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France Under Louis XIV

France Under Louis XIV

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A delicate, beaded shoe from Louis’s era Step-by-Step WITNESS HISTORY AUDIO SECTION Instruction 2 Life at Versailles At Versailles, the palace court of Louis XIV, life Objectives revolved around the . Nobles waited days or weeks for the honor of attending the king while he As you teach this section, keep students dressed or bathed. Every evening the king was at focused on the following objectives to help the center of a lavish , followed by a them answer the Section Focus Question supper of dozens of rich dishes. The elaborate and and master core content. extravagant rituals that governed life at court ■ Understand how Henry IV rebuilt masked a very serious purpose—they were a way after the wars of . for Louis XIV to control every aspect of court life and ensure his absolute authority. ■ Explain how Louis XIV became an Focus Question How did France become the absolute monarch. Louis XIV rides a powerful horse, displaying his leading power of Europe under the absolute rule ■ Describe how Versailles was a symbol strength and abilities. of Louis XIV? of royal power. ■ Identify Louis XIV’s successes and failures. France Under Louis XIV

Objectives In the last half of the fifteenth century, France enjoyed a period of • Understand how Henry IV rebuilt France after peace. After driving out the English, the French were able to Prepare to Read the wars of religion. solidify their power within their own realm. But in the 1500s, • Explain how Louis XIV became an absolute rivalry with Charles V of and then religious conflict plunged Build Background Knowledge L3 monarch. the kingdom into turmoil. Ask students to recall what they know • Describe how Versailles was a symbol of about the theory of the divine right of royal power. Henry IV Restores Order • Identify Louis XIV’s successes and failures. kings. Then ask them to predict how this In the late 1500s France was torn apart by turbulent wars of reli- theory might allow Louis XIV to Terms, People, and Places gion. A century later, France was a strong, unified nation- strengthen royal power. intendant ruled by the most powerful monarch in Europe. Jean-Baptiste Colbert Henry IV Religious Strife From the 1560s to the , religious wars L3 of Versailles Set a Purpose between the Catholic majority and French Protestants, called levée ■ WITNESS HISTORY Read the selection Huguenots (HYOO guh nahts), tore France apart. Leaders on both Louis XIV balance of power aloud or play the audio. sides used the strife to further their own ambitions. AUDIO Witness History Audio CD, The worst incident began on St. Bartholomew’s Day (a Catholic Life at Versailles Reading Skill: Identify Supporting Details As holiday), August 24, 1572. While Huguenot and Catholic nobles were you read about the rule of Louis XIV and how he gathered for a royal wedding, a plot by Catholic royals led to the Ask Why did Louis XIV structure strengthened the monarchy, use a concept web massacre of 3,000 Huguenots. In the next few days, thousands more life at Versailles around rituals like the one below to record details that support were slaughtered. For many, the St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre and extravagant events? (Doing so the main ideas in this section. Add as many circles symbolized the complete breakdown of order in France. enabled him to keep the nobles under as you need. Bringing Peace to a Shattered Land In 1589, a Huguenot his control at court and thereby depen- Made France dent on him.) the leading power prince inherited the French throne as Henry IV. For four years of Europe Henry fought against fierce Catholic opposition to gain control of ■ Focus Point out the Section Focus No meetings of France. Finally, to end the conflict, he converted to Catholicism. Estates-General Sun as symbol Question and write it on the board. “ is well worth a Mass,” he is supposed to have said. To pro- Tell students to refer to this question Louis XIV tect Protestants, however, in 1598 he issued the as they read. (Answer appears with granting the Huguenots religious toleration and other freedoms. Section 2 Assessment answers.) ■ Preview Have students preview the Section Objectives and the list of Vocabulary Builder Terms, People, and Places. ■ Have students read this Use the information below and the following resources to teach the high-use word from this section.

section using the Guided Questioning Teaching Resources, Unit 1, p. 68; Teaching Resources, Skills Handbook, p. 3

strategy (TE, p. T20). As they read, High-Use Word Definition and Sample Sentence have students fill in the concept web erode, p. 152 v. to wear away or disintegrate with details about Louis XIV’s rule. Many years of disappointment had eroded Robin’s trust in people and the prom- Reading and Note Taking ises they made. Study Guide, p. 66

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Henry IV then set out to repair France. His goal, he said, was not the victory of one sect over another, but “a chicken in every pot”—a good Sun- Teach day dinner for every peasant. Under Henry, the government reached into every area of French life. Royal officials administered justice, improved roads, built bridges, and revived agriculture. By building the royal bureau- Henry IV Restores cracy and reducing the influence of nobles, Henry IV laid the foundations Order L3 on which future French monarchs would build absolute power. Instruct Cardinal Richelieu Strengthens Royal Authority When Henry IV was killed by an assassin in 1610, his nine-year-old son, Louis XIII, ■ Introduce Explain the religious wars inherited the throne. For a time, nobles reasserted their power. Then, in between the Catholic majority and the 1624, Louis appointed Cardinal Richelieu (ree shul YOO) as his chief Huguenots. Then display Color Trans- minister. This cunning, capable leader devoted the next 18 years to parency 95: St. Bartholomew’s Day strengthening the central government. Massacre. Ask What sort of place is Richelieu sought to destroy the power of the Huguenots and nobles— shown? (royal castles, rich homes) two groups that did not bow to royal authority. Although he allowed the What kinds of people are involved? Huguenots to practice their religion, he smashed their walled cities and (wealthy nobles). Point out Notre Dame outlawed their armies. Likewise, he defeated the private armies of the Cathedral and then ask Why is it in nobles and destroyed their fortified castles. While reducing their inde- the center of the scene? (as the cen- pendence, Richelieu tied the nobles to the king by giving ter of Catholic faith) Tell students that them high posts at court or in the royal army. so many people were slaughtered in the Richelieu also handpicked his able successor, Cardinal Maz- BIOGRAPHY ensuing months that bodies filled the arin (ma za RAN). When five-year-old Louis XIV inherited the rivers and people stopped eating fish. throne in 1643, the year after Richelieu’s death, Mazarin was BIOGRAPHY in place to serve as chief minister. Like Richelieu, Mazarin Color Transparencies, 95

worked tirelessly to extend royal power. ■ Teach Inform students that the St. What did the Edict of Nantes extend Bartholomew’s Day Massacre occurred to Huguenots? on the future King Henry IV’s wedding day. Ask How did Henry IV reunite France? (by becoming Catholic, grant- An Absolute Monarch Rises ing rights to Huguenots, and strength- Soon after Louis XIV became king, disorder again swept ening royal power) Which groups did France. In an uprising called , nobles, merchants, Cardinals Richelieu and Mazarin peasants, and the urban poor each rebelled in order to pro- weaken to increase royal power? test royal power or preserve their own. On one occasion, riot- Cardinal Richelieu (Huguenots and nobles) ers drove the boy king from his palace. It was an experience Armand Richelieu’s (1585–1642) parents expected ■ Louis would never forget. When Mazarin died in 1661, the great things from him. They even invited the king of Quick Activity Henry IV and Riche- 23-year-old Louis resolved to take complete control over the France to attend Armand’s christening, promising lieu made many improvements to government himself. “I have been pleased to entrust the gov- that someday he would be a leader of France. France but also extended royal power. ernment of my affairs to the late Cardinal,” he declared. “It is The young boy also aspired to greatness as he Hold a debate on whether their now time that I govern them myself.” was growing up. At first, he received training to changes were ultimately good or bad become a disciplined and authoritative military for France. “I Am the State” Like his great-grandfather Philip II of officer. Then, at his family’s request, he switched Spain, Louis XIV firmly believed in his divine right to rule. direction. At age 17, he began training to become a He took the sun as the symbol of his absolute power. Just as bishop in the . The path was Independent Practice the sun stands at the center of the solar system, he argued, different but the purpose was the same: to become Tell students that Henry IV’s goal—“A so the Sun King stands at the center of the nation. Louis is a leader and to serve the monarch. chicken in every pot”—became an endur- Over the next 40 years, Armand Richelieu rose to often quoted as saying, “L’état, c’est moi” (lay TAH seh MWAH), ing slogan. Have students create other the highest levels of authority in both religious and which in English translates as “I am the state.” political circles. He became the true power behind slogans appropriate to the reign of either During his reign, Louis did not once call a meeting of the the throne of King Louis XIII. What Henry IV or Louis XIII. , the medieval council made up of representa- characteristics of Richelieu does the artist tives of all French social classes. In fact, the Estates General portray in this painting? Monitor Progress did not meet between 1614 and 1789. Thus, the Estates Gen- eral played no role in checking royal power. To check students’ understanding, ask students to compare the reigns of Henry IV and Louis XIII to that of Philip II of Spain.

Solutions for All Learners

L1 Special Needs L2 Less Proficient Readers

Encourage students to learn from the visuals in this Use the following resources to help students acquire section. Ask them how images of Louis XIV, Cardinal basic skills: Richelieu, and Versailles suggest absolute power. Adapted Reading and Note Taking Answers Then have students study the Infographic on Study Guide religious toleration and other rights page 151. Have students describe a day in the life of ■ Adapted Note Taking Study Guide, p. 66 Louis XIV, one of his , and one of his servants. BIOGRAPHY ■ Adapted Section Summary, p. 67 his seriousness and the power of his religious office

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An Absolute Louis XIV Strengthens Royal Power Louis spent many hours each day attending to government affairs. To strengthen the state, he followed Monarch Rises L3 the policies of Richelieu. He expanded the and appointed intendants, royal officials who collected taxes, recruited soldiers, and Instruct carried out his policies in the provinces. These and other government ■ Introduce: Key Terms Ask students jobs often went to wealthy middle-class men. In this way Louis cemented to find the key term intendant (in his ties with the middle class, thus checking the power of the nobles and blue) in the text and explain its mean- the Church. The king also built the into the strongest in ing. Then have them reread the Wit- Europe. The state paid, fed, trained, and supplied up to 300,000 soldiers. ness History selection. Ask them to Louis used this highly disciplined army to enforce his policies at home predict how intendants would help a and abroad. king gain the absolute power Louis Colbert Builds France’s Finances Louis’s brilliant finance minister, describes. Jean-Baptiste Colbert (kohl behr), imposed mercantilist policies to ■ Teach Ask What was the Fronde? bolster the economy. He had new lands cleared for farming, encouraged (an uprising soon after Louis XIV mining and other basic industries, and built up luxury trades such as became king that protested the growing lacemaking. To protect French manufacturers, Colbert put high tariffs on power of the royals) How did it affect imported goods. He also fostered overseas colonies, such as in North America and several colonies in India, and regulated trade with Louis’ reign? (He later took the gov- the colonies to enrich the royal treasury. Colbert’s policies helped make ernment of France strongly in hand France the wealthiest state in Europe. Yet not even the financial genius himself.) Then discuss ways that Louis of Colbert could produce enough income to support the huge costs of XIV kept the power of other groups in Louis’s court and his many foreign wars. check. Then ask How did Colbert boost the economy? (cleared land for Why did Louis XIV choose the sun as his symbol? farming, encouraged mining and indus- try, built luxury trades, put tariffs on Versailles: Symbol of Royal Power imports, encouraged colonies, regulated In the countryside near Paris, Louis XIV turned a royal hunting lodge trade) into the immense (ver SY). He spared ■ Quick Activity Divide students into no expense to make it the most magnificent building in The Sun King developed his philosophy of absolutism four groups, representing nobles, mer- Europe. Its halls and salons displayed the finest paintings with the help of a brilliant bishop named Jacques chants, peasants, and the urban poor. and statues, and they glittered with chandeliers and mir- Bénigne Bossuet (1627–1704). In his writings, Bossuet Have each group list advantages and rors. In the royal gardens, millions of flowers, trees, and argued that the Bible shows that a monarch rules by the were set out in precise geometric patterns. Ver- disadvantages brought by Louis XIV’s will of God. Therefore, opposition to the monarch is a sin. sailles became the perfect symbol of the Sun King’s wealth reign. Then have all groups debate Bossuet also believed that, although the monarch should and power. As both the king’s home and the seat of govern- whether they should organize an upris- rule absolutely, it was God’s will that he or she act only in ment, it housed nobles, officials, and servants. ing like the Fronde. the best interest of the nation. According to Bossuet, what is the role of a king? Conducting Court Ceremonies Louis XIV perfected elaborate ceremonies that emphasized his own importance. Independent Practice Primary Source Read aloud the Primary Source selection Each day began in the king’s bedroom with a major ritual The royal power is absolute. . . . The prince need ren- on this page. Then ask students to write a “ known as the levée (luh VAY), or rising. High-ranking der account of his acts to no one. . . . Without this nobles competed for the honor of holding the royal washba- paragraph explaining ways in which absolute authority [he] could neither do good nor Louis’s and Colbert’s policies reinforced sin or handing the king his diamond-buckled shoes. At repress evil. It is necessary that his power be such that night, the ceremony was repeated in reverse. Wives of the relationship between king and people, no one can hope to escape him. . . . The prince . . . is nobles vied to attend upon women of the . which is described by Bossuet. Use the not regarded as a private person: he is a public per- Rituals such as the levée served a serious purpose. Think-Write-Pair-Share strategy (TE, sonage, all the state is in him; the will of all the people French nobles were descendants of the feudal lords who p. T23) to have students share their work is included in his. As all perfection and all strength are held power in medieval times. At liberty on their estates, with each other. united in God, so all the power of individuals is united these nobles were a threat to the power of the monarchy. in the person of the prince.” By luring nobles to Versailles, Louis turned them into court- Monitor Progress —Bishop Jacques Bénigne Bossuet, “Politics iers angling for privileges rather than rival warriors battling Drawn from the Very Words of Scripture,” 1679 As students complete their concept webs, for power. His tactic worked because he carefully protected circulate to make sure they understand their prestige and left them exempt from paying taxes. how Louis XIV strengthened royal power. For a completed version of the concept web, see History Background Note Taking Transparencies, 129 Court The strictness of etiquette at Ver- digression from court etiquette subjected one to open sailles made it almost impossible to relax. A noble derision and ridicule for days and might even result in Answers would never consider walking out of his court banishment from court. One duchess who sat down at appointed place in a royal procession. Knocking on a a gaming table when she was not playing was never It symbolized his role as the all-powerful door was forbidden. Instead, one was to scratch on invited to the Palace of Versailles again. center of the nation. the door with the fingernail of the little finger. Any PRIMARY SOURCE to rule with

complete authority over his subjects

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Versailles: Symbol of Royal Power/A Strong State Declines L3 Instruct ■ Introduce: Vocabulary Builder Have students read the Vocabulary Builder term and definition on the next page. Ask students to identify ways in which constant warfare could erode a nation’s resources. ■ Teach Describe France’s cultural and political achievements and Louis’s role in them. Ask Why was Versailles an appropriate seat for the French government? (It was a center of French high culture; its wealth reflected the wealth of the government.) Then describe France’s decline. Ask Why was a balance of power important to European nations? (to avoid domi- nation by any one nation) ■ Quick Activity Display Color Trans- parency 96: Reign of Louis XIV. Dis- cuss whether the costs of Louis’s reign outweighed his achievements. Color Transparencies, 96

Independent Practice ■ Thinking Critically Primary Source To help students 1. Draw Inferences Read the quotation. Judging from better understand life at Versailles, the quotation, what is the speaker’s view of the have them read the selection A Busy differences between nobles and commoners? Day at the Sun King’s Court and com- 2. Draw Conclusions Why are the lives of nobles and plete the worksheet. royalty better documented than those of commoners? Teaching Resources, Unit 1, p. 71

■ Link to Literature To help students better understand class relations in Louis XIV’s France, have them read the excerpt from Molière’s The Would-Be Gentleman and complete the worksheet. Teaching Resources, Unit 1, p. 70

Monitor Progress To check students’ understanding, ask them to explain how the Estates General differed from England’s Parliament dur- 151 ing this period.

Link to Dance Answers Brought to France from Italy by Caterina de’ dances and perform them at the king’s whim. Courtiers Thinking Critically Medici (mother of Henry IV), ballet was originally a stood and bowed in what became ballet’s five foot 1. It suggests that nine-tenths of are spectacle with elaborate costumes, songs, poetry, and positions. When he grew older, Louis stopped dancing, commoners who are poor and hungry, while dance. In the court of Louis XIV, the king and his and so did his courtiers. Louis then started the first pro- one-tenth are nobles who are rich and over- courtiers performed the themselves. At age fessional ballet school. Only later did ballet develop indulgent. fourteen, Louis danced the role of , god of the lighter costumes, slippers without heels, and dancing 2. Nobles had the leisure to write or the money to sun, and later became known as the Sun King. His en pointe. have others write about them; because they courtiers had to learn and practice many complex were more involved in government, their actions were well-recorded.

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Patronizing the Arts The king and his court supported a “splendid Assess and Reteach century” of the arts. The age of Louis XIV came to be known as the classi-

cal age of French drama. In painting, music, architecture, and decorative Assess Progress L3 arts, French styles became the model for all Europe. A new form of dance ■ Have students complete the drama, ballet, gained its first great popularity at the French court. As a Section Assessment. leading patron of culture, Louis sponsored the French , which set high standards for both the arts and the sciences. ■ Administer the Section Quiz. How did Louis XIV secure support from the ? Teaching Resources, Unit 1, p. 64

■ To further assess student under- standing, use A Strong State Declines Progress Monitoring Transparencies, 68 Louis XIV ruled France for 72 years—far longer than any other monarch. At Vocabulary Builder the end of Louis’s reign, France was the strongest state in Europe. However, erode—(ee ROHD) v. wear away or some of Louis’s decisions eventually caused France’s prosperity to erode. Reteach L1 L2 disintegrate If students need more instruction, have Waging Costly Wars Louis XIV poured vast resources into wars them read the section summary. meant to expand French borders. However, rival rulers joined forces to check these ambitions. Led by the Dutch or the English, these alliances Reading and Note Taking L3 fought to maintain the balance of power. The goal was to maintain a

Study Guide, p. 67 distribution of military and economic power among European nations to prevent any one country from dominating the region. Adapted Reading and L1 L2 In 1700, Louis’s grandson Philip V inherited the throne of Spain. Note Taking Study Guide, p. 67 To maintain the balance of power, neighboring nations led by England fought to prevent the union of France and Spain. The War of the Spanish Spanish Reading and L2 Succession dragged on until 1713, when an exhausted France signed the Note Taking Study Guide, p. 67 Treaty of (YOO trekt). Philip remained on the Spanish throne, but France agreed never to unite the two crowns.

Extend L4 Persecuting Huguenots Louis saw France’s Protestant minority as a Hold a class debate on whether a U.S. threat to religious and political unity. In 1685, he revoked the Edict of president would ever say “I am the state.” Nantes. More than 100,000 Huguenots fled France, settling mainly in Ask students whether citizens might feel England, the , Germany, Poland, and the Americas. The differently about such a statement at a Huguenots had been among the hardest working and most prosperous of time of crisis, such as an invasion. Louis’s subjects. Their loss was a serious blow to the French economy, just as the expulsion of Spanish and had hurt Spain. How did Louis’s actions weaken France’s economy? Answers

He kept them tied to the court; he exempted Progress Monitoring Online

them from paying taxes. 2 For: Self-quiz with vocabulary practice Web Code: nba-1621 Waging war drained his treasury; expelling

Huguenots removed some of his most produc- Terms, People, and Places Comprehension and Critical Thinking ● Writing About History tive subjects. 1. What do each of the key terms, people, 3. Draw Inferences How did Henry IV’s Quick Write: Support Opinions With and places listed at the beginning of the conversion to Catholicism help France Evidence Choose a topic from the section, section have in common? Explain. unite? such as whether or not you think Louis 4. Identify Central Issues What was XIV’s reign was good for France. Make a list the purpose of Louis XIV’s extravagant of evidence from the text that supports 2. Reading Skill: Identify Supporting palace and daily rituals? your opinion. Details Use your completed concept 5. Recognize Ideologies Why did other web to answer the Focus Question: European nations form alliances to How did France become the leading oppose France’s plans to expand? power of Europe under the absolute rule of Louis XIV?

3. Because he was a Huguenot, Henry IV’s ● Writing About History Section 2 Assessment conversion united France by healing Responses should include a substantial list 1. They all have to do with French govern- the division between Huguenots and of evidence that clearly supports an opinion. ment and power from the late 1500s to Catholics. the early . 4. They kept the nobles busy in the king’s 2. Louis XIV strengthened royal power, the court instead of battling for power. army, the economy, and the arts to make 5. They wanted to keep the balance of power France the leading power of Europe. so they would not be dominated by France or any other European nation. For additional assessment, have students access Progress Monitoring Online at Web Code nba-1621.

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How have societies chosen to govern themselves? Political Systems A society is a complex network of relationships among Objectives individuals and groups whose goals may clash. To avoid An chaos, societies create governments to make decisions in Egyptian ■ Describe the main kinds of political the common interest. They also create governments to pharaoh systems. defend themselves from attack. Throughout history those ■ Understand how different political governments, or political systems, have taken many forms, systems distribute power. depending on historical circumstances. The ancient Greeks designated three types of government: rule by one (monarchy, autocracy); rule by the few (aristocracy, Build Background Knowledge L3 oligarchy); and rule by the many (democracy). Consider the following historical examples: Ask students to recall all the forms of A present-day artist recreates a government they can think of. Write meeting of the Roman Senate. their responses on the board. Then group their responses into rule by one, rule by Rule by One Rule by the Few Rule by the Many the few, and rule by the many. 1. The ancient Egyptians needed an 1. Ancient Sparta, a military society, 1. In 1789, the efficient government to manage had two kings, a council of elders, and abolished the monarchy and estab- Instruct L3 activities related to the annual a group of officials who ran the day- lished a republic. This democracy, Create three columns on the board and flooding of the Nile. At the head of to-day affairs. They were all members however, was unstable. France went the government stood an absolute of the aristocracy, Sparta’s governing through periods of empire, republic, list the three main types of political monarch, the pharaoh. The pharaoh class of nobles and soldiers. For the and monarchy until the constitution systems. Have students volunteer the relied on his vizier, or chief minister, Greeks, aristocracy meant govern- of 1958 established the Fifth Republic. strengths and weaknesses of each type of to handle the country’s affairs. The ment by those best suited to rule. Today the government has a two-house political system, and write those in each vizier directed a large government Unlike neighboring Athens, Sparta parliament and a strong president column. Ask them to think about which bureaucracy. Most Egyptians had no never experienced tyranny. who is directly elected. All citizens 18 system is best for war, for peace, for the say in how they were governed. 2. After the fall of the Roman Empire, and older, except for certain criminals, economy, for social order, and for interna- 2. As chairman of the Communist the political system known as can vote. Party, Mao Zedong ruled China from arose in Europe. In this 2. In 1961, South Africa left the tional power. Ask them to also consider 1949 until his death in 1976. In system, the power lay with a military British Commonwealth to become an which classes of people benefit most from reality, he stood above the party as elite. The Greeks might have preferred independent republic. The movement each system, and which of these systems an autocrat with dictatorial powers. to call it an oligarchy—government to end apartheid, or racial separation, have the potential to cause the most suf- At will, he purged party members based on private interests rather than resulted in a new constitution in 1997. fering. Finally, ask students how com- and military leaders who crossed the interests of the whole society. All citizens over age 18 can vote to mon each of these systems is in the world him. Through the party, he Nobles traded land and labor for elect members to a two-house Parlia- today and why. maintained tight control over the political and military service. Warfare ment. The lower house then elects a government, economy, and most dominated people’s lives. president as the nation’s other aspects of Chinese society. and chief executive. Independent Practice A South African votes in his country’s Have students fill in first open election since the end of apartheid. the Concept Connector worksheet on Thinking Critically political systems, which includes addi- 1. Connect (a) Which of these three tional examples and critical thinking forms of government strikes you as questions. the fairest? Why? (b) Which do you think is most capable of defending a Reading and Note Taking society from attack? Why? Study Guide, p. 284 2. Conduct Internet or library research to find out more about these and other Monitor Progress examples of political systems. Write a paragraph expressing your thoughts Circulate to make sure that students are about one political system. filling in their Concept Connector work- sheets accurately. Ensure they under- stand the three types of political systems and how they relate to key terms used in History Background the rest of the chapter, such as absolute monarch. Democratization The late twentieth century saw ation, and tolerance of differences are essential for many countries change from autocratic rule to democ- democracy to survive. Sometimes, deep conflicts can racy, a process scholars call democratization. One lead to violence and a reassertion of control by one or scholar, Samuel P. Huntington, sees three waves of a few. But in South Africa, Nelson Mandela, who Thinking Critically democratization in history: in the early 1800s, just became the president of the new democracy after 1. (a) Sample: rule by the many, because more after World War II, and in the late 1900s. In some being jailed for 27 years, kept the head of the old, rac- people take part in decisions. (b) Answers may countries, democratization was followed by reversion ist regime as his vice president. This spirit of coopera- vary but should offer clear reasons. to autocracy. Some scholars believe that trust, cooper- tion helped lead to a peaceful transition. 2. Paragraphs should show a clear understanding of the political system chosen.

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