dikt waziriha lisan addin ibn alhatib,(translated and edited by R. Dozy and Pascal de Gayangos under the titles of The History of Mohammedan Dynasties in Spain) by

Abu al Abbas Ahmad ibn Muhammad al-Tilmisiani al-Maliki al-Ashari al-Makkari, published in London, 1840-43, and anonymous ubdhat alnas alakhbar, (edited and translated by A. Bustani,1940) . Al- Makkari wrote the whole history of al-Andalus from Tariq ibn Ziyad’s expansion of Islam in al-Andalus until the last Islamic empire collapsed. He also wrote on other sources like al-Jami’ado. He was a good writer and in fact, he was one of the Muhaijirin who were deported from Spain. Al-Makkari who lived in 16 th century had vast information about the situation. Therefore, his two volumes books will be my biggest sources from the Islamic point of view on this issue. It was very critical for the Nasrids. He criticized the hypocrisy and cowardice of the last Emir of Nasrids, Muhammad II, Abdullah, called by the Spanish writers as

Boabdil el-Chico. In his writing, he despised Boabdil. For him, this Emir Abdullah II led to the fall of Granada and brought misery to the Muslims.

6 Chejne, 6-7.