Counter Terrorist Trends and Analysis Building a JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL CENTRE FOR global network POLITICAL VIOLENCE AND TERRORISM RESEARCH for security

VOLUME 6, ISSUE 2 MARCH 2014

Understanding Radicalization and Terrorist Violence Today DOUGLAS R. WOODALL

“Digital Jihad” and its Significance to Counterterrorism MUHAMMAD AHSAN YOUNAS

Takfir in Indonesia: Analysing the Ideology of Saiful Anam ZULKIFLI MOHAMED SULTAN

Wasatiyyah as Explained by Prof. Muhammad Kamal Hassan: Justice, Excellence and Balance MUHAMMAD HANIFF HASSAN

The Teacher-Student Approach to Religious Rehabilitation MAHFUH HAJI HALIMI MUHAMMAD SAIFUL ALAM SHAH BIN SUDIMAN ZULKIFLI MOHAMED SULTAN

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Editorial Note Radicalization, Deradicalization and Rehabilitation

e are pleased to present the counterterrorism research community with the March 2014 issue of Counter Terrorist Trends and Analysis (CTTA), available at www.cttajournal.org and www.pvtr.org.

W This month’s issue of CTTA includes five articles on timely topics related to radicalization, deradicalization, rehabilitation and counter-ideology. Radicalization, in the context of extremism and terrorism, occurs when groups or individuals are conditioned through radical ideologies to accept the use of violence to bring about political or social changes. Deradicalization, which promotes restorative justice by seeking to remove violent ideologies from the minds of radicalized individuals through structured programs, and the broader concept of terrorist rehabilitation, which includes community engagement initiatives and reforms in national legislation, are strategic or long term measures of counterterrorism. Counter-ideology supports deradicalization, and works to prevent radicalization of individuals by invalidating radical ideology through exposing its contradiction to established religious principles (or historical facts).

Factors leading to radicalization are diverse, as is the case with radical pathways. Douglas Woodall offers an analysis of alternative factors which lead to radicalization, namely, negative impressions made by Americans living abroad, alternative social spaces including tertiary academic spaces and miscalculated targeting approaches against a terrorist network. With case studies, Woodall offers a way forward in developing US counterterrorism strategy in this regard. Muhammad Younas reemphasises the impact of the jihadists’ online presence as a source of radicalization, and the need for continued online monitoring of online forums and social media and network websites to counter the threat. The crux of Younas’ piece is the discussion on the debate involving the rights and liberties of individuals which are seen to be compromised through online monitoring, and the need for checks and balances in this regard, which Younas proposes through a broad international consensus that is needed to counter the threat from online jihadist media. Zulkifli Mohamed Sultan counters the extremist Islamist ideology propagated by Saiful Anam, one of Jemaah Islamiyah (JI)’s high-ranking militants. Sultan breaks down Saiful Anam’s radical ideology to expose the contradictions in Saiful Anam’s narrative particularly in the use of the concept of takfir, or the practice of one Muslim declaring another Muslim a kafir or “infidel.”

Emphasizing the need for moderation, Muhammad Haniff Hassan offers an elaborate discussion about wasatiyyah, which is commonly translated only as “moderation,” but in actuality also includes other core Islamic values such as “justice” and “excellence,” among others. Mahfuh Haji Halimi, Muhammad Saiful Alam Shah Bin Sudiman, and Zulkifli Mohamed Sultan highlight the “teacher-student” approach from the education discipline to help understand the dynamics of religious counselling sessions in terrorist rehabilitation programs. The authors find that concepts such as “functioning knowledge” and the “deep approach to learning” can lead to a transformation in cognitive thinking in radicalized individuals, which in turn could lead to their disengagement from radical thoughts and actions.

Counter Terrorist Trends and Analysis is a monthly journal of the Editor Arabinda Acharya, Ph.D. International Centre for Political Violence and Terrorism Research Associate Editor Iromi Dharmawardhane (ICPVTR) of the S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies (RSIS) at the Nanyang Technological University (NTU), Singapore. The CTTA is circulated among 13,300 subscribers. The CTTA Editorial Team welcomes your feedback and comments. Please email us at [email protected]

Counter Terrorist Trends and Analysis Volume 6, Issue 2 March 2014 The views expressed in the articles are those of the authors and not of ICPVTR, RSIS, NTU or the organizations to which the authors are affiliated. Articles may not be reproduced without prior permission. Please contact the editors for more information. 2

Submissions and Subscriptions Counter Terrorist Trends and Analysis

Each issue of Counter Terrorist Trends and Analysis (CTTA) consists of in- depth analyses of topical issues in the terrorism and counterterrorism (CT) landscape. Through contributions from international and regional experts and practitioners of CT as well as ICPVTR’s specialized analysts and fellows, the CTTA offers key insights into issues of terrorism and extremism unfolding in affected countries and regions, as well as developments in contemporary counterterrorism strategy in mitigating them.

CALL FOR CONTRIBUTIONS

Counter Terrorist Trends and Analysis (CTTA) welcomes contributions from researchers and practitioners in the field of political violence and terrorism research, security and other related fields. For more information please visit www.cttajournal.org/submissions, or to pitch an idea for a particular issue in 2014, please write to us at [email protected].

For inclusion in the CTTA mailing list, please send your full name, organization and designation with the subject “CTTA Subscription” to [email protected]

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Understanding Radicalization and Terrorist Violence Today Douglas R. Woodall

Going beyond the mainstream thinking, the negative images of Americans living abroad, alternative social spaces fostering radicalization and using the wrong targeting approach against a terrorist network could be considered important catalysts leading to radicalization and terrorist violence.

In the first six months of 2013, the National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism (START) documented 5,100 terrorist attacks across the globe. This was a substantial increase compared to 8,500 terrorist attacks for the whole of 2012, and the wave of violence has shown few signs of ebbing in the second half of 2013. Though there are no dearth of efforts to understand the fundamental beliefs and perceptions that motivate terrorists to carry out attacks, this has done little to stem the scale or scope of violence perpetrated. Underlying these attacks are fundamental beliefs and perceptions that fuel terrorists’ will to fight. Closer examination of long-term strategic objectives will help to achieve the elusive strategic outcome of winning the contest of wills. Gaining a better understanding of key factors fuelling the adversary’s will to fight is the first step. Some of the important factors contributing to radicalization and extremist violence today are discussed in the following section.

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Americans Abroad Americans. The segregation of the expatriate It is already well-established that America’s image communities and the local population in Saudi overseas has contributed, in part, to the motivation Arabia fuels jihadists’ perceptions that amoral or of some extremist and terrorist groups. However, corrupt lifestyles are followed by the expatriates. what receives much less attention is the role This may encourage thoughts that the existence of played by Americans living and serving overseas Westerners is corrupting members of the host in exacerbating the negative portrayal of the US. Americans based abroad are not limited to interacting with local populations in government or military capacities, and therefore have the ability to influence foreigners’ perceptions of America in other countries. A significant numbers of Americans live abroad, and more importantly, are engaged in activities that impact not only the politics of the concerned countries but also the social and cultural aspects of the host society. In this context, Figure 1 - Afghan witnesses testify at Staff Sergeant Bales’ trial Image by AP /Lois Silve ; the impact of their activities, whether as an Image source: http://blog.thenewstribune.com/military/2013/05/29/jblms-staff-sgt- robert-bales-to-plead-guilty-to-killing-afghan-civilians/ individual or as a group, may have consequences that cannot be ignored. In some nation. The attacks resulted in the killing of 36 cases, their perceived extravagant lifestyles fuel people and wounding a further 160. further misconceptions of what America represents. The massacre of 16 Afghan civilians by American Staff Sergeant Robert Bales fanned the flames of American actions and attitudes abroad are also extremism and created a damaging public image something that jihadists attempt to exploit, as was of American Soldiers serving in Afghanistan. Even evident from the attack against expatriate though Staff Sergeant Bales was sentenced to life communities in Saudi Arabia. One specific in prison without the possibility of parole, Afghans example is the 12 May, 2003 attacks against have expressed outrage that Bales is not being put expatriate compounds in Saudi Arabia. Al Qaeda to death, with some calling for him to be tried in played a prominent role in these attacks, and the Afghanistan. The brother of Mohammad Daud, majority of the victims in the attacks were who was slain in the massacre, told CBS News

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5 Douglas R. Woodall that not putting Bales to death shows that worldview. Nevertheless, the investigating team “America is encouraging its soldiers to kill Afghan recommended introducing a system to review the people, destroy and torch their houses, then come credentials of guest speakers in the aftermath of to America (and receive) a Medal of Honour.” This the investigation. In this particular case, access to example highlights challenges that arise when spaces that have the ability to influence students is Americans’ actions overseas are not necessarily a strategic prize for terrorists and extremists, representative of American society, its culture and especially if it results in the successful recruitment values. of individuals to work as operatives in Western

countries. Alternative Spaces of Radicalization Since 9/11, madrasahs have The key person among the been in focus when it comes to “ … access to spaces 9/11 hijackers - Mohammed investigating sources of terrorist that have the ability Atta - could be another example in this context. As indoctrination, but other spaces to influence students also exist including those in reported in an article in the is a strategic prize for Prospect tertiary academic institutions in magazine in 2002, the West. terror groups, “Atta in Hamburg,” Martin especially if it results Ebert, a friend of Atta at the The radicalization of Umar in the successful Technical University of Farouk Abdulmuttalab is a recruitment of Hamburg-Harburg in worthy example. Abdulmuttalab, Germany, described the individuals to work academic environment as anti- a young Nigerian man, gained as operatives in notoriety for attempting to blow American. Ebert mentioned to up a Northwest Airlines Western countries.” a reporter about a dialogue Christmas Day flight from involving Atta, which gave Amsterdam to Detroit in 2009. Before he was Ebert the impression that Atta perceived that recruited in the jihadist movement, he matriculated “America is rolling over us.” This is, of course, not at the University College London (UCL). to say that the majority of Western academic Abdulmuttalab was the president of UCL’s Islamic institutions are susceptible to be exploited by Society, and he sought to bring extremist and radical students, but some of these could allow radical speakers to the campus. An investigation environments conducive to solidifying radical ideas by UCL concluded that the university was not against the West in impressionable students. responsible for Abdulmuttalab’s radicalization and

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This is of a particularly serious concern, as many students may possess so-called clean passports Masri and Baghdadi were marginal leaders, and and a generally low profile from the purview of law their lack of visibility among Al Qaeda’s fighters enforcement, which makes them strategic assets could be a severe blow to the overall morale within for terrorist groups looking to bypass immigration the organization. Interestingly, the elimination of and customs entry points. At the same time, there Baghdadi led to a speculation as to whether he have been cases of students (and other was a real person, or a fictional leader. Their individuals) that support the jihadist agenda or are elimination nevertheless enabled a period of susceptible to radicalization by terrorists who have decline for Al Qaeda in Iraq. However, focusing on citizenship in Western countries. Anwar al-Aulaqi is decapitation tactics without regard to careful an example of one such terrorist with US analysis of the second order (removing bad citizenship, and whose actions radicalized a large leadership) and third order (allowing more effective number of followers, to include influencing leadership to advance) effects of the same, Abdulmuttalab. reinforced a focus on leader elimination for counterterrorism operations. While this strike was Targeting Approaches a resounding tactical and operational success, Another contributory factor to radicalization could removal of these leaders eliminated their rather be the choice of targeting approach used for ineffective leadership, and opened a path for more neutralizing terrorist groups. Successful targeting operations in April 2010 led to the death of two leaders in Al Qaeda’s Iraqi branch – Abu Ayyub al- Masri (also known as Abu Hamza al-Muhajir) and Abu Omar al-Baghdadi. At that time, the deaths of al-Masri and al-Baghdadi dealt a significant blow to Al Qaeda in Iraq. This was a successful intelligence driven operation, providing critical information to facilitate the elimination of these key leaders. However, the surgical elimination of key leaders may not necessarily be the best or the only option to disrupt terrorist groups for long-term strategic effects. For instance, it is not entirely clear whether Iraq is better-off today after targeting Figure 2 – Abdulmuttalab, the Christmas Day Bomber Photo source: http://www.examiner.com/article/raw-video-umar-farouk- al-Masri and al-Baghdadi. abdulmutallab-arrives-at-court-for-attack-on-flight-253-watch-video

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charismatic/ committed leadership to emerge and attrition strategy from a counterterrorism re-energize a declining organization. The new perspective. In this case, the removal or leader, Ibrahim Awwad Ibrahim Ali Badri, also neutralization of ineffective leaders led the way for known as Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi and Abu Dua, is more dynamic leadership to assume control, with currently one of the most wanted terrorists in the noticeable impact. world, with a US $10 million price offered for his killing or capture by the United States. In this context, it is also interesting to examine the case of Muhammad al-Khulayfi, a member of Abu Dua’s operations in Iraq and expansion of his Takfir wal-Hijra, a radical Islamist group linked to group’s influence into Syria not only demonstrate Al Qaeda based in Egypt. In February 1994, al- his own effectiveness in terms of increasing Khulayfi declared Osama bin Laden an infidel and lethality of Al Qaeda in Iraq under his leadership, attempted to assassinate him. Even as the group but also the counterproductive nature of a pure failed in its attempt, the attempt served as the catalyst for bin Laden to portray a purer and more radical image to reconstruct how his organization and its supporters perceived him, such as devoting more energy to avoiding extravagant displays and living an austere lifestyle. Thus, elimination of terrorist leadership is not a panacea in counterterrorism. Better strategic outcomes may result from manipulating the internal dynamics of the group, including the promotion of ineffective leadership to precipitate the groups’ implosion, or accelerating its destruction by internal turmoil. The timing and objectives of counterterrorism operations against terrorists at the leadership level should therefore be tempered with the consideration of the long-term strategic and possible counterproductive outcomes if any.

Way Forward Figure 3 - Abu Dua: An Improved and More Effective Leader Photo by National Counterterrorism Center ; There is clearly a need to improve America’s Image source: http://content.time.com/time/covers/ europe/0,16641,20131216,00.html image abroad in coordination with aggressive

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8 Understanding Radicalization and Terrorist Violence Today information operations to project positive American Douglas R. Woodall is the first United States Army values or positive ideas about America. More War College Fellow selected to serve at RSIS- specifically, initiatives designed to build ICPVTR. He is an active duty Army Lieutenant international trust through the personal example, Colonel with over 20 years of service, to include conduct and professionalism of Americans living combat tours in Iraq and Afghanistan. The views and serving abroad will help to mitigate the expressed in this article are those of the author negative perceptions of America abroad. Spaces and do not reflect the official policy or position of that provide environments enabling terrorists to the Department of the Army, Department of grow and solidify their uncompromising beliefs Defense, or the US Government. should receive more public scrutiny. More importantly, a long-term strategy for counterterrorism “… neutralization of should not rely exclusively ineffective leaders led on the speed of targeting or on the ability to neutralize the way for more terrorist leaders. Rather, dynamic leadership to careful analysis and assume control …” understanding of social systems and the internal dynamics of terrorist groups could lead to better strategic outcomes. Allowing terrorist groups to implode through poor leadership or creating the conditions for popular movements against them are alternative options that merit consideration. Successful tactical and operational victories in the short-term must not be the goal when the risks of more lethal threats persist in the long-term.

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“Digital Jihad” and its Significance to Counterterrorism Muhammad Ahsan Younas

Background

In December 2009, five young American boys from Virginia, Ramy Zamzam, Ahmad Minni, Umar Chaudhry, Waqar Khan, and Aman Yemer, aged between 18 and 25, were detained by Pakistani Police of the Punjab province on suspicion of terrorism. These boys had slipped from their homes without intimating to their parents about their destination or their decision to follow a jihadist career against the United States of America, although, reportedly, they had left video showing images of wars in different countries where the US was involved. Subsequent investigations revealed that these boys were lured by an online jihadist recruiter named Saif Ullah with links to Al Qaeda. Minni got noticed by Saif Ullah for his repeated “liking” of jihadist videos posted on YouTube.

The boys were convicted by the Anti-terrorist Court in Pakistan and sentenced for ten years of imprisonment. They have filed an appeal in the High Court against this judgment in hope of a reduced sentence, which is presently under hearing (which is a probable reason for the delay in the request for their extradition to the US). This incident reverberated in the Subcommittee on Counterterrorism and Intelligence of the Committee for Homeland Security in the House of Representatives and was the subject of its hearing on “Jihadist Use of Social Media: How to Prevent Terrorism and Preserve Innovation” on 6 December, 2011. Although it was observed that jihadist media is not a game changer in the US, it was concluded that the monitoring of social media is essential because of the impact on viewers, which has been confirmed by a

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Online sites are used by jihadists and terrorists as highlighted in red, countries and regions in which forums for the discussion on the state of global Al Qaeda has a presence: Afghanistan, Central jihad, propagation of anti-US sentiments and Asian countries, Xinjiang region of China, Turkey, related issues. Social media has certainly Yemen, Iraq, Syria, Egypt, Palestine, Libya, increased jihadist appeal and following. For Algeria, Mali, Somalia and Indian subcontinent. example, the Facebook page, Ansarullah Urdu, Presently, it is evident through the study of jihadist which posts radical content, has 24,740 media that the jihadist leadership has begun to “likes” (members who can follow the page) as of focus its attention on Morocco and Sudan.

November 2013. Presently, jihadist groups such as Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan and Al Qaeda mostly Rise of Jihadist Media use online social media In The State of Global and network sites such Jihad Online (2013), as YouTube and Aaron Y. Zelin stated Facebook to post that jihadists are using detailed reports of their web forums, websites activities, photographs, and social media videos, policy networks for their statements, future routine conversations, plans and responses to Figure 1 – Extremist content posted on Bab-ul-Islam jihadist exchange of tactics, criticisms of their online forum (https://bab-ul-islam.net) Translation of Urdu on image: “An introduction and over- socialisation, organizations. For view of the important victories of ‘the Movement for Cali- phate and Jihad’ waging an armed struggle in Pakistan for propaganda and example, in December last two-and-half years.” Image source: https://bab-ul-islam:net recruitment. Osama Bin 2012, Al Zahwari Laden, in his letter to threatened to take the jihadist fight to the cities of Mullah Omar in Afghanistan in 2002, emphasized Kenya to take revenge upon the Kenyan Army for the importance of media and observed that, “It is curbing terrorism in Somalia, and subsequently the obvious that the media war in this century is one of Westgate shopping mall terrorist attack was the strongest methods; in fact, its ratio may reach carried out the following year in September 2013. 90% of the total preparation for the [our] battles.” General content that is beneficial for counterterrorism efforts are also posted. For Zelin divided the progress of jihadist media into example, the cover page of the June 2012 issue of four phases. Nawa-i-Afghan Jihad posted on the Facebook The first phase started in 1984, when important page of Ansarullah included a world map which jihadist leaders such as Abdullah Azam delivered

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11 Muhammad Ahsan Younas sermons, wrote essays, printed magazines and exponentially. newsletters. They also made use of audio-visuals Languages of Jihadist Media by making audio and video tapes to circulate their While Arabic is the main language used in jihadist lectures and sermons. The second phase started online sites and propaganda material such as in the 1990s, with websites owned by individuals DVDs, the English language is widely used in connected with Al Qaeda and similar radical jihadist media for global outreach and is presently groups. Al Neda is considered to be the first deemed the second most commonly used jihadist website linked to Al Qaeda. The third language in jihadist media by some analysts. Al phase started in the 2000s, with the introduction of Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP)’s interactive online forums such as the Global magazine, Inspire, available Islamic Media Front (GIMF), online, is a clear manifestation in where the administrators “A study of the this regard. This magazine was who managed the sites and emerging languages the initiative of Anwar Al Awlaqi their content were from used in jihadist and Sameer Khan who developed jihadist groups. Content was jihadist media into having contributed to these forums media is important transnational appeal. Since Awlaqi by the members of these in assessing future and Khan were killed by drone groups as well; as done for trends of jihadist attacks, US-born Mujahid Sheikh example in the online forums activity and Adam is now leading this mission. Al Hasbah, Jamia Hafza, presence.” The Global Islamic Media Front Urdu Forum and Al Ansar by (GISM) is one of the oldest jihadist Al Qaeda. This phase was important as these media houses in English language. The Ansarullah forums empowered the jihadists to control and and Bab-ul-Islam online forums of Al Qaeda are influence a group of supportive or susceptible operational in multiple languages, and they are individuals, thus allowing them to extend their also available on Twitter and Facebook. Various sphere of influence and expand their membership. segments of Al Qaeda have their own media The fourth phase, which we are experiencing houses like Al Sahab (in Central Asia), Al Andulus today, started in 2007, with the worldwide mass (in Morocco), Al Malahim (in the Arab Peninsula), popularization of online social network/ media Al Kataib Media of Mujahideen Youth Movement platforms such as Facebook, Twitter and YouTube (Al Qaeda Central) , Al Qadsia (in Libya), Al as well as personal blogs. In this phase, the Furqan (in Iraq and Syria) and Omer Media (in individual has become more important as the Afghanistan). jihadists’ online audience has expanded

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Turkey with small communities of speakers also in In his testimony before the US House of Central Asia and the Caucasus (and other parts of Representatives on 6 December, 2011, Brian Eastern Europe as well as in Germany, Bulgaria, Michael Jenkins stated that Al Qaeda is the first Macedonia, Northern Cyprus and Greece). This is terrorist organization to fully exploit the internet, perhaps indicative of regions where jihadist and that it regards itself as a global movement influence is growing, as readers/ viewers seem to and sees its mission as not simply creating terror be following jihadist media vigorously. The among its foes, but “awakening” the Muslim Russian language is also used as many jihadist community. Jenkins said that its leaders view works have been translated into Russian regularly communications as 90 percent of the struggle. since the year 2009. Al Qaeda in Qokaz (the

The other two major Caucasus) has always tried to languages used in jihadist “While the respect show itself as a relevant and media are Bahasa Indonesia for individual active organization attacking the (the language of Indonesia) liberties is extremely Russian Army. In recent months it and Urdu, spoken in has suffered serious losses important, including the death of its leader Pakistan and the Indian intelligence gathering subcontinent. A study of the Shiekh Doku Umrof, President of emerging languages used in is greatly augmented the Islamic Emirate of Caucasus, jihadist media is important in through online popularly known as the Bin Laden assessing future trends in monitoring …” of the Caucasus. However, there jihadist activity and have been very few contributions to jihadist literature in French or Spanish, which presence. Pashto, the native language of the Pashtun people of Afghanistan and Pakistan, has may indicate that France and Spain (or other gained importance in jihadist media, as many French or Spanish-speaking countries) are jihadists are Pashtuns from Afghanistan and presently not inclined to be theatres of jihadist Pakistan. Pashto is used in inspirational jihadist terrorism in the near future. songs and interviews, including for propaganda material distributed in CDs/DVDs. The use of Online Monitoring Justified? Bangla (Bengali) and Turkish is also increasing; as Snowden’s leaks on the US government’s almost all major contributions in jihadist media are expansive surveillance programs have triggered a being translated into Bangla and Turkish. Bangla great debate on the justification of surveillance of is spoken in Bangladesh and the Indian state of all types of communications, including internet/ West Bengal, and Turkish is spoken mainly in

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13 Muhammad Ahsan Younas web-based communications by intelligence Indonesia was detected and foiled when one of the agencies, and its consequences on the rights and terrorist perpetrators, Separiano, a.k.a. Mambo liberties of citizens. While the respect for individual Wahab, revealed his plans to execute the attack liberties is extremely important, intelligence through a Facebook status update (Separiano and gathering is greatly augmented through online the other conspiring militants claimed that the monitoring as described above. To further planned attack was to avenge the plight of illustrate, Al Shabab was tweeting on seven Rohingya Muslims). The monitoring of online accounts of Twitter during their attack of the Jihadist media has also been supportive in Westgate mall in Kenya. Thus, if continuous terrorism investigations in unearthing terrorist monitoring of these accounts had existed, networks and their sympathizers, as every upload authorities may have been in and download leaves a trace. a position to respond to the “Presently, there are Monitoring jihadist sites have also crisis quicker and more scarcely any counter been used for launching sting effectively. operations to capture terrorists, narrative media on including new recruits to terrorist social media and Moreover, terror threats groups. have been successfully network sites that is However, checks and balances curtailed by effective administered by should exist by way of, for monitoring of jihadist chat authentic Muslim example, making it compulsory to rooms and social media. The scholars or Islamic obtain approval from the court arrests of Hosam Smadi governments.” after authentication by a (2009), Antonio Martinez responsible officer, and then (2010), Awais Younus imposing subsequent (2010) and Khalid Ali (2011) in the USA, are just a accountability mechanisms. It can be noted here few examples of terror plots foiled by that jihadists are at present more aware of the counterterrorism practitioners through effective possibility of getting tracked by the authorities monitoring and follow-up operations. Effective through the internet, and are thus engaged in an monitoring of online jihadist sites and forums effort to launch encryptions and authentications to including social media and network sites have led secure online communications between members, to more accurate threat assessments, and although the encryptions are far from perfect. therefore, jihadist media are considered to be an Anwar Al-Awlaqi is believed to have started this easy and important source of intelligence. In May process by advising his followers to download 2013, a plot to bomb the Embassy of Myanmar in such encryptions to secure their communications.

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The monitoring of jihadist social media can be the Pakistani government blocked jihadist online helpful in devising counter narratives for Al forums such as Ansarullah and Bab-ul-Islam, the Qaeda’s version of jihad, especially in Muslim activity manifested on Facebook and Twitter. countries, as the jihadist propaganda is often China has also not been fully successful in wholly devoid of truth in relation to Islam. The blocking its spree of jihadist (micro) blogs. As creation of counter narrative or counter-ideology Brian Jenkins also noted in his testimony before and its widespread availability on the internet, the US House of Representatives Committee on 6 including on social media and network sites, are December, 2011, “Faced with the shutdown of one crucial for the prevention of radicalization of site, jihadist communicators merely change names individuals which leads them to support or commit and move to another, dragging authorities into a acts of violence. To effectively curtail the jihadist frustrating game of “whack-a-mole,” and depriving appeal, counter narrative media must be produced them of intelligence while they look for the new in a manner which appeals to the youth. Thus, its site.” availability on social media and network sites is Thus, blocking can never be a complete solution in crucial. Presently, there are scarcely any counter countering the online presence of terrorist narrative media on social media and network sites organizations, although it can be effective if that is administered by authentic Muslim scholars applied selectively. In addition to passive or Islamic governments. monitoring of websites to gather intelligence, authorities can create confusion and mistrust

Blocking of Extremist Sites and its Constraints between forum members by contaminating the contents, for example by producing fabricated In many countries, state response has been to statements by terrorist organizations. However, block sites managed by terrorist organizations, as sites that publish materials on tradecraft involving the material posted on these sites such as bomb- bomb-making and other types of violence (also making manuals are extremely dangerous, and the called “Do-it-Yourself Jihadist” sites or “DIY content of these sites fall under the category of Jihadist” sites) should be blocked at once before hate material directed at inciting violence and radicalization occurs and violence is incited. extremism. However, states are aware that, as Jonathan Kennedy and Gabriel Weimann in “The Strength of Weak Terrorist Ties” (US Institute of In fighting the jihadist propaganda tactics, Peace Press, 2006) assert, there is no guarantee governments are also constrained by the rights that these initiatives are effective in minimizing Al and liberties of their respective citizens. The Qaeda’s use of the internet. For example, when “freedom of speech” as practiced in the West, for

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15 Muhammad Ahsan Younas example, which is considered sacrosanct and liberties, for it is in the pursuit to protect civilian life inviolable by the populace, is at the same time that online monitoring is conducted. viewed by Muslims across the globe as a factor Just before he was killed, Sameer Khan, as one which encourages hate speech, as exemplified by who revolutionized jihadist media, stated that the the caricatures of the Prophet Muhammad present leadership in the jihadist movement published in a Danish newspaper. This is exploited understands the importance of media in modern by the jihadist media as they claim to represent the warfare and the need to use it as an important tool cause of Islam and Allah by releasing analytical in jihad. He said that a forceful media release is essays against the West and audio and video equal to an operation because of its impact, and productions on subjects such as Islamic Law that the success of the media is measured by the fatwa (Shariah), issuing religious decrees ( ) and spread of hatred towards the US among Muslims. conducting lessons on Islam, all based on their He boasted that even though there are a number radicalized beliefs. of mainstream media outlets, like Al Jazeera, CNN, BBC and Fox News, the US is beginning to

Conclusion lose the battle on the media front. Sameer attributed the success of the jihadist media to The monitoring and analysis of jihadist media has factors such as hard work, technical know-how, shed insight into the organizational structure of superior production, continuous availability on the jihadist groups such as Al Qaeda, and their internet and failure of the US to respond promptly. affiliates, ideology, goals and future plans in the The speed of production of the contents in the agenda for global jihad, and continued monitoring jihadist media matches that of international media will shed further light. The study of jihadist media houses. The content itself has been attractive, gives a glimpse into how these groups function, which include details of an operation from the which are otherwise shrouded in mystery. The planning stage to its completion, which has understanding gained has contributed to the increased the credibility and popularity to jihadist development of strategies and counter narrative to media in the eyes of their supporters. Thus, to overcome this challenge. The continued utilization support national counterterrorism initiatives, it is of these sites will facilitate intelligence collection in apparent that a cooperative and responsible terror and criminal investigations and transnational monitoring mechanism should be counterterrorism operations in the future. Thus, developed involving all the international state authorities, while blocking sites which incite community, in order to counter the transnational violence directly, should not ignore the monitoring nature and media reach of terrorist organizations of these forums and chat rooms for respect of civil at present.

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Encouragingly, the US and Turkey are creating the Global Fund for Community Engagement and Resilience (GFCER) to stem extremism. The US $200 million fund aims to undercut the ideological and recruiting appeal of jihadists in places like Somalia, Yemen and Pakistan. This article advocates the creation of a “Global Centre for Research and Monitoring on Terrorism and Jihadist Social Media” under GFCER, which would be helpful for counterterrorism operations and intelligence worldwide as well as in countering the terror rhetoric and terrorist radicalization strategies propagated internationally through online media and social network sites.

Muhammad Ahsan Younas (Muhammad [email protected]) is a senior police officer from Pakistan with expertise in risk assessment, social media in terrorism studies and security, and is presently a Lee Kuan Yew Fellow at the Harvard Kennedy School of Government.

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Takfir in Indonesia: Analysing the Ideology of Saiful Anam Zulkifli Mohamed Sultan

Radical ideology involves the demonization of mainstream society through false allegations; that “the other” is on the wrong path, while the terrorists or extremists represent justice and truth. In this regard a book written by Saiful Anam, a.k.a Mujadid, a.k.a. Brekele, a top Jemaah Islamiyah (JI) militant, warrants attention. In his book, ‘Hukum Anshor At Thaghut’ (“Legal Rulings for Supporting the Transgressors of Boundaries’), Saiful Anam proclaims that all personnel working in the Indonesian national armed forces, Tentera Nasional Indonesia (TNI), and the Indonesian national police, Kepolisian Negara Republik Indonesia (POLRI), are “kafir” or “infidels” for their allegiance to the Indonesian government.

The Issue of Takfir Saiful Anam, a key figure belonging to Jemaah Islamiyah (JI) was sentenced to 18 years of imprisonment in 2007 for his involvement in the Tentena market bombings in May 2005 in Poso, Central Sulawesi, Indonesia, which killed 22 people and injured more than 50 people. While serving his prison sentence, he wrote Hukum Anshor At Thagut (“Legal Rulings for Supporting the Transgressors of Boundaries”) which was published in April 2013.

Termed takfir, the practice of one Muslim declaring another Muslim a kafir, an infidel, an unbeliever, is a very grave allegation and an act that has serious implications for both. The accused, once judged an infidel, is considered to be denounced from Islam. On the other hand, if the accusation is untrue, the judgement will be placed on the accuser instead. As mentioned in a hadith (statement made by the Prophet Muhammad), “Whoever calls a man a

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18 Takfir in Indonesia: Analysing the Ideology of Saiful Anam kafir (infidel) or said ‘O, enemy of Allah,’ when he takfir to indiscriminately denounce their enemies, is not one, [the accusation] will rebound to him.” so as to attract attention and possibly recruit from Religious scholars therefore, constantly warn of a pool of sympathizers. In this perspective, it is the repercussions and the damage takfir can useful to analyse how Saiful Anam used the cause, and are always cautious when dealing with concept and the practice to denounce the this issue. Indonesian national armed forces (TNI) and Indonesian national police (POLRI) personnel to be infidels. The precedent to this is set by the fact Thus, most ulama’ (religious scholars) refrain from that some of the terrorist and extremist groups in engaging in the act of takfir and many try to avoid Indonesia hold the view that the individuals in the it completely for fear of the seats of power in the Indonesian repercussions as declared “As mentioned in a government are or have become by the Prophet. There is thus hadith, “Whoever infidels. a need for the Islamic kafir authority at least, within the calls a man a Thus, in his book, Saiful Anam Islamic legal system, to look (infidel) or said ‘O, alleges that every officer of TNI and into such an issue. As kufr enemy of Allah,’ POLRI, from the highest rank to the (“infidelity”) is a very serious when he is not one, lowest, is an ally of the “infidel matter in Islam, the [the accusation] will government,” who renders his or community needs to be rebound to him.” her service by following the educated on its true meaning government’s “infidel rules” and and how to identify acts of achieving its “infidel goals.” They kufr. It is the responsibility of the Islamic authority are deemed guilty of “infidelity” by association. to admonish an individual who commits acts of Saiful Anam seems to claim a true understanding kufr, and then try to lead the individual back to the of Allah’s Laws and that he is seeking to mainstream. The religious authority could pass implement them. judgement or a fatwa declaring an individual as a kafir if he fails to listen to the counselling. More specifically, Saiful Anam states that (as translated from Bahasa Indonesia): Though designation of an individual or an entity as All personnel of TNI/POLRI are transgressors of engaging in kufr is a religious practice conducted boundaries (anshor at-thaghut) supporters. by a religious authority, the radicals and extremists All personnel of TNI/POLRI formed the many causers of infidelity (kufr). have hijacked both the concept and the practice of All personnel of TNI/POLRI are to be fought according

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19 Zulkifli Mohamed Sultan to the nature of warfare, without having to examine and not those without definite knowledge: “Pursue whether or not they fulfilled the conditions (of being not that of which you have no knowledge…” (The fought) and without having to ask them to repent, Quran, 17:36); “O you who believe! Avoid as they are a group of apostates under the leadership of an apostate government. suspicion as much [as possible].” (The Quran, All personnel of the TNI/ POLRI from the lowest rank to 49:12). the highest rank are infidels (kafir), polytheists, pagans, apostates by name and law, inwardly and Designation of a person as kafir simply cannot be outwardly, in this world and in the hereafter. generalized, and can only be determined by the It is allowed for anyone who has the ability to perform and carry out the legal consequences of their intentions of the concerned individual. Outward disbelief and apostasy, without needing to look at it acts alone cannot validate the takfir designation, except the benefits and harms which may arise except when there is unquestionable evidence from the impact of its (dalil) to support it. General loyalty implementation. “...under Islam, kufr to, or association with the state,

does not render an individual a Islam vis-a-vis Saiful or “infidelity” exists kafir, as faith is a personal Anam’s Ideology in a person’s heart, experience that cannot be judged There are two dimensions to the intentions of based on suspicion or assumption the perversion of Islam in which nobody knows according to the Quran, as Saiful Anam’ version; the except Allah.” described above. inability to generalise kufr or

“infidelity” and the lack of Moreover, government officers differ in rank and distinction between “clear” and “hidden” allegiance authority. Some hold greater authority and may to infidelity. have the ability to influence the formulation of

government policies, while others are compelled to Generalizing Kufr or “Infidelity” follow those policies by order of duty. Also, certain An individual cannot make a general declaration officers, such as some from the police, actively denouncing a person or an entity as a kafir or promote justice by dealing with wrongdoing in infidel under the rule of any government that he accordance with the law of the land. According to perceives to be not ruling according to his own Islam, everyone should be fully responsible in version of Shariah. More significantly, under Islam, carrying out his or her daily tasks, and as much as kufr or “infidelity” exists in a person’s heart, the possible, adhere to Shariah in the course of intentions of which nobody knows except Allah. establishing justice and order. As Prophet Thus, Muslims, including religious leaders, need to Muhammad has said, “Anyone among you, who be very cautious in umpiring on issues associated witness vice, should change it with his hand. If he with the heart and judge matters that are certain

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20 Takfir in Indonesia: Analysing the Ideology of Saiful Anam is not able to so, then with his tongue, if he is not able to so, then with his heart, and that is the “Clear allegiance” is when loyalty and faithfulness weakest of faith.” Thus, an act of justice done with is given only to rules pertaining to worldly affairs, one’s hands, as may be done by law enforcement but one’s faith in Allah and in the religion are not officers, acquires the highest of Allah’s blessings. affected. This is validated by an episode involving a companion of Prophet Muhammad, Alhatib ibn “Clear and Hidden Allegiance” Abi Baltaáh. Al-Hafiz Ibn Kathir, in his Quranic As explained by Al-Gamaah and Al-Islamiyah of exegesis wrote that the circumstances for Egypt in their book titled Forbidding Extremism in revelation of the Surah Al-Mumtahanah (chapter “The Woman to be Examined”) in the Quran, revolve around the story of Alhatib who was one of those who migrated from Mecca to profess his faith in other lands, leaving behind some of his family members. While he participated in the battle of Badr which took place in the Hejaz region of western Arabia (present-day Saudi Arabia) against the Meccan infidels and continued to strive Figure 1 - Saiful Anam, a.k.a Mujadid, a.k.a Brekele (dressed in white) alongside Prophet Muhammad, his sensitivity Photo by Zulkarnain; Image source: http://store.tempo.co/foto/ detail/P2809200700154/syaiful-anam-alias-brekele-alias-mujadid- towards his family in Mecca led him to secretly alias-idris send some confidential information on the plan to Religion and the Use of Takfir against Muslims, attack Mecca to his family members. His action allegiance towards even an “infidel government” was revealed by Allah to Prophet Muhammad, who can be “hidden” or “clear.” Hidden allegiance is caught hold of Alhatib’s letter. When questioned, when loyalty and faithfulness (or disloyalty and Alhatib replied, “O Prophet, I was once one of unfaithfulness towards Islam) is given completely them, but now I am not. But I do have family with the heart and soul. This has been clearly members within them and I just want to caution exemplified by the case of the munafiqin or them of the dangers ahead so they can protect “hypocrites” during the days of Prophet themselves. I am not doing this because I have Muhammad, who secretly and continuously abandoned my faith nor am I pleased with their conspired with the infidels against Muslims. There infidelity.” Prophet Muhammad believed and were undeniable evidences of their hatred for accepted Alhatib’s explanation, which was a case Prophet Muhammad and the Muslims. Hidden of “clear allegiance.” The story of Alhatib helps to allegiance would thus constitute the betrayal of differentiate between giving allegiance to infidels in Islam. worldly affairs versus in religious affairs, his being

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21 Zulkifli Mohamed Sultan the former. Imam Al-Qurtubi supports this in his execute absolute justice in their book, Al-Jami’ Li Ahkam Al-Qur’an (The workplaces, but their presence helps to Compendium of Legal Rulings of the Qur'an): “One minimize injustices against Muslims; who exposes secret information of the Muslims to Those whose work involves injustice and the enemies cannot be deemed as an infidel if his corruption but while doing so, never intend intent of this was worldly purpose, while his heart to dispute the Shariah nor prioritize remains rooted to the faith. Such is the case of infidelity above their faith; Alhatib who did extend his assistance to the Those who clearly support infidelity and bear infidels but never intended to denounce his faith in hatred against Islam, and constantly doing so.” cause injustices towards Muslims.

In light of the above, the designation of takfir made TNI and POLRI officers (and of course any other against those serving in the government bodies Indonesian) may fall into any of the above four (or and organizations in Indonesia, including its other) categories, and it is therefore impossible to military and police forces, is manifestly generalize infidelity by decreeing it upon all the unwarranted. officers. Since the issue of takfir, is a delicate one, it is utterly exploited by extremists in the advancement of their radical ideologies. Thus, it behoves upon the mainstream Muslim scholars and clerics to ensure that the act of akfir should be exercised with severe caution and done only within an Islamic judicial system.

Implications for Counterterrorism Figure 2 - Members of TNI and POLRI working together Since late 2010, terrorist and extremist to combat terrorism Photo by Andri Haryanto; image source: http://news.detik.com/ bandungreadfoto/2009/05/27/190806/1138259/501/4/ organizations in Indonesia have changed their targets from Western interests and visitors to the Indonesian army and police personnel. This In the context of Indonesia, the members of the transformation in terrorist strategy has posed a armed and police forces can be categorized into formidable challenge to the Indonesian any of the following categories: government in its efforts to crack down on terrorist Those who work to benefit from worldly gains activities in the country. The number of self- and but whose jobs do not violate Shariah; radicalized individuals with potential to engage in Those who do not have the authority to violence is also rising in Indonesia. The growing

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22 Takfir in Indonesia: Analysing the Ideology of Saiful Anam presence of radical Islamic scholars who engage in hate speech and profess an extremist and narrow understanding of Islam with strong support from their followers, compounds the threat. The consequence of radical propaganda, such as the book written by Saiful Anam, in terms of an increase in hostility and violence towards the Indonesian government, cannot be underestimated.

Moreover, the sweeping and forceful views as expressed by Saiful Anam could sway the belief of individuals with less educational attainment, especially those who have little knowledge of Islam and belong to vulnerable socio-economic segments. Thus, Indonesian authorities must and without further delay, ensure that those convicted of terrorism are not in a position to propagate radical or perverted ideology, especially while serving a prison sentence. From a religious perspective, more attention should be on those who misappropriate the authority to sit in judgement of religious issues such as determining who is a kafir. These entities may not formally belong to a terrorist or extremist group, which camouflages their presence and also complicates counterterrorism or counter-extremism measures to be taken by the Indonesian government.

Zulkifli Mohamed Sultan is an Analyst with the International Centre for Political Violence and Terrorism Research (ICPVTR).

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23

Wasatiyyah as Explained by Prof. Muhammad Kamal Hassan: Justice, Excellence and Balance Muhammad Haniff Hassan

The post-9/11 era has catapulted the issue of ‘wasatiyyah’ or moderation in Islam, among others, as an important research subject with two key objectives: (1) to correct the image of Islam that has been tarnished by extremism, and (2) to overcome the spread of extremism among the Muslims of the world. Prof. Kamal Hassan’s research calls to be revisited in this regard as it offers a valuable conceptualization on the meaning of wasatiyyah, especially as presented in his address at the Second International Conference on Terrorist Rehabilitation and Community Resilience in Singapore (26-27 March, 2013). He speaks of justice, excellence, goodness and balance as well as other Islamic values as attributes of ‘wasatiyyah,’ which is commonly, translated rather simplistically as “moderation.”

Figure 1 – Prof. Kamal Hassan Image source: Malaysian Institute for Translations (ITBM), http://www.itbm.com.my/images/uploads/DSC_0473_1.JPG

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24 Wasatiyyah as Explained by Prof. Muhammad Kamal Hassan: Justice, Excellence and Balance

Introduction The Moderation Assembly for Thought and Culture Many measures have been taken in various was established under the patronage of the King countries for the study and promotion of moderate of Jordan and the Royal Academy of Jordan as an Islam or wasatiyyah. It is instructive to review outcome of a conference held in 2004 and 2006. some selected noteworthy contributions made in In Malaysia, the Wasatiyyah Institute was this regard. established in 2005 and the Global Movement of Moderates was introduced in 2010 by its Prime A book entitled Moderation in Islam in the Context Minister, Mohamad Najib Abdul Razak for the of Muslim Community in Singapore was published purpose of promoting moderation at the local and in 2004 by the Singapore Islamic Scholars and international level respectively. Religious Teachers Association for the purpose of clarifying the meaning of moderation in Islam and In addition to the idea of moderation, these guiding the Muslim community towards it, as a initiatives themselves have become a subject of result of significant events such as the 9/11 interest and attention for those who are interested attacks, the arrest of Jemaah Islamiyah (JI) in the study. One of the important questions often elements in Singapore and the consequent non- asked is: What does moderation/wasatiyyah really Muslim reactions to both incidents. mean? Like many ideas and concepts, the answer to the question is not monolithic even among Al-Qaradhawi Centre for Islamic Moderation and Muslim scholars. However, this should not be the Renewal was established in Qatar in 2008 under reason for one not to explore its meaning in order the Qatar Faculty of Islamic Studies with the to provide a coherent understanding that would be mission of dedicating itself to research and the useful in guiding the society at large. promotion of moderation and the renewal of the Islamic spirit and intellectualism for the purpose of Prof. Kamal Hassan’s Research on Moderation combating extremism and promoting inter-faith/ Prof. Kamal Hassan’s research on the meaning of culture dialogue. The International Centre for moderation is very valuable as it seeks to present Moderation of Kuwait, a government linked a complete conceptualization of the meaning of institution under the Ministry of Islamic moderation. Prof. Hassan is an eminent intellectual Endowments and Affairs, was established, also for in Islamic Studies in Malaysia, specializing in the purpose of research and training on the Contemporary Islamic Thought, particularly promotion of moderation and combating pertaining to the Southeast Asia region. He was extremism. the rector of the International Islamic University of Malaysia (IIUM) from 1999 to 2006.

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25 Muhammad Haniff Hassan

on these three values. However, it can be safely In 2013, Prof. Hassan presented his idea of deduced that, by iman, he primarily refers to belief moderation/ wasatiyyah at the Second in Allah as the only God (monotheism) and International Conference on Terrorist Muhammad as His final Messenger. This is a Rehabilitation and Community Resilience in standard belief held by every Muslim and there is Singapore (26-27 March, 2013). He explained the no reason to believe that Prof. Hassan is different concept of moderation using a graphic in this regard. representation (see Figure 2) which was profound, yet clear to understand, unlike the usually heavy It is also not difficult to understand the reason why and convoluted academic works on the subject. he positions knowledge as the foundation for wasatiyyah. The importance of knowledge in Islam First and foremost according to Prof. Hassan, - and thus, its position as one of the key moderation as an Islamic concept must be foundations for such an important concept in Islam as wasatiyyah - can be easily deduced from the fact that it was mentioned together with the issue of belief in “Allahin,” the first revelation to Muhammad (96:1-5). Furthermore, knowledge presupposes everything in Islam. One can never believe in the true God without knowledge; what more to uphold the concept of wasatiyyah.

As of taqwa, its importance and centrality in Islam Figure 2 – Prof. Kamal Hassan’s Graphical is also an undisputed issue among scholars. Thus, Representation of the Concept of Wasatiyyah Image source: Prof. Kamal Hassan’s slide presentation in the it is understandable that Prof. Hassan does not Second International Conference on Terrorist Rehabilitation and Community Resilience in Singapore (26-27 March, 2013) elaborate on this too. What is more important, from

Prof. Hassan’s illustration, is his conception that grounded on Islam’s two primary sources: the wasatiyyah is not the only concept from which Quran and the Sunnah (the Prophet’s tradition). everything in Islam is built upon, despite its Based on these two primary sources, Prof. Hassan importance and centrality. This has important premised the concept of wasatiyyah on three key implications: values of Islam: (1) iman (belief), (2) `ilm to be moderate or to practice wasatiyyah is (knowledge) and (3) taqwa (compliance to divine important but it must not be at the expense of guidance). Prof. Hassan does not elaborate much the more important pillars of Islam;

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26 Wasatiyyah as Explained by Prof. Muhammad Kamal Hassan: Justice, Excellence and Balance a Muslim’s understanding and practice of religion However, Prof. Hassan has reservations about the must be shaped by the right understanding of close association between wasatiyyah and wasatiyyah but that understanding itself is not moderation. Similarly, he is also not inclined to free from any intellectual and conceptual interpret wasatiyyah as merely wholesale bindings; manifestations of “non-violence” or “non-radical” or wasatiyyah or moderation cannot be pursued at all “non-militant” as often used by political leaders in costs or interpreted without binding Western as well as in Muslim countries. To him, parameters. wasatiyyah is more than just moderation, non- violence, non-radicalness and non-militancy. Based on this, it should be deduced that the meaning of the word Prof. Hassan’s is of the view that, wasatiyyah itself must be “A Muslim’s based on his review of the Quran, based primarily on what understanding and the Sunnah which speaks of the these two sources say about practice of religion same topic and the works of moderation and being Muslim scholars, the meaning of moderate, and not just must be shaped by wasatiyyah must encompass based on superficial the right three key attributes or pillars: (1) philosophical thinking or the understanding of justice, (2) excellence and (3) perceptions of Muslim wasatiyyah.” balance /moderation. laypersons. Here, the key reference point from the Quran is the verse, “And The attribute of justice is based on a Sunnah that thus have We willed you to be a community of the was reported by Ahmad on the authority of Abu middle way (ummatan wasatan), so that [with your Sa`id Al-Khudari that the Prophet interpreted the lives] you might bear witness to the truth before all word “wasat” in 2:143 to mean “justice” (al-`adl). mankind, and that the Apostle might bear witness Although “justice” connotes “balance,” to it before you…..” (The Quran, 2:143). The key “equilibrium” or “moderation” that is similar to the word that becomes the reference for all scholars third attribute, it appears, according to Prof. on this issue is the Quranic expression “ummatan Hassan, to mean more than that and thus wasatan” from which the term wasatiyyah deserves to be a separate attribute. “Justice” emerged. Both, the expression and the term, were requires an objective mind that is not swayed by generally translated as “a moderate nation” and emotions, biases or prejudice that would favour “moderation” respectively. any of the disputing sides in making judgments, decisions or solving disputes. This is supported by

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27 Muhammad Haniff Hassan the meaning derived from the word found in explicit meaning that one can derive from the word another verse of the Quran that has the same root wasat, which explains its popularity and with wasat (2:143), “Said one of them (awsat-u- prominence. However, its popular and prominent hum): ‘Did I not say to you, Why not glorify use also masks the other two attributes that are [Allah]?’” The word awsat in the verse, according essential and important for the right understanding to Prof. Hassan, has been interpreted by many and practice of wasatiyyah. Prof. Hassan observes commentators of the Quran to mean “the most just that the qualities of justice and goodness/ (a`dal) amongst them.” excellence are being neglected, sidelined or forgotten due to the over-emphasis on moderation. The basis for incorporating excellence into the Not only that, he also observes certain skewed meaning of wasatiyyah is understandings of moderation that due to its usage in the Arabic “There is no require correction, for they cannot language and a Sunnah. moderation, if there be said to represent wasatiyyah Prof. Hassan pointed to the which incorporates all three fact that Arabs understand is no justice, and attributes. The first the word wasat (from which there is no justice by misunderstanding and that he wasatiyyah is derived) to transgressing the warned against, which is popular mean “the best” or definitive injunctions among the political elites, is “excellence” too. This can be of the Quran and wasatiyyah as “justification for understood from the term Sunnah.” indulgence (tasahul), Awsat Al-`Arab to describe carelessness or an excuse to be the Quraisy tribe to which the negligent in the performance of Prophet belongs. The term means “the best” or religious obligations” or in other words, the non- “noblest” tribe among Arabs. A similar point can be practicing of Islamic obligations for the sake of found also in a Sunnah which reports that the being “moderate.” Prophet was the wasat among his people, which scholars have interpreted to mean “the noblest To Prof. Hassan, moderation is not a stand-alone among his people genealogically.” principle or one that needs to be attained at all costs. Wasatiyyah is defined with the Quran and The relevance of the third attribute of “balance”/ Sunnah being its overall underlying foundation, as “moderation” is not an issue for debate, for it has illustrated in the graphical representation (Figure been widely accepted and used by Arabs in the 2). There is no moderation, if there is no justice, past, and continues today. In fact, it is the most and there is no justice by transgressing the

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28 Wasatiyyah as Explained by Prof. Muhammad Kamal Hassan: Justice, Excellence and Balance definitive injunctions of the Quran and Sunnah. If not, “moderation could be understood as a license Prof. Hassan highlights that the Quran in 2:143 or permission…to be lax in the performance of relates wasatiyyah with “witnessing unto mankind.” religious duties.” The latter implies divine injunction upon a Muslim to be the example and standard for human Moderation is also not about being in the civilization as a manifestation of being rahmah li al- supposed median of everything to the extent that it `alamin (‘mercy to the universe”) as in 21:107 and justifies being average or mediocre, as understood khayr ummah (“the best nation,” as in the verse in by many ordinary Muslims. Prof. Hassan asserts the succeeding paragraph). Thus, “to fulfil this key that Islam enjoins the value of excellence and hard “civilizational witnessing” and leadership mission, work and makes these the Muslim community has to central to its teachings. Thus, “Moderation is strive for comprehensive mediocrity and being the assumption of excellence in religious and worldly contented with an average sciences, in the spirit of absolute achievement is against the a middle position in and uncompromising monotheism teaching of Islam, and is not between two (Tauhid), fulfilling the Divine Trust moderation. Moderation is forbidden extremes (Amanah) [and] performance of the assumption of a middle often defined by comprehensive worship of Allah position in between two Muslim scholars as (Ibadah)…”. forbidden extremes often the modes of defined by Muslim scholars One important aspect of Prof. excessiveness (ifrat) as the modes of Hassan’s conception of excessiveness (ifrat) and and laxity (tafrit).” wasatiyyah is the twinning of the laxity (tafrit). It is in this concept with the concept of khayr regard that moderation is a just, excellent and ummah as stated in the Quran, “You are indeed balanced concept. This is a far cry from the the best community that has ever been brought common understanding of being in the middle of forth for [the good of] mankind: you enjoin the two goods or assuming a middle ground between doing of what is right and forbid the doing of what a worst condition and an excellent one, when is wrong, and you believe in God. Now if the excellence should be the rational choice of a followers of earlier revelation had attained to [this righteous Muslim. Moderation is striving to uphold kind of] faith, it would have been for their own all that is good and commanded in Islam and to good; [but only few] among them are believers, achieve excellence (ihsan) in everything. while most of them are iniquitous.” (The Quran,

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29 Muhammad Haniff Hassan

3:110). These are two inseparable sides of being cannot be realized without them, Muslim (see Figure 3). The khayr ummah concept Tolerance and peaceful co-existence with other affirms the excellence attribute of wasatiyyah and, religions and cultures, in addition, entails its important role to mankind – Dignity as a result of the three attributes of to enjoin all that is good/right and prohibit all that is wasatiyyah. bad/wrong. In Prof. Hassan’s mind, there is no wasatiyyah or By the above, Muslims attain a holistic well-being (al-falah) which qualifies them for blessing (barakah), pleasure (ridwan), mercy (rahmah) and success (taufiq) from Allah.

Muhammad Haniff Hassan (Ph.D) is a Research Fellow at the S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies (RSIS), Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.

Figure 3 – The Quranic meaning and the connotations of Wasatiyyah Image source: Prof. Kamal Hassan’s slide presentation in the Second International Conference on Terrorist Rehabilitation and Community Resilience in Singapore (26-27 March, 2013)

“civilizational witnessing” without Muslims playing this role. In fact, he warns, “It should be remembered that the Prophet (p.b.u.h) had warned that dire consequence would befall Muslim communities who fail to fulfil or neglect” this obligation.

From the above illustration, Prof. Hassan lists a few tangible manifestations of wasatiyyah: Amr bi al-makruf and nahy `an al-munkar (“to enjoin all that is good/right and prohibit all that is bad/wrong”) as mentioned above, Possession of power and strength because justice

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30

The Teacher-Student Approach to Religious Rehabilitation Mahfuh Haji Halimi Muhammad Saiful Alam Shah Bin Sudiman Zulkifli Mohamed Sultan

The teacher-student approach of the education discipline is used in the religious rehabilitation programs for radicalized individuals in Singapore. Concepts such as “functioning knowledge,” the “deep approach to learning” and “constructive alignment” can be used to describe methodologies that are being used in religious rehabilitation in relation to Islamist ideologies, to cultivate a higher level of learning within the cognitive domain.

Religious rehabilitation programs are generally directed at countering the radicalization of individuals with the aim of reintegrating them back to society. Also known as deradicalization programs, these initiatives seek to reverse the viewpoints of individuals who are wholly or partially radicalized. Radicalization, in the context of extremism and terrorism, occurs when groups or individuals come to accept the use of violent means to mitigate certain grievances and/or change the status quo in favour of an alternative system which they perceive or believe to be more acceptable. Thus, the focus of deradicalization programs in relation to Islamist ideologies is to remove the negatively imbibed ideologies from the minds of radicalized individuals, and then introduce a positive understanding of mainstream religious concepts through religious counselling.

Religious counselling in the context of Islam, involves attempts to familiarize the radicalized individuals with the Islamic intellectual heritage, which is far greater in scope than the narrow radical ideology they have been exposed to. Deradicalization programs are meant to induce changes in the radicalized individuals in three different domains, namely the cognitive, affective and behavioural. The challenge, however, is to ensure that religious rehabilitation programs successfully wean these individuals from the radical worldview. Religious rehabilitation programs must also ensure that the individuals that have gone through these programs will be able to interact well with other members of society, especially those that they had previously been hostile towards, and ultimately integrate them with the broader community.

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31 The Teacher-Student Approach to Religious Rehabilitation

To meet these goals, religious rehabilitation teacher. Thus, the following terms will be used programs activate higher cognitive levels through interchangeably in this article: religious counsellor established educational concepts such as “deep also referred to as a teacher, a radicalized learning” and “constructive alignment.” However, it individual also referred to as a student, and a religious counselling session also referred to as a religious learning session. In taking a teacher- student approach to rehabilitation, two key aspects are focussed upon: how the student learns and how a religious learning session supports his or her learning.

The Importance of Functioning Knowledge in Figure 1 – The two types of learning/ knowledge: Religious Rehabilitation Programs declarative (surface) and functioning (deep) A religious counsellor, taking the role of a teacher, would have a clear goal of what he or she wants should be noted that cognitive, affective and the student to learn. This means that the teacher behavioural changes in an individual are should be able to stipulate how well each topic on interrelated. Religious rehabilitation programs Islam needs to be understood by the student on a adopt a teacher-student approach, where the topic by topic basis. As a teacher, he or she must counsellor plays the role of the teacher, and the also be able to make a distinction between “declarative religious knowledge” and “functioning Levels of Cognitive Complexity

Creating

Evaluating

Analysing Functioning Knowledge

Applying

Understanding

Remembering Declarative Knowledge

Figure 2 – Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning Domains religious knowledge,” as described in the article “Aligning Teaching for Constructing radicalized individual, the role of the student. Learning” (2003) by John Biggs. Declarative Similarly, a religious counselling session is treated religious knowledge refers to religious knowledge as a student-centred religious learning session, that can be communicated orally or in writing. where the focus is on the student’s learning rather Religious learning sessions usually attempt to instil than the teaching or counselling imparted by the declarative religious knowledge in students. While

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32 Mahfuh Haji Halimi Muhammad Saiful Alam Shah Bin Sudiman Zukifli Mohamed Sultan this may be effective in some cases, limiting the ideas as well as life experiences to these students’ learning to declarative religious concepts. In taking the deep approach to learning knowledge in lessons needs to be done religion, the student also checks for evidence and selectively, as it is the lowest of the six levels of examines the logic of an argument cautiously and cognitive complexity in Bloom’s taxonomy of critically before reaching a conclusion. Thus, the learning domains: remembering, understanding, deep or functioning approach allows the student to applying, analysing, evaluating and creating. not only critically analyse radical religious ideas, Learning outcomes at the level of “remembering,” but also evaluate these ideas with established means that the student is able to recall or Islamic concepts and principles. Functioning recognise information, ideas and principles in the knowledge ensures that the student’s thinking approximate form in which they were learned. patterns are changed, allowing him or her to perceive ideas and issues which caused his or her radicalization in perspective. In fact, an individual To gain declarative knowledge means that the who has been successfully deradicalized will also student is able to articulate to others the religious speak and otherwise behave/ knowledge he or she has function within an elevated learned. It also means that the “ … religious cognitive domain, indicating student is able to express in his learning sessions also his/her readiness to be or her own words what the reintegrated back to society. teacher has recently been should be tailored to teaching about religion. suit the way in which Factors which Support However, lessons based on Functioning Religious imparting declarative a student learns, as a Learning knowledge do not stimulate the student may respond Functioning religious student to achieve a higher knowledge is developed in a level of learning where the better to a particular student when religious learning student can apply the religious learning style … “ sessions embrace a “deep knowledge gained to think approach to learning,” where critically about religion or the student is able to ascribe deepen his or her understanding of the religion meaning to the new (religious) knowledge gained. independently (of the teacher). Thus, in many This requires the teacher to guide the student in religious rehabilitation programs in Singapore, a building personal meaning and “real world” higher level of learning is achieved though the connections to the learned religious knowledge. By transferring of functioning knowledge, which allows doing so, the student will not only remember, the student to also understand, apply, analyse, understand and apply the religious knowledge evaluate and create based on the knowledge gained, but also use it to analyse and evaluate the gained. different life circumstances he or she will face. To stimulate a deep or functioning approach to Learning in this manner provides the student with learning religious knowledge, the student is the ability to comprehend the world by constantly encouraged to understand fundamental Islamic re-applying the religious knowledge he or she has religious concepts and underlying principles first. gained during a religious learning session. Thus, This enables the student to relate new religious the learning outcome of a lesson, and the focus of

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33 The Teacher-Student Approach to Religious Rehabilitation learning activities in it, should be to develop in a periods. student the ability to apply religious knowledge gained in the lesson to the real world. The teacher must also pay close attention to how a This is the manner in which the student should be student learns most effectively, as the actively involved in religious learning sessions. effectiveness of a lesson is judged not by how the The deep approach requires that the student is teacher delivers the religious content, but rather by placed in a learning environment that is conducive how well the student absorbs the content. Thus, to remembering, understanding, applying, religious learning sessions should be tailored to analysing, evaluating and building upon the suit the way in which a student learns, as a student religious knowledge imparted in a lesson. However, it should be noted that the higher the student’s cognitive capacity, the deeper the level of understanding he or she will gain from lessons which impart functioning religious knowledge. As stated previously, the teacher is responsible for setting the stage for effective teaching which encourages active learning in the student. A crucial learning outcome for the teacher to consider is the ability of the students to think critically. If the religious learning sessions are centred only on what the teacher does, it is far more difficult to achieve the intended learning outcomes. There are also other additional “personal transferable skills” for the student to gain among the desired learning outcomes, such as problem-solving skills, communication skills and working cooperatively with Figure 3 - Different Styles of Learning others. These additional skills are Image source: ConnectionsAcademy.com required to allow religious knowledge and understanding to be used may respond better to a particular learning style appropriately and effectively in the student’s future which could be verbal-linguistic, logical- interactions and collaboration with others. mathematical, visual-spatial, bodily-kinaesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal or naturalistic, among others. Effective religious learning sessions Quality Learning through Constructive will accommodate different learning styles, which Alignment adds variety to the learning activities as well as The deep or functioning approach to learning retains the attention of the student for longer religious knowledge depends on the teacher’s

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34 Mahfuh Haji Halimi Muhammad Saiful Alam Shah Bin Sudiman Zukifli Mohamed Sultan ability to set an effective learning environment and deradicalization of an individual. design lessons that are outcome-based and employ constructive alignment. Students will not be able to take a deep approach Mahfuh Haji Halimi is an Associate Research to learning in the absence of a clear alignment Fellow with ICPVTR and the Team Leader of between the intended learning outcomes, teaching ICPVTR’s Counter-Ideology and Rehabilitation methods, learning activities and assessments. In (CIREH) Program. the context of religious rehabilitation, constructive alignment is achieved when teaching methods, Muhammad Saiful Alam Shah Bin Sudiman is an learning activities and assessments support the Associate Research Fellow with ICPVTR focusing ultimate learning outcome of deradicalization. It on Rehabilitation. has proven helpful for the teacher to indicate to the student the desired outcomes of a religious Zulkifli Mohamed Sultan is an Analyst with learning a session, ICPVTR focusing on Counter-Ideology. including the level of understanding the teacher “The deep or functioning expects the student to approach to learning achieve on each topic. The teacher can also religious knowledge assure the student that by depends on the teacher’s fully engaging in the lessons that the teacher ability to set an effective has designed, the student learning environment and is more likely to attain intended learning design lessons that are outcomes. It will also help outcome-based and the teacher to continuously assess the employ constructive student’s progress alignment.” towards attainment of these outcomes. In conclusion, successful rehabilitation programs encourage functioning or deep learning of religious knowledge by students. In order for religious learning sessions to support deep learning, the religious counsellor must ensure constructive alignment of lessons where the intended learning outcomes, teaching methods, learning activities and assessments are in agreement with each other. In so doing, the deep approach to religious rehabilitation leads to the cognitive, affective and behavioural transformation required for the

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The International Centre for Political Violence and Terrorism Research (ICPVTR) is a specialist research centre within the S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies (RSIS) at Nanyang Technological University (NTU), Singapore.

ICPVTR conducts research and analysis, training and outreach programs aimed at reducing the threat of politically motivated violence and mitigating its effects on the international system. The Centre seeks to integrate academic theory with practical knowledge, which is essential for a complete and comprehensive understanding of threats from politically-motivated groups.

The Centre is staffed by academic specialists, counter-terrorism analysts and other research staff. The Centre is culturally and linguistically diverse, comprising of functional and regional analysts as well as Islamic religious scholars from Asia, the Middle East, Africa, Europe and North America.

STAFF PUBLICATIONS

Countering Extremism Targeting Terrorist Ten Years After 9/11: Rohan Gunaratna, Salim Financing: International Rethinking the Jihadist Mohamed Nasir and Cooperation and New Threat Jolene Jerard (Imperial Regimes Arabinda Acharya College Press, 2013) Arabinda Acharya (Routledge, 2013) (Routledge, 2009)

The Terrorist Threat Terrorist Rehabilitation: from Thailand: Jihad The US Experience in or Quest for Justice? Iraq Rohan Gunaratna and Ami Angell and Rohan Arabinda Acharya Gunaratna (CRC Press, (Potomac Books, 2013) 2011)

Ethnic Identity and Pakistan: Terrorism National Conflict in Ground Zero China Rohan Gunaratna and Rohan Gunaratna, Khurram Iqbal Arabinda Acharya and (Reaktion Books, 2011) Wang Pengxin (Palgrave

Macmillan, 2010)

ICPVTR’S GLOBAL PATHFINDER

Global Pathfinder is a one-stop repository for information on current and emerging terrorist threats from the major terrorism affected regions of the world.

It is an integrated database containing comprehensive profiles of terrorist groups, terrorist personalities, terrorist and counter-terrorist incidents as well as terrorist training camps. This includes profiles from emerging hubs of global terrorism affecting the security of the world, as well as the deadliest threat groups in Asia, Africa, the Middle East and the Caucasus. The database also contains analyses of significant terrorist attacks in the form of terrorist attack profiles.

CounterFor further Terrorist inquiries Trends regarding and Analysis subscription and access to the Global Pathfinder database,Volume please 6, contactIssue 2 Elena March Ho 2014 Wei Ling at [email protected]. 36