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Home , Jacque Fresco, Limbal ring, Murray Sidman, Petrine Baroque, Phthalocyanine Green G, Robert Remez

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8888 Basic Photography in 180 Days Book XIV - Art and Psychology Editor: Ramon F. aeroramon.com Contents

1 Day 1 1 1.1 Visual perception ...... 1 1.1.1 Visual system ...... 1 1.1.2 Study ...... 1 1.1.3 The cognitive and computational approaches ...... 3 1.1.4 Transduction ...... 4 1.1.5 Opponent process ...... 4 1.1.6 Artiﬁcial visual perception ...... 4 1.1.7 See also ...... 4 1.1.8 Further reading ...... 4 1.1.9 References ...... 4 1.1.10 External links ...... 5 1.2 Depth perception ...... 6 1.2.1 Monocular cues ...... 6 1.2.2 Binocular cues ...... 7 1.2.3 Theories of evolution ...... 8 1.2.4 In art ...... 8 1.2.5 Disorders aﬀecting depth perception ...... 9 1.2.6 See also ...... 9 1.2.7 References ...... 9 1.2.8 Bibliography ...... 10 1.2.9 External links ...... 10

2 Day 2 11 2.1 Human eye ...... 11 2.1.1 Structure ...... 11 2.1.2 Vision ...... 12 2.1.3 Near response ...... 14 2.1.4 Clinical signiﬁcance ...... 15 2.1.5 Additional images ...... 18 2.1.6 See also ...... 19 2.1.7 References ...... 19 2.1.8 External links ...... 22

i ii CONTENTS

3 Day 3 23 3.1 Gestalt psychology ...... 23 3.1.1 Origins ...... 23 3.1.2 Theoretical framework and methodology ...... 24 3.1.3 Support from cybernetics and neurology ...... 24 3.1.4 Properties ...... 25 3.1.5 Prägnanz ...... 26 3.1.6 Criticisms ...... 27 3.1.7 Gestalt views in psychology ...... 28 3.1.8 Use in design ...... 28 3.1.9 Quantum cognition modeling ...... 28 3.1.10 See also ...... 29 3.1.11 References ...... 29 3.1.12 External links ...... 30 3.2 Pattern recognition (psychology) ...... 30 3.2.1 Theories ...... 30 3.2.2 Multiple discrimination scaling ...... 31 3.2.3 False pattern recognition ...... 31 3.2.4 See also ...... 31 3.2.5 Notes ...... 31 3.2.6 Citations ...... 31 3.2.7 References ...... 31 3.2.8 External links ...... 32 3.3 List of important publications in psychology ...... 32 3.3.1 Historical foundations ...... 32 3.3.2 Abnormal psychology ...... 32 3.3.3 Behaviorism ...... 32 3.3.4 Biological psychology ...... 32 3.3.5 Clinical psychology ...... 32 3.3.6 Cognitive psychology ...... 33 3.3.7 'Control theory' psychology ...... 34 3.3.8 Developmental psychology ...... 34 3.3.9 Educational psychology ...... 34 3.3.10 Evolutionary psychology ...... 35 3.3.11 Forensic psychology ...... 35 3.3.12 Genetic psychology ...... 35 3.3.13 Gestalt psychology ...... 35 3.3.14 Health psychology ...... 35 3.3.15 Human behavior genetics ...... 35 3.3.16 Humanistic psychology ...... 36 3.3.17 Industrial and organizational psychology ...... 36 CONTENTS iii

3.3.18 Neuropharmacology ...... 36 3.3.19 Occupational health psychology ...... 36 3.3.20 Personality psychology ...... 37 3.3.21 Phenomenology ...... 37 3.3.22 Religion ...... 37 3.3.23 Psychophysics ...... 37 3.3.24 Social psychology ...... 38 3.3.25 External links ...... 38

4 Day 4 39 4.1 Behaviorism ...... 39 4.1.1 Versions ...... 39 4.1.2 Education ...... 41 4.1.3 Operant conditioning ...... 41 4.1.4 Classical conditioning ...... 41 4.1.5 Molecular versus molar behaviorism ...... 41 4.1.6 In philosophy ...... 42 4.1.7 21st-century behavior analysis ...... 42 4.1.8 Behavior analysis and culture ...... 43 4.1.9 Behavior informatics and behavior computing ...... 43 4.1.10 Criticisms and limitations of behaviorism ...... 43 4.1.11 List of notable behaviorists ...... 44 4.1.12 See also ...... 44 4.1.13 References ...... 45 4.1.14 Further reading ...... 46 4.1.15 External links ...... 47 4.2 Visual anthropology ...... 47 4.2.1 History ...... 48 4.2.2 Timeline and breadth of prehistoric visual representation ...... 48 4.2.3 List of visual anthropology academic programs ...... 49 4.2.4 List of ﬁlms ...... 50 4.2.5 See also ...... 50 4.2.6 References ...... 50 4.2.7 Bibliography ...... 51 4.2.8 Further reading ...... 51 4.2.9 External links ...... 51

5 Day 5 53 5.1 The arts ...... 53 5.1.1 Deﬁnitions ...... 53 5.1.2 History ...... 53 5.1.3 Disciplines ...... 54 iv CONTENTS

5.1.4 Visual arts ...... 54 5.1.5 Literary arts ...... 56 5.1.6 Performing arts ...... 57 5.1.7 Multidisciplinary artistic works ...... 58 5.1.8 Video games ...... 58 5.1.9 Gastronomy ...... 58 5.1.10 Arts criticism ...... 58 5.1.11 See also ...... 59 5.1.12 Footnotes ...... 59 5.1.13 References ...... 59 5.1.14 External links ...... 59 5.2 Painting ...... 60 5.2.1 Elements of Painting ...... 60 5.2.2 History ...... 61 5.2.3 Aesthetics and theory ...... 62 5.2.4 Painting media ...... 63 5.2.5 Painting styles ...... 66 5.2.6 Idioms ...... 68 5.2.7 See also ...... 69 5.2.8 Notes ...... 70 5.2.9 Further reading ...... 71 5.3 Pigment ...... 71 5.3.1 Physical basis ...... 71 5.3.2 History ...... 72 5.3.3 Manufacturing and industrial standards ...... 75 5.3.4 Scientiﬁc and technical issues ...... 76 5.3.5 Swatches ...... 76 5.3.6 Biological pigments ...... 77 5.3.7 Pigments by elemental composition ...... 77 5.3.8 See also ...... 78 5.3.9 Notes ...... 78 5.3.10 References ...... 78 5.3.11 External links ...... 79

6 Day 6 80 6.1 Emotion ...... 80 6.1.1 Etymology, definitions, and differentiation ...... 81 6.1.2 Components ...... 81 6.1.3 Classification ...... 81 6.1.4 Theories ...... 82 6.1.5 Genetics ...... 86 6.1.6 Neurocircuitry ...... 86 CONTENTS v

6.1.7 Disciplinary approaches ...... 87 6.1.8 Notable theorists ...... 90 6.1.9 See also ...... 91 6.1.10 References ...... 92 6.1.11 Further reading ...... 95 6.1.12 External links ...... 95 6.2 Love ...... 96 6.2.1 Deﬁnitions ...... 96 6.2.2 Impersonal love ...... 97 6.2.3 Interpersonal love ...... 97 6.2.4 Cultural views ...... 99 6.2.5 Religious views ...... 101 6.2.6 Political views ...... 104 6.2.7 Philosophical views ...... 104 6.2.8 See also ...... 105 6.2.9 References ...... 105 6.2.10 Sources ...... 106 6.2.11 Further reading ...... 106 6.2.12 External links ...... 106 6.3 Knowledge ...... 106 6.3.1 Theories of knowledge ...... 107 6.3.2 Communicating knowledge ...... 107 6.3.3 Situated knowledge ...... 108 6.3.4 Partial knowledge ...... 109 6.3.5 Scientiﬁc knowledge ...... 109 6.3.6 Religious meaning of knowledge ...... 110 6.3.7 See also ...... 110 6.3.8 References ...... 111 6.3.9 External links ...... 112

7 Day 7 113 7.1 Perception ...... 113 7.1.1 Process and terminology ...... 113 7.1.2 Reality ...... 114 7.1.3 Features ...... 114 7.1.4 Eﬀect of experience ...... 116 7.1.5 Eﬀect of motivation and expectation ...... 116 7.1.6 Theories ...... 116 7.1.7 Physiology ...... 117 7.1.8 Types ...... 118 7.1.9 See also ...... 120 7.1.10 Notes ...... 120 vi CONTENTS

7.1.11 References ...... 122 7.1.12 Bibliography ...... 122 7.1.13 External links ...... 122 7.2 Creativity ...... 122 7.2.1 Definition ...... 123 7.2.2 Aspects ...... 123 7.2.3 Etymology ...... 123 7.2.4 History of the concept ...... 123 7.2.5 Theories of creative processes ...... 125 7.2.6 Assessing individual creative ability ...... 127 7.2.7 Creativity and intelligence ...... 128 7.2.8 Neuroscience ...... 130 7.2.9 Affect ...... 131 7.2.10 Creativity and artificial intelligence ...... 132 7.2.11 Mental health ...... 132 7.2.12 Creativity and personality ...... 133 7.2.13 Malevolent creativity ...... 134 7.2.14 Creativity across cultures ...... 134 7.2.15 In organizations ...... 135 7.2.16 Economic views of creativity ...... 135 7.2.17 Fostering creativity ...... 136 7.2.18 List of academic journals addressing creativity ...... 136 7.2.19 See also ...... 137 7.2.20 Notes ...... 137 7.2.21 References ...... 142 7.2.22 Further reading ...... 144 7.2.23 External links ...... 145 7.3 Imagination ...... 145 7.3.1 Description ...... 145 7.3.2 Psychology ...... 146 7.3.3 Memory ...... 146 7.3.4 Perception ...... 146 7.3.5 Versus belief ...... 146 7.3.6 Brain activation ...... 147 7.3.7 As a reality ...... 147 7.3.8 See also ...... 147 7.3.9 References ...... 147 7.3.10 Further reading ...... 148 7.3.11 External links ...... 148

8 Day 8 149 8.1 Artistic inspiration ...... 149 CONTENTS vii

8.1.1 History of the concepts ...... 149 8.1.2 See also ...... 151 8.1.3 References ...... 151 8.2 Muse ...... 151 8.2.1 Etymology ...... 151 8.2.2 Number and names ...... 151 8.2.3 Mythology ...... 153 8.2.4 Emblems ...... 153 8.2.5 Functions ...... 154 8.2.6 Modern use ...... 156 8.2.7 Gallery ...... 156 8.2.8 See also ...... 157 8.2.9 References ...... 157 8.2.10 External links ...... 157 8.3 Aﬄatus ...... 158 8.3.1 References ...... 158

9 Day 9 159 9.1 Baroque ...... 159 9.1.1 Etymology ...... 159 9.1.2 Modern taste and usage ...... 160 9.1.3 Development ...... 160 9.1.4 Painting ...... 161 9.1.5 Sculpture ...... 162 9.1.6 Architecture ...... 163 9.1.7 Theatre ...... 164 9.1.8 Literature ...... 166 9.1.9 Philosophy ...... 166 9.1.10 Music ...... 166 9.1.11 See also ...... 168 9.1.12 Notes ...... 168 9.1.13 References ...... 169 9.1.14 Further reading ...... 169 9.1.15 External links ...... 169 9.2 Renaissance ...... 170 9.2.1 Overview ...... 171 9.2.2 Origins ...... 172 9.2.3 Characteristics ...... 175 9.2.4 Spread ...... 179 9.2.5 Historiography ...... 185 9.2.6 Other Renaissances ...... 186 9.2.7 See also ...... 186 viii CONTENTS

9.2.8 References ...... 187 9.2.9 Bibliography ...... 190 9.2.10 Further reading ...... 190 9.2.11 External links ...... 191

10 Day 10 192 10.1 Photorealism ...... 192 10.1.1 History ...... 192 10.1.2 List of photorealists ...... 194 10.1.3 See also ...... 194 10.1.4 References ...... 194 10.1.5 External links ...... 195

11 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses 196 11.1 Text ...... 196 11.2 Images ...... 210 11.3 Content license ...... 219 Chapter 1

Day 1

1.1 Visual perception vous system and better eyes than say a jellyfish. However, the following applies to mammals generally and birds (in “Sight”redirects here. For other uses, see Sight (disam- modified form): The retina in these more complex ani- biguation). mals sends fibers (the optic nerve) to the lateral geniculate “Eyesight”redirects here. For the James Brown song, nucleus, to the primary and secondary visual cortex of the see Eyesight (song). brain. Signals from the retina can also travel directly from See also: Visual system the retina to the superior colliculus. The perception of objects and the totality of the visual Visual perception is the ability to interpret the surround- scene is accomplished by the visual association cortex. ing environment using light in the visible spectrum re- The visual association cortex combines all sensory in- flected by the objects in the environment. formation perceived by the striate cortex which contains thousands of modules that are part of modular neural net- The resulting perception is also known as visual percep- works. The neurons in the striate cortex send axons to the tion, eyesight, sight, or vision (adjectival form: visual, extrastriate cortex, a region in the visual association cor- optical, or ocular). The various physiological compo- tex that surrounds the striate cortex.*[1] nents involved in vision are referred to collectively as the visual system, and are the focus of much research in linguistics, psychology, cognitive science, neuroscience, 1.1.2 Study and molecular biology, collectively referred to as vision science. See also: Two-streams hypothesis

1.1.1 Visual system The major problem in visual perception is that what people see is not simply a translation of retinal stimuli (i.e., the image on the retina). Thus people interested in per- Main article: Visual system ception have long struggled to explain what visual processing does to create what is actually seen. The visual system in animals allows individuals to assimilate information from their surroundings. The act of seeing starts when the cornea and then the lens of the eye Early studies focuses light from its surroundings onto a light-sensitive membrane in the back of the eye, called the retina. The There were two major ancient Greek schools, providing retina is actually part of the brain that is isolated to serve a primitive explanation of how vision is carried out in the as a transducer for the conversion of light into neuronal body. signals. Based on feedback from the visual system, the The ﬁrst was the "emission theory" which maintained that lens of the eye adjusts its thickness to focus light on the vision occurs when rays emanate from the eyes and are photoreceptive cells of the retina, also known as the rods intercepted by visual objects. If an object was seen di- and cones, which detect the photons of light and respond rectly it was by 'means of rays' coming out of the eyes by producing neural impulses. These signals are pro- and again falling on the object. A refracted image was, cessed via complex feedforward and feedback processes however, seen by 'means of rays' as well, which came out by diﬀerent parts of the brain, from the retina upstream of the eyes, traversed through the air, and after refraction, to central ganglia in the brain. fell on the visible object which was sighted as the result Note that up until now much of the above paragraph of the movement of the rays from the eye. This theory could apply to octopi, mollusks, worms, insects and things was championed by scholars like Euclid and Ptolemy and more primitive; anything with a more concentrated ner- their followers.

1 2 CHAPTER 1. DAY 1

Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) is believed to be the first to recognize the special optical qualities of the eye. He wrote “The function of the human eye ... was described by a large number of authors in a certain way. But I found it to be completely different.”His main experimental finding was that there is only a distinct and clear vision at the line of sight—the optical line that ends at the fovea. Although he did not use these words literally he actually is the father of the modern distinction between foveal and peripheral vision.

Unconscious inference

The visual dorsal stream (green) and ventral stream (purple) are Main article: Unconscious inference shown. Much of the human cerebral cortex is involved in vision. Hermann von Helmholtz is often credited with the first The second school advocated the so-called 'intro-mission' study of visual perception in modern times. Helmholtz approach which sees vision as coming from something examined the human eye and concluded that it was, opti- entering the eyes representative of the object. With cally, rather poor. The poor-quality information gathered its main propagators Aristotle, Galen and their follow- via the eye seemed to him to make vision impossible. He ers, this theory seems to have some contact with mod- therefore concluded that vision could only be the result of ern theories of what vision really is, but it remained some form of unconscious inferences: a matter of mak- only a speculation lacking any experimental founda- ing assumptions and conclusions from incomplete data, * tion. (In eighteenth-century England, Isaac Newton, John based on previous experiences. [6] Locke, and others, carried the intromission/intromittist Inference requires prior experience of the world. theory forward by insisting that vision involved a process in which rays—composed of actual corporeal mat- Examples of well-known assumptions, based on visual ter—emanated from seen objects and entered the seer's experience, are: mind/sensorium through the eye's aperture.)*[2] • light comes from above Both schools of thought relied upon the principle that “like is only known by like”, and thus upon the notion that • objects are normally not viewed from below “ ” the eye was composed of some internal fire which in- • faces are seen (and recognized) upright.*[7] teracted with the“external fire”of visible light and made vision possible. Plato makes this assertion in his dialogue • closer objects can block the view of more distant Timaeus, as does Aristotle, in his De Sensu.*[3] objects, but not vice versa • figures (i.e., foreground objects) tend to have convex borders

The study of visual illusions (cases when the inference process goes wrong) has yielded much insight into what sort of assumptions the visual system makes. Another type of the unconscious inference hypothesis (based on probabilities) has recently been revived in so- called Bayesian studies of visual perception.*[8] Propo- nents of this approach consider that the visual system per- forms some form of Bayesian inference to derive a perception from sensory data. However, it is not clear how proponents of this view derive, in principle, the relevant probabilities required by the Bayesian equation. Models Leonardo da Vinci: The eye has a central line and everything that based on this idea have been used to describe various vi- reaches the eye through this central line can be seen distinctly. sual perceptual functions, such as the perception of motion, the perception of depth, and ﬁgure-ground percep- Alhazen (965–c. 1040) carried out many investigations tion.*[9]*[10] The "wholly empirical theory of percep- and experiments on visual perception, extended the work tion" is a related and newer approach that rationalizes vi- of Ptolemy on binocular vision, and commented on the sual perception without explicitly invoking Bayesian for- anatomical works of Galen.*[4]*[5] malisms. 1.1. VISUAL PERCEPTION 3

Gestalt theory of eye movements: vergence movements, saccadic movements and pursuit movements. Vergence movements in- Main article: Gestalt psychology volve the cooperation of both eyes to allow for an image to fall on the same area of both retinas. This results in a Gestalt psychologists working primarily in the 1930s and single focused image. Saccadic movements is the type 1940s raised many of the research questions that are stud- of eye movement that makes jumps from one position to ied by vision scientists today. another position and is used to rapidly scan a particular scene/image. Lastly, pursuit movement is smooth eye The Gestalt Laws of Organization have guided the movement and is used to follow objects in motion.*[15] study of how people perceive visual components as organized patterns or wholes, instead of many different parts. “Gestalt”is a German word that partially translates to Face and object recognition “configuration or pattern”along with “whole or emer- gent structure”. According to this theory, there are eight There is considerable evidence that face and object recog- main factors that determine how the visual system auto- nition are accomplished by distinct systems. For exam- matically groups elements into patterns: Proximity, Sim- ple, prosopagnosic patients show deficits in face, but not ilarity, Closure, Symmetry, Common Fate (i.e. common object processing, while object agnosic patients (most motion), Continuity as well as Good Gestalt (pattern that notably, patient C.K.) show deficits in object process- * is regular, simple, and orderly) and Past Experience. ing with spared face processing. [16] Behaviorally, it has been shown that faces, but not objects, are subject to inversion effects, leading to the claim that faces are Analysis of eye movement “special”.*[16]*[17] Further, face and object processing recruit distinct neural systems.*[18] Notably, some See also: Eye movement have argued that the apparent specialization of the hu- During the 1960s, technical development permitted the man brain for face processing does not reflect true domain specificity, but rather a more general process of expert- level discrimination within a given class of stimulus,*[19] though this latter claim is the subject of substantial debate.

1.1.3 The cognitive and computational approaches

In the 1970s, David Marr developed a multi-level theory of vision, which analyzed the process of vision at different levels of abstraction. In order to focus on the understanding of specific problems in vision, he identified three levels of analysis: the computational, algorithmic and im- Eye movement first 2 seconds (Yarbus, 1967) plementational levels. Many vision scientists, including continuous registration of eye movement during read- Tomaso Poggio, have embraced these levels of analysis ing*[11] in picture viewing*[12] and later in visual prob- and employed them to further characterize vision from a lem solving*[13] and when headset-cameras became computational perspective. available, also during driving.*[14] The computational level addresses, at a high level of ab- The picture to the left shows what may happen during the straction, the problems that the visual system must over- first two seconds of visual inspection. While the back- come. The algorithmic level attempts to identify the strat- ground is out of focus, representing the peripheral vision, egy that may be used to solve these problems. Finally, the the first eye movement goes to the boots of the man (just implementational level attempts to explain how solutions because they are very near the starting fixation and have to these problems are realized in neural circuitry. a reasonable contrast). Marr suggested that it is possible to investigate vision at The following fixations jump from face to face. They any of these levels independently. Marr described vision might even permit comparisons between faces. as proceeding from a two-dimensional visual array (on the retina) to a three-dimensional description of the world as It may be concluded that the icon face is a very attrac- output. His stages of vision include: tive search icon within the peripheral field of vision. The foveal vision adds detailed information to the peripheral • A 2D or primal sketch of the scene, based on feature first impression. extraction of fundamental components of the scene, It can also be noted that there are three different types including edges, regions, etc. Note the similarity in 4 CHAPTER 1. DAY 1

concept to a pencil sketch drawn quickly by an artist 1.1.5 Opponent process as an impression. Transduction involves chemical messages sent from the • A 2½ D sketch of the scene, where textures are ac- photoreceptors to the bipolar cells to the ganglion cells. knowledged, etc. Note the similarity in concept to Several photoreceptors may send their information to one the stage in drawing where an artist highlights or ganglion cell. There are two types of ganglion cells: shades areas of a scene, to provide depth. red/green and yellow/blue. These neuron cells consistently fire—even when not stimulated. The brain interprets different colors (and with a lot of information, an • A 3 D model, where the scene is visualized in a con- image) when the rate of firing of these neurons alters. * tinuous, 3-dimensional map. [20] Red light stimulates the red cone, which in turn stimulates the red/green ganglion cell. Likewise, green light stimulates the green cone, which stimulates the red/green Marr's 2.5D sketch assumes that a depth map is con- ganglion cell and blue light stimulates the blue cone which structed, and that this map is the basis of 3D shape per- stimulates the yellow/blue ganglion cell. The rate of fir- ception. However, both stereoscopic and pictorial per- ing of the ganglion cells is increased when it is signaled by ception, as well as monocular viewing, make clear that one cone and decreased (inhibited) when it is signaled by the perception of 3D shape precedes, and does not rely the other cone. The first color in the name if the gan- on, the perception of the depth of points. It is not clear glion cell is the color that excites it and the second is how a preliminary depth map could, in principle, be the color that inhibits it. i.e.: A red cone would excite constructed, nor how this would address the question of the red/green ganglion cell and the green cone would in- figure-ground organization, or grouping. The role of per- hibit the red/green ganglion cell. This is an opponent pro- ceptual organizing constraints, overlooked by Marr, in cess. If the rate of firing of a red/green ganglion cell is the production of 3D shape percepts from binocularly- increased, the brain would know that the light was red, viewed 3D objects has been demonstrated empirically for if the rate was decreased, the brain would know that the the case of 3D wire objects, e.g.*[21] For a more detailed color of the light was green.*[25] discussion, see Pizlo (2008).*[22]

1.1.6 Artificial visual perception 1.1.4 Transduction Theories and observations of visual perception have been Main article: Visual phototransduction the main source of inspiration for computer vision (also called machine vision, or computational vision). Special hardware structures and software algorithms provide ma- Transduction is the process through which energy from chines with the capability to interpret the images coming environmental stimuli is converted to neural activity for from a camera or a sensor. Artificial Visual Perception the brain to understand and process. The back of the eye has long been used in the industry and is now entering the contains three different cell layers: photoreceptor layer, domains of automotive and robotics.*[26]*[27] bipolar cell layer and ganglion cell layer. The photoreceptor layer is at the very back and contains rod photoreceptors and cone photoreceptors. Cones are responsible for 1.1.7 See also color perception. There are three different cones: red, green and blue. Rods, are responsible for the percep- Vision deficiencies or disorders tion of objects in low light.*[23] Photoreceptors contain within them a special chemical called a photopigment, Related disciplines which are embedded in the membrane of the lamellae; a single human rod contains approximately 10 million of 1.1.8 Further reading them. The photopigment molecules consist of two parts: an opsin (a protein) and retinal (a lipid).*[24] There are • Vision Scholarpedia Expert articles about Vision 3 specific photopigments (each with their own color) that respond to specific wavelengths of light. When the appropriate wavelength of light hits the photoreceptor, its 1.1.9 References photopigment splits into two, which sends a message to the bipolar cell layer, which in turn sends a message to the [1] Carlson, Neil R. (2013). “6”. Physiology of Behaviour ganglion cells, which then send the information through (11th ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, USA: Pear- the optic nerve to the brain. If the appropriate photopig- son Education Inc. pp. 187–189. ISBN 978-0-205- 23939-9. ment is not in the proper photoreceptor (for example, a green photopigment inside a red cone), a condition called [2] Swenson, Rivka. (Spring/Summer 2010). Optics, Gen- color vision deficiency will occur.*[25] der, and the Eighteenth-Century Gaze: Looking at Eliza 1.1. VISUAL PERCEPTION 5

Haywood’s Anti-Pamela. The Eighteenth Century: The- [16] Moscovitch, Morris; Winocur, Gordon; Behrmann, Mar- ory and Interpretation, 51.1-2, 27-43. lene (1997). “What Is Special about Face Recogni- tion? Nineteen Experiments on a Person with Visual Ob- [3] Finger, Stanley (1994). Origins of neuroscience: a history ject Agnosia and Dyslexia but Normal Face Recognition” of explorations into brain function. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: . Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. 9 (5): 555–604. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-506503-4. OCLC doi:10.1162/jocn.1997.9.5.555. PMID 23965118. 27151391. [17] Yin, Robert K. (1969). “Looking at upside-down faces” [4] Howard, I (1996). “Alhazen's neglected discoveries of . Journal of Experimental Psychology. 81 (1): 141–5. visual phenomena”. Perception. 25 (10): 1203–1217. doi:10.1037/h0027474. doi:10.1068/p251203. PMID 9027923. [18] Kanwisher, Nancy; McDermott, Josh; Chun, Marvin M. [5] Khaleefa, Omar (1999). “Who Is the Founder of Psy- (June 1997). “The fusiform face area: a module in hu- chophysics and Experimental Psychology?". American man extrastriate cortex specialized for face perception”. Journal of Islamic Social Sciences. 16 (2): 1–26. The Journal of Neuroscience. 17 (11): 4302–11. PMID 9151747. [6] von Helmholtz, Hermann (1925). Handbuch der physiologischen Optik. 3. Leipzig: Voss. [19] Gauthier, Isabel; Skudlarski, Pawel; Gore, John C.; An- derson, Adam W. (February 2000). “Expertise for cars [7] Hans-Werner Hunziker, (2006) Im Auge des Lesers: and birds recruits brain areas involved in face recognition” foveale und periphere Wahrnehmung – vom Buchsta- . Nature Neuroscience. 3 (2): 191–7. doi:10.1038/72140. bieren zur Lesefreude [In the eye of the reader: foveal and PMID 10649576. peripheral perception – from letter recognition to the joy of reading] Transmedia Stäubli Verlag Zürich 2006 ISBN [20] Marr, D (1982). Vision: A Computational Investigation 978-3-7266-0068-6 into the Human Representation and Processing of Visual [8] Stone, JV (2011). “Footprints sticking out of the Information. MIT Press. sand. Part 2: children's Bayesian priors for shape [21] Rock & DiVita, 1987; Pizlo and Stevenson, 1999 and lighting direction”. Perception. 40 (2): 175–90. doi:10.1068/p6776. PMID 21650091. [22] 3D Shape, Z. Pizlo (2008) MIT Press)

[9] Mamassian, Pascal; Landy, Michael; Maloney, Laurence [23] Hecht, Selig (1937-04-01).“Rods, Cones, and the Chem- T. (2002). “Bayesian Modelling of Visual Perception” ical Basis of Vision”. Physiological Reviews. 17 (2): 239– . In Rao, Rajesh P. N.; Olshausen, Bruno A.; Lewicki, 290. ISSN 0031-9333. Michael S. Probabilistic Models of the Brain: Perception and Neural Function. Neural Information Processing. [24] Carlson, Neil R. (2013). “6”. Physiology of Behaviour MIT Press. pp. 13–36. ISBN 978-0-262-26432-7. (11th ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, USA: Pear- son Education Inc. p. 170. ISBN 978-0-205-23939-9. [10] A Primer on Probabilistic Approaches to Visual Percep- tion [25] Carlson, Neil R.; Heth, C. Donald (2010). “5”. Psy- chology the science of behaviour (2nd ed.). Upper Sad- [11] Taylor, Stanford E. (November 1965). “Eye Move- dle River, New Jersey, USA: Pearson Education Inc. pp. ments in Reading: Facts and Fallacies”. Ameri- 138–145. ISBN 978-0-205-64524-4. can Educational Research Journal. 2 (4): 187–202. doi:10.2307/1161646. JSTOR 1161646. [26] Barghout, Lauren, and Lawrence W. Lee. “Perceptual information processing system.”U.S. Patent Application [12] Yarbus, A. L. (1967). Eye movements and vision, Plenum 10/618,543, filed July 11, 2003. Press, New York [27] Barghout, Lauren. “System and Method for edge detec- [13] Hunziker, H. W. (1970). “Visuelle Informationsauf- tion in image processing and recognition”WIPO Patent nahme und Intelligenz: Eine Untersuchung über die Au- No. 2007044828. 20 Apr. 2007. genfixationen beim Problemlösen”[Visual information acquisition and intelligence: A study of the eye fixations in problem solving]. Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Psycholo- 1.1.10 External links gie und ihre Anwendungen (in German). 29 (1/2).

[14] Cohen, A. S. (1983). “Informationsaufnahme beim Be- • The Organization of the Retina and Visual System ” fahren von Kurven, Psychologie für die Praxis 2/83 [In- • formation recording when driving on curves, psychology Eﬀect of Detail on Visual Perception by Jon in practice 2/83]. Bulletin der Schweizerischen Stiftung für McLoone, the Wolfram Demonstrations Project. Angewandte Psychologie. • The Joy of Visual Perception Resource on the eye's [15] Carlson, Neil R.; Heth, C. Donald; Miller, Harold; perception abilities. Donahoe, John W.; Buskist, William; Martin, G. Neil; Schmaltz, Rodney M. (2009). Psychology the Science of • VisionScience. Resource for Research in Human Behaviour. Toronto Ontario: Pearson Canada. pp. 140– and Animal Vision A collection of resources in vi- 1. ISBN 978-0-205-70286-2. sion science and perception. 6 CHAPTER 1. DAY 1

• Vision and Psychophysics. a scene with one eye. • Visibility in Social Theory and Social Research. An Motion parallax When an observer moves, the appar- inquiry into the cognitive and social meanings of vis- ent relative motion of several stationary objects ibility. against a background gives hints about their rela- • Von Helmholtz, Hermann (1867). Handbuch der tive distance. If information about the direction physiologischen Optik. 3. Leipzig: Voss. Quota- and velocity of movement is known, motion par- tions are from the English translation produced by allax can provide absolute depth information.*[5] Optical Society of America (1924–25): Treatise on This effect can be seen clearly when driving in a car. Physiological Optics. Nearby things pass quickly, while far off objects appear stationary. Some animals that lack binocular vision due to their eyes having little common field- 1.2 Depth perception of-view employ motion parallax more explicitly than humans for depth cueing (e.g., some types of birds, which bob their heads to achieve motion parallax, For objective comparisons of size, see Orders of magni- and squirrels, which move in lines orthogonal to an tude (length). object of interest to do the same *[6]).*[note 1] Depth perception is the visual ability to perceive the Depth from motion When an object moves toward the observer, the retinal projection of an object expands over a period of time, which leads to the perception of movement in a line toward the observer. Another name for this phenomenon is depth from optical expansion.*[7] The dynamic stimulus change enables the observer not only to see the object as moving, but to perceive the distance of the moving object. Thus, in this context, the changing size serves as a distance cue.*[8] A related phenomenon is the visual system’s capacity to calculate time-to-contact (TTC) of an approaching object from the rate of optical expansion – a useful ability in contexts ranging from driving a car to playing a ball game. However, calculation of TTC is, strictly speaking, perception of velocity rather than depth. Perspective, relative size, occlusion and texture gradients all contribute to the three-dimensional appearance of this photo. Kinetic depth effect If a stationary rigid figure (for example, a wire cube) is placed in front of a point world in three dimensions (3D) and the distance of an source of light so that its shadow falls on a translu- object. Depth sensation is the corresponding term for cent screen, an observer on the other side of the animals, since although it is known that animals can sense screen will see a two-dimensional pattern of lines. the distance of an object (because of their ability to move But if the cube rotates, the visual system will ex- accurately, or to respond consistently, according to that tract the necessary information for perception of the distance), it is not known whether they “perceive”it in third dimension from the movements of the lines, the same subjective way that humans do.*[1] and a cube is seen. This is an example of the kinetic depth effect.*[9] The effect also occurs when Depth perception arises from a variety of depth cues. the rotating object is solid (rather than an outline These are typically classified into binocular cues that are figure), provided that the projected shadow consists based on the receipt of sensory information in three di- of lines which have definite corners or end points, mensions from both eyes and monocular cues that can be and that these lines change in both length and orien- represented in just two dimensions and observed with just tation during the rotation.*[10] one eye.*[2]*[3] Binocular cues include stereopsis, eye convergence, disparity, and yielding depth from binocular Perspective The property of parallel lines converging vision through exploitation of parallax. Monocular cues in the distance, at infinity, allows us to reconstruct include size: distant objects subtend smaller visual angles the relative distance of two parts of an object, or of than near objects, grain, size, and motion parallax.*[4] landscape features. An example would be standing on a straight road, looking down the road, and notic- ing the road narrows as it goes off in the distance. 1.2.1 Monocular cues Relative size If two objects are known to be the same Monocular cues provide depth information when viewing size (e.g., two trees) but their absolute size is un- 1.2. DEPTH PERCEPTION 7

known, relative size cues can provide information Curvilinear perspective At the outer extremes of the about the relative depth of the two objects. If one visual field, parallel lines become curved, as in a subtends a larger visual angle on the retina than the photo taken through a fisheye lens. This effect, al- other, the object which subtends the larger visual an- though it is usually eliminated from both art and gle appears closer. photos by the cropping or framing of a picture, greatly enhances the viewer's sense of being posi- Familiar size Since the visual angle of an object pro- tioned within a real, three-dimensional space. (Clas- jected onto the retina decreases with distance, this sical perspective has no use for this so-called “dis- information can be combined with previous knowl- tortion,”although in fact the “distortions”strictly edge of the object's size to determine the absolute obey optical laws and provide perfectly valid visual depth of the object. For example, people are gener- information, just as classical perspective does for the ally familiar with the size of an average automobile. part of the field of vision that falls within its frame.) This prior knowledge can be combined with information about the angle it subtends on the retina to Texture gradient Fine details on nearby objects can be determine the absolute depth of an automobile in a seen clearly, whereas such details are not visible on scene. faraway objects. Texture gradients are grains of an item. For example, on a long gravel road, the gravel Absolute size Even if the actual size of the object is un- near the observer can be clearly seen of shape, size known and there is only one object visible, a smaller and colour. In the distance, the road's texture cannot object seems further away than a large object that is be clearly differentiated. presented at the same location *[11] Lighting and shading The way that light falls on an ob- Aerial perspective Due to light scattering by the at- ject and reflects off its surfaces, and the shadows that mosphere, objects that are a great distance away are cast by objects provide an effective cue for the have lower luminance contrast and lower color sat- brain to determine the shape of objects and their po- uration. Due to this, images seem hazy the far- sition in space.*[16] ther they are away from a person's point of view. In computer graphics, this is often called "distance Defocus blur Selective image blurring is very com- fog." The foreground has high contrast; the back- monly used in photographic and video for estab- ground has low contrast. Objects differing only in lishing the impression of depth. This can act as their contrast with a background appear to be at dif- a monocular cue even when all other cues are re- ferent depths.*[12] The color of distant objects are moved. It may contribute to the depth perception also shifted toward the blue end of the spectrum in natural retinal images, because the depth of fo- (e.g., distant mountains). Some painters, notably cus of the human eye is limited. In addition, there Cézanne, employ “warm”pigments (red, yellow are several depth estimation algorithms based on de- and orange) to bring features forward towards the focus and blurring.*[17] Some jumping spiders are viewer, and “cool”ones (blue, violet, and blue- known to use image defocus to judge depth.*[18] green) to indicate the part of a form that curves away from the picture plane. Elevation When an object is visible relative to the horizon, we tend to perceive objects which are closer Accommodation This is an oculomotor cue for depth to the horizon as being farther away from us, and perception. When we try to focus on far away ob- objects which are farther from the horizon as be- jects, the ciliary muscles stretch the eye lens, making ing closer to us.*[19] In addition, if an object moves it thinner, and hence changing the focal length. The from a position close the horizon to a position higher kinesthetic sensations of the contracting and relax- or lower than the horizon, it will appear to move ing ciliary muscles (intraocular muscles) is sent to closer to the viewer. the visual cortex where it is used for interpreting distance/depth. Accommodation is only effective for distances less than 2 meters. 1.2.2 Binocular cues

Occlusion Occlusion (also referred to as interposi- Binocular cues provide depth information when viewing tion) happens when near surfaces overlap far sur- a scene with both eyes. faces.*[13] If one object partially blocks the view of another object, humans perceive it as closer. How- Stereopsis, or retinal (binocular) disparity, or binoc- ever, this information only allows the observer to ular parallax create a “ranking”of relative nearness. The pres- Animals that have their eyes placed frontally can ence of monocular occlusions consist of the object's also use information derived from the different texture and geometry. Monocular occlusions are projection of objects onto each retina to judge able to reduce the depth perception latency both in depth. By using two images of the same scene natural and artificial stimuli.*[14]*[15] obtained from slightly different angles, it is possible 8 CHAPTER 1. DAY 1

to triangulate the distance to an object with a high arboreal species which lack binocular vision, such as degree of accuracy. Each eye views a slightly squirrels and certain birds. Instead, he proposes a“Visual different angle of an object seen by the left and Predation Hypothesis,”which argues that ancestral pri- right eyes. This happens because of the horizontal mates were insectivorous predators resembling tarsiers, separation parallax of the eyes. If an object is subject to the same selection pressure for frontal vision far away, the disparity of that image falling on as other predatory species. He also uses this hypothesis both retinas will be small. If the object is close to account for the specialization of primate hands, which or near, the disparity will be large. It is stereopsis he suggests became adapted for grasping prey, somewhat that tricks people into thinking they perceive depth like the way raptors employ their talons. when viewing Magic Eyes, Autostereograms, 3-D movies, and stereoscopic photos. 1.2.4 In art Convergence This is a binocular oculomotor cue for distance/depth perception. Because of stereopsis Photographs capturing perspective are two-dimensional the two eyeballs focus on the same object. In images that often illustrate the illusion of depth. (This doing so they converge. The convergence will differs from a painting, which may use the physical mat- stretch the extraocular muscles. As happens with ter of the paint to create a real presence of convex forms the monocular accommodation cue, kinesthetic sen- and spatial depth.) Stereoscopes and Viewmasters, as sations from these extraocular muscles also help in well as 3D films, employ binocular vision by forcing the depth/distance perception. The angle of conver- viewer to see two images created from slightly different gence is smaller when the eye is fixating on far away positions (points of view). Charles Wheatstone was the objects. Convergence is effective for distances less first to discuss depth perception being a cue of binoc- than 10 meters.*[20] ular disparity. He invented the stereoscope, which is an instrument with two eyepieces that displays two pho- Shadow Stereopsis A. Medina Puerta demonstrated tographs of the same location/scene taken at relatively that retinal images with no parallax disparity but different angles. When observed, separately by each eye, with different shadows are fused stereoscopically, the pairs of images induced a clear sense of depth.*[22] imparting depth perception to the imaged scene. He By contrast, a telephoto lens—used in televised sports, named the phenomenon“shadow stereopsis”. Shad- for example, to zero in on members of a stadium audi- ows are therefore an important, stereoscopic cue for ence—has the opposite effect. The viewer sees the size * depth perception. [21] and detail of the scene as if it were close enough to touch, but the camera's perspective is still derived from its actual Of these various cues, only convergence, accommodation position a hundred meters away, so background faces and and familiar size provide absolute distance information. objects appear about the same size as those in the fore- All other cues are relative (i.e., they can only be used to ground. tell which objects are closer relative to others). Stereop- sis is merely relative because a greater or lesser disparity Trained artists are keenly aware of the various methods for nearby objects could either mean that those objects for indicating spatial depth (color shading, distance fog, differ more or less substantially in relative depth or that perspective and relative size), and take advantage of them the foveated object is nearer or further away (the further to make their works appear “real”. The viewer feels away a scene is, the smaller is the retinal disparity indi- it would be possible to reach in and grab the nose of a cating the same depth difference.) Rembrandt portrait or an apple in a Cézanne still life—or step inside a landscape and walk around among its trees and rocks. 1.2.3 Theories of evolution Cubism was based on the idea of incorporating multiple points of view in a painted image, as if to simulate the Most open-plains herbivores, especially hoofed grazers, visual experience of being physically in the presence of lack binocular vision because they have their eyes on the the subject, and seeing it from different angles. The rad- sides of the head, providing a panoramic, almost 360°, ical experiments of Georges Braque, Pablo Picasso, Jean view of the horizon - enabling them to notice the ap- Metzinger's Nu à la cheminée,*[23] Albert Gleizes's La proach of predators from almost any direction. However, Femme aux Phlox,*[24]*[25] or Robert Delaunay's views most predators have both eyes looking forwards, allowing of the Eiffel Tower,*[26]*[27] employ the explosive an- binocular depth perception and helping them to judge dis- gularity of Cubism to exaggerate the traditional illusion tances when they pounce or swoop down onto their prey. of three-dimensional space. The subtle use of multi- Animals that spend a lot of time in trees take advantage ple points of view can be found in the pioneering late of binocular vision in order to accurately judge distances work of Cézanne, which both anticipated and inspired when rapidly moving from branch to branch. the first actual Cubists. Cézanne's landscapes and still Matt Cartmill, a physical anthropologist & anatomist at lives powerfully suggest the artist's own highly developed Boston University, has criticized this theory, citing other depth perception. At the same time, like the other Post- 1.2. DEPTH PERCEPTION 9

Impressionists, Cézanne had learned from Japanese art 1.2.7 References the significance of respecting the flat (two-dimensional) rectangle of the picture itself; Hokusai and Hiroshige ig- [1] Howard, Ian (2012). Perceiving in Depth. New York: Ox- nored or even reversed linear perspective and thereby re- ford University Press. ISBN 978-0-199-76414-3. mind the viewer that a picture can only be “true”when [2] Sternberg, R. K. (2012). it acknowledges the truth of its own flat surface. By contrast, European “academic”painting was devoted to a [3] Goldstein E.B. (2014)Sensation and perception (9th ed.). sort of Big Lie that the surface of the canvas is only an Pacific Grove CA: Wadsworth. enchanted doorway to a“real”scene unfolding beyond, and that the artist's main task is to distract the viewer [4] Burton HE (1945). “The optics of Euclid”. Jour- nal of the Optical Society of America. 35 (5): 357–372. from any disenchanting awareness of the presence of the doi:10.1364/JOSA.35.000357. painted canvas. Cubism, and indeed most of modern art is an attempt to confront, if not resolve, the paradox of [5] Ferris SH (1972).“Motion parallax and absolute distance. suggesting spatial depth on a flat surface, and explore that Journal of experimental psychology”. 95 (2): 258–263. inherent contradiction through innovative ways of seeing, as well as new methods of drawing and painting. [6] Kral K. (2003). Behavioural-analytical studies of the role of head movements in depth perception in insects, birds and mammals. Behavioural Processes 64: 1-12.

1.2.5 Disorders affecting depth perception [7] Swanston, M.C.; Gogel, W.C. (1986). “Perceived size and motion in depth from optical expansion” • Ocular conditions such as amblyopia, optic nerve hy- . Perception & Psychophysics. 39 (5): 309–326. doi:10.3758/BF03202998. poplasia, and strabismus may reduce the perception of depth. [8] Ittelson, W.H. (Apr 1951). “Size as a cue to distance: Radial motion”. American Journal of Psychology. 64 • Since (by definition), binocular depth perception re- (2): 188–202. doi:10.2307/1418666. JSTOR 1418666. quires two functioning eyes, a person with only one “ functioning eye has no binocular depth perception. [9] Wallach, H.; O'Connell, D.N. (1953). The kinetic depth effect”. Journal of Experimental Psychology. 45 (4): 205– 217. doi:10.1037/h0056880. PMID 13052853. • It is typically felt that depth perception must be learned in infancy using an unconscious inference. [10] Kaufman, Lloyd (1974). Sight and Mind. New York: Ox- ford University Press. pp. 139–141.

[11] Sousa, R., Brenner, E., & Smeets, J. B. J. (2011). Judging 1.2.6 See also an unfamiliar object's distance from its retinal image size. Journal of Vision, 11(9), 10, 1-6. Sousa, R., Smeets, J. B. • Arboreal theory J., & Brenner, E. (2012). Does size matter? Perception, 41(12), 1532-1534. • Cyclopean stimuli [12] O'Shea RP, Blackburn SG, Ono H (1994). “Contrast as a depth cue”. Vision Research. 34 (12): 1595–1604. • Peripheral vision doi:10.1016/0042-6989(94)90116-3. PMID 7941367.

• Human eye [13] Johnston, Alan. “Depth Perception”. UCL Division of Psychology and Language Sciences. Retrieved 22 September 2013. • Optical illusion [14] Gillam B, Borsting E (1988). “The role of monocular • Orthoptics regions in stereoscopic displays”. Perception. 17 (5): 603–608. doi:10.1068/p170603. PMID 3249668. • Perception [15] Schacter, Daniel L.; Gilbert, Daniel T.; Wegner, Daniel “ ” • M. (2011). Sensation and Perception . Psychology Retina (2nd ed.). New York: Worth, Inc. pp. 136–137.

• Senses [16] Lipton, L. (1982). Foundations of the Stereoscopic Cinema - A Study in Depth. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. • Vision therapy p. 56. [17] Mather G (22 February 1996). “Image Blur as a Pic- • Visual cliﬀ torial Depth Cue”. Proceedings: Biological Sciences. 263 (1367): 169–172. Bibcode:1996RSPSB.263..169M. • Visual perception doi:10.1098/rspb.1996.0027. 10 CHAPTER 1. DAY 1

[18] Takashi Nagata; Koyanagi, M; Tsukamoto, H; Saeki, • Pinker, Steven (1997).“The Mind's Eye”. How the S; Isono, K; Shichida, Y; Tokunaga, F; Kinoshita, M; Mind Works. pp. 211–233. ISBN 0-393-31848-6. Arikawa, K; et al. (27 January 2012). “Depth Percep- tion from image defocus in a jumping spider”. Science. • Sternberg RJ, Sternberg K, Sternberg K (2011). 335 (6067): 469–471. Bibcode:2012Sci...335..469N. Cognitive Psychology (6th ed.). Wadsworth Pub Co. doi:10.1126/science.1211667. PMID 22282813. • Purves D, Lotto B (2003). Why We See What We [19] Carlson, Neil R.; Miller Jr., Harold L.; Heth, Donald S.; Do: An Empirical Theory of Vision. Sunderland, Donahoe, John W.; Martin, G. Neil (2010). Psychology: MA: Sinauer Associates. The Science of Behavior (7th ed.). Pearson. p. 187. ISBN 978-0-205-76223-1. • Steinman, Scott B.; Steinman, Barbara A.; Garzia, Ralph Philip (2000). Foundations of Binocular Vi- [20] Okoshi, Takanori. (2012). Three-dimensional imag- sion: A Clinical Perspective. New York: McGraw- ing techniques. Elsevier. pp. 387–387. ASIN B01D3RGBGS. Hill Medical. ISBN 0-8385-2670-5. • [21] Medina Puerta A (1989). “The power of shad- Okoshi, Takanori. (2012). Three-dimensional ows: shadow stereopsis”. J. Opt. Soc. Am. imaging techniques. Elsevier. pp. 387–387. ASIN A. 6 (2): 309–311. Bibcode:1989JOSAA...6..309M. B01D3RGBGS. doi:10.1364/JOSAA.6.000309. PMID 2926527. [22] Schacter, Daniel L. (2011). Psychology (2nd ed.). New 1.2.9 External links York: Worth, In. p. 151. • Depth perception example | GO Illusions. [23] Daniel Robbins, Jean Metzinger: At the Center of Cubism, 1985, Jean Metzinger in Retrospect, The University of • Monocular Giants Iowa Museum of Art, p. 22 • What is Binocular (Two-eyed) Depth Perception? [24] Albert Gleizes 1881–1953, a retrospective exhibition, Daniel Robbins. The Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, • Why Some People Can't See in Depth New York, in collaboration with Musée national d'art moderne, Paris; Museum am Ostwall, Dortmund, pub- • Space perception | Webvision. lished 1964 • Depth perception | Webvision. [25] Peter Brooke, Albert Gleizes, Chronology of his life, 1881- 1953 • Make3D. [26] Robert Delaunay – Sonia Delaunay, 1999, ISBN 3-7701- • Depth Cues for Film, TV and Photography 5216-6

[27] Robert Delaunay, First Notebook, 1939, in The New Art of Color: The Writings of Robert and Sonia Delaunay, Viking Press, 1978

Notes

[1] The term 'parallax vision' is often used as a synonym for binocular vision, and should not be confused with motion parallax. The former allows far more accurate gauging of depth than the latter.

1.2.8 Bibliography

• Howard, Ian P.; Rogers, Brian J. (2012). Perceiving in Depth. New York: Oxford University Press. In three volumes

• Palmer, S. E. (1999). Vision science: Photons to phenomenology. Cambridge, MA: Bradford Books/MIT Press.

• Pirazzoli, G.P. (2015). Le Corbusier, Picasso, Polyphemus and Other Monocular Giants / e altri gi- ganti monòculi. Firenze, Italy: goWare. Chapter 2

Day 2

2.1 Human eye

This article is about the human eye. For eyes in general, see Eye.

The human eye is an organ which reacts to light and pressure. As a sense organ, the mammalian eye allows vision. Human eyes help provide a three dimensional, moving image, normally coloured in daylight. Rod and cone cells in the retina allow conscious light perception and vision including color diﬀerentiation and the perception of depth. The human eye can diﬀerentiate between about 10 million colors*[1] and is possibly capable of detecting a single photon.*[2]

Similar to the eyes of other mammals, the human eye's The outer parts of the eye. non-image-forming photosensitive ganglion cells in the retina receive light signals which aﬀect adjustment of the size of the pupil, regulation and suppression of the hor- ment, composed of the vitreous, retina, choroid and the mone melatonin and entrainment of the body clock.*[3] outer white shell called the sclera. The cornea is typically about 11.5 mm (0.3 in) in diameter, and 1/2 mm (500 um) in thickness near its center. The posterior chamber 2.1.1 Structure constitutes the remaining ﬁve-sixths; its diameter is typically about 24 mm. The cornea and sclera are connected by an area termed the limbus. The iris is the pigmented circular structure concentrically surrounding the center of the eye, the pupil, which appears to be black. The size of the pupil, which controls the amount of light entering the eye, is adjusted by the iris' dilator and sphincter muscles. Light energy enters the eye through the cornea, through the pupil and then through the lens. The lens shape is changed for near focus (accommodation) and is controlled by the ciliary muscle. Photons of light falling on the light-sensitive cells of the retina (photoreceptor cones and rods) are converted into electrical signals that are transmitted to the brain by the optic nerve and interpreted as sight and vision. Blood vessels can be seen within the sclera, as well as a strong limbal ring around the iris.

Size The eye is not shaped like a perfect sphere, rather it is a fused two-piece unit, composed of the anterior segment and the posterior segment. The anterior segment is made See also: Mammalian eye up of the cornea, iris and lens. The cornea is transparent and more curved, and is linked to the larger posterior seg- Dimensions typically diﬀer among adults by only one or

11 12 CHAPTER 2. DAY 2 two millimetres, remarkably consistent across different parent fibers which transmit muscular forces to change ethnicities. The vertical measure, generally less than the the shape of the lens for accommodation (focusing). The horizontal, is about 24 mm. The transverse size of a hu- vitreous body is a clear substance composed of water and man adult eye is approximately 24.2 mm and the sagittal proteins, which give it a jelly-like and sticky composi- size is 23.7 mm with no significant difference between tion.*[6] sexes and age groups. Strong correlation has been found between the transverse diameter and the width of the orbit (r = 0.88).*[4] The typical adult eye has an anterior to 2.1.2 Vision posterior diameter of 24 millimetres, a volume of six cu- bic centimetres (0.4 cu. in.),*[5] and a mass of 7.5 grams See also: Visual acuity, Eye § Visual acuity, Fovea (weight of 0.25 oz.). centralis § Angular size of foveal cones, and Color vision § Physiology of color perception The eyeball grows rapidly, increasing from about 16–17 millimetres (about 0.65 inch) at birth to 22.5–23 mm (approx. 0.89 in) by three years of age. By age 13, the eye attains its full size. Field of view

Components

Anterior chamber Cornea (aqueous humour) Pupil Uvea Posterior chamber Iris Suspensory Ciliary ligament body of lens Lens Choroid Sclera Vitreous humour Hyaloid canal

Side-view of the human eye, viewed approximately 90° temporal, illustrating how the iris and pupil appear rotated towards the Retinal blood Retina viewer due to the optical properties of the cornea and the aqueous vessels Macula humor. Fovea

Optic nerve Optic disc The approximate field of view of an individual human eye (measured from the fixation point, i.e., the point at which one's gaze is directed) varies by facial anatomy, Schematic diagram of the human eye. It shows a horizontal sec- but is typically 30° superior (up, limited by the brow), tion through the right eye. 45° nasal (limited by the nose), 70° inferior (down), and 100° temporal (towards the temple).*[7]*[8]*[9] For both The eye is made up of three coats, or layers, enclos- eyes combined (binocular) visual field is 100° vertical and ing various anatomical structures. The outermost layer, 200° horizontal.*[10]*[11] When viewed at large angles known as the fibrous tunic, is composed of the cornea from the side, the iris and pupil may still be visible by the and sclera. The middle layer, known as the vascular tunic viewer, indicating the person has peripheral vision possi- or uvea, consists of the choroid, ciliary body, pigmented ble at that angle.*[12]*[13]*[14] epithelium and iris. The innermost is the retina, which gets its oxygenation from the blood vessels of the choroid About 15° temporal and 1.5° below the horizontal is the (posteriorly) as well as the retinal vessels (anteriorly). blind spot created by the optic nerve nasally, which is roughly 7.5° high and 5.5° wide.*[15] The spaces of the eye are filled with the aqueous humour anteriorly, between the cornea and lens, and the vitreous body, a jelly-like substance, behind the lens, fill- Dynamic range ing the entire posterior cavity. The aqueous humour is a clear watery fluid that is contained in two areas: the The retina has a static contrast ratio of around 100 000:1 anterior chamber between the cornea and the iris, and the (about 6.5 f-stops). As soon as the eye moves rapidly posterior chamber between the iris and the lens. The lens to acquire a target (saccades), it re-adjusts its exposure is suspended to the ciliary body by the suspensory liga- by adjusting the iris, which adjusts the size of the pupil. ment (Zonule of Zinn), made up of hundreds of fine trans- Initial dark adaptation takes place in approximately four 2.1. HUMAN EYE 13

seconds of profound, uninterrupted darkness; full adaptation through adjustments in retinal rod photoreceptors is 80% complete in thirty minutes. The process is non- linear and multifaceted, so an interruption by light exposure requires restarting the dark adaptation process over again. Full adaptation is dependent on good blood flow; thus dark adaptation may be hampered by retinal disease, poor vascular circulation and high altitude exposure. The human eye can detect a luminance range of 1014, or one hundred trillion (100,000,000,000,000) (about 46.5 f-stops), from 10*−6 cd/m2, or one millionth (0.000001) of a candela per square meter to 108 cd/m2 or one hundred million (100,000,000) candelas per square meter.*[16]*[17]*[18] This range does not include looking at the midday sun (109 cd/m2)*[19] or lightning discharge. At the low end of the range is the absolute threshold of vision for a steady light across a wide field of view, about 10*−6 cd/m2 (0.000001 candela per square meter).*[20]*[21] The upper end of the range is given in terms of normal visual performance as 108 cd/m2 (100,000,000 or one hundred million candelas per square meter).*[22] The eye includes a lens similar to lenses found in optical instruments such as cameras and the same physics principles can be applied. The pupil of the human eye is its aperture; the iris is the diaphragm that serves as the aperture stop. Refraction in the cornea causes the effective MRI scan of human eye aperture (the entrance pupil) to differ slightly from the physical pupil diameter. The entrance pupil is typically about 4 mm in diameter, although it can range from 2 mm (f/8.3) in a brightly lit place to 8 mm (f/2.1) in the dark. The latter value decreases slowly with age; older people's eyes sometimes dilate to not more than 5-6mm in the dark, and may be as small as 1mm in the light.*[23]*[24]

Eye movement

Main article: Eye movement The visual system in the human brain is too slow to pro- Normal anatomy of the human eye and orbit, anterior view

cess information if images are slipping across the retina at more than a few degrees per second.*[25] Thus, to be able to see while moving, the brain must compensate for the motion of the head by turning the eyes. Frontal-eyed animals have a small area of the retina with very high visual acuity, the fovea centralis. It covers about 2 degrees of visual angle in people. To get a clear view of the world, the brain must turn the eyes so that the image of the object of regard falls on the fovea. Any failure to make eye movements correctly can lead to serious visual degrada- tion. Having two eyes allows the brain to determine the depth The light circle is where the optic nerve exits the retina and distance of an object, called stereovision, and gives the sense of three-dimensionality to the vision. Both eyes 14 CHAPTER 2. DAY 2

must point accurately enough that the object of regard ing output. Microsaccades move the eye no more than a falls on corresponding points of the two retinas to stim- total of 0.2° in adult humans. ulate stereovision; otherwise, double vision might occur. Some persons with congenitally crossed eyes tend to ignore one eye's vision, thus do not suffer double vision, Vestibulo-ocular reflex and do not have stereovision. The movements of the eye are controlled by six muscles attached to each eye, and Main article: Vestibulo-ocular reflex allow the eye to elevate, depress, converge, diverge and roll. These muscles are both controlled voluntarily and The vestibulo-ocular reflex is a reflex eye movement that involuntarily to track objects and correct for simultane- stabilizes images on the retina during head movement ous head movements. by producing an eye movement in the direction opposite to head movement in response to neural input from the vestibular system of the inner ear, thus maintaining the Extraocular muscles image in the center of the visual field. For example, when the head moves to the right, the eyes move to the left. This Main article: Extraocular muscles applies for head movements up and down, left and right, and tilt to the right and left, all of which give input to the Each eye has six muscles that control its movements: ocular muscles to maintain visual stability. the lateral rectus, the medial rectus, the inferior rectus, the superior rectus, the inferior oblique, and the superior Smooth pursuit movement oblique. When the muscles exert different tensions, a torque is exerted on the globe that causes it to turn, in Main article: Pursuit movement almost pure rotation, with only about one millimeter of translation.*[26] Thus, the eye can be considered as undergoing rotations about a single point in the center of the Eyes can also follow a moving object around. This track- eye. ing is less accurate than the vestibulo-ocular reflex, as it requires the brain to process incoming visual information and supply feedback. Following an object moving Rapid eye movement at constant speed is relatively easy, though the eyes will often make saccadic jerks to keep up. The smooth pur- Main article: Rapid eye movement sleep suit movement can move the eye at up to 100°/s in adult humans.

Rapid eye movement, REM, typically refers to the sleep It is more difficult to visually estimate speed in low light stage during which the most vivid dreams occur. During conditions or while moving, unless there is another point this stage, the eyes move rapidly. It is not in itself a unique of reference for determining speed. form of eye movement. Optokinetic reflex Saccades The optokinetic reflex is a combination of a saccade and smooth pursuit movement. When, for example, looking Main article: Saccade out of the window at a moving train, the eyes can focus on a 'moving' train for a short moment (through smooth Saccades are quick, simultaneous movements of both pursuit), until the train moves out of the field of vision. At eyes in the same direction controlled by the frontal lobe this point, the optokinetic reflex kicks in, and moves the of the brain. Some irregular drifts, movements, smaller eye back to the point where it first saw the train (through than a saccade and larger than a microsaccade, subtend a saccade). up to one tenth of a degree. 2.1.3 Near response Microsaccades The adjustment to close-range vision involves three pro- Main article: Microsaccade cesses to focus an image on the retina.

Even when looking intently at a single spot, the eyes drift Vergence movement around. This ensures that individual photosensitive cells are continually stimulated in diﬀerent degrees. Without Main article: Vergence changing input, these cells would otherwise stop generat- When a creature with binocular vision looks at an ob- 2.1. HUMAN EYE 15

2.1.4 Clinical signiﬁcance

Eye care professionals

The human eye contains enough complexity to warrant specialized attention and care beyond the duties of a general practitioner. These specialists, or eye care professionals, serve diﬀerent functions in diﬀerent countries. Eye care professionals can have overlap in their patient care privileges: both an ophthalmologist (M.D.) and op- tometrist (O.D.) are professionals who diagnoses eye disease and can prescribe lenses to correct vision,; but, typically, the ophthalmologist is licensed to perform surgery and perform complex procedures to correct disease:

• Ophthalmology • Optometry • Orthoptics • Opticians The two eyes converge to point to the same object.

Eye irritation ject, the eyes must rotate around a vertical axis so that the projection of the image is in the centre of the retina in both eyes. To look at a nearby object, the eyes rotate 'towards each other' (convergence), while for an object farther away they rotate 'away from each other' (divergence).

Pupil constriction

Lenses cannot refract light rays at their edges as well as they can closer to the center. The image produced by any lens is therefore somewhat blurry around the edges (spherical aberration). It can be minimized by screening out peripheral light rays and looking only at the better- focused center. In the eye, the pupil serves this purpose by constricting while the eye is focused on nearby objects. Conjunctival injection, or redness of the sclera surrounding the Small apertures also give an increase in depth of field, iris and pupil allowing a broader range of “in focus”vision. In this way the pupil has a dual purpose for near vision: to reduce Eye irritation has been defined as“the magnitude of any spherical aberration and increase depth of field.*[27] stinging, scratching, burning, or other irritating sensation from the eye”.*[29] It is a common problem experienced by people of all ages. Related eye symptoms and Accommodation of the lens signs of irritation are discomfort, dryness, excess tearing, itching, grating, foreign body sensation, ocular fatigue, Changing the curvature of the lens is carried out by the pain, scratchiness, soreness, redness, swollen eyelids, and ciliary muscles surrounding the lens; this process is called tiredness, etc. These eye symptoms are reported with in- “accommodation”. Accommodation narrows the inner tensities from mild to severe. It has been suggested that diameter of the ciliary body, which actually relaxes the these eye symptoms are related to different causal mechanisms, and symptoms are related to the particular ocular fibers of the suspensory ligament attached to the periph- * ery of the lens, and allows the lens to relax into a more anatomy involved. [30] convex, or globular, shape. A more convex lens refracts Several suspected causal factors in our environment light more strongly and focuses divergent light rays from have been studied so far.*[29] One hypothesis is that near objects onto the retina, allowing closer objects to be indoor air pollution may cause eye and airway irri- brought into better focus.*[27]*[28] tation.*[31]*[32] Eye irritation depends somewhat on 16 CHAPTER 2. DAY 2 destabilization of the outer-eye tear film, in which the There are other factors that are related to eye irritation as formation of dry spots on the cornea, resulting in ocular well. Three major factors that influence the most are in- discomfort.*[31]*[33]*[34] Occupational factors are also door air pollution, contact lenses and gender differences. likely to influence the perception of eye irritation. Some Field studies have found that the prevalence of objec- of these are lighting (glare and poor contrast), gaze positive eye signs is often significantly altered among office tion, reduced blink rate, limited number of breaks from workers in comparisons with random samples of the gen- visual tasking, and a constant combination of accommo- eral population.*[44]*[45]*[46]*[47] These research re- dation, musculoskeletal burden, and impairment of the sults might indicate that indoor air pollution has played visual nervous system.*[35]*[36] Another factor that may an important role in causing eye irritation. There are be related is work stress.*[37]*[38] In addition, psycho- more and more people wearing contact lens now and dry logical factors have been found in multivariate analyses eyes appear to be the most common complaint among to be associated with an increase in eye irritation among contact lens wearers.*[48]*[49]*[50] Although both con- VDU users.*[39]*[40] Other risk factors, such as chemi- tact lens wearers and spectacle wearers experience similar cal toxins/irritants (e.g. amines, formaldehyde, acetalde- eye irritation symptoms, dryness, redness, and grittiness hyde, acrolein, N-decane, VOCs, ozone, pesticides and have been reported far more frequently among contact preservatives, allergens, etc.) might cause eye irritation lens wearers and with greater severity than among spec- as well. tacle wearers.*[50] Studies have shown that incidence of dry eyes increases with age,*[51]*[52] especially among Certain volatile organic compounds that are both chemi- * cally reactive and airway irritants may cause eye irrita- women. [53] Tear film stability (e.g. break-up time) is tion. Personal factors (e.g. use of contact lenses, eye significantly lower among women than among men. In addition, women have a higher blink frequency while make-up, and certain medications) may also affect desta- * bilization of the tear film and possibly result in more reading. [54] Several factors may contribute to gender eye symptoms.*[30] Nevertheless, if airborne particles differences. One is the use of eye make-up. Another alone should destabilize the tear film and cause eye ir- reason could be that the women in the reported studies ritation, their content of surface-active compounds must have done more VDU work than the men, including lower be high.*[30] An integrated physiological risk model with grade work. A third often-quoted explanation is related to the age-dependent decrease of tear secretion, particu- blink frequency, destabilization, and break-up of the eye * * * tear film as inseparable phenomena may explain eye ir- larly among women after 40 years of age. [53] [55] [56] ritation among office workers in terms of occupational, In a study conducted by UCLA, the frequency of re- climate, and eye-related physiological risk factors.*[30] ported symptoms in industrial buildings was investi- * There are two major measures of eye irritation. One is gated. [57] The study's results were that eye irritation was the most frequent symptom in industrial building blink frequency which can be observed by human behavior. The other measures are break up time, tear flow, hy- spaces, at 81%. Modern office work with use of office equipment has raised concerns about possible ad- peremia (redness, swelling), tear fluid cytology, and ep- * ithelial damage (vital stains) etc., which are human be- verse health effects. [58] Since the 1970s, reports have linked mucosal, skin, and general symptoms to work with ings’physiological reactions. Blink frequency is defined as the number of blinks per minute and it is associated self-copying paper. Emission of various particulate and with eye irritation. Blink frequencies are individual with volatile substances has been suggested as specific causes. mean frequencies of < 2-3 to 20-30 blinks/minute, and These symptoms have been related to sick building syn- they depend on environmental factors including the use drome (SBS), which involves symptoms such as irritation to the eyes, skin, and upper airways, headache and fa- of contact lenses. Dehydration, mental activities, work * conditions, room temperature, relative humidity, and il- tigue. [59] lumination all influence blink frequency. Break-up time Many of the symptoms described in SBS and multiple (BUT) is another major measure of eye irritation and chemical sensitivity (MCS) resemble the symptoms tear film stability.*[41] It is defined as the time inter- known to be elicited by airborne irritant chemicals.*[60] val (in seconds) between blinking and rupture. BUT A repeated measurement design was employed in the is considered to reflect the stability of the tear film as study of acute symptoms of eye and respiratory tract ir- well. In normal persons, the break-up time exceeds the ritation resulting from occupational exposure to sodium interval between blinks, and, therefore, the tear film is borate dusts.*[61] The symptom assessment of the 79 ex- maintained.*[30] Studies have shown that blink frequency posed and 27 unexposed subjects comprised interviews is correlated negatively with break-up time. This phe- before the shift began and then at regular hourly intervals nomenon indicates that perceived eye irritation is associ- for the next six hours of the shift, four days in a row.*[61] ated with an increase in blink frequency since the cornea Exposures were monitored concurrently with a personal and conjunctiva both have sensitive nerve endings that be- real time aerosol monitor. Two different exposure pro- long to the first trigeminal branch.*[42]*[43] Other eval- files, a daily average and short term (15 minute) average, uating methods, such as hyperemia, cytology etc. have were used in the analysis. Exposure-response relations increasingly been used to assess eye irritation. were evaluated by linking incidence rates for each symp- 2.1. HUMAN EYE 17

tom with categories of exposure.*[61] 4 Acute incidence rates for nasal, eye, and throat irritation, 3 6 and coughing and breathlessness were found to be associ- 2 7 ated with increased exposure levels of both exposure in- 1 8 dices. Steeper exposure-response slopes were seen when short term exposure concentrations were used. Results 9 from multivariate logistic regression analysis suggest that 10 current smokers tended to be less sensitive to the exposure to airborne sodium borate dust.*[61] Several actions can be taken to prevent eye irritation—

• trying to maintain normal blinking by avoiding room temperatures that are too high; avoiding relative hu- midities that are too high or too low, because they 11 reduce blink frequency or may increase water evaporation*[30]

• trying to maintain an intact ﬁlm of tears by the fol- 12 15 13 lowing actions: 14

• 1) Blinking and short breaks may be benefi- * * Diagram of a human eye (horizontal section of the right eye) cial for VDU users. [62] [63] Increasing these 1. Conjunctiva, 2. Sclera, 3. Cornea, 4. Aqueous humour, 5. two actions might help maintain the tear film. Lens, 6. Pupil, 7. Uvea with 8. Iris, 9. Ciliary body and 10. • 2) Downward gazing is recommended to re- Choroid; 11. Vitreous humor, 12. Retina with 13. Macula or duce ocular surface area and water evapora- macula lutea; 14. Optic disc → blind spot, 15. Optic nerve. tion.*[64]*[65]*[66] • 3) The distance between the VDU and key- reach the retina. The extent to which the pupil dilates de- board should be kept as short as possible to creases with age, leading to a substantial decrease in light minimize evaporation from the ocular surface received at the retina. In comparison to younger peo- area by a low direction of the gaze.*[67] And ple, it is as though older persons are constantly wearing 4) blink training can be beneficial.*[68] medium-density sunglasses. Therefore, for any detailed visually guided tasks on which performance varies with In addition, other measures are proper lid hygiene, avoid- illumination, older persons require extra lighting. Cer- ance of eye rubbing,*[69] and proper use of personal tain ocular diseases can come from sexually transmitted products and medication. Eye make-up should be used diseases such as herpes and genital warts. If contact be- with care.*[70] tween the eye and area of infection occurs, the STD can be transmitted to the eye.*[72] The paraphilic practice of oculolinctus, or eyeball- licking, may also cause irritations, infections, or damage With aging, a prominent white ring develops in the pe- to the eye.*[71] riphery of the cornea called arcus senilis. Aging causes laxity, downward shift of eyelid tissues and atrophy of the orbital fat. These changes contribute to the etiology Eye disease of several eyelid disorders such as ectropion, entropion, dermatochalasis, and ptosis. The vitreous gel undergoes There are many diseases, disorders, and age-related liquefaction (posterior vitreous detachment or PVD) and changes that may affect the eyes and surrounding struc- its opacities —visible as floaters —gradually increase in tures. number. As the eye ages, certain changes occur that can be at- Various eye care professionals, including tributed solely to the aging process. Most of these ophthalmologists, optometrists, and opticians, are anatomic and physiologic processes follow a gradual de- involved in the treatment and management of ocular and cline. With aging, the quality of vision worsens due vision disorders. A Snellen chart is one type of eye chart to reasons independent of diseases of the aging eye. used to measure visual acuity. At the conclusion of a While there are many changes of significance in the non- complete eye examination, the eye doctor might provide diseased eye, the most functionally important changes the patient with an eyeglass prescription for corrective seem to be a reduction in pupil size and the loss of ac- lenses. Some disorders of the eyes for which corrective commodation or focusing capability (presbyopia). The lenses are prescribed include myopia (near-sightedness) area of the pupil governs the amount of light that can which affects about one-third of the human population, 18 CHAPTER 2. DAY 2

the eye, but before they can cause oxidative damage that 8 7 6 may lead to macular degeneration or cataracts. Lutein 4 12 9 11 and zeaxanthin bind to the electron free radical and are 3 10 5 reduced rendering the electron safe. There are many ways 2 14 13 to ensure a diet rich in lutein and zeaxanthin, the best 30 1 a 15 of which is to eat dark green vegetables including kale, b 16 spinach, broccoli and turnip greens.*[77] Nutrition is an 29 important aspect of the ability to achieve and maintain proper eye health. Lutein and zeaxanthin are two ma- 28 17 jor carotenoids, found in the macula of the eye, that are being researched to identify their role in the pathogenesis 37 18 of eye disorders such as age-related macular degeneration * 36 19 and cataracts. [78] 35 31 34 20 33 21 2.1.5 Additional images 22 27 25 24 40 23 26 41 42 32 39 4338 44

Diagram of a human eye (horizontal section of the right eye) 1. Lens, 2. Zonule of Zinn or Ciliary zonule, 3. Posterior chamber and 4. Anterior chamber with 5. Aqueous humour ﬂow; 6. Pupil, 7. Corneosclera or Fibrous tunic with 8. Cornea, 9. Trabecular meshwork and Schlemm's canal. 10. Corneal lim- • Right eye without labels bus and 11. Sclera; 12. Conjunctiva, 13. Uvea with 14. Iris, (horizontal section) 15. Ciliary body (with a: pars plicata and b: pars plana) and 16. Choroid); 17. Ora serrata, 18. Vitreous humor with 19. Hyaloid canal/(old artery), 20. Retina with 21. Macula or macula lutea, 22. Fovea and 23. Optic disc → blind spot; 24. Optical axis of the eye. 25. Axis of eye, 26. Optic nerve with 27. Dural sheath, 28. Tenon's capsule or bulbar sheath, 29. Tendon. 30. Anterior segment, 31. Posterior segment. 32. Ophthalmic artery, 33. Artery and central retinal vein → • Eye and orbit anatomy with 36. Blood vessels of the retina; Ciliary arteries (34. Short pos- motor nerves terior ones, 35. Long posterior ones and 37. Anterior ones), 38. Lacrimal artery, 39. Ophthalmic vein, 40. Vorticose vein. 41. Ethmoid bone, 42. Medial rectus muscle, 43. Lateral rectus muscle, 44. Sphenoid bone.

hyperopia (far-sightedness) which aﬀects about one • quarter of the population, astigmatism, and presbyopia Image showing orbita with (the loss of focusing range during aging). eye and nerves visible (periocular fat removed).

Macular degeneration

Main article: Macular degeneration • Image showing orbita with Macular degeneration is especially prevalent in the eye and periocular fat. U.S. and aﬀects roughly 1.75 million Americans each year.*[73] Having lower levels of lutein and zeaxanthin within the macula may be associated with an increase in the risk of age-related macular degeneration,.*[74]*[75] Lutein and zeaxanthin act as antioxidants that protect the retina and macula from oxidative damage from high- energy light waves.*[76] As the light waves enter the eye they excite electrons that can cause harm to the cells in • 2.1. HUMAN EYE 19

[3] Zimmer, Carl (February 2012).“Our Strange, Important, Subconscious Light Detectors”. Discover Magazine. Re- trieved 2012-05-05.

[4] “Variations in eyeball diameters of the healthy adults.”.

[5] Cunningham, edited by Paul Riordan-Eva, Emmett T. • Vaughan & Asbury's General Ophthalmology. (18th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. ISBN 978-0-07- 163420-5.

[6]“eye, human."Encyclopædia Britannica from Encyclopædia Britannica Ultimate Reference Suite 2009 • The structures of the eye [7] Savino, Peter J.; Danesh-Meyer, Helen V. (1 May 2012). labeled Color Atlas and Synopsis of Clinical Ophthalmology -- Wills Eye Institute -- Neuro-Ophthalmology. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 12. ISBN 978-1-60913-266-8. Retrieved 9 November 2014.

[8] Ryan, Stephen J.; Schachat, Andrew P.; Wilkinson, Charles P.; David R. Hinton; SriniVas R. Sadda; Peter Wiedemann (1 November 2012). Retina. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 342. ISBN 1-4557-3780-1. Retrieved 9 November 2014. • Another view of the eye and the structures of the eye labeled [9] Trattler, William B.; Kaiser, Peter K.; Friedman, Neil J. (5 January 2012). Review of Ophthalmology: Expert Con- sult - Online and Print. Elsevier Health Sciences. p. 255. ISBN 1-4557-3773-9. Retrieved 9 November 2014. 2.1.6 See also [10] Dagnelie, Gislin (21 February 2011). Visual Prosthetics: This article uses anatomical terminology; for an Physiology, Bioengineering, Rehabilitation. Springer Sci- ence & Business Media. p. 398. ISBN 978-1-4419-0754- overview, see Anatomical terminology. 7. Retrieved 9 November 2014.

[11] Dohse, K.C. (2007). Eﬀects of Field of View and Stereo • Asthenopia (eye strain) Graphics on Memory in Immersive Command and Control. ProQuest. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-549-33503-0. Retrieved 9 • Eye color November 2014. • Hyaloid canal [12] Spring, K. H.; Stiles, W. S. (1948). “APPAR- • Iris recognition ENT SHAPE AND SIZE OF THE PUPIL VIEWED OBLIQUELY”. British Journal of Ophthalmology. 32 • Knobloch syndrome (6): 347–354. doi:10.1136/bjo.32.6.347. ISSN 0007- 1161. PMC 510837 . PMID 18170457. • Lacrimal caruncle [13] Fedtke, Cathleen; Manns, Fabrice; Ho, Arthur • Myopia (2010). “The entrance pupil of the human • Rheum eye: a three-dimensional model as a function of viewing angle”. Optics Express. 18 (21): • Spectral sensitivity 22364–76. Bibcode:2010OExpr..1822364F. doi:10.1364/OE.18.022364. ISSN 1094-4087. PMC 3408927 . PMID 20941137. 2.1.7 References [14] Mathur, A.; Gehrmann, J.; Atchison, D. A. (2013). [1] Judd, Deane B.; Wyszecki, Günter (1975). Color in Busi- “Pupil shape as viewed along the horizontal visual ﬁeld”. ness, Science and Industry. Wiley Series in Pure and Ap- Journal of Vision. 13 (6): 3–3. doi:10.1167/13.6.3. ISSN plied Optics (third ed.). New York: Wiley-Interscience. 1534-7362. p. 388. ISBN 0-471-45212-2. [15] MIL-STD-1472F, Military Standard, Human Engineer- [2] CONOVER, EMILY (July 2016). “Human eye spots ing, Design Criteria For Military Systems, Equipment, single photons”. Science News. Retrieved 2016-08-02. And Facilities (23 Aug 1999) PDF 20 CHAPTER 2. DAY 2

[16] Ivergard, Toni; Hunt, Brian (1 October 2008). Handbook [30] Wolkoﬀ, P; Skov, P; Franck, C; Petersen, LN (December of Control Room Design and Ergonomics: A Perspective 2003).“Eye irritation and environmental factors in the of- for the Future, Second Edition. CRC Press. p. 90. ISBN ﬁce environment—hypotheses, causes and a physiological 978-1-4200-6434-6. Retrieved 15 October 2014. model”. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health. 29 (6): 411–30. doi:10.5271/sjweh.748. PMID [17] Kaschke, Michael; Donnerhacke, Karl-Heinz; Rill, 14712848. Retrieved 20 November 2012. Michael Stefan (25 November 2013). Optical Devices in Ophthalmology and Optometry: Technology, Design Prin- [31] Norn, M (April 1992). “Pollution keratoconjunctivi- ciples and Clinical Applications. Wiley. p. 26. ISBN tis. A review”. Acta Ophthalmologica. 70 (2): 269– 978-3-527-64899-3. Retrieved 15 October 2014. 73. doi:10.1111/j.1755-3768.1992.tb04136.x. PMID 1609579. [18] Banterle, Francesco; Artusi, Alessandro; Debattista, Kurt; Alan Chalmers (10 February 2011). Advanced High [32] Versura, P; Profazio, V; Cellini, M; Torreggiani, A; Dynamic Range Imaging: Theory and Practice. CRC Caramazza, R (1999). “Eye discomfort and air Press. p. 7. ISBN 978-1-56881-719-4. Retrieved 15 pollution”. Ophthalmologica. 213 (2): 103–109. October 2014. doi:10.1159/000027401. PMID 9885386.

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3.1 Gestalt psychology unrelated elements (points, lines, curves, etc.). In psychology, gestaltism is often opposed to Gestalt psychology or gestaltism (German: Gestalt structuralism. Gestalt theory, it is proposed, allows [ɡəˈʃtalt]“shape, form”) is a philosophy of mind of the for the deconstruction of the whole situation into its Berlin School of experimental psychology. Gestalt psy- elements.*[7] chology is an attempt to understand the laws behind the ability to acquire and maintain meaningful perceptions in an apparently chaotic world. The central principle of 3.1.1 Origins gestalt psychology is that the mind forms a global whole with self-organizing tendencies. The assumed physiological mechanisms on which Gestalt theory rests are poorly The concept of gestalt was first introduced in philoso- defined and support for their existence is lacking.*[1]*[2] phy and psychology in 1890 by Christian von Ehrenfels (a The Gestalt theory of perception has been criticized as member of the School of Brentano). The idea of gestalt being descriptive of the end products of perception with- has its roots in theories by David Hume, Johann Wolf- out providing much insight into the processes that lead to gang von Goethe, Immanuel Kant, David Hartley, and perception.*[2] In the introduction of a recent special is- Ernst Mach. Max Wertheimer's unique contribution was “ ” sue of the journal Vision Research on Gestalt perception, to insist that the gestalt is perceptually primary, defin- the authors concluded that “even though they study the ing the parts it was composed from, rather than being a same phenomena as earlier Gestaltists, there is little the- secondary quality that emerges from those parts, as von oretical coherence. What happened to the Gestalt school Ehrenfels's earlier Gestalt-Qualität had been. that always aspired to provide a unified vision of psychol- Both von Ehrenfels and Edmund Husserl seem to have ogy? Perhaps there is, in fact, little that holds the classic been inspired by Mach's work Beiträge zur Analyse der phenomena of Gestalt psychology together.”*[3] Empfindungen (Contributions to the Analysis of Sensa- tions, 1886), in formulating their very similar concepts This principle maintains that when the human mind (perceptual system) forms a percept or “gestalt,”the whole of gestalt and figural moment, respectively. On the philosophical foundations of these ideas see Foundations of has a reality of its own, independent of the parts. The original famous phrase of Gestalt psychologist Kurt Kof- Gestalt Theory (Smith, ed., 1988). fka, “The whole is other than the sum of the parts”is Early 20th century theorists, such as Kurt Koffka, Max often incorrectly translated*[4] as “The whole is greater Wertheimer, and Wolfgang Köhler (students of Carl than the sum of its parts,”and thus used when explaining Stumpf) saw objects as perceived within an environment gestalt theory, and further incorrectly applied to systems according to all of their elements taken together as a theory.*[5] Koffka did not like the translation. He firmly global construct. This 'gestalt' or 'whole form' approach corrected students who replaced“other”with“greater” sought to define principles of perception—seemingly in- . “This is not a principle of addition”he said.*[6] The nate mental laws that determined the way objects were whole has an independent existence. perceived. It is based on the here and now, and in the In the study of perception, Gestalt psychologists stipulate way things are seen. Images can be divided into figure or that perceptions are the products of complex interactions ground. The question is what is perceived at first glance: among various stimuli. Contrary to the behaviorist ap- the figure in front, or the background. proach to focusing on stimulus and response, gestalt psy- These laws took several forms, such as the grouping of chologists sought to understand the organization of cog- similar, or proximate, objects together, within this global nitive processes (Carlson and Heth, 2010). The gestalt process. Although gestalt has been criticized for being effect is the capability of our brain to generate whole merely descriptive,*[2] it has formed the basis of much forms, particularly with respect to the visual recognition further research into the perception of patterns and ob- of global figures instead of just collections of simpler and jects (Carlson et al. 2000), and of research into behavior,

23 24 CHAPTER 3. DAY 3

thinking, problem solving and psychopathology. • Principle of psychophysical isomorphism –A correlation exists between conscious experience and cerebral activity. Gestalt therapy Based on the principles above the following methodolog- The founders of Gestalt therapy, Fritz and Laura Perls, ical principles are defined: had worked with Kurt Goldstein, a neurologist who had applied principles of Gestalt psychology to the function- • Phenomenon experimental analysis—In relation ing of the organism. Laura Perls had been a Gestalt psy- to the Totality Principle any psychological research chologist before she became a psychoanalyst and before should take phenomena as a starting point and not she began developing Gestalt therapy together with Fritz be solely focused on sensory qualities. Perls.*[8] The extent to which Gestalt psychology influenced Gestalt therapy is disputed, however. In any case • Biotic experiment—The school of gestalt estab- it is not identical with Gestalt psychology. On the one lished a need to conduct real experiments that sharply hand, Laura Perls preferred not to use the term“Gestalt” contrasted with and opposed classic laboratory ex- to name the emerging new therapy, because she thought periments. This signified experimenting in natural that the gestalt psychologists would object to it;*[9] on the situations, developed in real conditions, in which it other hand Fritz and Laura Perls clearly adopted some would be possible to reproduce, with higher fidelity, of Goldstein's work.*[10] Thus, though recognizing the what would be habitual for a subject.*[12] historical connection and the influence, most gestalt psychologists emphasize that gestalt therapy is not a form of gestalt psychology. 3.1.3 Support from cybernetics and neu- Mary Henle noted in her presidential address to Division rology 24 at the meeting of the American Psychological Associ- ation (1975):“What Perls has done has been to take a few In the 1940s and 1950s, laboratory research in neurology terms from Gestalt psychology, stretch their meaning be- and what became known as cybernetics on the mechanism yond recognition, mix them with notions—often unclear of frogs' eyes indicate that perception of 'gestalts' (in par- and often incompatible—from the depth psychologies, ticular gestalts in motion) is perhaps more primitive and existentialism, and common sense, and he has called the fundamental than 'seeing' as such: whole mixture gestalt therapy. His work has no substan- tive relation to scientific Gestalt psychology. To use his A frog hunts on land by vision... He has no own language, Fritz Perls has done 'his thing'; whatever fovea, or region of greatest acuity in vision, it is, it is not Gestalt psychology”With the Gestalt the- upon which he must center a part of the im- ory however, she restricts herself explicitly to only three age... The frog does not seem to see or, at any of Perls' books from 1969 and 1972, leaving out Perls' rate, is not concerned with the detail of sta- earlier work, and Gestalt therapy in general. *[11] tionary parts of the world around him. He will starve to death surrounded by food if it is not moving. His choice of food is determined only 3.1.2 Theoretical framework and method- by size and movement. He will leap to cap- ology ture any object the size of an insect or worm, providing it moves like one. He can be fooled The school of gestalt practiced a series of theoretical and easily not only by a piece of dangled meat but methodological principles that attempted to redefine the by any moving small object... He does remember a moving thing provided it stays within his approach to psychological research. This is in contrast to * investigations developed at the beginning of the 20th cen- field of vision and he is not distracted. [13] tury, based on traditional scientific methodology, which divided the object of study into a set of elements that The lowest-level concepts related to visual per- could be analyzed separately with the objective of reduc- ception for a human being probably differ lit- ing the complexity of this object. tle from the concepts of a frog. In any case, the structure of the retina in mammals and in The theoretical principles are the following: human beings is the same as in amphibians. The phenomenon of distortion of perception • Principle of Totality—The conscious experience of an image stabilized on the retina gives some must be considered globally (by taking into account idea of the concepts of the subsequent levels all the physical and mental aspects of the individual of the hierarchy. This is a very interesting phe- simultaneously) because the nature of the mind de- nomenon. When a person looks at an immobile mands that each component be considered as part of object, “fixes”it with his eyes, the eyeballs a system of dynamic relationships. do not remain absolutely immobile; they make 3.1. GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY 25

small involuntary movements. As a result the Multistability image of the object on the retina is constantly in motion, slowly drifting and jumping back to the point of maximum sensitivity. The image “marks time”in the vicinity of this point.*[14]

3.1.4 Properties

The key principles of gestalt systems are emergence, reification, multistability and invariance. the Necker cube and the Rubin vase, two examples of multistability Emergence Multistability (or multistable perception) is the tendency of ambiguous perceptual experiences to pop back and This is demonstrated by the dog picture, which depicts a forth unstably between two or more alternative interpre- Dalmatian dog sniffing the ground in the shade of over- tations. This is seen, for example, in the Necker cube hanging trees. The dog is not recognized by first identify- and Rubin's Figure/Vase illusion shown here. Other ex- ing its parts (feet, ears, nose, tail, etc.), and then inferring amples include the three-legged blivet and artist M. C. the dog from those component parts. Instead, the dog ap- Escher's artwork and the appearance of flashing marquee pears as a whole, all at once. Gestalt theory does not have lights moving first one direction and then suddenly the an explanation for how this perception of a dog appears. other. Again, gestalt does not explain how images appear multistable, only that they do. Reification Invariance See also: Reification (fallacy) Reification is the constructive or generative aspect of per-

Reification ception, by which the experienced percept contains more explicit spatial information than the sensory stimulus on Invariance which it is based. Invariance is the property of perception whereby simple For instance, a triangle is perceived in picture A, though geometrical objects are recognized independent of rota- no triangle is there. In pictures B and D the eye recog- tion, translation, and scale; as well as several other varia- “ ” nizes disparate shapes as belonging to a single shape, tions such as elastic deformations, different lighting, and in C a complete three-dimensional shape is seen, where different component features. For example, the objects in actuality no such thing is drawn. in A in the figure are all immediately recognized as the Reification can be explained by progress in the study of same basic shape, which are immediately distinguishable illusory contours, which are treated by the visual system from the forms in B. They are even recognized despite as “real”contours. perspective and elastic deformations as in C, and when 26 CHAPTER 3. DAY 3

depicted using different graphic elements as in D. Com- putational theories of vision, such as those by David Marr, have had more success in explaining how objects are classified. Emergence, reification, multistability, and invariance are not necessarily separable modules to model individually, but they could be different aspects of a single unified dynamic mechanism.*[15]

3.1.5 Prägnanz Law of closure

Main article: Principles of grouping

The fundamental principle of gestalt perception is the law of prägnanz (in the German language, pithiness), which says that we tend to order our experience in a manner that is regular, orderly, symmetrical, and simple. Gestalt psychologists attempt to discover reﬁnements of the law of prägnanz, and this involves writing down laws that, hy- pothetically, allow us to predict the interpretation of sensation, what are often called “gestalt laws”.*[16]

called laws or principles, depending on the paper where they appear—but for simplicity's sake, this article uses the term laws. These laws deal with the sensory modality of vision. However, there are analogous laws for other sensory modalities including auditory, tactile, gustatory and olfactory (Bregman – GP). The visual Gestalt principles of grouping were introduced in Wertheimer (1923). Through the 1930s and '40s Wertheimer, Kohler and Law of proximity Koﬀka formulated many of the laws of grouping through the study of visual perception.

1. Law of Proximity—The law of proximity states that when an individual perceives an assortment of objects they perceive objects that are close to each other as forming a group. For example, in the figure that illustrates the Law of proximity, there are 72 circles, but we perceive the collection of circles in groups. Specifically, we perceive that there is a group of 36 circles on the left side of the image, and three groups of 12 circles on the right side of the image. This law is often used in advertising logos to emphasize which aspects of events are associated.*[17]*[18] 2. Law of Similarity—The law of similarity states that elements within an assortment of objects are perceptually grouped together if they are similar to each other. This similarity can occur in the form of shape, colour, shading or other qualities. For Law of similarity example, the figure illustrating the law of similarity portrays 36 circles all equal distance apart from A major aspect of Gestalt psychology is that it implies one another forming a square. In this depiction, 18 that the mind understands external stimuli as whole rather of the circles are shaded dark and 18 of the circles than the sum of their parts. The wholes are structured are shaded light. We perceive the dark circles as and organized using grouping laws. The various laws are grouped together, and the light circles as grouped to- 3.1. GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY 27

gether forming six horizontal lines within the square tend to perceive the two objects as two single unin- of circles. This perception of lines is due to the law terrupted entities. Stimuli remain distinct even with of similarity.*[18] overlap. We are less likely to group elements with sharp abrupt directional changes as being one ob- 3. Law of Closure—The law of closure states that in- ject.*[17] dividuals perceive objects such as shapes, letters, pictures, etc., as being whole when they are not com- 7. Law of Good Gestalt—The law of good gestalt ex- plete. Specifically, when parts of a whole picture are plains that elements of objects tend to be perceptu- missing, our perception fills in the visual gap. Re- ally grouped together if they form a pattern that is search shows that the reason the mind completes a regular, simple, and orderly. This law implies that as regular figure that is not perceived through sensation individuals perceive the world, they eliminate com- is to increase the regularity of surrounding stimuli. plexity and unfamiliarity so they can observe a re- For example, the figure that depicts the law of clo- ality in its most simplistic form. Eliminating extra- sure portrays what we perceive as a circle on the left neous stimuli helps the mind create meaning. This side of the image and a rectangle on the right side of meaning created by perception implies a global reg- the image. However, gaps are present in the shapes. ularity, which is often mentally prioritized over spa- If the law of closure did not exist, the image would tial relations. The law of good gestalt focuses on the depict an assortment of different lines with different idea of conciseness, which is what all of gestalt the- lengths, rotations, and curvatures—but with the law ory is based on. This law has also been called the of closure, we perceptually combine the lines into law of Prägnanz.*[17] Prägnanz is a German word whole shapes.*[17]*[18]*[19] that directly translates to mean“pithiness”and implies the ideas of salience, conciseness and orderli- 4. Law of Symmetry—The law of symmetry states ness.*[20] that the mind perceives objects as being symmetrical and forming around a center point. It is percep- 8. Law of Past Experience—The law of past expe- tually pleasing to divide objects into an even number rience implies that under some circumstances visual of symmetrical parts. Therefore, when two symmet- stimuli are categorized according to past experience. rical elements are unconnected the mind perceptu- If two objects tend to be observed within close prox- ally connects them to form a coherent shape. Sim- imity, or small temporal intervals, the objects are ilarities between symmetrical objects increase the more likely to be perceived together. For exam- likelihood that objects are grouped to form a com- ple, the English language contains 26 letters that are bined symmetrical object. For example, the figure grouped to form words using a set of rules. If an depicting the law of symmetry shows a configura- individual reads an English word they have never tion of square and curled brackets. When the image seen, they use the law of past experience to inter- is perceived, we tend to observe three pairs of sym- pret the letters “L”and “I”as two letters beside metrical brackets rather than six individual brack- each other, rather than using the law of closure to ets.*[17]*[18] combine the letters and interpret the object as an uppercase U.*[20] 5. Law of Common Fate—The law of common fate states that objects are perceived as lines that move along the smoothest path. Experiments using the vi- 3.1.6 Criticisms sual sensory modality found that movement of elements of an object produce paths that individuals Some of the central criticisms of Gestaltism are based on perceive that the objects are on. We perceive ele- the preference Gestaltists are deemed to have for theory ments of objects to have trends of motion, which in- over data, and a lack of quantitative research supporting dicate the path that the object is on. The law of con- Gestalt ideas. This is not necessarily a fair criticism as tinuity implies the grouping together of objects that highlighted by a recent collection of quantitative research have the same trend of motion and are therefore on on Gestalt perception.*[3] the same path. For example, if there are an array of Other important criticisms concern the lack of defini- dots and half the dots are moving upward while the tion and support for the many physiological assumptions other half are moving downward, we would perceive made by gestaltists*[1] and lack of theoretical coherence the upward moving dots and the downward moving in modern Gestalt psychology.*[3] dots as two distinct units.*[20] In some scholarly communities, such as cognitive psy- 6. Law of Continuity—The law of continuity states chology and computational neuroscience, gestalt theories that elements of objects tend to be grouped together, of perception are criticized for being descriptive rather and therefore integrated into perceptual wholes if than explanatory in nature. For this reason, they are they are aligned within an object. In cases where viewed by some as redundant or uninformative. For ex- there is an intersection between objects, individuals ample, Bruce, Green & Georgeson*[2] conclude the fol- 28 CHAPTER 3. DAY 3

lowing regarding gestalt theory's influence on the study of colleagues in Germany, Austria and Switzerland. Other visual perception: countries, especially Italy, have seen similar developments. The physiological theory of the gestaltists has fallen by the wayside, leaving us with a set of descriptive principles, but without a model of perceptual processing. Indeed, some Fuzzy-trace theory of their “laws”of perceptual organisation today sound vague and inadequate. What is Fuzzy-trace theory, a dual process model of memory meant by a “good”or “simple”shape, for and reasoning, was also derived from Gestalt psychol- example? ogy. Fuzzy-trace theory posits that we encode informa- —Bruce, Green & Georgeson, Visual perception into two separate traces: verbatim and gist. Infor- tion: Physiology, psychology and ecology mation stored in verbatim is exact memory for detail (the individual parts of a pattern, for example) while information stored in gist is semantic and conceptual (what we perceive the pattern to be). The effects seen in Gestalt 3.1.7 Gestalt views in psychology psychology can be attributed to the way we encode information as gist.*[23]*[24] Gestalt psychologists find it is important to think of problems as a whole. Max Wertheimer considered thinking to happen in two ways: productive and reproductive.*[21] Productive thinking is solving a problem with insight. 3.1.8 Use in design

This is a quick insightful unplanned response to situations The gestalt laws are used in user interface design. The and environmental interaction. laws of similarity and proximity can, for example, be used Reproductive thinking is solving a problem with previ- as guides for placing radio buttons. They may also be used ous experiences and what is already known. (1945/1959). in designing computers and software for more intuitive human use. Examples include the design and layout of a This is a very common thinking. For example, when a desktop's shortcuts in rows and columns.*[25] person is given several segments of information, he/she deliberately examines the relationships among its parts, analyzes their purpose, concept, and totality, he/she reaches the“aha!" moment, using what is already known. 3.1.9 Quantum cognition modeling Understanding in this case happens intentionally by reproductive thinking. Main article: Quantum cognition § Gestalt perception Another gestalt psychologist, Perkins, believes insight deals with three processes: Similarities between Gestalt phenomena and quantum mechanics have been pointed out by, among others, 1. Unconscious leap in thinking.*[16] chemist Anton Amann, who commented that “similari- 2. The increased amount of speed in mental process- ties between Gestalt perception and quantum mechanics ing. are on a level of a parable”yet may give useful insight nonetheless. Physicist Elio Conte and co-workers have 3. The amount of short-circuiting that occurs in normal * proposed abstract, mathematical models to describe the reasoning. [22] time dynamics of cognitive associations with mathematical tools borrowed from quantum mechanics*[26]*[27] Views going against the gestalt psychology are: and has discussed psychology experiments in this context. A similar approach has been suggested by physicists 1. Nothing-special view David Bohm, Basil Hiley and philosopher Paavo Pylkkä- 2. Neo-gestalt view nen with the notion that mind and matter both emerge from an“implicate order”.*[28]*[29] The models involve 3. The Three-Process View non-commutative mathematics; such models account for situations in which the outcome of two measurements Gestalt psychology should not be confused with the performed one after the other can depend on the order in gestalt therapy of Fritz Perls, which is only periph- which they are performed—a pertinent feature for psy- erally linked to gestalt psychology. A strictly gestalt chological processes, as it is obvious that an experiment psychology-based therapeutic method is Gestalt Theoret- performed on a conscious person may inﬂuence the out- ical Psychotherapy, developed by the German gestalt psy- come of a subsequent experiment by changing the state chologist and psychotherapist Hans-Jürgen Walter and his of mind of that person. 3.1. GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY 29

3.1.10 See also [6] Heider, F. 1977. Cited in Dewey, R.A. 2007. Psychology: An introduction: Chapter four - The Whole is Other than • Amodal perception the Sum of the Parts. Retrieved 4/12/2014. • Rudolf Arnheim [7] Humphrey, G (1924). “The psychology of the gestalt” . Journal of Educational Psychology. 15 (7): 401–412. • Solomon Asch doi:10.1037/h0070207.

• cognitive grammar [8] Bernd Bocian:Fritz Perls in Berlin 1893–1933. Expres- sionism – Psychonalysis – Judaism, 2010, p. 190, EHP • fuzzy-trace theory Verlag Andreas Kohlhage, Bergisch Gladbach.

• Hermann Friedmann [9] Joe Wysong/Edward Rosenfeld (eds): An Oral History of Gestalt Therapy, Highland, New York 1982, The Gestalt • Gestaltzerfall Journal Press, p. 12.

• James J. Gibson [10] Allen R. Barlow, “Gestalt-Antecedent Influence or His- • torical Accident”, The Gestalt Journal, Volume IV, Num- Graz School ber 2, (Fall, 1981) • Kurt Goldstein [11] See Barlow criticizing Henle: Allen R. Barlow: Gestalt • Laws of association Therapy and Gestalt Psychology. Gestalt – Antecedent In- fluence or Historical Accident, in: The Gestalt Journal, • important publications in gestalt psychology Volume IV, Number 2, Fall, 1981. • mereology [12] William Ray Woodward, Robert Sonné Cohen – World views and scientific discipline formation: science stud- • Wolfgang Metzger ies in the German Democratic Republic : papers from a German-American summer institute, 1988 • Optical illusion [13] Lettvin, J.Y., Maturana, H.R., Pitts, W.H., and McCul- • Pattern recognition (psychology) loch, W.S. (1961). Two Remarks on the Visual System of the Frog. In Sensory Communication edited by Wal- • pattern recognition (machine learning) ter Rosenblith, MIT Press and John Wiley and Sons: New York • phenomenology [14] Valentin Fedorovich Turchin – The phenomenon of sci- • principles of grouping ence – a cybernetic approach to human evolution – Columbia University Press, 1977 • Pál Schiller Harkai “ ” • [15] Gestalt Isomorphism . Sharp.bu.edu. Archived from Structural information theory the original on 2012-02-17. Retrieved 2012-04-06. • topological data analysis [16] Sternberg, Robert, Cognitive Psychology Third Edition, Thomson Wadsworth© 2003. • James Tenney • [17] Stevenson, Herb. “Emergence: The Gestalt Approach Hans Wallach to Change”. Unleashing Executive and Orzanizational Potential. Retrieved 7 April 2012.

3.1.11 References [18] Soegaard, Mads.“Gestalt Principles of form Perception” . Interaction Design. Retrieved 8 April 2012. [1] Schultz, Duane (2013). A History of Modern Psychology. Burlington: Elsevier Science. p. 291. ISBN 1483270084. [19] http://www.gizmodo.co.uk/2013/05/ why-your-brain-thinks-these-dots-are-a-dog/ [2] Bruce, V., Green, P. & Georgeson, M. (1996). Visual perception: Physiology, psychology and ecology (3rd ed.). [20] Todorovic, Dejan. “Gestalt Principles”. Scholarpe- LEA. p. 110. dia.org. Scholarpedia. Retrieved 5 April 2012.

[3] Jäkel, F., Singh, M., Wichmann, F. A., & Herzog, M. [21] Sternberg, Robert, Cognitive Psychology Fourth Edition, H. (2016), “An overview of quantitative approaches in Thomas Wadsworth© 2006. Gestalt perception.”, Vision Research, 126: 3–8 [22] Langley& associates, 1987; Perkins, 1981; Weisberg, [4] Tuck, Michael (Aug 17, 2010). “Gestalt Principles Ap- 1986,1995” plied in Design”. Retrieved 2014-12-19. [23] Reyna, Valerie (2012). “A new institutionism: Mean- [5] David Hothersall: History of Psychology, chapter seven, ing, memory, and development in Fuzzy-Trace Theory”. (2004) Judgment and Decision Making. 7 (3): 332–359. 30 CHAPTER 3. DAY 3

[24] Barghout, Lauren (2014).“Visual Taxometric Approach • Gestalt Isomorphism and the Primacy of Subjective to Image Segmentation Using Fuzzy-Spatial Taxon Cut Conscious Experience – by Steven Lehar Yields Contextually Relevant Regions”. Information Pro- cessing and Management of Uncertainty in Knowledge- • The new gestalt psychology of the 21st century Based Systems: 163–173. • The Pennsylvania Gestalt Center [25] Soegaard, Mads.“Gestalt principles of form perception” . Interaction-design.org. Retrieved 2012-04-06. • Gestalt Society of Croatia

[26] Conte, Elio; Todarello, Orlando; Federici, Antonio; Vi- • Gestalt Theory tiello, Francesco; Lopane, Michele; Khrennikov, Andrei; Zbilut, Joseph P. (2007). “Some remarks on an exper- • Ecological Approach to Visual Perception iment suggesting quantum-like behavior of cognitive en- • tities and formulation of an abstract quantum mechani- James J. Gibson in brief cal formalism to describe cognitive entity and its dynamics”. Chaos, Solitons & Fractals. 31 (5): 1076–1088. arXiv:0710.5092 . doi:10.1016/j.chaos.2005.09.061. 3.2 Pattern recognition (psychol-

[27] Elio Conte, Orlando Todarello, Antonio Federici, ogy) Francesco Vitiello, Michele Lopane, Andrei Khren- nikov: A Preliminary Evidence of Quantum Like Behav- For other uses, see Pattern recognition (disambiguation). ior in Measurements of Mental States, arXiv:quant-ph/ In psychology and cognitive neuroscience, pattern 0307201 (submitted 28 July 2003)

[28] B.J. Hiley: Particles, ﬁelds, and observers, Volume I The Origins of Life, Part 1 Origin and Evolution of Life, Sec- tion II The Physical and Chemical Basis of Life, pp. 87– 106 (PDF)

[29] Basil J. Hiley, Paavo Pylkkänen: Naturalizing the mind in a quantum framework. In Paavo Pylkkänen and Tere Vadén (eds.): Dimensions of conscious experience, Ad- vances in Consciousness Research, Volume 37, John Ben- jamins B.V., 2001, ISBN 90-272-5157-6, pages 119-144

• Carlson, Neil R. and Heth, C. Donald (2010) Psy- chology the Science of Behaviour Ontario, CA: Pearson Education Canada. pp 20–22.

• Smith, Barry (ed.) (1988) Foundations of Gestalt Mirror induced behavior in the magpie Theory, Munich and Vienna: Philosophia Verlag, 1988. recognition describes a cognitive process that matches information from a stimulus with information retrieved from memory.*[1] Among others, the recognized pat- 3.1.12 External links terns can be those perceived in facial features,*[2] units of music,*[3] components of language*[4] or characters and • Gestalt psychology on Encyclopædia Britannica other symbols.*[1] One theory understands patterns as a set of characteristic features extracted from the stimulus, • Gestalt principles article in Scholarpedia, by Dejan but it does not comprehensively describe the process or Todorović the role of context and there is a multitude of other theories with diﬀerent approaches.*[lower-alpha 1] Pattern • Journal “Gestalt Theory - An International Multi- recognition does not occur instantly, although it does hap- disciplinary Journal”in full text (open source) pen automatically and spontaneously. Pattern recognition • International Society for Gestalt Theory and its Ap- is an innate ability of animals. plications – GTA

• Embedded Figures in Art, Architecture and Design 3.2.1 Theories

• On Max Wertheimer and Pablo Picasso • Template matching

• On Esthetics and Gestalt Theory • Prototype-matching

• The World In Your Head – by Steven Lehar • Feature analysis 3.2. PATTERN RECOGNITION (PSYCHOLOGY) 31

• Recognition by components 3.2.3 False pattern recognition

• Fourier analysis Main article: Apophenia The human tendency to see patterns that do not actu- • Bottom-up and top-down processing

Template matching

The incoming sensory information is compared directly to copies (templates) stored in the long term memory. These copies are stored in the process of our past experiences and learning. E.g. A A A are all recognized as the letter A but not B. Note: This does not allow for variation in letters unless there are templates for each variation. Shark or submarine?

ally exist is called apophenia. Examples of apophenia Prototype matching include the Man in the Moon, faces or figures in shadows, in clouds, and in patterns with no deliberate de- Prototype means a concept of average characteristics of a sign, such as the swirls on a baked confection, and the particular subject. It can be found throughout the world. perception of causal relationships between events which For instance a concept of small animal with feathers, are, in fact, unrelated. Apophenia figures prominently beak, two wings that can fly is a prototype concept of in conspiracy theories, gambling, misinterpretation of a crow, sparrow, hen, eagle, etc. Prototype matching, statistics and scientific data, and some kinds of religious unlike template matching, does not emphasize a perfect and paranormal experiences. Misperception of patterns match between the incoming stimuli and the stored con- in random data is called pareidolia. cept in the brain.

3.2.4 See also Feature analysis • Gambler's fallacy According to this theory, the sensory system breaks down the incoming stimuli into its features and processes the • Gestalt psychology information. Some features may be more important for • Pareidolia recognition than others. All stimuli have a set of distinctive features. Feature analysis proceeds through 4 stages. • Thin-slicing

1. Detection 3.2.5 Notes 2. Pattern dissection [1] Eysenck & Keane 2003, pp. 83–117, see also context as 3. Feature comparison in memory described by Krumhansl 2001, pp. 3–8

4. Recognition 3.2.6 Citations

[1] Eysenck & Keane 2003, pp. 83–117. 3.2.2 Multiple discrimination scaling [2] Chambon et al. 2007, p. 2. Template and feature analysis approaches to recognition of objects (and situations) have been merged / reconciled [3] Krumhansl 2001, pp. 3–8. / overtaken by multiple discrimination theory. This states [4] Margolis 1996, pp. 56–57. that the amounts in a test stimulus of each salient feature of a template are recognized in any perceptual judgment as being at a distance in the universal unit of 50% 3.2.7 References discrimination (the objective performance 'JND': Torger- son, 1958) from the amount of that feature in the template • Chambon, Valérian; et al. (2007). “Visual Pat- (Booth & Freeman, 1993, Acta Psychologica). tern Recognition: What Makes Faces so Special?". 32 CHAPTER 3. DAY 3

In Corrigan, Marsha S. Pattern Recognition in Biol- • Freud, Sigmund (1920). Introductory Lectures on ogy. New York: Nova Science Publishers. ISBN Psycho-analysis. Discussion of slips, transference, 9781600217166. OCLC 123962949. Retrieved 27 and dream analysis. Includes classic case studies. November 2014. • Eysenck, Michael W.; Keane, Mark T. (2003). 3.3.2 Abnormal psychology Cognitive Psychology: A Student's Handbook (4*th ed.). Hove; Philadelphia; New York: Tay- 3.3.3 Behaviorism lor & Francis. ISBN 9780863775512. OCLC 894210185. Retrieved 27 November 2014. • Watson, John B. (1913).“Psychology as the behaviorist views it,”Psychological Review, 20:158-177. • Krumhansl, Carol L. (1990). Cognitive Founda- With his behaviorism, Watson put the emphasis on tions of Musical Pitch. Oxford Psychology Series external behavior of people and their reaction to a No. 17 (2*nd ed.). New York: Oxford Univer- given situation, rather than the internal, mental states sity Press (published 2001). ISBN 9780198022152. of those people. He argued that the analysis of be- ISSN 1362-9972. OCLC 62386986. Retrieved 27 havior and reactions was the only objective way to November 2014. get insight into human actions. Online version • Margolis, Howard (1987). Patterns, Thinking, and • Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and Human Behav- Cognition: A Theory of Judgement (3*rd ed.). ior. This is Skinner's seminal textbook, in which Chicago; London: University of Chicago Press he discusses many subjects that are not usually cov- (published 1996). ISBN 9780226505282. OCLC ered, such as psychotherapy, self-control, and think- 15792013. Retrieved 27 November 2014. ing. It was written as part of a publishing deal so that he could get his utopian ﬁction novel published. 3.2.8 External links It has proven to be an enduring Radical Behavior- ist treatment of the person and society. Pavlovian Media related to Visual pattern recognition at Wikimedia behaviorism has been absorbed into and obliterated Commons by other theories of behavior, including Radical Be- haviorism. Online version

3.3 List of important publications 3.3.4 Biological psychology in psychology • Lewett, D.L., Romano, M.N, & Williston, J.S. (1970). Human auditory evoked potentials: Pos- This is a list of important publications in psychology, sible brain stem components detected on the scalp, organized by field. Science, 167, 1517-1518. Some reasons why a particular publication might be regarded as important: 3.3.5 Clinical psychology • Topic creator – A publication that created a new • American Psychiatric Association. (1980). Diag- topic nostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, • Breakthrough – A publication that changed scien- 3rd ed. Washington, DC: Author. tific knowledge significantly • Beck, A.T., Rush, A.J., Shaw, B.F., & Emery, G. • Influence – A publication which has significantly (1979). Cognitive therapy of depression. New influenced the world or has had a massive impact on York, NY: Guilford Press. the teaching of psychology. • Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (2002). A developmental psychopathology perspective on adoles- 3.3.1 Historical foundations cence. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychol- ogy, 70, 6-20. • James, William (1890). The Principles of Psychol- • Cleckley, H. (1941). The mask of sanity. St. Louis, ogy. This monumental text can be viewed as the be- MO: Mosby. ginning of psychology. Online version • Ellis, A. (1962). Reason and emotion in psychother- • Freud, Sigmund (1900). The Interpretation of apy. Dreams. Dream interpretation became a part of psychoanalysis due to this seminal work. Online ver- • Freud, A. (1937). The ego and the mechanisms of sion defense. London, U.K.: Hogarth Press. 3.3. LIST OF IMPORTANT PUBLICATIONS IN PSYCHOLOGY 33

• Freud, S., & Breuer, J. (1895). Case studies in hys- • Sullivan, H.S. (1953). The interpersonal theory of teria. psychiatry. • Freud, S. (1899[1900]). The interpretation of • Sullivan H.S. (1970). The psychiatric interview. dreams. New York, NY: Norton. • Freud, S. (1901). The psychopathology of everyday • Szasz, T.S. (1960). The myth of mental illness. life. American Psychologist, 15, 113-118. • Freud, S. (1905). Three essays on the theory of sex- • Wampold, B.E. (2001). The great psychotherapy uality. debate: Models, methods and findings. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum • Freud, S. (1917). Introduction to psychoanalysis. • • Freud, S. (1923). The ego and the id. Westen, D. (1998). The scientific legacy of Sig- mund Freud: Toward a psychodynamically in- • Gannushkin, P.B. (1933). Manifestations of psy- formed psychological science. Psychological Bul- chopathies: statics, dynamics, systematic aspects (In letin, 124, 333-371. Russian). • Wolpe, J. (1969). The practice of behavior therapy. • Gessmann, H.-W. (1996) Humanistic Psy- • chodrama. Vol. I-IV. Duisburg: publisher of Wood, J.M., Nezworski, M.T., Lilienfeld, S.O., Psychotherapeutic Institute Bergerhausen. & Garb, H.N. (2003). What's wrong with the Rorschach? • Hiller, J. B., Rosenthal, R., Bornstein, R. F., Berry, • D. T. R., & Brunell-Neuleib, S. (1999). A compara- Karimi hamidreza,(2010)Neuro psychology and tive meta-analysis of Rorschach and MMPI validity. hypnotherapy Psychological Assessment, 11, 278-296. • Kernberg, O. (1975). Borderline conditions and 3.3.6 Cognitive psychology pathological narcissism. New York, NY: Jason Aronson. • Turing, Alan (1950). "Computing machinery and intelligence,”Mind, vol. LIX, no. 236, October • Kraepelin, E. Dementia praecox and paraphrenia. 1950, pp. 433–460. eprint • Kraepelin, E. Manic-depressive illness and para- • Bandura, Albert, Ross, D. & Ross, S. A. (1961). noia. “Transmission of aggression through imitation of • Lichko, A.Y. (1977). Psychopathy and Accentua- aggressive models,”Journal of Abnormal and Social tions of Character at Teenagers (In Russian). Psychology, 63, 575-582. • • May, R. (1950). The meaning of anxiety. Horn, J. L. (1968). Organization of abilities and the development of intelligence. Psychological Review, • Meehl, P.E. (1954/1996). Clinical versus statistical 75(3), 242-259. prediction: A theoretical analysis and a review of the evidence. Minneapolis, MN: University of Min- • Baddeley, Alan & Hitch, G. (1974). Working mem- nesota Press. Reprinted with new Preface, 1996, by ory. In G.H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learn- Jason Aronson, Northvale, NJ. ing and motivation: Advances in research and theory (Vol. 8, pp. 47–89). New York: Academic Press. • Meehl, P.E. (1973). Why I do not attend case conferences. • Fodor, Jerry (1975). The Language of thought • Robins, E and Guze, SB. Establishment of diag- • Zenon Pylyshyn (1984). Computation and Cogni- nostic validity in psychiatric illness: its application tion. to schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 1970; 126:983- • Bandura, Albert (1986). Social Foundations of 987. Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory. En- • Rogers, C. (1951). Client-centered therapy. glewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. • Shapiro, D. (1973). Neurotic styles. New York, • Biederman, I. (1987). Recognition-by- N.Y.: Basic Books. Components: A theory of human image understanding. Psychological Review, 94, 115-147. • Shaver, P.R., & Mikulincer, M. (2005). Attachment theory and research: Resurrection of the psychody- • Stevan Harnad (1994). “Computation Is Just In- namic approach to personality. Journal of Research terpretable Symbol Manipulation: Cognition Isn't,” in Personality, 39, 22-45. Minds and Machines 4: 379-390. 34 CHAPTER 3. DAY 3

• Holyoak, Keith and Morrison, Robert (2005). The • Chapman, M. (1988). Constructive Evolution: Ori- Cambridge Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning gins and Development of Piaget’s Thought. Cam- Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. bridge, UK: University of Cambridge Press. ISBN 0-521-53101-2. A recent comprehensive col- • lection of survey chapters on topics in higher cogni- Bronfenbrenner, Urie (1979). The Ecology of Hu- tion. man Development. • Gruber, HE, Vonèche JJ. (Eds.). (1993). The Es- • George Mandler (2007). A history of modern ex- sential Piaget: An Interpretive Reference and Guide perimental psychology: From James and Wundt to (2nd ed.). Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson. cognitive science Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. • Lourenço, O, Machado A. (1996). In Defense of Piaget's Theory: A Reply to 10 Common Criticisms. 3.3.7 'Control theory' psychology Psychological Review, 103(1), 143-164. • Jean Matter Mandler (2004). The foundations of • Powers, William T.(2005). Behavior: The control mind: The origins of conceptual thought. New of perception (2nd Edition) New Canaan, Connecti- York: Oxford University Press. cut: Benchmark. The basic textbook on the control theory approach to understanding behavior and cog- • Piaget, Jean. (1952). The Origins of Intelligence in nition. Children (M. Cook, Trans. 2nd ed.). New York: In- ternational Universities Press. (Original work pub- • Powers, William(2008). Living control systems III: lished 1936) The fact of control. Bloomﬁeld, New Jersey: Bench- mark • Piaget, Jean. (1985). The Equilibration of Cogni- tive Structures: The Central Problem of Intellectual • Marken, Richard S. (1992). Mind readings: Exper- Development (T. Brown & K. J. Thampy, Trans.). imental studies of purpose., Los Angeles, CA: Min- Chicago: University of Chicago Press. (Original dReadings.com work published 1975)

• Marken, Richard S. (2002). More mind readings: • Siegler, RS. (1996). Emerging Minds: The Process Methods and models in the study of purpose., St. of Change in Children's Thinking. New York: Ox- Louis, MO: Newview. ford University Press.

• Runkel, Phillip (2003). People as living things. The psychology of perceptual control.,Hayward, CA: 3.3.9 Educational psychology Living Control Systems Publishing • Anderson, J. R., Corbett, A. T., Koedinger, K. • Cziko, Gary (2000). The things we do: Using the R., Pelletier, R. (1995). Cognitive tutors: Lessons lessons of Bernard and Darwin to understand the learned. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 4, 167- what, how and why of our behavior., Cambridge, 207. MA: MIT Press • Bandura, Albert (1993). “Perceived self-eﬃcacy in cognitive development and functioning,”Educa- tional psychologist, 28, 117-148. 3.3.8 Developmental psychology • Cronbach, Lee J. (1957). “The two disciplines of • Damon, W. & Lerner,R.M.(2007), Handbook of scientiﬁc psychology,”American Psychologist, 12, Child Psychology(6th edition), Wiley. 671-684. • • Baldwin, J. M. (1894). Mental development in the Cronbach, Lee J. and Meehl, Paul E. (1955).“Con- child and the race. New York: Macmillan. struct validity in psychological tests,”Psychological Bulletin, 52, 281-302. • Beilin, H. (1992). Piaget's Enduring Contribution • Mayer, R. E. (1997). “Multimedia learning: Are to Developmental Psychology. Developmental Psy- we asking the right questions?" Educational Psychol- chology, 28(2), 191-204. ogist, 32, 1-19. • Bowlby, J. (1969/1982). Attachment and loss: Vol. • Palincsar, A. S. (1998). Social constructivist per- 1. Attachment. New York, NY: Basic Books. spectives on teaching and learning. Annual Review of Psychology, 49, 345-375. • Bringuier, JC. (Ed.). (1980). Conversations with Jean Piaget. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. • Skinner, B. F. (1958). “Teaching Machines,”Sci- (Original work published 1977) ence, 128 (3330), 969-977. 3.3. LIST OF IMPORTANT PUBLICATIONS IN PSYCHOLOGY 35

• Spearman, Charles (1904). “General intelligence,” Evolutionary educational psychology objectively determined and measured]. American Journal of Psychology, 15, 201-293. • Geary, D. C. (2002). Principles of evolutionary educational psychology. Learning and Individual Dif- • Sweller, J., van Merriënboer J. J., Paas F. G. (1998). ferences, 12, 317-345. “Cognitive architecture and instructional design,” • Educational Psychology Review, 10, 251-296. Geary, D. C. (2005). Folk knowledge and academic learning. In B. J. Ellis & D. F. Bjorklund (Eds.), • Terman, Lewis M. (1916).“The uses of intelligence Origins of the social mind (pp. 493–519). New tests,”in The measurement of intelligence (chapter York: Guilford Publications. 1). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. • Thorndike, Edward L. (1910). “The contribution 3.3.11 Forensic psychology of psychology to education,”Journal of Educational Psychology, 1, 5-12. • Alan M. Goldstein (2003). Forensic Psychology. ISBN 0-471-61920-5. Forty seven forensic psychol- • Thurstone, Louis L. (1934).“The vectors of mind,” ogists cover the theory and practice of forensic psy- Psychological Review, 41, 1-32. chology in both civil and criminal litigation. • Hugo Münsterberg (1908). On the Witness Stand. 3.3.10 Evolutionary psychology Considered to be the first publication to apply psychology to legal matters. Among the topics dis- • Jerome Barkow, Leda Cosmides and John Tooby cussed are the reliability of witnesses' testimony and (1992). The Adapted Mind. NY: Oxford University memory, lie detection, and methods of interrogating Press. suspects of crime. • Buss, D.M.(2004).Evolutionary Psychology: The New Science of the Mind. Boston: Pearson Edu- 3.3.12 Genetic psychology cation, Inc. • Baldwin, J. M.. (1896). A New Factor in Evolution. • E.O. Wilson (1975). Sociobiology: The New Synthe- The American Naturalist, 30(354), 441-451. sis. • Piaget, Jean. (1979). Behaviour and Evolution (D. • E.O. Wilson (1979). On human nature. Nicholson-Smith, Trans.). London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. (Original work published 1976) • Trivers, R. L. (1971). The evolution of reciprocal altruism. Quarterly Review of Biology 46: 35–57. • Simpson, GG. (1953). The Baldwin Effect. Evolu- tion, 7(2), 110-117. • Leda Cosmides and John Tooby (1997). Evolutionary Psychology: A Primer. • Weber, BH. & Depew, D. J. (Eds.). (2003). Evo- lution and Learning: The Baldwin Effect Reconsid- • Donald Symons (1979). The Evolution of Human ered. Cambridge, MA: Bradford/MIT Press. Sexuality. • Lumsden C., and E. Wilson. 1981. Genes, Mind and 3.3.13 Gestalt psychology Culture: The Coevolutionary Process. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. • Max Wertheimer (1912). Experimental Studies of the Perception of Movement. Considered to be the founding article for Gestalt psychology. The article Evolutionary developmental psychology described the Phi phenomenon. • Bjorklund DF, Pellegrini AD. (2002). The Origins of Human Nature: Evolutionary Developmental Psy- 3.3.14 Health psychology chology. Washington, D.C.: American Psychologi- cal Association. 3.3.15 Human behavior genetics • Burgess R. L., MacDonald. (Eds.) (2004). Evolutionary Perspectives on Human Development, An updated list of classic papers in behavioral genetics is 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. maintained here

• Ellis BJ, Bjorklund DF. (Eds.) (2005). Origins of • Pearson K, Lee A. (1903). On the Laws of Inher- the social mind: Evolutionary psychology and child itance in Man: Inheritance of Physical Characters. development. New York: Guilford Press. Biometrika, 2(4);357-462. 36 CHAPTER 3. DAY 3

• Fisher R.A. (1918). The Correlation Between Rel- 3.3.17 Industrial and organizational psy- atives on the Supposition of Mendelian Inheritance. chology Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 52:399-433. • Schmidt, F.L., & Hunter, J.E. (1998). The validity and utility of selection methods in personnel psy- • Wright S. (1921). Correlation and Causation. Jour- chology: Practical and theoretical implications of nal of Agricultural Research, 20(7);557-585. 85 years of research findings. Psychological Bulletin, 124, 262-274. • Holzinger KJ. (1929). The Relative Effect of Na- ture and Nurture Influences on Twin Differences. • Kraiger, K., Ford, J.K., & Salas, E. (1993). Appli- The Journal of Educational Psychology, 20(4):241- cation of cognitive, skill-based, and affective theo- 248X. ries of learning outcomes to new methods of training evaluation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78(2), • Vandenberg, SG (ed.), Methods and Goals in Human 311-328. Behavior Genetics, Academic Press, New York and London 3.3.18 Neuropharmacology • Erlenmeyer-Kimling L. and Jarvik, L. F.. (1963). Genetics and Intelligence: A Review. Science, 142, • Jack Cooper, Floyd Bloom, & Robert Roth (1996). The Biochemical Basis of Neuropharmacology. Ox- • Eaves LJ. (1969). The genetic analysis of contin- ford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. ISBN uous variation: A comparison of experimental de- 0-19-510399-8. signs applicable to human data. Br J Math Stat Psy- chol 22(2):131-147

• Heston LL. (1970). The Genetics of Schizophrenic 3.3.19 Occupational health psychology and Schizoid Disease. Science, 167(3916):249-256. • Everly, G. S., Jr. (1986). An introduction to occu- • Jinks JL, Fulker DW. (1970). Comparison of pational health psychology. In P. A. Keller & L. G. the biometrical genetical, mava, and classical ap- Ritt (Eds.), Innovations in clinical practice: A source proaches to the analysis of human behavior. Psychol book, Vol. 5 (pp. 331–338). Sarasota, FL: Profes- Bull 73(5):311-349. sional Resource Exchange. • Frese, M. (1985). Stress at work and psychosomatic • Scarr-Salapatek S. (1971). Race, social class, and complaints: A causal interpretation. Journal of Ap- IQ. Science 174:1285-1295. plied Psychology, 70, 314-328. • Eaves LJ, Eysenck H. (1974). Genetics and • Karasek, R. A. (1979). Job demands, job decision the development of social attitudes. Nature latitude, and mental strain: Implications for job re- 249(5454):288-289. design. Administrative Science Quarterly, 24, 285- • Eaves LJ, Eysenck H. (1976). Genotype x age inter- 307. action for neuroticism. Behav Genet 6(3):359-362. • Kasl, S. V. (1978). Epidemiological contributions to the study of work stress. In C. L. Cooper & R. L. • Martin NG, Eaves LJ. (1977). The genetical analy- Payne (Eds.), Stress at work (pp. 3–38). Chichester, sis of covariance structure. Heredity 38:79-95. UK: Wiley. • Bouchard TJ, Lykken DT, McGue M, Segal NL, • Kasl, S. V., & Cobb, S. (1970). Blood pressure Tellegan A . (1990). Sources of human psycho- changes in men undergoing job loss: A preliminary logical diﬀerences: The Minnesota Study of Twins report. Psychosomatic Medicine, 32, 19-38. Reared Apart. Science 250(4978):223-228. • Kelloway, E.K., Barling, J., & Hurrell, J.J., Jr. (Eds.) (2006). Handbook of workplace violence. 3.3.16 Humanistic psychology Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

• Man's Search for Meaning by Viktor Frankl, 1946. • Leka, S., & Houdmont, J. (Eds.)(2010). Occupa- tional health psychology. Chichester, UK: Wiley- • On Becoming a Person by Carl Rogers, 1961. Blackwell.

• Gessmann, H.-W. Basics of Group-Psychotherapy - • Parkes, K. R. (1982). Occupational stress among Humanistic Psychodrama, Vol I - Vol. IV. PIB Pub- student nurses: A natural experiment. Journal of lisher Duisburg-Germany, 1984-1996. Applied Psychology, 67, 784-796. 3.3. LIST OF IMPORTANT PUBLICATIONS IN PSYCHOLOGY 37

• Quick, J.C., Murphy,L.R., & Hurrell, J.J., Jr. (Eds.) 3.3.21 Phenomenology (1992). Work and well-being: Assessments and instruments for occupational mental health. Washing- • Medard Boss, Existential Foundations of Medicine ton, DC: American Psychological Association. and Psychology (Jason Aronson, 1984; ISBN 1- 56821-420-0) • Quick, J. C., & Tetrick, L. E. (Eds.). (2003). Hand- book of occupational health psychology. Washing- • Medard Boss, Psychoanalysis and Daseinsanalysis ton, DC: American Psychological Association. (Da Capo Pr, 1982; ISBN 0-306-79708-9) • Raymond, J., Wood, D., & Patrick, W. (1990). Psy- • chology doctoral training in work and health. Amer- Medard Boss, The Analysis of Dreams (Philosophi- ican Psychologist, 45, 1159-1161. cal Library, 1958) • Sauter, S.L., & Murphy, L.R. (Eds.) (1995). Or- • Amedeo Giorgi, Psychology as a Human Science ganizational risk factors for job stress. Washington, (Harper & Row, 1970) DC: American Psychological Association. • R. D. Laing, The Divided Self (Penguin, 1965) • Siegrist, J. (1996). Adverse health effects of high effort-low reward conditions at work. Journal of Oc- • Robert D Romanyshyn, Mirror and Metaphor: Im- cupational Health Psychology, 1, 27-43. ages and Stories of Psychological Life (Trivium, • Zapf, D., Dormann, C., & Frese, M. (1996). Lon- 2001) gitudinal studies in organizational stress research: A • Ernesto Spinelli, The Interpreted World: An Intro- review of the literature with reference to method- duction to Phenomenological Psychology (Sage, 2nd ological issues. Journal of Occupational Health Psy- Edition, 2005) chology, 1, 145-169. • Erwin Straus, Man, Time and World (Humanities 3.3.20 Personality psychology Press, 1982) • • Abraham Maslow (1943). A Theory of Human Mo- Erwin Straus, The Primary World of the Senses (Free tivation. Psychological Review, 50, 370-396. Press of Glencoe, 1963) • Jan Hendrik van den Berg, A Different Existence In this paper the Maslow's hierarchy of needs (Duquesne University Press, 1973) was described. Online version

• John, O. P. (1990). The “Big Five”factor taxon- 3.3.22 Religion omy: Dimensions of personality in the natural language and in questionnaires. In L. A. Pervin (Ed.), • William James, The Varieties of Religious Experi- Handbook of personality: Theory and research (pp. ence (1902) 66–100). New York: Guilford. • Costa, P. T., Jr., & McCrae, R. R. (1992). Nor- • Kenneth Pargament, Psychology of Religion and mal personality assessment in clinical practice: The Coping: Theory, Research, Practice (Guilford, 1997; NEO Personality Inventory. Psychological Assess- ISBN 1-57230-214-3) ment, 4, 5-13. • Peter L. Benson, Eugene C. Roehlkepartain & • Goldberg, L. R. (1993). The structure of phenotypic Stacey P. Rude (2003). “Spiritual development in personality traits. American Psychologist, 48(1), childhood and adolescence: Toward a field of in- 26–34. quiry”. Applied Developmental Science. 7 (3): 205– 213. doi:10.1207/S1532480XADS0703_12. ISSN • Digman, J. M. (1997). Higher-order factors of the 1088-8691. Big Five. Journal of Personality and Social Psychol- ogy, 73, 1246-1256. • Walter Mischel & Yuichi Shoda (1995). “A 3.3.23 Psychophysics cognitive-affective system theory of personality: Reconceptualizing situations, dispositions, dynam- • Gustav Fechner. (1836) Elements of Psychophysics. ics, and invariance in personality structure”. Foundation of the field of psychophysics. Psychological Review. American Psychological As- sociation. 102 (2): 246–268. doi:10.1037/0033- • Green, D.M. and Swets J.A. (1966) Signal Detection 295X.102.2.246. ISSN 0033-295X. Theory and Psychophysics. 38 CHAPTER 3. DAY 3

3.3.24 Social psychology

• Bandura, A. (1986). Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. • Allport, G.W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. New York: Doubleday. [This book expounds one of the most influential theories of prejudice reduction, known as the Contact Hypothesis: increasing contact between members of different groups is the foundation for reducing intergroup hostility.] • Tajfel, H., & Turner, J.C.. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W.G. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 33–47). Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole. (see Social identity theory).

3.3.25 External links

• Classics in the History of Psychology, an electronic resource developed by Professor Christopher D. Green, York University, Toronto, Canada, ISSN 1492-3173. Chapter 4

Day 4

4.1 Behaviorism including, for example, organizational behavior management, to the treatment of mental disorders, such as autism and substance abuse.*[3]*[4]*[5] In addition, while be- Not to be confused with Behavioralism. haviorism and cognitive schools of psychological thought “ ” Behavioural analysis redirects here. For the subset of may not agree theoretically, they have complemented business analytics, see Behavioral analytics. each other in cognitive behavior therapies, which have demonstrated utility in treating certain pathologies, in- Behaviorism (or behaviourism) is a systematic ap- cluding simple phobias, PTSD, and mood disorders. proach to the understanding of human and animal behavior. It assumes that all behaviors are either reflexes produced by a response to certain stimuli in the envi- 4.1.1 Versions ronment, or a consequence of that individual's history, including especially reinforcement and punishment, to- There is no universally agreed-upon classification, but gether with the individual's current motivational state and some titles given to the various branches of behaviorism controlling stimuli. Thus, although behaviorists generally include: accept the important role of inheritance in determining behavior, they focus primarily on environmental factors. • Methodological behaviorism: Watson's behaviorism Behaviorism combines elements of philosophy, method- states that only public events (behaviors of an indi- ology, and psychological theory. It emerged in the vidual) can be objectively observed, and that there- late nineteenth century as a reaction to depth psychol- fore private events (thoughts and feelings) should ogy and other traditional forms of psychology, which be ignored.*[1]*[6] It also became the basis for often had difficulty making predictions that could be the early approach behavior modification in the late tested experimentally. The earliest derivatives of Be- 1970s and early 1980s. haviorism can be traced back to the late 1800s where Edward Thorndike pioneered the law of effect (a process • Radical behaviorism: Skinner's behaviorism theo- that involved strengthening behavior through the use of rizes that processes within the organism should be reinforcement). acknowledged, particularly the presence of private During the first half of the twentieth century, John B. events (such as thoughts and feelings), and suggests Watson devised methodological behaviorism, which re- that environmental variables also control these inter- jected introspective methods and sought to understand nal events just as they control observable behaviors. behavior by only measuring observable behaviors and Radical behaviorism forms the core philosophy be- events. It was not until the 1930s that B. F. Skinner hind behavior analysis. Willard Van Orman Quine — used many of radical behaviorism's ideas in his study suggested that private events including thoughts and * feelings —should be subjected to the same controlling of knowledge and language. [6] variables as observable behavior which became the ba- • Teleological behaviorism: Post-Skinnerian, purpo- sis for his philosophy called radical behaviorism.*[1]*[2] sive, close to microeconomics. Focuses on objective While Watson and Ivan Pavlov investigated the stimulus- observation as opposed to cognitive processes. response procedures of classical conditioning, Skinner as- sessed the controlling nature of consequences and also • Theoretical behaviorism: Post-Skinnerian, accepts the antecedents (or discriminative stimuli) that signal the observable internal states (“within the skin”once behavior; the technique became known as operant condi- meant “unobservable”, but with modern tech- tioning. nology we are not so constrained); dynamic, but The application of radical behaviorism —known as eclectic in choice of theoretical structures, empha- applied behavior analysis—is used in a variety of settings, sizes parsimony.

39 40 CHAPTER 4. DAY 4

• Biological behaviorism: Post-Skinnerian, centered Skinner's empirical work expanded on earlier research on on perceptual and motor modules of behavior, the- trial-and-error learning by researchers such as Thorndike ory of behavior systems. and Guthrie with both conceptual reformulations — Thorndike's notion of a stimulus–response“association” • Psychological behaviorism: As proposed by Arthur or “connection”was abandoned; and methodological W. Staats, this version of behaviorism centers on the ones —the use of the “free operant”, so called be- practical control of human behavior. It is noted for cause the animal was now permitted to respond at its its use of time-outs, token-reinforcement and other own rate rather than in a series of trials determined by methods, which importantly influenced modern ap- the experimenter procedures. With this method, Skinner proaches to child development, education, and ab- carried out substantial experimental work on the effects normal psychology.*[7]*[8] of different schedules and rates of reinforcement on the rates of operant responses made by rats and pigeons. He Two subtypes are: achieved remarkable success in training animals to perform unexpected responses, to emit large numbers of responses, and to demonstrate many empirical regularities • Hullian and post-Hullian: theoretical, group data, at the purely behavioral level. This lent some credibil- not dynamic, physiological; ity to his conceptual analysis. It is largely his conceptual analysis that made his work much more rigorous than • Purposive: Tolman's behavioristic anticipation of his peers', a point which can be seen clearly in his semi- cognitive psychology nal work Are Theories of Learning Necessary? in which he criticizes what he viewed to be theoretical weaknesses Radical behaviorism then common in the study of psychology. An important descendant of the experimental analysis of behavior is the * * Main article: Radical behaviorism Society for Quantitative Analysis of Behavior. [12] [13]

B. F. Skinner proposed radical behaviorism as the con- Relation to language ceptual underpinning of the experimental analysis of behavior. This view differs from other approaches to be- As Skinner turned from experimental work to concen- havioral research in various ways but, most notably here, trate on the philosophical underpinnings of a science of it contrasts with methodological behaviorism in accept- behavior, his attention turned to human language with ing feelings, states of mind and introspection as behaviors his 1957 book Verbal Behavior*[14] and other language- subject to scientific investigation. Like methodological related publications;*[15] Verbal Behavior laid out a vo- behaviorism it rejects the reflex as a model of all behav- cabulary and theory for functional analysis of verbal be- ior, and it defends the science of behavior as complemen- havior, and was strongly criticized in a review by Noam tary to but independent of physiology. Radical behavior- Chomsky.*[16]*[17] ism overlaps considerably with other western philosophical positions such as American pragmatism.*[9] Skinner did not respond in detail but claimed that Chom- sky failed to understand his ideas,*[18] and the disagree- ments between the two and the theories involved have Experimental and conceptual innovations been further discussed.*[19]*[20] Innateness theory is opposed to behaviorist theory which claims that language This essentially philosophical position gained strength is a set of habits that can be acquired by means of con- from the success of Skinner's early experimental work ditioning.*[21]*[22] According to some, this process that with rats and pigeons, summarized in his books The Be- the behaviorists define is a very slow and gentle process to havior of Organisms*[10] and Schedules of Reinforce- explain a phenomenon as complicated as language learn- ment.*[11] Of particular importance was his concept of ing. What was important for a behaviorist's analysis of the operant response, of which the canonical example was human behavior was not language acquisition so much as the rat's lever-press. In contrast with the idea of a physi- the interaction between language and overt behavior. In ological or reflex response, an operant is a class of struc- an essay republished in his 1969 book Contingencies of turally distinct but functionally equivalent responses. For Reinforcement,*[23] Skinner took the view that humans example, while a rat might press a lever with its left paw could construct linguistic stimuli that would then acquire or its right paw or its tail, all of these responses operate control over their behavior in the same way that exter- on the world in the same way and have a common con- nal stimuli could. The possibility of such “instructional sequence. Operants are often thought of as species of control”over behavior meant that contingencies of re- responses, where the individuals differ but the class co- inforcement would not always produce the same effects heres in its function-shared consequences with operants on human behavior as they reliably do in other animals. and reproductive success with species. This is a clear dis- The focus of a radical behaviorist analysis of human be- tinction between Skinner's theory and S–R theory. havior therefore shifted to an attempt to understand the 4.1. BEHAVIORISM 41

interaction between instructional control and contingency 4.1.4 Classical conditioning control, and also to understand the behavioral processes that determine what instructions are constructed and what Main article: Classical conditioning control they acquire over behavior. Recently, a new line of behavioral research on language was started under the Although operant conditioning plays the largest role in name of relational frame theory. discussions of behavioral mechanisms, classical conditioning (or Pavlovian conditioning or respondent conditioning) is also an important behavior-analytic process 4.1.2 Education that need not refer to mental or other internal processes. Pavlov's experiments with dogs provide the most familiar Behaviourism focuses on one particular view of learning: example of the classical conditioning procedure. In sim- a change in external behaviour achieved through using re- ple conditioning, the dog was presented with a stimulus inforcement and repetition (Rote learning) to shape be- such as a light or a sound, and then food was placed in the havior. Skinner found that behaviors could be shaped dog's mouth. After a few repetitions of this sequence, the when the use of reinforcement was implemented. De- light or sound by itself caused the dog to salivate.*[24] sired behavior is rewarded, while the undesired behavior Although Pavlov proposed some tentative physiological is punished. Incorporating behaviorism into the class- processes that might be involved in classical condition- room allowed educators to assist their students in ex- ing, these have not been confirmed. The idea of classical celling both academically and personally. In the field of conditioning helped behaviorist John Watson discover the language learning, this type of teaching was called the key mechanism behind how humans acquire the behav- audio-lingual method, characterised by the whole class iors that they do, which was to find a natural reflex that using choral chanting of key phrases, dialogues and im- produces the response being considered. mediate correction. Watson's“Behaviourist Manifesto”has three aspects that Within the behaviourist view of learning, the“teacher”is deserve special recognition: one is that psychology should the dominant person in the classroom and takes complete be purely objective, with any interpretation of conscious control, evaluation of learning comes from the teacher experience being removed, thus leading to psychology as who decides what is right or wrong. The learner does not the “science of behaviour"; the second one is that the have any opportunity for evaluation or reflection within goals of psychology should be to predict and control be- the learning process, they are simply told what is right or haviour (as opposed to describe and explain conscious wrong. The conceptualization of learning using this ap- mental states; the third one is that there is no notable proach could be considered “superficial”as the focus is distinction between human and non-human behaviour. on external changes in behaviour i.e. not interested in the Following Darwin's theory of evolution, this would sim- internal processes of learning leading to behaviour change ply mean that human behaviour is just a more com- and has no place for the emotions involved the process. plex version in respect to behaviour displayed by other Whether this approach is right or wrong, it cannot be de- species.*[25] nied that an aspect of memorization is regarded by key scholars as critical in any language learning. 4.1.5 Molecular versus molar behaviorism

4.1.3 Operant conditioning Skinner's view of behavior is most often characterized as a “molecular”view of behavior; that is, behavior can Main article: Operant conditioning be decomposed into atomistic parts or molecules. This view is inconsistent with Skinner's complete description Operant conditioning was developed by B.F. Skinner in of behavior as delineated in other works, including his “ ”* 1937 and deals with the modification of “voluntary be- 1981 article Selection by Consequences . [26] Skinner haviour” or operant behaviour. Operant behavior oper- proposed that a complete account of behavior requires ates on the environment and is maintained by its conse- understanding of selection history at three levels: biology quences. Reinforcement and punishment, the core tools (the natural selection or phylogeny of the animal); be- of operant conditioning, are either positive (delivered fol- havior (the reinforcement history or ontogeny of the be- lowing a response), or negative (withdrawn following a havioral repertoire of the animal); and for some species, response). Skinner created the Skinner Box or operant culture (the cultural practices of the social group to which conditioning chamber to test the effects of operant condi- the animal belongs). This whole organism then inter- tioning principles on rats. From this study, he discovered acts with its environment. Molecular behaviorists use no- that the rats learned very effectively if they were rewarded tions from melioration theory, negative power function discounting or additive versions of negative power func- frequently. Skinner also found that he could shape the * rats' behavior through the use of rewards, which could, in tion discounting. [27] turn, be applied to human learning as well. Molar behaviorists, such as Howard Rachlin, Richard 42 CHAPTER 4. DAY 4

Herrnstein, and William Baum, argue that behavior can- possibility of free will.*[31] not be understood by focusing on events in the moment. That is, they argue that behavior is best understood as the This is Dennett's main point in “Skinner ultimate product of an organism's history and that molec- Skinned.”Dennett argues that there is a ular behaviorists are committing a fallacy by inventing fic- crucial difference between explaining and titious proximal causes for behavior. Molar behaviorists explaining away …If our explanation of argue that standard molecular constructs, such as “asso- apparently rational behavior turns out to be ciative strength”, are better replaced by molar variables extremely simple, we may want to say that the such as rate of reinforcement.*[28] Thus, a molar behav- behavior was not really rational after all. But if iorist would describe “loving someone”as a pattern of the explanation is very complex and intricate, loving behavior over time; there is no isolated, proximal we may want to say not that the behavior is cause of loving behavior, only a history of behaviors (of not rational, but that we now have a better which the current behavior might be an example) that can understanding of what rationality consists in. be summarized as “love”. (Compare: if we find out how a computer program solves problems in linear algebra, we don't say it's not really solving them, we just 4.1.6 In philosophy say we know how it does it. On the other hand, in cases like Weizenbaum's ELIZA program, Behaviorism is a psychological movement that can be the explanation of how the computer carries contrasted with philosophy of mind. The basic premise on a conversation is so simple that the right of radical behaviorism is that the study of behavior should thing to say seems to be that the machine isn't be a natural science, such as chemistry or physics, without really carrying on a conversation, it's just a any reference to hypothetical inner states of organisms as trick.) causes for their behavior. Less radical varieties are un- —Curtis Brown, Philosophy of Mind, “Be- concerned with philosophical positions on internal, men- haviorism: Skinner and Dennett”*[32] tal and subjective experience. Behaviorism takes a functional view of behavior. According to Edmund Fantino and colleagues: “Behavior analysis has much to offer the study of phenomena normally dominated by cognitive 4.1.7 21st-century behavior analysis and social psychologists. We hope that successful application of behavioral theory and methodology will not only The early term behavior modification has been obsolete shed light on central problems in judgment and choice but since the 1990s as it currently refers to the brief revival of methodological behaviorism in the late 1950s and will also generate greater appreciation of the behavioral * * * approach.”*[29] again from the late 1970s to early 1980s. [33] [34] [35] Applied behavior analysis—the term that replaced behav- Behaviorist sentiments are not uncommon within ior modification—has emerged into a thriving field. philosophy of language and analytic philosophy. It is sometimes argued that Ludwig Wittgenstein defended a The Association for Behavior Analysis: International behaviorist position (e.g., the beetle in a box argument) (ABAI) currently has 32 state and regional chapters —but while there are important relations between within the United States. Approximately 30 additional his thought and behaviorism, the claim that he was a chapters have also developed throughout Europe, Asia, behaviorist is quite controversial. Mathematician Alan South America, and the South Pacific. In addition to 34 Turing is also sometimes considered a behaviorist, but he annual conferences held by ABAI in the United States himself did not make this identification. In logical and and Canada, ABAI held the 5th annual International con- empirical positivism (as held, e.g., by Rudolf Carnap and ference in Norway in 2009. The independent develop- Carl Hempel), the meaning of psychological statements ment of behaviour analysis outside the US also continues to develop. For example, the UK Society for Behaviour are their verification conditions, which consist of per- * formed overt behavior. W.V. Quine made use of a type Analysis [36] was founded in 2013 to further the ad- of behaviorism, influenced by some of Skinner's ideas, vancement of the science and practice of behaviour anal- in his own work on language. Gilbert Ryle defended a ysis across the UK. And in terms of motivation, there remains strong interest in the variety of human motiva- distinct strain of philosophical behaviorism, sketched * * * * * in his book The Concept of Mind. Ryle's central claim tional behaviour factors, e.g., [37] [38] [39] [40] [41] was that instances of dualism frequently represented indeed one could argue that the entire career counselling and advisory industry has at least partly been predicated "category mistakes", and hence that they were really * misunderstandings of the use of ordinary language. on analysing individual behaviours. [42] Some, may go Daniel Dennett likewise acknowledges himself to be as far as suggesting that the current rapid change in organ- * isational behaviour could partly be attributed to some of a type of behaviorist, [30] though he offers extensive * criticism of radical behaviorism and refutes Skinner's these theories and the theories that are related to it. [43] rejection of the value of intentional idioms and the The interests among behavior analysts today are wide 4.1. BEHAVIORISM 43

ranging, as a review of the 30 Special Interest Groups Beyond Freedom & Dignity, and About Behaviorism). (SIGs) within ABAI indicates. Such interests include ev- During the 1980s, behavior analysts, most notably Sigrid erything from developmental disabilities and autism, to Glenn, had a productive interchange with cultural an- cultural psychology, clinical psychology, verbal behav- thropologist Marvin Harris (the most notable proponent ior, Organizational Behavior Management (OBM; behav- of “Cultural Materialism”) regarding interdisciplinary ior analytic I–O psychology). OBM has developed a par- work. Very recently, behavior analysts have produced ticularly strong following within behavior analysis, as evi- a set of basic exploratory experiments in an effort to- denced by the formation of the OBM Network and the in- ward this end.*[45] Behaviorism is also frequently used fluential Journal of Organizational Behavior Management in game development, although this application is con- (JOBM; recently rated the 3rd highest impact journal in troversial.*[46] applied psychology by ISI JOBM rating). Applications of behavioral technology, also known as applied behavior analysis or ABA, have been particularly 4.1.9 Behavior informatics and behavior well established in the area of developmental disabilities computing since the 1960s. Treatment of individuals diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders has grown especially rapidly With the fast growth of big behavioral data and appli- since the mid-1990s. This demand for services encour- cations, behavior analysis is ubiquitous. Understand- aged the formation of a professional credentialing pro- ing behavior from the informatics and computing per- gram administered by the Behavior Analyst Certifica- spective becomes increasingly critical for in-depth under- tion Board, Inc. (BACB) and accredited by the National standing of what, why and how behaviors are formed, in- Commission for Certifying Agencies. As of early 2012, teract, evolve, change and affect business and decision. there are over 300 BACB approved course sequences of- Behavior informatics*[47]*[48] and behavior comput- fered by about 200 colleges and universities worldwide ing*[49]*[50] deeply explore behavior intelligence and preparing students for this credential and approximately behavior insights from the informatics and computing 11,000 BACB certificants, most working in the United perspectives. States. The Association of Professional Behavior Ana- lysts was formed in 2008 to meet the needs of these ABA professionals. 4.1.10 Criticisms and limitations of behaviorism Modern behavior analysis has also witnessed a massive resurgence in research and applications related to lan- See also: Cognitive psychology and Cognitive neuro- guage and cognition, with the development of relational science frame theory (RFT; described as a“Post-Skinnerian account of language and cognition”).*[44] RFT also forms the empirical basis for the highly successful and data- In the second half of the 20th century, behaviorism driven acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT). In was largely eclipsed as a result of the cognitive revolu- fact, researchers and practitioners in RFT/ACT have be- tion.*[51]*[52] This shift was due to methodological become sufficiently prominent that they have formed their haviorism being highly criticized for not examining men- own specialized organization that is highly behaviorally tal processes, and this led to the development of the oriented, known as the Association for Contextual Be- cognitive therapy movement. In the mid-20th century, havioral Science (ACBS). It has rapidly grown in its few three main influences arose that would inspire and shape years of existence to reach about 5,000 members world- cognitive psychology as a formal school of thought: wide. • Some of the current prominent behavior analytic jour- Noam Chomsky's 1959 critique of behaviorism, nals include the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis and empiricism more generally, initiated what (JABA), the Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Be- would come to be known as the "cognitive revolu- * havior (JEAB) JEAB website, the Journal of Organiza- tion". [53] tional Behavior Management (JOBM), Behavior and So- • Developments in computer science would lead to cial Issues (BSI), as well as the Psychological Record. parallels being drawn between human thought and Currently, the US has 14 ABAI accredited MA and PhD the computational functionality of computers, open- programs for comprehensive study in behavior analysis. ing entirely new areas of psychological thought. Allen Newell and Herbert Simon spent years developing the concept of artificial intelligence (AI) and 4.1.8 Behavior analysis and culture later worked with cognitive psychologists regarding the implications of AI. The effective result was more Cultural analysis has always been at the philosophical of a framework conceptualization of mental func- core of radical behaviorism from the early days (as seen tions with their counterparts in computers (memory, in Skinner's Walden Two, Science & Human Behavior, storage, retrieval, etc.) 44 CHAPTER 4. DAY 4

• Formal recognition of the ﬁeld involved the estab- 4.1.12 See also lishment of research institutions such as George Mandler's Center for Human Information Process- • Animal training ing in 1964. Mandler described the origins of cog- • Antecedent stimuli nitive psychology in a 2002 article in the Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences • Behavior analysis of child development

In the early years of cognitive psychology, behaviorist • Behavioral change theories critics held that the empiricism it pursued was incompat- • Behavioral economics ible with the concept of internal mental states. Cognitive neuroscience, however, continues to gather evidence of • Behavioral medicine direct correlations between physiological brain activity and putative mental states, endorsing the basis for cog- • Behavioral neuroscience nitive psychology. • Counterconditioning • Criminology 4.1.11 List of notable behaviorists • Direct instruction • Vladimir Bekhterev • Dog behaviorist • Ivan Pavlov • Ethology • Albert Bandura • Functional analysis (psychology) • Alan E. Kazdin • • Sidney W. Bijou List of publications in psychology § Behaviorism • Edwin Ray Guthrie • The Logic of Modern Physics • Richard J. Herrnstein • Mentalism (psychology) • Clark L. Hull • Models of abnormality § Behavioural model • Fred S. Keller • Observational learning • Neal E. Miller • Operationalization • Marsha M. Linehan • Organizational behavior management • O. Hobart Mowrer • Pharmacology § Behavioral pharmacology • Charles E. Osgood • Positive behavior support • Kenneth W. Spence • Professional practice of behavior analysis • B.F. Skinner • Social skills training • J. E. R. Staddon • Token economy • Edward Thorndike • ZebraBox • Edward C. Tolman • Murray Sidman Related therapies • John B. Watson • Behavior therapy • Jon Levy • Behavioral activation • Ole Ivar Lovaas • Clinical behavior analysis • Steven C. Hayes • • Donald Baer Contingency management • Montrose Wolf • Dialectical behavior therapy • Dermot Barnes-Holmes • Discrete trial training • Jacque Fresco • Exposure and response prevention 4.1. BEHAVIORISM 45

• Exposure therapy [15] Skinner, B.F. (1969). “An operant analysis of problem- solving": 133–57.; chapter in Skinner, B.F. (1969). • Functional analytic psychotherapy Contingencies of reinforcement: a theoretical analysis. Appleton-Century-Crofts. p. 283. ISBN 0-13-171728- • Habit reversal training 6. • Pivotal response treatment [16] Chomsky, Noam; Skinner, B.F. (1959). “A Review of • Rational emotive behavior therapy B.F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior”. Language. 35 (1): 26– 58. doi:10.2307/411334. JSTOR 411334. • Systematic desensitization [17] Kennison, Shelia (2013). Introduction to language development. Los Angeles: Sage.

4.1.13 References [18] Skinner, B.F. (1972). “I Have Been Misunderstood.”. Center Magazine (March–April): 63. [1] Chiesa, Mecca (1994). Radical Behaviorism: The Phi- losophy and the Science. Authors Cooperative, Inc. pp. [19] MacCorquodale, K. (1970). “On Chomsky's Review 1–241. ISBN 0962331147. Retrieved July 31, 2016. of Skinner's VERBAL BEHAVIOR”. Journal of the [2] Dillenburger, Karola & Keenan, Mickey (2009). “None Experimental Analysis of Behavior. 13 (1): 83–99. of the As in ABA stand for autism: Dispelling the myths” doi:10.1901/jeab.1970.13-83. Retrieved 2008-01-10. . Journal of Intellectual and Developmental Disability. 34 [20] Stemmer, N. (1990). “Skinner's verbal behavior, Chom- (2): 193–195. doi:10.1080/13668250902845244. PMID sky's review, and mentalism”. J Exp Anal Behav. 54 19404840. Retrieved 2014-12-24. (3): 307–15. doi:10.1901/jeab.1990.54-307. PMC [3] Baer, Donald M.; Wolf, Montrose M.; Risley, Todd R. 1323000 . PMID 2103585. (1968). “Some current dimensions of applied behavior analysis”. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 1 (1): [21] Thornbury, Scott (2006). An A-Z of ELT. Oxford: Macmillan. p. 24. ISBN 1405070633. 91–7. doi:10.1901/jaba.1968.1-91. PMC 1310980 . PMID 16795165. [22] Douglas Brown, H (2000). Principles of Language Learn- ing and Teaching (Fourth ed.). White Plains: Long- [4] Madden, Gregory J., ed. (2013). “APA Handbook of man/Pearson Education. pp. 8–9. ISBN 0-13-017816-0. Behavior Analysis”. Retrieved December 24, 2014.

[5] Crone-Todd, Darlene, ed. (2015). “Behavior Analysis: [23] Skinner, B.F. (1969). Contingencies of reinforcement: a Research and Practice”. Retrieved 2014-12-24. theoretical analysis. Appleton-Century-Crofts. p. 283. ISBN 0-13-171728-6. [6] Skinner, BF (1976). About Behaviorism. New York: Ran- dom House, Inc. p. 18. ISBN 0-394-71618-3. [24] “Ivan Pavlov”. Retrieved 16 April 2012.

[7] Staats, Arthur W.; Staats, Carolyn K.: Complex human [25] Richard Gross, Psychology: The Science of Mind and Be- behavior: A systematic extension of learning principles. haviour (1963) New York, NY, US: Holt, Rinehart & Winston [26] Skinner, B.F (31 July 1981). “Selection [8] Staats, A.W.: Learning, language, and cognition. (1968) by Consequences” (PDF). Science. 213 New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston (4507): 501–4. Bibcode:1981Sci...213..501S. doi:10.1126/science.7244649. PMID 7244649. [9] Moxley, R.A. (2004).“Pragmatic selectionism: The phi- Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 July 2010. losophy of behavior analysis” (PDF). The Behavior An- Retrieved 14 August 2010. alyst Today. 5 (1): 108–25. Retrieved 2008-01-10. [27] Fantino, E. (2000). “Delay-reduction theory—the case [10] Skinner, B.F. (1991). The Behavior of Organisms. Copley for temporal context: comment on Grace and Savas- Pub Group. p. 473. ISBN 0-87411-487-X. tano (2000)". J Exp Psychol Gen. 129 (4): 444–6. [11] Cheney, Carl D.; Ferster, Charles B. (1997). Schedules of doi:10.1037/0096-3445.129.4.444. PMID 11142857. Reinforcement (B.F. Skinner Reprint Series). Acton, MA: [28] Baum, W.M. (2003).“The molar view of behavior and its Copley Publishing Group. p. 758. ISBN 0-87411-828-X. usefulness in behavior analysis”. Behavior Analyst Today. [12] Commons, M.L. (2001). “A short history of the Society 4: 78–81. doi:10.1037/h0100009. Retrieved 2008-01- for the Quantitative Analysis of Behavior”(PDF). Behav- 10. ior Analyst Today. 2 (3): 275–9. Retrieved 2008-01-10. [29] Fantino, E.; Stolarz-Fantino, S.; Navarro, A. (2003). [13] Thornbury, Scott (1998). “The Lexical Approach: A “Logical fallacies: A behavioral approach to reasoning” journey without maps”. Modern English Teacher. 7 (4): . The Behavior Analyst Today. 4. p.116 (pp.109–117). 7–13. Retrieved 2008-01-10.

[14] Skinner, Burrhus Frederick (1957). Verbal link=B.F. [30] Dennett, D.C. “The Message is: There is no Medium”. Skinner. Acton, Massachusetts: Copley Publishing Tufts University. Archived from the original on 11 Jan- Group. ISBN 1-58390-021-7. uary 2008. Retrieved 2008-01-10. 46 CHAPTER 4. DAY 4

[31] Dennett, Daniel (1981). Brainstorms: Philosophical Es- [45] Ward, Todd A.; Eastman, Raymond; Ninness, Chris says on Mind and Psychology. Bradford Books. MIT (2009). “An Experimental Analysis of Cultural Mate- Press. p. 53. ISBN 978-0-262-54037-7. LCCN rialism: The Effects of Various Modes of Production on 78013723. Resource Sharing”. Behavior and Social Issues. 18: 1– 23. doi:10.5210/bsi.v18i1.1950. [32] Brown, Curtis (2001). “Behaviorism: Skinner and Den- nett”. Philosophy of Mind. San Antonio, TX: Trinity [46] Jon Radoff (2011). “Gamification, Behaviorism and University. Bullsh$!". Radoff.com.

[33] Mace, F. Charles (1994). “The significance and fu- [47] Cao, Longbing (2010). “In-depth Behavior Un- ture of functional analysis methodologies”. Journal derstanding and Use: the Behavior Informatics Ap- of Applied Behavior Analysis. 27 (2): 385–392. proach”. Information Science. 180 (17): 3067–3085. doi:10.1016/j.ins.2010.03.025. doi:10.1901/jaba.1994.27-385. PMC 1297814 . PMID 16795830. [48] Cao, Longbing; Joachims, Thorsten; et al. (2014). “Be- havior Informatics: A New Perspective.”. IEEE Intelligent [34] Pelios, L.; Morren, J.; Tesch, D.; Axelrod, S. (1999). Systems. 29 (4): 62–80. doi:10.1109/mis.2014.60. “The impact of functional analysis methodology on treatment choice for self-injurious and aggressive behavior”. [49] Cao, Longbing; Yu, Philip (eds) (2012). Behavior Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. 32 (2): 185–95. Computing: Modeling, Analysis, Mining and Decision. doi:10.1901/jaba.1999.32-185. PMC 1284177 . PMID Springer. ISBN 978-1-4471-2969-1. 10396771. [50] Cao, Longbing; Motoda, Hiroshi; et al. (2013). Behav- [35] Mace, F. Charles; Critchfield, Thomas S. (May 2010). ior and Social Computing. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319- “Translational research in behavior analysis: Historic tra- 04047-9. ditions and imperative for the future”. Journal of the [51] Friesen, N. (2005). Mind and Machine: Ethical and Epis- Experimental Analysis of Behavior. 93 (3): 293–312. temological Implications for Research. Thompson Rivers doi:10.1901/jeab.2010.93-293. PMC 2861871 . PMID University, B.C., Canada. 21119847. [52] Waldrop, M.M. (2002). The Dream Machine: JCR Lick- [36] UK SBA. UK SBA. Retrieved on 2013-11-02. lider and the revolution that made computing personal. New York: Penguin Books. (pp. 139–40). [37] Kellaway, Lucy (7 January 2015). “My team gets more excited by loo roll than business budgets: Work problems [53] Chomsky, N (1959). “Review of Skinner's Verbal Be- answered”. London: Financial Times. p. 10. Retrieved havior”. Language. 35: 26–58. Chomsky N. Preface 22 November 2015. to the reprint of A Review of Skinner's Verbal Behavior. In: Jakobovits L.A, Miron M.S, editors. Readings in the [38] Eyres, Harry (19 December 2009). “Peaks in a trough psychology of language. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice year: The Slow Lane”. Financial Times. p. 22. Retrieved Hall; 1967. 22 November 2015.

[39] Stern, Stefan (5 August 2008).“Keep up motivation levels 4.1.14 Further reading through long summer days”. London: Financial Times. p. 12. Retrieved 22 November 2015. • Baum, W.M. (2005) Understanding behaviorism: Behavior, Culture and Evolution. Blackwell. [40] Skapinker, Michael (11 December 2002). “Human capitalism: Does treating workers well help business too? A • Cao, L.B. (2013) IJCAI2013 tutorial on behavior PwC report provides some evidence”. London: Financial informatics and computing. Times. p. 22. • Cao, L.B. (2014) Non-IIDness Learning in Behav- [41] Skapinker, Michael (9 April 2013). “The 50 ideas that ioral and Social Data, The Computer Journal, 57(9): shaped business today”. London: Financial Times. Re- trieved 22 November 2015. 1358-1370. • “ [42] Bolles, Richard N. (2013). What Color is Your Parachute. Chiesa, Mecca (1994). Radical Behaviorism: The New York: Ten Speed Press. pp. 110–189. ISBN 978-1- Philosophy and the Science”. Authors Cooperative, 60774-363-7. Inc. • [43]“Reinventing the deal; American capitalism”(417.8961). Cooper, John O., Heron, Timothy E., & Heward, London: The Economist. 24 October 2015. pp. 21–24. William L. (2007). “Applied Behavior Analysis: Second Edition”. Pearson. [44] Hayes, S.C.; Barnes-Holmes, D. & Roche, B. (2001) Re- lational Frame Theory: A Post-Skinnerian account of hu- • Ferster, C.B. & Skinner, B.F. (1957). Schedules man language and cognition. Kluwer Academic: New of reinforcement. New York: Appleton-Century- York. Crofts. 4.2. VISUAL ANTHROPOLOGY 47

• Malott, Richard W. Principles of Behavior. Up- • Zuriﬀ, G.E. (1985). Behaviorism: A Conceptual Re- per Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2008. construction, Columbia University Press. Print. • LeClaire, J. and Rushin, J.P. (2010) Behavioral An- • Mills, John A., Control: A History of Behavioral alytics For Dummies. Wiley. (ISBN 978-0-470- Psychology, Paperback Edition, New York Univer- 58727-0). sity Press 2000.

• Lattal, K.A. & Chase, P.N. (2003)“Behavior The- 4.1.15 External links ory and Philosophy”. Plenum. • Automated Behavior analysis • Pierce, W. David & Cheney, Carl D. (2013). “Be- ” havior Analysis and Learning: Fifth Edition . Psy- • Behavior Informatics chology Press. • Graham, George. “Behaviorism”. Stanford Ency- • Plotnik, Rod. (2005) Introduction to Psychology. clopedia of Philosophy. Thomson-Wadsworth (ISBN 0-534-63407-9). • “Behaviorism”. Internet Encyclopedia of Philoso- • Rachlin, H. (1991) Introduction to modern behavior- phy. ism. (3rd edition.) New York: Freeman. • • Skinner, B.F. Beyond Freedom & Dignity, Hackett Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Behaviorism Publishing Co, Inc 2002. • Books and Journal Articles On Behaviorism • Skinner, B.F. (1938). The behavior of organisms. • Wuerzburg University: behaviourism New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. • • Skinner, B.F. (1945). “The operational analysis of B.F. Skinner Foundation ” psychological terms . Psychological Review. 52 • Cambridge Center for Behavioral Studies (270–7): 290–4. doi:10.1037/h0062535. • Skinner's Theories • Skinner, B.F. (1953). Science and Human Behavior (ISBN 0-02-929040-6) Online version. • APA Behaviour Analysis • Skinner, B.F. (1957). Verbal behavior. Englewood • Association for Behavior Analysis Cliﬀs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. • Theory of Behavioral Anthropology (Documents • Skinner, B.F. (1969). Contingencies of reinforce- No. 9 and 10 in English) ment: a theoretical analysis. New York: Appleton- Century-Crofts. • California Association for Behavior Analysis • Skinner, B.F. (31 July 1981). “Selection • Examining Learning From Multiple Perspectives by by Consequences” (PDF). Science. 213 Michigan State University (4507): 501–4. Bibcode:1981Sci...213..501S. doi:10.1126/science.7244649. PMID 7244649. • Association for Contextual Behavioral Science Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 July 2010. Retrieved 14 August 2010. • Behavior Analysis Online Tutorials

• Klein, P. (2013) “Explanation of Behavioural Psy- chotherapy Styles”. . 4.2 Visual anthropology • Staddon, J. (2014) The New Behaviorism, 2nd Edi- tion. Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press. pp. xi, Visual anthropology is a subfield of social anthropology 1–282. that is concerned, in part, with the study and production of ethnographic photography, film and, since the mid- • Watson, J.B. (1913). Psychology as the behaviorist 1990s, new media. More recently it has been used by his- views it. Psychological Review, 20, 158–177. (on- torians of science and visual culture.*[1] Although some- line). times wrongly conflated with ethnographic film, Visual • Watson, J.B. (1919). Psychology from the Stand- Anthropology encompasses much more, including the point of a Behaviorist. anthropological study of all visual representations such as dance and other kinds of performance, museums and • Watson, J.B. (1924). Behaviorism. archiving, all visual arts, and the production and reception 48 CHAPTER 4. DAY 4

of mass media. Histories and analyses of representa- to capture 16mm film. The hypothesis was that artistic tions from many cultures are part of Visual Anthropol- choices made by the Navajo would reflect the 'percep- ogy: research topics include sandpaintings, tattoos, sculp- tual structure' of the Navajo world.*[7] The goals of this tures and reliefs, cave paintings, scrimshaw, jewelry, hi- experiment were primarily ethnographic and theoretical. eroglyphics, paintings and photographs. Also within the Decades later, however, the work has inspired a variety province of the subfield are studies of human vision, prop- of participatory and applied anthropological initiatives - erties of media, the relationship of visual form and func- ranging from photovoice to virtual museum collections tion, and applied, collaborative uses of visual representa- - in which cameras are given to local collaborators as a tions. strategy for empowerment.*[8]*[9]*[10]*[11] In the United States, Visual Anthropology first found purchase in an academic setting in 1958 with the creation 4.2.1 History of the Film Study Center at Harvard's Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology.*[12] In the United King- Even before the emergence of anthropology as an aca- dom, The Granada Centre for Visual Anthropology at the demic discipline in the 1880s, ethnologists used photog- University of Manchester was established in 1987 to offer raphy as a tool of research.*[2] Anthropologists and non- training in anthropology and film-making to MA, MPhil anthropologists conducted much of this work in the spirit and PhD students and whose graduates have produced of salvage ethnography or attempts to record for posterity over 300 films to date. John Collier, Jr. wrote the first the ways-of-life of societies assumed doomed to extinc- standard textbook in the field in 1967, and many visual tion (see, for instance, the Native American photography anthropologists of the 1970s relied on semiologists like of Edward Curtis)*[3] Roland Barthes for essential critical perspectives. Con- The history of anthropological filmmaking is intertwined tributions to the history of Visual Anthropology include * with that of non-fiction and documentary filmmaking, al- those of Emilie de Brigard (1967), [13] Fadwa el Guindi * * though ethnofiction may be considered as a genuine sub- (2004), [14] and Beate Engelbrecht, ed. (2007). [15] genre of ethnographic film. Some of the first motion pic- A more recent history that understands visual anthropol- tures of the ethnographic other were made with Lumière ogy in a broader sense, edited by Marcus Banks and Jay equipment (Promenades des Éléphants à Phnom Penh, Ruby, is Made To Be Seen: Historical Perspectives on Vi- * 1901).*[4] Robert Flaherty, probably best known for his sual Anthropology. [16] Turning the anthropological lens films chronicling the lives of Arctic peoples (Nanook of on India provides a counterhistory of visual anthropology * the North, 1922), became a filmmaker in 1913 when his (Khanduri 2014). [17] supervisor suggested that he take a camera and equipment At present, the Society for Visual Anthropology (SVA) with him on an expedition north. Flaherty focused on represents the subfield in the United States as a section of “traditional”Inuit ways of life, omitting with few excep- the American Anthropological Association, the AAA. tions signs of modernity among his film subjects (even to In the United States, ethnographic films are shown each the point of refusing to use a rifle to help kill a walrus year at the Margaret Mead Film Festival as well as at his informants had harpooned as he filmed them, accord- the AAA's annual Film and Media Festival.*[18] In Eu- ing to Barnouw; this scene made it into Nanook where it rope, ethnographic films are shown at the Royal Anthro- served as evidence of their“pristine”culture). This pat- pological Institute Film Festival in the UK, The Jean tern would persist in many ethnographic films to follow Rouch Film Festival in France and Ethnocineca in Aus- (see as an example Robert Gardner's Dead Birds). tria. Dozens of other international festivals are listed reg- By the 1940s and early 1950s, anthropologists such as ularly in the Newsletter of the Nordic Anthropological Film Hortense Powdermaker,*[5] Gregory Bateson, Margaret Association [NAFA].*[19] Mead (Trance and Dance in Bali, 1952) and Mead and Rhoda Metraux, eds., (The Study of Culture at a Distance, 1953) were bringing anthropological perspectives to bear 4.2.2 Timeline and breadth of prehistoric on mass media and visual representation. Karl G. Heider visual representation notes in his revised edition of Ethnographic Film (2006) that after Bateson and Mead, the history of visual anthro- While art historians are clearly interested in some of the “ pology is defined by the seminal works of four men same objects and processes, visual anthropology places who were active for most of the second half of the twenti- these artifacts within a holistic cultural context. Archae- eth century: Jean Rouch, John Marshall, Robert Gardner, ologists, in particular, use phases of visual development and Tim Asch. By focusing on these four, we can see the to try to understand the spread of humans and their cul- shape of ethnographic film”(p. 15). Many, including Pe- * tures across contiguous landscapes as well as over larger ter Loizos, [6] would add the name of filmmaker/author areas. By 10,000 BP, a system of well-developed pic- David MacDougall to this select group. tographs was in use by boating peoples*[20] and was In 1966, filmmaker Sol Worth and anthropologist John likely instrumental in the development of navigation and Adair taught a group of Navajo Indians in Arizona how writing, as well as a medium of story telling and artistic 4.2. VISUAL ANTHROPOLOGY 49 representation. Early visual representations often show • San Francisco State University: Visual Anthro- the female form, with clothing appearing on the female pology program and Peter Biella body around 28,000 BP, which archaeologists know now • corresponds with the invention of weaving in Old Europe. Tallinn University: MA in audiovisual ethnogra- This is an example of the holistic nature of visual anthro- phy. pology: a figurine depicting a woman wearing diaphanous • Temple University: Undergraduate track in Visual clothing is not merely an object of art, but a window into Communication. Graduate specialization in Visual the customs of dress at the time, household organization Communication. (where they are found), transfer of materials (where the clay came from) and processes (when did firing clay be- • Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana: come common), when did weaving begin, what kind of Laboratorio de Antropología Visual weaving is depicted and what other evidence is there for • Universitat de Barcelona: postgraduate and Mas- weaving, and what kinds of cultural changes were occur- ter's programs in Visual Anthropology ring in other parts of human life at the time. • Visual anthropology, by focusing on its own efforts to University of British Columbia: The Ethno- make and understand film, is able to establish many prin- graphic Film Unit at UBC ciples and build theories about human visual representa- • University College London: offers postgraduate tion in general. courses that can be taken as part of a master's degree for credit or they can be audited with a certificate of 4.2.3 List of visual anthropology academic completion provided. programs • University of Kent: The Department of Anthropol- ogy offers a Masters in Visual Anthropology that ex- • Aarhus University: Master in Visual Anthropology plores traditional and experimental means of using visual images to produce/represent anthropological • Australian National University: The Research knowledge. School of Humanities and the Arts Centre for Vi- sual Anthropology • University of Leiden: offers the Bachelor course Visual Methods and Visual Ethnography as a • California State University, Chico: Home to Method as part the Master's programme. It teaches the Advanced Laboratory for Visual Anthropology students how to use photography, digital video and (ALVA) which offers students use of RED Digi- sound recording both as research and reporting tools tal Cinema cameras in its Masters of Anthropol- as part of ethnographic research. ogy program. Students receive a four-fields degree but complete an ethnographic film as partial fulfill- • University of London, Goldsmith's College: The ment of their thesis requirement. A Certificate in anthropology department offers an MA and PhD in Applied Anthropology is also available for students Visual Anthropology. who would like to pursue Visual Anthropology, and • make ethnographic films as Undergraduates. University of Manchester: The Granada Centre for Visual Anthropology offers MA, MPhil and PhD • Facultad Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales courses that combine practical film training, edit- Ecuador: offers a master program in visual anthro- ing and production, photography, sound recording, pology . art and social activism. Established in 1987, the Granada Centre's postgraduate programme has pro- • Freie Universität Berlin:- M.A. in Visual and Me- duced over 300 documentary films. Its students have dia Anthropology. made films for numerous international broadcasters, • Harvard University: Harvard offers a PhD in So- including the BBC and Channel 4. Manchester in- cial Anthropology with Media in conjunction with cludes an Oscar nominee, two BAFTA winners, and its Sensory Ethnography Lab a BAFTA nominee among its alumni. • • Heidelberg University: The chair of Visual and University of New South Wales: offers a PhD in Media Anthropology offers BA and MA courses in Visual Anthropology the field of visual and media anthropology. • University of Oxford: The Institute of Social & • New York University: The Program in Culture and Cultural Anthropology collaborates with the Pitt Media Rivers Museum to offer the highly ranked one-year MSc and two-year MPhil in Visual, Material, and • Pontifical Catholic University of Peru: The So- Museum Anthropology and also awards DPhil de- cial Sciences Department at PUCP offers a two-year grees with numerous competitive funding opportu- MA program in Visual Anthropology. nities. 50 CHAPTER 4. DAY 4

• University of South Carolina offers a Graduate [2] Jay Ruby. "Visual Anthropology.”In Encyclopedia of Certificate in Visual Anthropology for graduate stu- Cultural Anthropology, David Levinson and Melvin Em- dents enrolled in M.A. or Ph.D. programs in Media ber, editors. New York: Henry Holt and Company, vol. Arts and Anthropology but which also serves grad- 4:1345–1351, 1996 . uate students in such areas as Education, the De- [3] Harald E.L. Prins, “Visual Anthropology.”Pp. 506– partment of Languages, Literatures, and Cultures, 525, In T.Biolsi. ed. A Companion to the Anthropology of as well as Sociology and Geography. American Indians. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing]. • University of Southern California - USC Center [4] Erik Barnouw. Documentary: A history of the Non-Fiction for Visual Anthropology: The MAVA (Master of Film. New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993. Arts in Visual Anthropology) was a 2–3 year terminal Masters program from 1984 to 2001, which [5] Hortense Powdermaker. Hollywood, the Dream Factory: produced over sixty ethnographic documentaries. In An Anthropologist Studies the Movie Makers. Boston: Lit- 2001, it was merged into a Certificate in Visual An- tle, Brown and Company, 1950. thropology given alongside the Ph.D. in Anthropol- ogy. A new digitally based program was created in [6] Loizos, Peter 1993. Innovation in Ethnographic Film: From Innocence to Self-Consciousness, 1955-1985. the Fall of 2009 as a [new one year MA program in Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Visual Anthropology http://dornsife.usc.edu/anth/ masters-in-visual-anthropology/ ]. . Since 2009, [7] Darnell R. Through Navajo eyes: An exploration in film the program has produced twenty five new ethno- communication and anthropology. American Anthropol- graphic documentaries. Many have screened at film ogist, Vol 76, pp 890, Oct. 1974 festivals and several are in distribution. [8] Turner, Terence 1992. Defiant images: the Kayapo ap- • University of Tromsø: The University of Tromsø propriation of video. Anthropology Today 8:5-15. offers a program in Visual Culture Studies [9] Wang, C., & Burris, M. A. (1994). Empowerment • Western Kentucky University: Western Kentucky through Photo Novella: Portraits of Participation. Health University offers a BA in Cultural Anthropology Education & Behavior, 21(2), 171-186. with a focus on Visual Anthropology [10] Chalfen, Richard and Michael Rich 1999. Showing and • Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster Telling Asthma: Children Teaching Physicians with Vi- (University of Münster): Visual Anthropology, sual Narratives. Visual Sociology 14: 51-71. Media & Documentary Practices Programme which accompanies employment. Master of Arts [11] Riddington, Amber and Kate Hennessy, Co-curators, Project Co-coordinators, 2007. Dane Wajich: Dane-zaa (M.A.) degree within 6 semesters.Provides skills in Stories and Songs: Dreamers and the Land. Electronic the area of visual anthropology, documentary films, document, http://www.museevirtuel-virtualmuseum.ca/ photography, documentary art, culture media and sgc-cms/expositions-exhibitions/danewajich/english/ media anthropology. index.html?action=fla/gerry (accessed May 29, 2014).

[12] Jay Ruby. The Professionalization of Visual Anthropol- 4.2.4 List of ﬁlms ogy in the United States - The 1960s and 1970s.”2005 The Last Twenty Years of Visual anthropology – A Criti- Main article: List of visual anthropology ﬁlms cal Review. Visual Studies, vol. 20, no. 2, pgs. 159–170.

[13] de Brigard, Emilie 2003 [1967]. The History of Ethno- graphic Film. In: Principles of Visual Anthropology (3rd 4.2.5 See also ed.). Paul Hockings, editor. Pp. 13-44. The Hague: De Gruyter. • Ethnoﬁction [14] el Guindi, Fadwa 2004. Visual Anthropology: Essential • Ethnographic ﬁlm Method and Theory. Walnut Creek, California: Altamira Press. • Gregory Bateson [15] Engelbrecht, Beate, ed. 2007. The Origins of Visual An- • Visual sociology thropology. Bern and Berlin: Peter Lang Verlag.

[16] Banks, Marcus and Jay Ruby 2011. Made To Be Seen: 4.2.6 References Historical Perspectives on Visual Anthropology Chicago: University of Chicago Press. [1] Eddy, Matthew Daniel (2013). “The Shape of Knowl- edge: Children and the Visual Culture of Literacy [17] Ritu G. Khanduri. 2014. Caricaturing Culture in India: and Numeracy”. Science in Context. 26: 215–245. Cartoons and History in the Modern World. Cambridge: doi:10.1017/s0269889713000045. Cambridge University Press 4.2. VISUAL ANTHROPOLOGY 51

[18] Information about this festival is available • Morton, Chris and Elizabeth Edwards (eds.) 2009. at http://societyforvisualanthropology.org/ Photography, Anthropology and History: Expand- film-video-and-multimedia-festival/ ing the Frame. Farnham: Ashgate Publishing

[19] Newsletter of the Nordic Anthropological Film Associa- • Mead, Margaret: Anthropology and the camera. In: tion - http://isop.uib.no/nafa/?q=node/230. Morgan, Willard D. (Hg.): Encyclopedia of photography. New York 1963. [20] Jim Bailey, Sailing to Paradise • Peers, Laura. 2003. Museums and Source Commu- nities: A Routledge Reader, Routledge 4.2.7 Bibliography • Pink, Sarah: Doing Visual Ethnography: Images, • Alloa, Emmanuel (ed.) Penser l'image II. Anthro- Media and Representation in Research. London: pologies du visuel. Dijon: Presses du réel 2015. Sage Publications Ltd. 2006. ISBN 978-1-4129- ISBN 978-2-84066-557-1 (in French). 2348-4

• Banks, Marcus; Morphy, Howard (Hrsg.): Rethink- • MacDougall, David. Transcultural Cinema. Prince- ing Visual Anthropology. New Haven: Yale Univer- ton: Princeton University Press, 1998. sity Press 1999. ISBN 978-0-300-07854-1 • Pinney, Christopher: Photography and Anthropol- • Barbash, Ilisa and Lucien Taylor. Cross-cultural ogy. London: Reaktion Books 2011. ISBN 978-1- Filmmaking: A Handbook for Making Documentary 86189-804-3 and Ethnographic Films and Videos. Berkeley: Uni- versity of California Press, 1997. • Prins, Harald E.L.. “Visual Anthropology.”pp. 506–525. In A Companion to the Anthropology of • Collier, Malcolm et al.: Visual Anthropology. Pho- American Indians. Ed. T. Biolsi. Oxford: Blackwell tography As a Research Method. University of Mex- Publishing, 2004. ico 1986. ISBN 978-0-8263-0899-3 • Prins, Harald E.L., and Ruby, Jay eds. “The Ori- • Daniels, Inge. 2010. The Japanese House: Material gins of Visual Anthropology.”Visual Anthropology Culture in the Modern Home. Oxford: Berg Pub- Review. Vol. 17 (2), 2001–2002. lishers. • Worth, Sol, Adair John. "Through Navajo Eyes". • Coote, Jeremy and Anthony Shelton. 1994. An- Indiana University Press; 1972. thropology, Art and Aesthetics. Clarendon Press.

• Edwards, Elisabeth (Hrsg.): Anthropology and Pho- 4.2.8 Further reading tography 1860–1920. New Haven, London 1994, Nachdruck. ISBN 978-0-300-05944-1 • Visual Anthropology - Encyclopedia of Cultural Anthropology, article by Jay Ruby • Engelbrecht, Beate (ed.). Memories of the Origins of Ethnographic Film. Frankfurt am Main et al.: Peter • Visual anthropology in the digital mirror: Lang Verlag, 2007. Computer-assisted visual anthropology, article by Michael D. Fischer and David Zeitlyn, • Grimshaw, Anna. The Ethnographer's Eye: Ways of University of Kent at Canterbury Seeing in Modern Anthropology. Cambridge: Cam- bridge University Press, 2001. • Legends Asch and Myerhoﬀ Inspire A New Gen- eration of Visual Anthropologists - article by Susan • Harris, Claire. 2012. The Museum on the Roof of Andrews the World: Art, Politics and the Representation of Tibet. University of Chicago Press. 4.2.9 External links • Harris, Claire and Michael O'Hanlon. 2013. 'The Future of the Ethnographic Museum,' Anthropology Organizations Today, 29(1). pp. 8–12. • • Heider, Karl G. Ethnographic Film (Revised Edi- European Association of Social Anthropologists Vi- tion). Austin: University of Texas Press, 2006. sual Anthropology Network • • Ruby, Jay. Picturing Culture: Essays on Film and SVA Society for Visual Anthropology Anthropology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000, ISBN 978-0-226-73099-8. Publications 52 CHAPTER 4. DAY 4

• Visual Anthropology Review

Resources

• VisualAnthropology.net

• OVERLAP: Laboratory of Visual Anthropology • Visual Anthropology Archive

• Visual Anthropology Films & Educational Resource Library

• Royal Anthropological Institute, Ethnographic Film • National Anthropological Archives and Human Studies Film Archives - collect and preserve historical and contemporary anthropological materials that document the world's cultures and the history of anthropology.

• Audio-Visual Resources (from the website of Prof. Alessandro Duranti, anthropology department, UCLA) • Films of anthropological and other “ancestors”

• A kiosk of ﬁlms and sounds in Ethnomusicology - Robert Garﬁas

• Documentary Educational Resources (Visual An- thropology Films & Filmmakers)

• Documentary“El mal visto”. Interpretation about the evil eye from the visual anthropology. • Visual anthtropology (Chinese)

• Articles on Fieldwork • The Ovahimba Years Collection

• Visual Anthropology of Japan • Artpologist an Art project using Art and Anthropol- ogy • Ethnographic Terminalia - A curatorial collective and exhibition series. Chapter 5

Day 5

5.1 The arts From prehistoric cave paintings to modern day films, art serves as a vessel for storytelling and conveying hu- This article is about the group of creative disciplines. For mankind's relationship with its environment. the concept of art, see Art. For other uses, see Art (disambiguation). “Arts”redirects here. For the acronym, see ARTS (disambiguation). 5.1.1 Definitions The arts represent an outlet of expression that is usu- In its most basic abstract definition, art is a documented expression of a sentient being through or on an accessi- ble medium so that anyone can view, hear or experience it. The act itself of producing an expression can also be referred to as a certain art, or as art in general. If this solidified expression, or the act of producing it, is “good”or has value depends on those who access and rate it and this public rating is dependent on various subjective factors. Merriam-Webster defines“the arts”as“painting, sculpture, music, theater, literature, etc., considered as a group of activities done by people with skill and imagination.” *[1] Similarly, the United States Congress, in the National Foundation on the Arts and Humanities Act, defined“the arts”as follows:*[2]

The term 'the arts' includes, but is not limited to, music (instrumental and vocal), dance, drama, folk art, creative writing, architecture and allied fields, painting, sculpture, photography, graphic and craft arts, industrial design, costume and fashion design, motion pictures, television, radio, film, video, tape and sound recording, the arts related to the presentation, Hans Rottenhammer, Allegory of the Arts (second half of the performance, execution, and exhibition of such 16th century). Gemäldegalerie, Berlin. major art forms, all those traditional arts prac- ally influenced by culture and which in turn helps to ticed by the diverse peoples of this country. change culture. As such, the arts are a physical manifesta- (sic) and the study and application of the arts tion of the internal creative impulse. Major constituents to the human environment. of the arts include literature – including poetry, novels and short stories, and epics; performing arts – among them music, dance, and theatre; culinary arts such as 5.1.2 History baking, chocolatiering, and winemaking; media arts like photography and cinematography, and visual arts – in- Main article: History of art cluding drawing, painting, ceramics, and sculpting. Some art forms combine a visual element with performance In Ancient Greece, all art and craft was referred to by the (e.g. film) and the written word (e.g. comics). same word, Techne. Thus, there was no distinction be-

53 54 CHAPTER 5. DAY 5

tween the arts. Ancient Greek art brought the veneration humanities are history, linguistics, literature, theology, of the animal form and the development of equivalent philosophy, and/or logic. skills to show musculature, poise, beauty, and anatom- The arts have also been classified as seven: Literature, ically correct proportions. Ancient Roman art depicted painting, sculpture, and music comprise the main four gods as idealized humans, shown with characteristic dis- arts, of which the other three are derivative; drama is tinguishing features (i.e. Zeus' thunderbolt). literature with acting, dance is music expressed through In Byzantine and Gothic art of the Middle Ages, the dom- motion, and song is music with literature and voice.*[6] inance of the church insisted on the expression of biblical and not material truths. 5.1.4 Visual arts Eastern art has generally worked in a style akin to West- ern medieval art, namely a concentration on surface pat- Main articles: Visual art and Fine art terning and local colour (meaning the plain colour of an Further information: Plastic arts and Work of art object, such as basic red for a red robe, rather than the modulations of that colour brought about by light, shade and reflection). A characteristic of this style is that the local colour is often defined by an outline (a contemporary Drawing equivalent is the cartoon). This is evident in, for example, the art of India, Tibet and Japan. Main article: Drawing Religious Islamic art forbids iconography, and expresses religious ideas through geometry instead. Drawing is a means of making an image, using any of a wide variety of tools and techniques. It generally involves making marks on a surface by applying pressure from a 5.1.3 Disciplines tool, or moving a tool across a surface. Common tools are graphite pencils, pen and ink, inked brushes, wax colour pencils, crayons, charcoals, pastels, and markers. Digital tools which can simulate the effects of these are also used. The main techniques used in drawing are line drawing, hatching, crosshatching, random hatching, scribbling, stippling, and blending. An artist who excels in drawing is referred to as a drafter, draftswoman, or draughtsman.*[7] Drawing can be used to create art such as illustrations, comics, and animation.

Painting

Main article: Painting Lawrence Alma-Tadema's Catullus-at-Lesbia's (1865) Painting, taken literally, is the practice of applying pigment suspended in a vehicle (or medium) and a bind- In the Middle Ages, the Artes Liberales (liberal arts) ing agent (a glue) to a surface (support) such as paper, were taught in universities as part of the Trivium, an in- canvas, wood panel or a wall. However, when used in an troductory curriculum involving grammar, rhetoric, and artistic sense, it means the use of this activity in combina- logic,*[3] and of the Quadrivium, a curriculum involv- tion with drawing, composition and other aesthetic con- ing the “mathematical arts”of arithmetic, geometry, siderations in order to manifest the expressive and con- music, and astronomy.*[4] The Artes Mechanicae (conceptual intention of the practitioner. Painting is also used sisting of vestiaria – tailoring and weaving; agricultura to express spiritual motifs and ideas; sites of this kind of – agriculture; architectura – architecture and masonry; painting range from artwork depicting mythological fig- militia and venatoria – warfare, hunting, military ed- ures on pottery to The Sistine Chapel to the human body ucation, and the martial arts; mercatura – trade; co- itself. quinaria – cooking; and metallaria – blacksmithing and * Colour is the essence of painting as sound is of music. metallurgy) [5] were practised and developed in guild Colour is highly subjective, but has observable psycho- “ environments. The modern distinction between artis- logical effects, although these can differ from one cul- ” “ ” tic and non-artistic skills did not develop until the ture to the next. Black is associated with mourning in the Renaissance. West, but elsewhere white may be. Some painters, the- In modern academia, the arts are usually grouped with oreticians, writers and scientists, including Goethe,*[8] or as a subset of the humanities. Some subjects in the Kandinsky,*[9] and Newton,*[10] have written their own 5.1. THE ARTS 55

Ceramics

Main article: Ceramic art

Ceramic art is art made from ceramic materials (including clay), which may take forms such as pottery, tile, ﬁgurines, sculpture, and tableware. While some ceramic products are considered ﬁne art, some are considered to be decorative, industrial, or applied art objects. Ceramics may also be considered artefacts in archaeology.Ceramic art can be made by one person or by a group of people. In a pottery or ceramic factory, a group of people design, manufacture, and decorate the pottery. Products from a pottery are sometimes referred to as “art pottery.”In a one-person pottery studio, ceramists or potters produce studio pottery. In modern ceramic engineering usage, “ceramics”is the art and science of making objects from inorganic, non-metallic materials by the action of heat. It excludes glass and mosaic made from glass tesserae.

Photography

Main article: Fine art photography

Photography as an art form refers to photographs that are The Mona Lisa is one of the most recognizable artistic paintings created in accordance with the creative vision of the pho- in the Western world tographer. Art photography stands in contrast to pho- tojournalism, which provides a visual account for news events, and commercial photography, the primary focus of which is to advertise products or services.

Architecture colour theory. Moreover, the use of language is only an Main article: Architecture abstraction for a colour equivalent. The word "red,”for Architecture is the art and science of designing buildings example, can cover a wide range of variations on the pure red of the spectrum. There is not a formalized register of different colours in the way that there is agreement on different notes in music, such as C or C#, although the Pantone system is widely used in the printing and design industry for this purpose. Modern artists have extended the practice of painting considerably to include, for example, collage. This began with Cubism, and is not painting in the strict sense. Some modern painters incorporate different materials such as sand, cement, straw, wood or strands of hair for their texture. Examples of this are the works of Elito Circa, Jean Dubuffet or Anselm Kiefer. Modern and contemporary art has moved away from the historic value of craft in favour of concept; this has led The Parthenon on top of the Acropolis, Athens, Greece some to say that painting, as a serious art form, is dead, although this has not deterred the majority of artists from and structures. The word architecture comes from the continuing to practise it either as whole or part of their Greek arkhitekton, “master builder, director of works,” work. Indigenouism is also considered as Modern and from αρχι- (arkhi)“chief”+ τεκτων (tekton)“builder, contemporary Art in early 20th Century. carpenter”.*[11] 56 CHAPTER 5. DAY 5

A wider deﬁnition would include the design of the ingly built environments in which people live. built environment, from the macrolevel of town planning, urban design, and landscape architecture to the mi- crolevel of creating furniture. Architectural design usually must address both feasibility and cost for the builder, Sculpture as well as function and aesthetics for the user. Main article: Sculpture

Sculpture is the branch of the visual arts that operates in three dimensions. It is one of the plastic arts. Durable sculptural processes originally used carving (the removal of material) and modelling (the addition of material, as clay), in stone, metal, ceramics, wood and other materials; but since modernism, shifts in sculptural process led to an almost complete freedom of materials and process. A wide variety of materials may be worked by removal such as carving, assembled by welding or modelling, or moulded, or cast.

Conceptual art

Main article: Conceptual art

Table of architecture, Cyclopaedia, 1728 Conceptual art is art in which the concept(s) or idea(s) involved in the work takes precedence over traditional aes- In modern usage, architecture is the art and discipline thetic and material concerns. The inception of the term of creating, or inferring an implied or apparent plan of, in the 1960s referred to a strict and focused practice of a complex object or system. The term can be used idea-based art that often defied traditional visual criteria associated with the visual arts in its presentation as to connote the implied architecture of abstract things * such as music or mathematics, the apparent architec- text. [12] Through its association with the Young British ture of natural things, such as geological formations or Artists and the Turner Prize during the 1990s, its popular the structure of biological cells, or explicitly planned usage, particularly in the UK, developed as a synonym for architectures of human-made things such as software, all contemporary art that does not practise the traditional computers, enterprises, and databases, in addition to skills of painting and sculpture. buildings. In every usage, an architecture may be seen as a subjective mapping from a human perspective (that of the user in the case of abstract or physical artefacts) to the elements or components of some kind of structure 5.1.5 Literary arts or system, which preserves the relationships among the elements or components. Main articles: Language and Literature Planned architecture manipulates space, volume, texture, light, shadow, or abstract elements in order to achieve Literature is literally“acquaintance with letters”as in the pleasing aesthetics. This distinguishes it from applied sci- first sense given in the Oxford English Dictionary. The ence or engineering, which usually concentrate more on noun“literature”comes from the Latin word littera mean- the functional and feasibility aspects of the design of con- ing “an individual written character (letter).”The term structions or structures. has generally come to identify a collection of writings, In the field of building architecture, the skills demanded which in Western culture are mainly prose (both fiction of an architect range from the more complex, such as for and non-fiction), drama and poetry. In much, if not all a hospital or a stadium, to the apparently simpler, such of the world, the artistic linguistic expression can be oral as planning residential houses. Many architectural works as well, and include such genres as epic, legend, myth, may be seen also as cultural and political symbols, and/or ballad, other forms of oral poetry, and as folktale. works of art. The role of the architect, though chang- Comics, the combination of drawings or other visual arts ing, has been central to the successful (and sometimes with narrating literature, are often called the "ninth art" less than successful) design and implementation of pleas- (le neuvième art) in Francophone scholarship.*[13] 5.1. THE ARTS 57

5.1.6 Performing arts Theatre

Main article: Performing arts Main article: Theatre

Performing arts comprise dance, music, theatre, opera, Theatre or theater (from Greek theatron (θέατρον); from * mime, and other art forms in which a human performance theasthai“, behold”) [15] is the branch of the performing is the principal product. Performing arts are distinguished arts concerned with acting out stories in front of an au- by this performance element in contrast with disciplines dience using combinations of speech, gesture, music, such as visual and literary arts where the product is an dance, sound and spectacle – indeed, any one or more object that does not require a performance to be observed elements of the other performing arts. In addition to the and experienced. Each discipline in the performing arts standard narrative dialogue style, theatre takes such forms is temporal in nature, meaning the product is performed as opera, ballet, mime, kabuki, classical Indian dance, over a period of time. Products are broadly categorized as Chinese opera and mummers' plays. being either repeatable (for example, by script or score) or improvised for each performance.*[14] Dance Artists who participate in these arts in front of an audience are called performers, including actors, magicians, comedians, dancers, musicians, and singers. Perform- ing arts are also supported by the services of other artists or essential workers, such as songwriting and stagecraft. Performers often adapt their appearance with tools such as costume and stage makeup.

Music

Main article: Music Music is an art form whose medium is sound. Common

A musical score by Mozart. Play

elements of music are pitch (which governs melody and harmony), rhythm (and its associated concepts tempo, A ballroom dance exhibition metre, and articulation), dynamics, and the sonic qualities of timbre and texture. The creation, performance, significance, and even the definition of music vary ac- Main article: Dance cording to culture and social context. Music ranges from strictly organized compositions (and their reproduction in Dance (from Old French dancier, of unknown ori- performance) through improvisational music to aleatoric gin)*[16] generally refers to human movement either used pieces. Music can be divided into genres and subgen- as a form of expression or presented in a social, spiritual res, although the dividing lines and relationships between or performance setting. Dance is also used to describe music genres are often subtle, sometimes open to individ- methods of non-verbal communication (see body lan- ual interpretation, and occasionally controversial. Within guage) between humans or animals (bee dance, mating “the arts,”music may be classified as a performing art, a dance), motion in inanimate objects (the leaves danced in fine art, and auditory art. the wind), and certain musical forms or genres. 58 CHAPTER 5. DAY 5

Choreography is the art of making dances, and the person latter term. He did not compose for traditional ensem- who does this is called a choreographer. People danced bles. Cage's composition Living Room Music composed to relieve stress. in 1940 is a“quartet”for unspecified instruments, really Definitions of what constitutes dance are dependent on non-melodic objects, which can be found in a living room social, cultural, aesthetic, artistic and moral constraints of a typical house, hence the title. and range from functional movement (such as Folk dance) to codified, virtuoso techniques such as ballet. 5.1.8 Video games In sports, gymnastics, figure skating and synchronized swimming are dance disciplines while Martial arts "kata" Main article: Video games as an art form are often compared to dances.

A debate exists in the fine arts and video game cul- 5.1.7 Multidisciplinary artistic works tures over whether video games can be counted as an art form.*[17] Game designer Hideo Kojima professes that video games are a type of service, not an art form, because they are meant to entertain and attempt to entertain as many people as possible, rather than being a single artistic voice (despite Kojima himself being considered a gaming auteur, and the mixed opinions his games typically receive). However, he acknowledged that since video games are made up of artistic elements (for example, the visuals), game designers could be considered museum curators - not creating artistic pieces, but arranging them in a way that displays their artistry and sells tickets. In May 2011, the National Endowment of the Arts included video games in its redefinition of what is consid- Ernestine Schumann-Heink as Waltraute ered a “work of art”when applying of a grant.*[18] In Areas exist in which artistic works incorporate multiple 2012, the Smithsonian American Art Museum presented * artistic fields, such as film, opera and performance art. an exhibit, The Art of the Video Game. [19] Reviews of While opera is often categorized in the performing arts the exhibit were mixed, including questioning whether of music, the word itself is Italian for“works,”because video games belong in an art museum. opera combines several artistic disciplines in a singular artistic experience. In a typical traditional opera, the entire work utilizes the following: the sets (visual arts), cos- 5.1.9 Gastronomy tumes (fashion), acting (dramatic performing arts), the li- bretto, or the words/story (literature), and singers and an Main article: Gastronomy orchestra (music). The composer Richard Wagner recognized the fusion of so many disciplines into a single work Gastronomy is the study of the relationship between cul- of opera, exemplified by his cycle Der Ring des Nibelun- ture and food. It is often thought erroneously that the gen (“The Ring of the Nibelung”). He did not use the term gastronomy refers exclusively to the art of cooking term opera for his works, but instead Gesamtkunstwerk ( (see culinary art), but this is only a small part of this “synthesis of the arts”), sometimes referred to as“Mu- discipline; it cannot always be said that a cook is also sic Drama”in English, emphasizing the literary and the- a gourmet. Gastronomy studies various cultural compo- atrical components which were as important as the mu- nents with food as its central axis. Thus, it is related to sic. Classical ballet is another form which emerged in the the Fine Arts and Social Sciences, and even to the Nat- 19th century in which orchestral music is combined with ural Sciences in terms of human nutritious activity and dance. digestive function. Other works in the late 19th, 20th and 21st centuries have fused other disciplines in unique and creative ways, such as performance art. Performance art is a perfor- 5.1.10 Arts criticism mance over time which combines any number of instru- • ments, objects, and art within a predefined or less well- Architecture criticism defined structure, some of which can be improvised. Per- • Visual art criticism formance art may be scripted, unscripted, random or carefully organized; even audience participation may oc- • Dance criticism cur.John Cage is regarded by many as a performance artist rather than a composer, although he preferred the • Film criticism 5.1. THE ARTS 59

• Music criticism [15] Harper, Douglas (2001–2016). “theater (n.)". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved October 29, 2016. • Television criticism [16] Harper, Douglas (2001–2016). “dance”. Online Ety- • Theatre criticism mology Dictionary. Retrieved October 29, 2016.

[17]“An Art World for Artgames”. Loading... 7. 5.1.11 See also [18] National Endowment for the Arts • Culinary art [19] Smithsonian American Art Museum • Fine art

• Martial arts 5.1.13 References • Arts education • “The Art of Video Games”. SI.edu. Smithsonian American Art Museum. Retrieved 7 March 2015. 5.1.12 Footnotes • Barron, Christina (29 April 2012). “Museum ex- [1] “The Arts | Definition of The Arts by Merriam-Webster” hibit asks: Is it art if you push 'start'?". The Wash- . Merriam-Webster. Retrieved October 28, 2016. ington Post. Retrieved 12 February 2013. [2] Van Camp, Julie (November 22, 2006). “Congressional definition of 'the arts'". PHIL 361I: Philosophy of Art. • “Conceptual art”. Tate Glossary. Retrieved 7 California State University, Long Beach. Retrieved Octo- March 2015. ber 28, 2016. • Feynman, Richard (1985). QED: The Strange The- [3] The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology. 1991. p. ory of Light and Matter. Princeton University Press. 994. ISBN 0691024170. [4] The New International Encyclopædia. 1905. pp. Quadriv- ium – via Wikisource. The quadrivium consisted of arith- • “FY 2012 Arts in Media Guidelines”. Endow.gov. metic, music, geometry, and astronomy. National Endowment for the Arts. Archived from the original on 13 February 2012. Retrieved 7 [5] In his commentary on Martianus Capella's early fifth cen- March 2015. tury work, The Marriage of Philology and Mercury, one of the main sources for medieval reflection on the liberal • arts Gibson, Ellie (24 January 2006). “Games aren't art, says Kojima”. Eurogamer. Gamer Network. [6] Rowlands, Joseph; Landauer, Jeff (2001). “Esthetics”. Retrieved 7 March 2015. Importance of Philosophy. Retrieved October 28, 2016. • Kennicott, Philip (18 March 2012). “The Art of [7] “Draftsman | Define Draftsman at Dictionary.com”. Dic- Video Games”. The Washington Post. Retrieved tionary.com. 2016. Retrieved October 29, 2016. 12 February 2013. [8]“Exploratory experimentation: Goethe, Land, and color theory”. Physics Today. 55. • Levinson, Jerrold.“Performing Arts”. The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford University Press. [9] Düchting, Hajo (2013). Kandinsky. Taschen. p. 68. doi:10.1093/acref/9780199264797.001.0001. ISBN 978-3-8365-3146-7. ISBN 9780199264797. Retrieved 7 March 2015. [10] Ball, W. W. Rouse (1908). A Short Account of the History of Mathematics. New York: Dover. p. 325. ISBN 0-486- 20630-0. 5.1.14 External links “ [11] Harper, Douglas (2001–2016). architect (n.)". Online • Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved October 29, 2016. This article displayed as a mindmap, at wiki- mindmap.com [12] “Conceptual art | Tate”. Tate. Retrieved October 29, 2016. • Cowan, Tyler (2008).“Arts”. In David R. Hender- son (ed.). Concise Encyclopedia of Economics (2nd [13] Miller, Ann (2007). Reading Bande Dessinée: Critical Ap- ed.). Indianapolis: Library of Economics and Lib- proaches to French-language Comic Strip. Intellect Books. p. 23. ISBN 9781841501772. erty. ISBN 978-0865976658. OCLC 237794267. – A look at how general economic principles govern [14] Levinson the arts. 60 CHAPTER 5. DAY 5

5.2 Painting ages of Eastern religious origin. In art, the term painting describes both the act and the re- For other uses, see Painting (disambiguation). sult of the action. The support for paintings includes such “Painter”redirects here. For other uses, see Painter (dis- surfaces as walls, paper, canvas, wood, glass, lacquer, ambiguation). clay, leaf, copper and concrete, and the painting may in- Painting is the practice of applying paint, pigment, color corporate multiple other materials including sand, clay, paper, plaster, gold leaf, as well as objects. The term painting is also used outside of art as a common trade among craftsmen and builders.

5.2.1 Elements of Painting

The Mona Lisa, by Leonardo da Vinci, is one of the most recog- Chen Hongshou (1598–1652), Leaf album painting (Ming Dy- nizable paintings in the world. nasty)

or other medium*[1] to a solid surface (support base). The medium is commonly applied to the base with a brush, but other implements, such as knives, sponges, and Intensity airbrushes, can be used. What enables painting is the perception and representa- Painting is a mode of creative expression, and the forms tion of intensity. Every point in space has different in- are numerous. Drawing, gesture (as in gestural painting), tensity, which can be represented in painting by black composition, narration (as in narrative art), or abstraction and white and all the gray shades between. In practice, (as in abstract art), among other aesthetic modes, may painters can articulate shapes by juxtaposing surfaces of serve to manifest the expressive and conceptual inten- * different intensity; by using just color (of the same in- tion of the practitioner. [2] Paintings can be naturalistic tensity) one can only represent symbolic shapes. Thus, and representational (as in a still life or landscape paint- the basic means of painting are distinct from ideological ing), photographic, abstract, narrative, symbolistic (as in means, such as geometrical figures, various points of view Symbolist art), emotive (as in Expressionism), or political and organization (perspective), and symbols. For exam- in nature (as in Artivism). ple, a painter perceives that a particular white wall has A portion of the history of painting in both Eastern and different intensity at each point, due to shades and re- Western art is dominated by spiritual motifs and ideas. flections from nearby objects, but, ideally, a white wall is Examples of this kind of painting range from artwork de- still a white wall in pitch darkness. In technical drawing, picting mythological figures on pottery, to Biblical scenes thickness of line is also ideal, demarcating ideal outlines rendered on the interior walls and ceiling of the Sistine of an object within a perceptual frame different from the Chapel, to scenes from the life of Buddha or other im- one used by painters. 5.2. PAINTING 61

Color and tone amples of this are the works of Jean Dubuffet and Anselm Kiefer. There is a growing community of artists who use Color and tone are the essence of painting as pitch and computers to“paint”color onto a digital“canvas”us- rhythm are the essence of music. Color is highly subjec- ing programs such as Adobe Photoshop, Corel Painter, tive, but has observable psychological effects, although and many others. These images can be printed onto tra- these can differ from one culture to the next. Black is as- ditional canvas if required. sociated with mourning in the West, but in the East, white is. Some painters, theoreticians, writers and scientists, including Goethe,*[3] Kandinsky,*[4] and Newton,*[5] Rhythm have written their own color theory. Rhythm is important in painting as it is in music. If one Moreover, the use of language is only an abstraction for a defines rhythm as“a pause incorporated into a sequence”, color equivalent. The word "red", for example, can cover then there can be rhythm in paintings. These pauses allow a wide range of variations from the pure red of the visible creative force to intervene and add new creations—form, spectrum of light. There is not a formalized register of melody, coloration. The distribution of form, or any kind different colors in the way that there is agreement on dif- of information is of crucial importance in the given work ferent notes in music, such as F or C♯. For a painter, of art, and it directly affects the aesthetic value of that color is not simply divided into basic (primary) and de- work. This is because the aesthetical value is functionality rived (complementary or mixed) colors (like red, blue, dependent, i.e. the freedom (of movement) of perception green, brown, etc.). is perceived as beauty. Free flow of energy, in art as well Painters deal practically with pigments,*[6] so "blue" for as in other forms of "techne", directly contributes to the a painter can be any of the blues: phthalocyanine blue, aesthetical value. Prussian blue, indigo, cobalt, ultramarine, and so on. Psychological and symbolical meanings of color are not, strictly speaking, means of painting. Colors only add to 5.2.2 History the potential, derived context of meanings, and because of this, the perception of a painting is highly subjective. Main article: History of painting The analogy with music is quite clear—sound in mu- The oldest known paintings are at the Grotte Chauvet in sic (like a C note) is analogous to “light”in painting, “shades”to dynamics, and “coloration”is to painting as the specific timbre of musical instruments is to music. These elements do not necessarily form a melody (in music) of themselves; rather, they can add different contexts to it.

Cave painting of aurochs, (French: Bos primigenius primigenius), Lascaux, France, prehistoric art

France, which some historians believe are about 32,000 years old. They are engraved and painted using red ochre Circus Sideshow (French: Parade de cirque), Georges Seurat, and black pigment, and they show horses, rhinoceros, li- 1887–88 ons, buffalo, mammoth, abstract designs and what are possibly partial human figures. However, the earliest evidence of the act of painting has been discovered in two Non-traditional elements rock-shelters in Arnhem Land, in northern Australia. In the lowest layer of material at these sites, there are used Modern artists have extended the practice of painting pieces of ochre estimated to be 60,000 years old. Ar- considerably to include, as one example, collage, which chaeologists have also found a fragment of rock painting began with Cubism and is not painting in the strict sense. preserved in a limestone rock-shelter in the Kimberley Some modern painters incorporate different materials region of North-Western Australia, that is dated 40,000 such as sand, cement, straw or wood for their texture. Ex- years old.*[7] There are examples of cave paintings all 62 CHAPTER 5. DAY 5 over the world—in Italy, France, Spain, Portugal, China, Australia, Mexico,*[8] etc. In Western cultures, oil painting and watercolor painting have rich and complex traditions in style and subject matter. In the East, ink and color ink historically predominated the choice of media, with equally rich and complex traditions. The invention of photography had a major impact on painting. In the decades after the first photograph was produced in 1829, photographic processes improved and became more widely practiced, depriving painting of much of its historic purpose to provide an accurate record of the observable world. A series of art movements in the late 19th and early 20th centuries —notably Impressionism, Post-Impressionism, Fauvism, Expressionism, Cubism, and Dadaism—challenged the Renaissance view of the world. Eastern and African painting, however, continued a long history of stylization and did not undergo an equivalent transformation at the same time. Modern and Contemporary Art has moved away from the historic value of craft and documentation in favour of concept, leading some to say, in the 1960s, that painting as a serious art form is dead. This has not deterred the majority of living painters from continuing to practice Apelles or the Art of painting (detail), relief of the Giotto's Bell painting either as whole or part of their work. The vital- Tower in Florence, Italy, Nino Pisano, 1334–1336 ity and versatility of painting in the 21st century defies the previous“declarations”of its demise. In an epoch characterized by the idea of pluralism, there is no consensus making or iron casting. By the time of Leonardo, paint- as to a representative style of the age. Artists continue to ing had become a closer representation of the truth than make important works of art in a wide variety of styles painting was in Ancient Greece. Leonardo da Vinci, on and aesthetic temperaments—their merits are left to the the contrary, said that "Italian: La Pittura è cosa mentale" public and the marketplace to judge. (“English: painting is a thing of the mind”).*[9] Kant Among the continuing and current directions in painting distinguished between Beauty and the Sublime, in terms at the beginning of the 21st century are Monochrome that clearly gave priority to the former. Although he did painting, Hard-edge painting, Geometric abstrac- not refer to painting in particular, this concept was taken tion, Appropriation, Hyperrealism, Photorealism, up by painters such as J.M.W. Turner and Caspar David Expressionism, Minimalism, Lyrical Abstraction, Pop Friedrich. Art, Op Art, Abstract Expressionism, Color Field Hegel recognized the failure of attaining a universal con- painting, Neo-expressionism, Collage, Intermedia cept of beauty and, in his aesthetic essay, wrote that painting, Assemblage painting, Computer art painting, painting is one of the three “romantic”arts, along Postmodern painting, Neo-Dada painting, Shaped canvas with Poetry and Music, for its symbolic, highly intellec- painting, environmental mural painting, traditional figure tual purpose.*[10]*[11] Painters who have written the- painting, Landscape painting, Portrait painting, and oretical works on painting include Kandinsky and Paul paint-on-glass animation. Klee.*[12]*[13] In his essay, Kandinsky maintains that painting has a spiritual value, and he attaches primary colors to essential feelings or concepts, something that 5.2.3 Aesthetics and theory Goethe and other writers had already tried to do.

Main article: Theory of painting Iconography is the study of the content of paintings, Aesthetics is the study of art and beauty; it was an impor- rather than their style. Erwin Panofsky and other art his- tant issue for 18th- and 19th-century philosophers such torians ﬁrst seek to understand the things depicted, before as Kant and Hegel. Classical philosophers like Plato and looking at their meaning for the viewer at the time, and ﬁnally analyzing their wider cultural, religious, and social Aristotle also theorized about art and painting in particu- * lar. Plato disregarded painters (as well as sculptors) in his meaning. [14] philosophical system; he maintained that painting cannot In 1890, the Parisian painter Maurice Denis famously depict the truth—it is a copy of reality (a shadow of the asserted: “Remember that a painting —before being world of ideas) and is nothing but a craft, similar to shoe- a warhorse, a naked woman or some story or other— 5.2. PAINTING 63

is essentially a flat surface covered with colors assem- Pastel bled in a certain order.”*[15] Thus, many 20th-century developments in painting, such as Cubism, were reflections on the means of painting rather than on the external world—nature—which had previously been its core subject. Recent contributions to thinking about painting have been offered by the painter and writer Julian Bell. In his book What is Painting?, Bell discusses the development, through history, of the notion that paintings can express feelings and ideas.*[16] In Mirror of The World, Bell writes:

A work of art seeks to hold your attention and keep it ﬁxed: a history of art urges it on- wards, bulldozing a highway through the homes of the imagination.*[17]

5.2.4 Painting media

Different types of paint are usually identified by the medium that the pigment is suspended or embedded in, which determines the general working characteristics of the paint, such as viscosity, miscibility, solubility, drying time, etc. Maurice Quentin de La Tour, Portrait of Louis XV of France. (1748) Pastel. Oil Pastel is a painting medium in the form of a stick, consisting of pure powdered pigment and a binder.*[18] The pigments used in pastels are the same as those used to produce all colored art media, including oil paints; the binder is of a neutral hue and low saturation. The color effect of pastels is closer to the natural dry pigments than that of any other process.*[19] Because the surface of a pastel painting is fragile and easily smudged, its preserva- tion requires protective measures such as framing under glass; it may also be sprayed with a fixative. Nonetheless, when made with permanent pigments and properly cared for, a pastel painting may endure unchanged for centuries. Pastels are not susceptible, as are paintings made with a fluid medium, to the cracking and discoloration that result from changes in the color, opacity, or dimensions of the medium as it dries. Honoré Daumier (1808–79), The Painter. Oil on panel with visible brushstrokes. Acrylic Oil painting is the process of painting with pigments that are bound with a medium of drying oil, such as linseed Acrylic paint is fast drying paint containing pigment sus- oil, which was widely used in early modern Europe. Of- pension in acrylic polymer emulsion. Acrylic paints can ten the oil was boiled with a resin such as pine resin or be diluted with water, but become water-resistant when even frankincense; these were called 'varnishes' and were dry. Depending on how much the paint is diluted (with prized for their body and gloss. Oil paint eventually be- water) or modified with acrylic gels, media, or pastes, the came the principal medium used for creating artworks finished acrylic painting can resemble a watercolor or an as its advantages became widely known. The transition oil painting, or have its own unique characteristics not at- began with Early Netherlandish painting in northern Eu- tainable with other media. The main practical difference rope, and by the height of the Renaissance oil paint- between most acrylics and oil paints is the inherent drying ing techniques had almost completely replaced tempera time. Oils allow for more time to blend colors and apply paints in the majority of Europe. even glazes over under-paintings. This slow drying aspect 64 CHAPTER 5. DAY 5

Landscapes of the Four Seasons (1486), Sesshū Tōyō. Ink and light color on paper.

Jungle Arc by Ray Burggraf. Acrylic paint on wood. (1998) image, text, or design. Ink is used for drawing with a pen, brush, or quill. Ink can be a complex medium, composed of oil can be seen as an advantage for certain techniques, of solvents, pigments, dyes, resins, lubricants, solubiliz- but in other regards it impedes the artist trying to work ers, surfactants, particulate matter, ﬂuorescers, and other quickly. materials. The components of inks serve many purposes; the ink’s carrier, colorants, and other additives control Watercolor ﬂow and thickness of the ink and its appearance when dry.

Hot wax or encaustic

Manfred on the Jungfrau (1837), John Martin. Watercolor painting

Watercolor is a painting method in which the paints are made of pigments suspended in a water-soluble vehicle. The traditional and most common support for watercolor paintings is paper; other supports include papyrus, bark papers, plastics, vellum or leather, fabric, wood and canvas. In East Asia, watercolor painting with inks is referred to as brush painting or scroll painting. In Chinese, Korean, and Japanese painting it has been the dominant medium, often in monochrome black or browns. In- dia, Ethiopia and other countries also have long traditions. Finger-painting with watercolor paints originated in China. Watercolor pencils (water-soluble color pencils) may be used either wet or dry. Encaustic Angel (2009), Martina Loos. Beeswax crayons, encaustic iron and hotpen. Ink Encaustic painting, also known as hot wax painting, in- Ink paintings are done with a liquid that contains pigments volves using heated beeswax to which colored pigments and/or dyes and is used to color a surface to produce an are added. The liquid/paste is then applied to a surface 5.2. PAINTING 65

—usually prepared wood, though canvas and other ma- Gouache terials are often used. The simplest encaustic mixture can be made from adding pigments to beeswax, but there Gouache is a water-based paint consisting of pigment and are several other recipes that can be used—some con- other materials designed to be used in an opaque paint- taining other types of waxes, damar resin, linseed oil, or ing method. Gouache diﬀers from watercolor in that the other ingredients. Pure, powdered pigments can be pur- particles are larger, the ratio of pigment to water is much chased and used, though some mixtures use oil paints or higher, and an additional, inert, white pigment such as other forms of pigment. Metal tools and special brushes chalk is also present. This makes gouache heavier and can be used to shape the paint before it cools, or heated more opaque, with greater reﬂective qualities. Like all metal tools can be used to manipulate the wax once it has watermedia, it is diluted with water.*[20] cooled onto the surface. Other materials can be encased or collaged into the surface, or layered, using the encaustic medium to adhere it to the surface. Enamel

Enamels are made by painting a substrate, typically metal, with frit, a type of powdered glass. Minerals called color Fresco oxides provide coloration. After ﬁring at a temperature of 750–850 degrees Celsius (1380–1560 degrees Fahren- heit), the result is a fused lamination of glass and metal. Enamels have traditionally been used for decoration of precious objects,*[21] but have also been used for other purposes. In the 18th century, enamel painting enjoyed a vogue in Europe, especially as a medium for portrait miniatures.*[22] In the late 20th century, the technique of porcelain enamel on metal has been used as a durable medium for outdoor murals.*[23]

Spray paint

Aerosol paint (also called spray paint) is a type of paint that comes in a sealed pressurized container and is released in a fine spray mist when depressing a valve button. A form of spray painting, aerosol paint leaves a smooth, evenly coated surface. Standard sized cans are portable, inexpensive and easy to store. Aerosol primer can be applied directly to bare metal and many plastics. Speed, portability and permanence also make aerosol paint a common graffiti medium. In the late 1970s, street graffiti writers' signatures and murals became more elaborate and a unique style developed as a factor of the aerosol medium and the speed required for illicit work. Many now recognize graffiti and street art as a unique White Angel, a fresco from Mileševa, Serbia art form and specifically manufactured aerosol paints are made for the graffiti artist. A stencil protects a surface, except the specific shape to be painted. Stencils can be Fresco is any of several related mural painting types, done purchased as movable letters, ordered as professionally on plaster on walls or ceilings. The word fresco comes cut logos or hand-cut by artists. from the Italian word affresco [afˈfresːko], which derives from the Latin word for fresh. Frescoes were often made during the Renaissance and other early time peri- Tempera ods. Buon fresco technique consists of painting in pigment mixed with water on a thin layer of wet, fresh lime Tempera, also known as egg tempera, is a permanent, mortar or plaster, for which the Italian word for plaster, fast-drying painting medium consisting of colored pig- intonaco, is used. A secco painting, in contrast, is done ment mixed with a water-soluble binder medium (usu- on dry plaster (secco is “dry”in Italian). The pigments ally a glutinous material such as egg yolk or some other require a binding medium, such as egg (tempera), glue or size). Tempera also refers to the paintings done in this oil to attach the pigment to the wall. medium. Tempera paintings are very long lasting, and 66 CHAPTER 5. DAY 5

examples from the first centuries CE still exist. Egg tem- used in popular contexts. Such movements or classifica- pera was a primary method of painting until after 1500 tions include the following: when it was superseded by the invention of oil painting. A paint commonly called tempera (though it is not) consisting of pigment and glue size is commonly used and Western referred to by some manufacturers in America as poster paint. Modernism Modernism describes both a set of cultural tendencies and an array of associated cultural movements, originally arising from wide-scale and far- Water miscible oil paint reaching changes to Western society in the late 19th century and early 20th century. Modernism was a revolt against the conservative values of realism.*[24]*[25] The Water miscible oil paints (also called“water soluble”or term encompasses the activities and output of those who “water-mixable”) is a modern variety of oil paint engi- felt the“traditional”forms of art, architecture, literature, neered to be thinned and cleaned up with water, rather religious faith, social organization and daily life were be- than having to use chemicals such as turpentine. It can coming outdated in the new economic, social and political be mixed and applied using the same techniques as tra- conditions of an emerging fully industrialized world. A ditional oil-based paint, but while still wet it can be ef- salient characteristic of modernism is self-consciousness. fectively removed from brushes, palettes, and rags with This often led to experiments with form, and work that ordinary soap and water. Its water solubility comes from draws attention to the processes and materials used (and the use of an oil medium in which one end of the molecule to the further tendency of abstraction).*[26] has been altered to bind loosely to water molecules, as in a solution. Impressionism The first example of modernism in painting was impressionism, a school of painting that Digital painting initially focused on work done, not in studios, but out- doors (en plein air). Impressionist paintings demon- Main article: digital painting strated that human beings do not see objects, but instead see light itself. The school gathered adherents despite Digital painting is a method of creating an art object internal divisions among its leading practitioners, and (painting) digitally and/or a technique for making digital became increasingly influential. Initially rejected from art in the computer. As a method of creating an art ob- the most important commercial show of the time, the ject, it adapts traditional painting medium such as acrylic government-sponsored Paris Salon, the Impressionists or- paint, oils, ink, watercolor, etc. and applies the pigment ganized yearly group exhibitions in commercial venues to traditional carriers, such as woven canvas cloth, pa- during the 1870s and 1880s, timing them to coincide with per, polyester etc. by means of computer software driv- the official Salon. A significant event of 1863 was the ing industrial robotic or office machinery (printers). As a Salon des Refusés, created by Emperor Napoleon III to technique, it refers to a computer graphics software pro- display all of the paintings rejected by the Paris Salon. gram that uses a virtual canvas and virtual painting box of brushes, colors and other supplies. The virtual box con- Abstract styles Abstract painting uses a visual lan- tains many instruments that do not exist outside the com- guage of form, color and line to create a composition that puter, and which give a digital artwork a different look may exist with a degree of independence from visual ref- and feel from an artwork that is made the traditional way. erences in the world.*[27]*[28] Abstract expressionism was an American post-World War II art movement that combined the emotional intensity and self-denial of the 5.2.5 Painting styles German Expressionists with the anti-figurative aesthetic of the European abstract schools—such as Futurism, the Main article: Style (visual arts) Bauhaus and Synthetic Cubism and the image of being rebellious, anarchic, highly idiosyncratic and, some feel, * Style is used in two senses: It can refer to the distinctive nihilistic. [29] visual elements, techniques and methods that typify an in- Action painting, sometimes called gestural abstraction, is dividual artist's work. It can also refer to the movement a style of painting in which paint is spontaneously drib- or school that an artist is associated with. This can stem bled, splashed or smeared onto the canvas, rather than be- from an actual group that the artist was consciously ining carefully applied.*[30] The resulting work often em- volved with or it can be a category in which art histori- phasizes the physical act of painting itself as an essen- ans have placed the painter. The word 'style' in the lat- tial aspect of the finished work or concern of its artist. ter sense has fallen out of favor in academic discussions The style was widespread from the 1940s until the early about contemporary painting, though it continues to be 1960s, and is closely associated with abstract expression- 5.2. PAINTING 67

ism (some critics have used the terms “action painting” explicit in his assertion that Surrealism was above all a and "abstract expressionism" interchangeably). revolutionary movement. Other modernist styles include: Surrealism developed out of the Dada activities of World War I and the most important center of the move- • Color Field ment was Paris. From the 1920s onward, the movement spread around the globe, eventually aﬀecting the • Lyrical Abstraction visual arts, literature, ﬁlm and music of many countries and languages, as well as political thought and practice, • Hard-edge painting philosophy and social theory.

• Expressionism See also: Outline of painting § Styles of painting

• Cubism

• Pop art Far Eastern • Chinese Outsider art The term outsider art was coined by art • Tang Dynasty critic Roger Cardinal in 1972 as an English synonym • for art brut (French: [aʁ bʁyt], “raw art”or “rough Ming Dynasty art”), a label created by French artist Jean Dubuffet • Shan shui to describe art created outside the boundaries of official • Ink and wash painting culture; Dubuffet focused particularly on art by insane- • asylum inmates.*[31] Outsider art has emerged as a suc- Hua niao cessful art marketing category (an annual Outsider Art • Southern School Fair has taken place in New York since 1992). The term • Zhe School is sometimes misapplied as a catch-all marketing label for • Wu School art created by people outside the mainstream“art world,” • regardless of their circumstances or the content of their Contemporary work. • Japanese • Yamato-e Photorealism Photorealism is the genre of painting • Rimpa school based on using the camera and photographs to gather information and then from this information, creating • Emakimono a painting that appears to be very realistic like a • Kanō school photograph. The term is primarily applied to paintings • Shijō school from the United States art movement that began in the late • 1960s and early 1970s. As a full-fledged art movement, Superflat * * * Photorealism evolved from Pop Art [32] [33] [34] and • Korean as a counter to Abstract Expressionism. Hyperrealism is a genre of painting and sculpture resem- Islamic bling a high-resolution photograph. Hyperrealism is a fully fledged school of art and can be considered an ad- • Persian miniature vancement of Photorealism by the methods used to create the resulting paintings or sculptures. The term is primar- • Mughal miniature ily applied to an independent art movement and art style • in the United States and Europe that has developed since Ottoman miniature the early 2000s.*[35] Indian Surrealism Surrealism is a cultural movement that be- • Oriya school gan in the early 1920s, and is best known for the visual artworks and writings of the group members. Surreal- • Bengal school ist artworks feature the element of surprise, unexpected • juxtapositions and non sequitur; however, many Surreal- Kangra ist artists and writers regard their work as an expression • Madhubani of the philosophical movement first and foremost, with the works being an artifact. Leader André Breton was • Mysore 68 CHAPTER 5. DAY 5

• Rajput popular in the contemporary Low Countries, today Bel- gium and Netherlands (then Flemish and Dutch artists), • Mughal than it ever was in southern Europe. Northern still lifes had many subgenres: the breakfast piece was augmented • Samikshavad by the trompe-l'œil, the ﬂower bouquet, and the vanitas. • Tanjore In Spain there were much fewer patrons for this sort of thing, but a type of breakfast piece did become popular, • Warli featuring a few objects of food and tableware laid on a table. • Kerala mural painting

Body painting African Body painting is a form of body art. Unlike tattoo and • Tingatinga other forms of body art, body painting is temporary, painted onto the human skin, and lasts for only several Contemporary art hours, or at most (in the case of Mehndi or “henna tattoo”) a couple of weeks. Body painting that is limited to 5.2.6 Idioms the face is known as face painting. Body painting is also referred to as (a form of) temporary tattoo; large scale or full-body painting is more commonly referred to as body Allegory painting, while smaller or more detailed work is generally referred to as temporary tattoos. Allegory is a figurative mode of representation conveying meaning other than the literal. Allegory communi- cates its message by means of symbolic figures, actions Figure painting or symbolic representation. Allegory is generally treated as a figure of rhetoric, but an allegory does not have to A figure painting is a work of art in any of the painting be expressed in language: it may be addressed to the eye, media with the primary subject being the human figure, and is often found in realistic painting. An example of whether clothed or nude. Figure painting may also refer a simple visual allegory is the image of the grim reaper. to the activity of creating such a work. The human figure Viewers understand that the image of the grim reaper is has been one of the contrast subjects of art since the first a symbolic representation of death. stone age cave paintings, and has been reinterpreted in various styles throughout history.*[36] Some artists well known for figure painting are Peter Paul Rubens, Edgar Bodegón Degas, and Édouard Manet.

Illustration painting

Illustration paintings are those used as illustrations in books, magazines, and theater or movie posters and comic books. Today, there is a growing interest in collecting and admiring the original artwork. Various museum exhibitions, magazines and art galleries have devoted space to the illustrators of the past. In the visual art world, illustrators have sometimes been considered less important in comparison with fine artists and graphic de- Bodegón or Still Life with Pottery Jars, by Francisco de Zur- signers. But as the result of computer game and comic in- barán. 1636, Oil on canvas; 46 x 84 cm; Museo del Prado, dustry growth, illustrations are becoming valued as popu- Madrid lar and profitable art works that can acquire a wider market than the other two, especially in Korea, Japan, Hong In Spanish art, a bodegón is a still life painting depict- Kong and United States. ing pantry items, such as victuals, game, and drink, often arranged on a simple stone slab, and also a painting with one or more figures, but significant still life elements, typ- Landscape painting ically set in a kitchen or tavern. Starting in the Baroque period, such paintings became popular in Spain in the Main article: Landscape art second quarter of the 17th century. The tradition of still Landscape painting is a term that covers the depiction of life painting appears to have started and was far more natural scenery such as mountains, valleys, trees, rivers, 5.2. PAINTING 69

well over a thousand years in both cases.

Portrait painting

Portrait paintings are representations of a person, in which the face and its expression is predominant. The intent is to display the likeness, personality, and even the mood of the person. The art of the portrait ﬂourished in Ancient Greek and especially Roman sculpture, where sitters demanded individualized and realistic portraits, even unﬂattering ones. One of the best-known portraits in the Western world is Leonardo da Vinci's painting titled Mona Lisa, which is thought to be a portrait of Lisa Gherardini, the wife of Francesco del Giocondo.*[38]

Still life

A still life is a work of art depicting mostly inanimate subject matter, typically commonplace objects—which may be either natural (food, ﬂowers, plants, rocks, or shells) or man-made (drinking glasses, books, vases, jewelry, coins, pipes, and so on). With origins in the Mid- dle Ages and Ancient Greek/Roman art, still life paintings give the artist more leeway in the arrangement of design elements within a composition than do paintings of other types of subjects such as landscape or portraiture. Two Lovers by Reza Abbasi, 1630 Still life paintings, particularly before 1700, often contained religious and allegorical symbolism relating to the objects depicted. Some modern still life breaks the two-dimensional barrier and employs three-dimensional mixed media, and uses found objects, photography, computer graphics, as well as video and sound.

Veduta

A veduta is a highly detailed, usually large-scale painting of a cityscape or some other vista. This genre of landscape originated in Flanders, where artists such as Paul Bril painted vedute as early as the 16th century. As the itinerary of the Grand Tour became somewhat standardized, vedute of familiar scenes like the Roman Forum Painting by Andreas Achenbach, who specialized in the “sub- or the Grand Canal recalled early ventures to the Conti- lime”mode of landscape painting, in which man is dwarfed by nent for aristocratic Englishmen. In the later 19th cen- nature's might and fury.*[37] The Walters Art Museum. tury, more personal impressions of cityscapes replaced the desire for topographical accuracy, which was satisﬁed instead by painted panoramas. and forests, and especially art where the main subject is a wide view, with its elements arranged into a coherent composition. In other works landscape backgrounds for 5.2.7 See also ﬁgures can still form an important part of the work. Sky is • almost always included in the view, and weather is often 20th-century Western painting an element of the composition. Detailed landscapes as • Cobweb painting a distinct subject are not found in all artistic traditions, and develop when there is already a sophisticated tradition • Index of painting-related articles of representing other subjects. The two main traditions spring from Western painting and Chinese art, going back • Outline of painting 70 CHAPTER 5. DAY 5

5.2.8 Notes [20] Cohn, Marjorie B., Wash and Gouache, Fogg Museum, 1977. [1] “Paint[1] - Deﬁnition”. Merriam-webster.com. 2012- 08-31. Retrieved 2014-03-13. [21] Mayer, Ralph,The Artist's Handbook of Materials and Techniques, Third Edition, New York: Viking, 1970, p. [2] Perry, Lincoln (Summer 2014).“The Music of Painting” 375. . The American Scholar. 83 (3): 85. [22] McNally, Rika Smith, “Enamel”, Oxford Art Online [3] Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Goethe's theory of colours, John Murray, London 1840 [23] Mayer, Ralph,The Artist's Handbook of Materials and Techniques, Third Edition, New York: Viking, 1970, p. [4] Wassily Kandinsky Concerning The Spiritual In Art, 371. [Translated By Michael T. H. Sadler, pdf.

[5] A letter to the Royal Society presenting A new theory of [24] Barth, John (1979) The Literature of Replenishment, later light and colours Isaac Newton, 1671 pdf republished in The Friday Book'(1984)'.

[6] Pigments at ColourLex [25] Graﬀ, Gerald (1975) Babbitt at the Abyss: The Social Con- text of Postmodern. American Fiction, TriQuarterly, No. [7] “How Old is Australia's Rock Art?". Aboriginalarton- 33 (Spring 1975), pp. 307–37; reprinted in Putz and line.com. Retrieved 2014-03-13. Freese, eds., Postmodernism and American Literature.

[8] http://www.bbc.co.uk/portuguese/noticias/2013/05/ [26] Gardner, Helen, Horst De la Croix, Richard G. Tansey, 130523_pinturas_caverna_mexico_an and Diane Kirkpatrick. Gardner's Art Through the Ages (San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1991). ISBN 0- [9] Rollason, C., & Mittapalli, R. (2002). Modern criticism. 15-503770-6. p. 953. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers and Distributors. p. 196. ISBN 812690187X [27] Arnheim, Rudolph, 1969, Visual Thinking [10] Craig, Edward. Routledge Encyclopedia of Philoso- [28] Key, Joan (September 2009). “Future Use: Abstract phy: Genealogy to Iqbal, page 278. Routledge, 1998. Painting”. Third Text. 23 (5): 557–563. Books.google.com. 1998. ISBN 9780415187091. Re- trieved 2014-03-13. [29] Shapiro, David/Cecile (2000): Abstract Expressionism. [11]“Painting and music are the specially romantic arts. The politics of apolitical painting. p. 189-190 In: Lastly, as a union of painting and music comes poetry, Frascina, Francis (2000): Pollock and After. The criti- where the sensuous element is more than ever subordinate cal debate. 2nd ed. London: Routledge to the spirit.”Excerpted from Encyclopædia Britannica 1911 [30] Boddy-Evans, Marion. "Art Glossary: Action Painting". About.com. Retrieved 20 August 2006. [12] Franciscono, Marcel, Paul Klee: His Work and Thought, part 6 'The Bauhaus and Düsseldorf', chap. 'Klee's theory [31] Cardinal, Roger, Outsider Art, London, 1972 courses', p. 246 and under 'notes to pages 245–54' p.365 [32] Lindey, Christine Superrealist Painting and Sculpture, [13] Barasch, Moshe (2000) Theories of art – from impres- William Morrow and Company, New York, 1980, pp. sionism to Kandinsky, part IV 'Abstract art', chap. 'Color' 27–33. pp.332–3 [33] Chase, Linda, Photorealism at the Millennium, The Not- [14] Jones, Howard (October 2014). “The Varieties of Aes- So-Innocent Eye: Photorealism in Context. Harry N. thetic Experience”. Journal for Spiritual & Consciousness Abrams, Inc. New York, 2002. pp 14–15. Studies. 37 (4): 541–252. [34] Nochlin, Linda, The Realist Criminal and the Abstract [15] Encyclopedia Encarta Law II, Art In America. 61 (November – December 1973), P. 98. [16] “Review by art historian David Cohen”. Artnet.com. Retrieved 2014-03-13. [35] Bredekamp, Horst, Hyperrealism – One Step Beyond. [17] Bell, Julian (2007). Mirror of the World: A New His- Tate Museum, Publishers, UK. 2006. p. 1 tory of Art. Thames and Hudson. p. 496. ISBN 9780500238370. [36] Droste, Flip (October 2014).“Cave Paintings of the Early Stone Age”. Semiotica. 2014 (202): 155–165. [18] Mayer, Ralph,The Artist's Handbook of Materials and Techniques, Third Edition, New York: Viking, 1970, p. [37] “Clearing Up—Coast of Sicily”. The Walters Art Mu- 312. seum.

[19] Mayer, Ralph. The Artist's Handbook of Materials and [38] “Mona Lisa – Portrait of Lisa Gherardini, wife of Techniques. Viking Adult; 5th revised and updated edi- Francesco del Giocondo”. Louvre Museum. Retrieved tion, 1991. ISBN 0-670-83701-6 2014-03-13. 5.3. PIGMENT 71

5.2.9 Further reading must have a high tinting strength relative to the materials it colors. It must be stable in solid form at ambient • Daniel, H. (1971). Encyclopedia of Themes and temperatures. Subjects in Painting; Mythological, Biblical, Histor- For industrial applications, as well as in the arts, perma- ical, Literary, Allegorical, and Topical. New York: nence and stability are desirable properties. Pigments that Harry N. Abrams Inc. are not permanent are called fugitive. Fugitive pigments • W. Stanley Jr. Taft, James W. Mayer, The Science fade over time, or with exposure to light, while some of Paintings, First Edition, Springer, 2000. eventually blacken. Pigments are used for coloring paint, ink, plastic, fabric, cosmetics, food, and other materials. Most pigments used 5.3 Pigment in manufacturing and the visual arts are dry colorants, usually ground into a ﬁne powder. This powder is added to a binder (or vehicle), a relatively neutral or colorless material that suspends the pigment and gives the paint its adhesion. A distinction is usually made between a pigment, which is insoluble in its vehicle (resulting in a suspension), and a dye, which either is itself a liquid or is soluble in its vehicle (resulting in a solution). A colorant can act as either a pigment or a dye depending on the vehicle involved. In some cases, a pigment can be manufactured from a dye by precipitating a soluble dye with a metallic salt. The resulting pigment is called a lake pigment. The term biological pigment is used for all colored substances independent of their solubility.*[1] In 2006, around 7.4 million tons of inorganic, organic and special pigments were marketed worldwide. Asia has the highest rate on a quantity basis followed by Europe and Natural ultramarine pigment in powdered form North America. By 2020, revenues will have risen to approx. US$34.2 billion.*[2] The global demand on pigments was roughly US$20.5 billion in 2009, around 1.5- 2% up from the previous year. It is predicted to increase in a stable growth rate in the coming years. The worldwide sales are said to increase up to US$24.5 billion in 2015, and reach US$27.5 billion in 2018.*[3]

5.3.1 Physical basis

Synthetic ultramarine pigment is chemically identical to natural ultramarine

A pigment is a material that changes the color of reflected or transmitted light as the result of wavelength- selective absorption. This physical process differs from fluorescence, phosphorescence, and other forms of luminescence, in which a material emits light. A wide variety of wavelengths (colors) encounter a pigment. This pigment absorbs red and green light, but reflects blue, creating the Many materials selectively absorb certain wavelengths of color blue. light. Materials that humans have chosen and developed for use as pigments usually have special properties that Pigments appear the colors they are because they selec- make them ideal for coloring other materials. A pigment tively reflect and absorb certain wavelengths of visible 72 CHAPTER 5. DAY 5 light. White light is a roughly equal mixture of the 5.3.2 History entire spectrum of visible light with a wavelength in a range from about 375 or 400 nanometers to about 760 or 780 nm. When this light encounters a pigment, parts Naturally occurring pigments such as ochres and iron ox- of the spectrum are absorbed by the molecules or ions ides have been used as colorants since prehistoric times. of the pigment. In organic pigments such as diazo or Archaeologists have uncovered evidence that early hu- phthalocyanine compounds the light is absorbed by the mans used paint for aesthetic purposes such as body conjugated systems of double bonds in the molecule. decoration. Pigments and paint grinding equipment be- Some of the inorganic pigments such as vermilion (mer- lieved to be between 350,000 and 400,000 years old have cury sulfide) or cadmium yellow (cadmium sulfide) ab- been reported in a cave at Twin Rivers, near Lusaka, sorb light by transferring an electron from the negative ion Zambia.*[5] * * * (S 2-) to the positive ion (Hg 2+ or Cd 2+). Such com- Before the Industrial Revolution, the range of color avail- * pounds are designated as charge-transfer complexes, [4] able for art and decorative uses was technically limited. with broad absorption bands that subtract most of the col- Most of the pigments in use were earth and mineral ors of the incident white light. The other wavelengths pigments, or pigments of biological origin. Pigments or parts of the spectrum are reflected or scattered. The from unusual sources such as botanical materials, animal new reflected light spectrum creates the appearance of waste, insects, and mollusks were harvested and traded a color. Pigments, unlike fluorescent or phosphorescent over long distances. Some colors were costly or impossi- substances, can only subtract wavelengths from the source ble to obtain, given the range of pigments that were avail- light, never add new ones. able. Blue and purple came to be associated with royalty The appearance of pigments is intimately connected to because of their rarity. the color of the source light. Sunlight has a high color Biological pigments were often difficult to acquire, and temperature, and a fairly uniform spectrum, and is con- the details of their production were kept secret by the sidered a standard for white light. Artificial light sources manufacturers. Tyrian Purple is a pigment made from tend to have great peaks in some parts of their spectrum, the mucus of one of several species of Murex snail. Pro- and deep valleys in others. Viewed under these condi- duction of Tyrian Purple for use as a fabric dye began tions, pigments will appear different colors. as early as 1200 BCE by the Phoenicians, and was con- Color spaces used to represent colors numerically must tinued by the Greeks and Romans until 1453 CE, with specify their light source. Lab color measurements, un- the fall of Constantinople.*[6] The pigment was expen- less otherwise noted, assume that the measurement was sive and complex to produce, and items colored with it taken under a D65 light source, or “Daylight 6500 K”, became associated with power and wealth. Greek his- which is roughly the color temperature of sunlight. torian Theopompus, writing in the 4th century BCE, reported that “purple for dyes fetched its weight in silver at Colophon [in Asia Minor].”*[7] Mineral pigments were also traded over long distances. The only way to achieve a deep rich blue was by using a semi-precious stone, lapis lazuli, to produce a pigment known as ultramarine, and the best sources of lapis were remote. Flemish painter Jan van Eyck, working in the 15th century, did not ordinarily include blue in his paint- Sunlight encounters Rosco R80 “Primary Blue”pigment. The ings. To have one's portrait commissioned and painted product of the source spectrum and the reflectance spectrum of with ultramarine blue was considered a great luxury. If a the pigment results in the final spectrum, and the appearance of patron wanted blue, they were obliged to pay extra. When blue. Van Eyck used lapis, he never blended it with other colors. Instead he applied it in pure form, almost as a decora- Other properties of a color, such as its saturation or light- * ness, may be determined by the other substances that active glaze. [8] The prohibitive price of lapis lazuli forced company pigments. Binders and fillers added to pure pig- artists to seek less expensive replacement pigments, both ment chemicals also have their own reflection and absorp- mineral (azurite, smalt) and biological (indigo). tion patterns, which can affect the final spectrum. Like- Spain's conquest of a New World empire in the 16th cen- wise, in pigment/binder mixtures, individual rays of light tury introduced new pigments and colors to peoples on may not encounter pigment molecules, and may be re- both sides of the Atlantic. Carmine, a dye and pigment flected as is. These stray rays of source light contribute derived from a parasitic insect found in Central and South to a slightly less saturated color. Pure pigment allows very America, attained great status and value in Europe. Pro- little white light to escape, producing a highly saturated duced from harvested, dried, and crushed cochineal in- color. A small quantity of pigment mixed with a lot of sects, carmine could be, and still is, used in fabric dye, white binder, however, will appear desaturated and pale, food dye, body paint, or in its solid lake form, almost any due to the high quantity of escaping white light. kind of paint or cosmetic. 5.3. PIGMENT 73

made lavish use of lapis lazuli, along with Carmine and Indian yellow, in his vibrant paintings.

Development of synthetic pigments

The earliest known pigments were natural minerals. Nat- ural iron oxides give a range of colors and are found in many Paleolithic and Neolithic cave paintings. Two examples include Red Ochre, anhydrous Fe2O3, and the hy- * * drated Yellow Ochre (Fe2O3 .H2O). [11] Charcoal, or carbon black, has also been used as a black pigment since prehistoric times.*[11] Two of the first synthetic pigments were white lead (ba- Miracle of the Slave by Tintoretto (c. 1548). The son of a master * sic lead carbonate, (PbCO3)2Pb(OH)2) [12] and blue frit dyer, Tintoretto used Carmine Red Lake pigment, derived from (Egyptian Blue). White lead is made by combining lead the cochineal insect, to achieve dramatic color effects. with vinegar (acetic acid, CH3COOH) in the presence of CO2. Blue frit is calcium copper silicate and was made Natives of Peru had been producing cochineal dyes for from glass colored with a copper ore, such as malachite. textiles since at least 700 CE,*[9] but Europeans had These pigments were used as early as the second millen- * never seen the color before. When the Spanish invaded nium BCE [13] Later premodern additions to the range the Aztec empire in what is now Mexico, they were quick of synthetic pigments included vermillion, verdigris and to exploit the color for new trade opportunities. Carmine lead-tin-yellow. became the region's second most valuable export next to The Industrial and Scientific Revolutions brought a huge silver. Pigments produced from the cochineal insect gave expansion in the range of synthetic pigments, pigments the Catholic cardinals their vibrant robes and the English that are manufactured or refined from naturally occur- “Redcoats”their distinctive uniforms. The true source ring materials, available both for manufacturing and artis- of the pigment, an insect, was kept secret until the 18th tic expression. Because of the expense of Lapis Lazuli, century, when biologists discovered the source.*[10] much effort went into finding a less costly blue pigment. Prussian Blue was the first modern synthetic pigment, discovered by accident in 1704.*[14] By the early 19th century, synthetic and metallic blue pigments had been added to the range of blues, including French ultramarine, a synthetic form of lapis lazuli, and the various forms of Cobalt and Cerulean Blue. In the early 20th century, organic chemistry added Phthalo Blue, a synthetic, organometallic pigment with overwhelming tinting power. Discoveries in color science created new industries and drove changes in fashion and taste. The discovery in 1856 of mauveine, the first aniline dye, was a forerun- ner for the development of hundreds of synthetic dyes and pigments like azo and diazo compounds which are the source of a wide spectrum of colors. Mauveine was discovered by an 18-year-old chemist named William Henry Perkin, who went on to exploit his discovery in industry and become wealthy. His success attracted a generation of followers, as young scientists went into organic chemistry to pursue riches. Within a few years, chemists had synthesized a substitute for madder in the production of Alizarin Crimson. By the closing decades of the 19th Girl with a Pearl Earring by Johannes Vermeer (c. 1665). century, textiles, paints, and other commodities in colors such as red, crimson, blue, and purple had become * While Carmine was popular in Europe, blue remained affordable. [15] an exclusive color, associated with wealth and status. Development of chemical pigments and dyes helped bring The 17th-century Dutch master Johannes Vermeer often new industrial prosperity to Germany and other countries 74 CHAPTER 5. DAY 5

The Milkmaid by Johannes Vermeer (c. 1658). Vermeer was Self Portrait by Paul Cézanne. Working in the late 19th century, lavish in his choice of expensive pigments, including lead-tin- Cézanne had a palette of colors that earlier generations of artists yellow, natural ultramarine and madder lake, as shown in this could only have dreamed of. vibrant painting.*[18] in northern Europe, but it brought dissolution and de- hue, but manufacturers are not always careful in main- cline elsewhere. In Spain's former New World empire, taining this distinction. The following examples illustrate the production of cochineal colors employed thousands the shifting nature of historic pigment names: of low-paid workers. The Spanish monopoly on cochineal production had been worth a fortune until the early 19th • Indian Yellow was once produced by collecting century, when the Mexican War of Independence and the urine of cattle that had been fed only mango other market changes disrupted production.*[16] Organic leaves.*[19] Dutch and Flemish painters of the 17th chemistry delivered the ﬁnal blow for the cochineal color and 18th centuries favored it for its luminescent industry. When chemists created inexpensive substitutes qualities, and often used it to represent sunlight. for carmine, an industry and a way of life went into steep Since mango leaves are nutritionally inadequate for decline.*[17] cattle, the practice of harvesting Indian Yellow was eventually declared to be inhumane.*[19] Modern hues of Indian Yellow are made from synthetic pig- New sources for historic pigments ments.

Before the Industrial Revolution, many pigments were • Ultramarine, originally the semi-precious stone lapis known by the location where they were produced. Pig- lazuli, has been replaced by an inexpensive mod- ments based on minerals and clays often bore the name ern synthetic pigment, French Ultramarine, manu- of the city or region where they were mined. Raw Si- factured from aluminium silicate with sulfur impu- enna and Burnt Sienna came from Siena, Italy, while Raw rities. At the same time, Royal Blue, another name Umber and Burnt Umber came from Umbria. These pig- once given to tints produced from lapis lazuli, has ments were among the easiest to synthesize, and chemists evolved to signify a much lighter and brighter color, created modern colors based on the originals that were and is usually mixed from Phthalo Blue and titanium more consistent than colors mined from the original ore dioxide, or from inexpensive synthetic blue dyes. bodies. But the place names remained. Since synthetic ultramarine is chemically identical with lapis lazuli, the“hue”designation is not used. Historically and culturally, many famous natural pigments French Blue, yet another historic name for ultrama- have been replaced with synthetic pigments, while retain- rine, was adopted by the textile and apparel industry ing historic names. In some cases, the original color name as a color name in the 1990s, and was applied to a has shifted in meaning, as a historic name has been ap- shade of blue that has nothing in common with the plied to a popular modern color. By convention, a con- historic pigment ultramarine. temporary mixture of pigments that replaces a historical pigment is indicated by calling the resulting color a • Vermilion, a toxic mercury compound favored for 5.3. PIGMENT 75

Pigments for sale at a market stall in Goa, India.

velopment of a modern color industry, manufacturers and professionals have cooperated to create international standards for identifying, producing, measuring, and testing colors. First published in 1905, the Munsell color system became the foundation for a series of color models, providing objective methods for the measurement of color. The Munsell system describes a color in three dimensions, hue, value (lightness), and chroma (color purity), where chroma is the difference from gray at a given hue and value. By the middle years of the 20th century, standardized methods for pigment chemistry were available, part of an international movement to create such standards in industry. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) develops technical standards for the manufacture Titian used the historic pigment Vermilion to create the reds in of pigments and dyes. ISO standards define various in- the great fresco of Assunta, completed c. 1518. dustrial and chemical properties, and how to test for them. The principal ISO standards that relate to all pigments are its deep red-orange color by old master painters such as follows: as Titian, has been replaced in painters' palettes by various modern pigments, including cadmium reds. • ISO-787 General methods of test for pigments and Although genuine Vermilion paint can still be pur- extenders. chased for fine arts and art conservation applications, few manufacturers make it, because of legal • ISO-8780 Methods of dispersion for assessment of liability issues. Few artists buy it, because it has dispersion characteristics. been superseded by modern pigments that are both less expensive and less toxic, as well as less reactive Other ISO standards pertain to particular classes or cate- with other pigments. As a result, genuine Vermilion gories of pigments, based on their chemical composition, is almost unavailable. Modern vermilion colors are such as ultramarine pigments, titanium dioxide, iron ox- properly designated as Vermilion Hue to distinguish ide pigments, and so forth. them from genuine Vermilion. Many manufacturers of paints, inks, textiles, plastics, and colors have voluntarily adopted the Colour Index Inter- national (CII) as a standard for identifying the pigments 5.3.3 Manufacturing and industrial stan- that they use in manufacturing particular colors. First dards published in 1925, and now published jointly on the web by the Society of Dyers and Colourists (United King- Before the development of synthetic pigments, and the re- dom) and the American Association of Textile Chemists finement of techniques for extracting mineral pigments, and Colorists (USA), this index is recognized internation- batches of color were often inconsistent. With the de- ally as the authoritative reference on colorants. It en- 76 CHAPTER 5. DAY 5 compasses more than 27,000 products under more than textiles, different type of swatches are used. Generally, 13,000 generic color index names. the medium which offers the broadest gamut of color In the CII schema, each pigment has a generic index num- shades is widely used across different media. ber that identifies it chemically, regardless of proprietary and historic names. For example, Phthalocyanine Blue Printed swatches BN has been known by a variety of generic and proprietary names since its discovery in the 1930s. In much There are many reference standards providing printed of Europe, phthalocyanine blue is better known as He- swatches of color shades. PANTONE, RAL, Munsell etc. lio Blue, or by a proprietary name such as Winsor Blue. are widely used standards of color communication across An American paint manufacturer, Grumbacher, regis- different media like printing, plastics, and textiles. tered an alternate spelling (Thanos Blue) as a trademark. Colour Index International resolves all these conflicting historic, generic, and proprietary names so that manufac- Plastic swatches turers and consumers can identify the pigment (or dye) used in a particular color product. In the CII, all ph- Companies manufacturing color masterbatches and pig- thalocyanine blue pigments are designated by a generic ments for plastics offer plastic swatches in injection color index number as either PB15 or PB16, short for molded color chips. These color chips are supplied to pigment blue 15 and pigment blue 16; these two num- the designer or customer to choose and select the color bers reflect slight variations in molecular structure that for their specific plastic products. produce a slightly more greenish or reddish blue. Plastic swatches are available in various special effects like pearl, metallic, fluorescent, sparkle, mosaic etc. 5.3.4 Scientific and technical issues However, these effects are difficult to replicate on other media like print and computer display. wherein they have Selection of a pigment for a particular application is de- created plastic swatches on website by 3D modelling to termined by cost, and by the physical properties and at- including various special effects. tributes of the pigment itself. For example, a pigment that is used to color glass must have very high heat stability in order to survive the manufacturing process; but, Computer swatches suspended in the glass vehicle, its resistance to alkali or acidic materials is not an issue. In artistic paint, heat sta- Pure pigments reflect light in a very specific way that bility is less important, while lightfastness and toxicity are cannot be precisely duplicated by the discrete light emit- greater concerns. ters in a computer display. However, by making careful measurements of pigments, close approximations can be The following are some of the attributes of pigments that made. The Munsell Color System provides a good con- determine their suitability for particular manufacturing ceptual explanation of what is missing. Munsell devised processes and applications: a system that provides an objective measure of color in three dimensions: hue, value (or lightness), and chroma. • Lightfastness and sensitivity for damage from ultra Computer displays in general are unable to show the true violet light chroma of many pigments, but the hue and lightness can • Heat stability be reproduced with relative accuracy. However, when the gamma of a computer display deviates from the reference • Toxicity value, the hue is also systematically biased. • Tinting strength The following approximations assume a display device at gamma 2.2, using the sRGB color space. The fur- • Staining ther a display device deviates from these standards, the * • Dispersion less accurate these swatches will be. [20] Swatches are based on the average measurements of several lots of • Opacity or transparency single-pigment watercolor paints, converted from Lab color space to sRGB color space for viewing on a com- • Resistance to alkalis and acids puter display. Different brands and lots of the same pig- • Reactions and interactions between pigments ment may vary in color. Furthermore, pigments have inherently complex reflectance spectra that will render their color appearance greatly different depending on the 5.3.5 Swatches spectrum of the source illumination; a property called metamerism. Averaged measurements of pigment sam- Swatches are used to communicate colors accurately. For ples will only yield approximations of their true appear- different media like printing, computers, plastics, and ance under a specific source of illumination. Computer 5.3. PIGMENT 77

display systems use a technique called chromatic adaptation transforms*[21] to emulate the correlated color temperature of illumination sources, and cannot perfectly reproduce the intricate spectral combinations originally seen. In many cases, the perceived color of a pigment falls outside of the gamut of computer displays and a method called gamut mapping is used to approximate the true appearance. Gamut mapping trades off any one of lightness, Transition metal compounds. From left to right, aqueous solu- hue, or saturation accuracy to render the color on screen, tions of: Co(NO depending on the priority chosen in the conversion's ICC 3) rendering intent. 2 (red); K 2Cr 2O 5.3.6 Biological pigments 7 (orange); K 2CrO Main article: Biological pigment 4 (yellow); NiCl 2 (turquoise); CuSO 4 (blue); KMnO In biology, a pigment is any colored material of plant or 4 (purple). animal cells. Many biological structures, such as skin, eyes, fur, and hair contain pigments (such as melanin). Animal skin coloration often comes about through specialized cells called chromatophores, which animals such as the octopus and chameleon can control to vary the animal's color. Many conditions affect the levels or nature of pigments in plant, animal, some protista, or fungus cells. For instance, the disorder called albinism affects the level of melanin production in animals. Pigmentation in organisms serves many biological purposes, including camouflage, mimicry, aposematism (warning), sexual selection and other forms of signalling, photosynthesis (in plants), as well as basic physical purposes such as protection from sunburn. Pigment color differs from structural color in that pigment color is the same for all viewing angles, whereas structural color is the result of selective reflection or iridescence, usually because of multilayer structures. For example, butterfly wings typically contain structural color, although many butterflies have cells that contain pigment as well. Phthalo Blue

5.3.7 Pigments by elemental composition Phthalocyanine Blue BN, Phthalocyanine Green G, verdigris, viridian Metal-based pigments • Iron oxide pigments: sanguine, caput mortuum, Main article: List of inorganic pigments oxide red, red ochre, Venetian red, Prussian blue

• Lead pigments: lead white, cremnitz white, Naples • Cadmium pigments: cadmium yellow, cadmium yellow, red lead, lead-tin-yellow red, cadmium green, cadmium orange, cadmium sulfoselenide • Manganese pigments: manganese violet • Chromium pigments: chrome yellow and chrome green • Mercury pigments: vermilion • Cobalt pigments: cobalt violet, cobalt blue, cerulean • Titanium pigments: titanium yellow, titanium beige, blue, aureolin (cobalt yellow) titanium white, titanium black • Copper pigments: Azurite, Han purple, Han blue, Egyptian blue, Malachite, Paris green, • Zinc pigments: zinc white, zinc ferrite 78 CHAPTER 5. DAY 5

Other inorganic pigments [9] Jan Wouters, Noemi Rosario-Chirinos (1992). “Dye Analysis of Pre-Columbian Peruvian Textiles with High- • Carbon pigments: carbon black (including vine blac, Performance Liquid Chromatography and Diode-Array lamp black), ivory black (bone char) Detection”. Journal of the American Institute for Con- servation. The American Institute for Conservation of • Clay earth pigments (iron oxides): yellow ochre, raw Historic &. 31 (2): 237–255. doi:10.2307/3179495. sienna, burnt sienna, raw umber, burnt umber. JSTOR 3179495. [10] Amy Butler Greenﬁeld (2005-04-26). A Perfect Red: Em- • Ultramarine pigments: ultramarine, ultramarine pire, Espionage, and the Quest for the Color of Desire. green shade HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-052275-5.

[11] “Pigments Through the Ages”. WebExhibits.org. Re- Biological and organic trieved 2007-10-18.

[12] Lead white at ColourLex • Biological origins: alizarin (synthesized), alizarin crimson (synthesized), gamboge, cochineal red, rose [13] Rossotti, Hazel (1983). Colour: Why the World Isn't Grey. madder, indigo, Indian yellow, Tyrian purple Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691- 02386-7. • Non biological organic: quinacridone, magenta, phthalo green, phthalo blue, pigment red 170, [14] Prussian blue at ColourLex diarylide yellow [15] Simon Garﬁeld (2000). Mauve: How One Man Invented a Color That Changed the World. Faber and Faber. ISBN 0-393-02005-3. 5.3.8 See also [16] Octavio Hernández. “Cochineal”. Mexico Desconocido • List of inorganic pigments Online. Retrieved July 15, 2005. “ ” • [17] Jeﬀ Behan. The bug that changed history . Retrieved Subtractive color June 26, 2006.

• Cave paintings [18] Johannes Vermeer, The Milkmaid, ColourLex

• Rock art [19] “History of Indian yellow”. Pigments Through the Ages. Retrieved 13 February 2015. • List of Stone Age art [20] “Dictionary of Color Terms”. Gamma Scientiﬁc. Re- trieved 2014-06-25.

5.3.9 Notes [21] “Chromatic Adaptation”. cmp.uea.ac.uk. Retrieved 2009-04-16. [1] http://articles.latimes.com/2011/oct/14/science/ la-sci-ancient-paint-20111014 5.3.10 References [2] Market Study Pigments, 3rd ed., Ceresana, 11/13 • Ball, Philip (2002). Bright Earth: Art and the In- [3] “Market Report: World Pigment Market”. Acmite Mar- vention of Color. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN ket Intelligence. External link in |publisher= (help) 0-374-11679-2.

[4] Thomas B. Brill, Light:Its Interaction with Art and Antiq- • Doerner, Max (1984). The Materials of the Artist uities, Springer 1980, p. 204 and Their Use in Painting: With Notes on the Tech- [5]“Earliest evidence of art found”. BBC News. 2000-05-02. niques of the Old Masters, Revised Edition. Harcourt. Retrieved 2016-05-01. ISBN 0-15-657716-X. • [6] Kassinger, Ruth G. (2003-02-06). Dyes: From Sea Snails Finlay, Victoria (2003). Color: A Natural History of to Synthetics. 21st century. ISBN 0-7613-2112-8. the Palette. Random House. ISBN 0-8129-7142-6. • [7] Theopompus, cited by Athenaeus [12.526] in c. 200 BCE; Gage, John (1999). Color and Culture: Practice and according to Gulick, Charles Barton. (1941). Athenaeus, Meaning from Antiquity to Abstraction. University The Deipnosophists. Cambridge: Harvard University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-22225-3. Press. • Meyer, Ralph (1991). The Artist's Handbook of Ma- [8] Michel Pastoureau (2001-10-01). Blue: The History of a terials and Techniques, Fifth Edition. Viking. ISBN Color. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-09050-5. 0-670-83701-6. 5.3. PIGMENT 79

• L. Feller, L. Ed., Artists' Pigments. A Handbook of Their History and Characteristics, Vol. 1, Cam- bridge University Press, London 1986.

• Roy A. Ed., Artists' Pigments. A Handbook of Their History and Characteristics, Vol. 2, Oxford University Press 1993. • Fitzhugh, E.W. Ed. Artists’Pigments. A Handbook of Their History and Characteristics, Vol. 3: Oxford University Press 1997.

• Berrie, B. Ed., Artists' Pigments. A Handbook of Their History and Characteristics, Vol. 4, Archetype books, 2007.

5.3.11 External links

• Pigments through the ages

• ColourLex Pigment Lexicon • Meyrs, G.D., An Artists Paint and Pigment Refer- ence with Color Index Names, Color Index Num- bers and Chemical Composition • Earliest evidence of art found

• Sarah Lowengard,The Creation of Color in Eighteenth-century Europe, Columbia University Press, 2006 • Phillip Ball, (audio) On Chemistry and Colour in Art • An Overview On A Pigment Phthalo Green Organic Pigments • Alchemy's Rainbow: Pigment Science and the Art of Conservation on YouTube, Chemical Heritage Foundation

• Poisons and Pigments: A Talk with Art Historian Elisabeth Berry-Drago on YouTube, Chemical Her- itage Foundation Chapter 6

Day 6

6.1 Emotion they are states of feeling that result in physical and psychological changes that inﬂuence our behavior.*[2] The For other uses, see Emotion (disambiguation). physiology of emotion is closely linked to arousal of “Emotional”redirects here. For other uses, see the nervous system with various states and strengths of Emotional (disambiguation). arousal relating, apparently, to particular emotions. Emo- Emotion, in everyday speech, is any relatively brief tion is also linked to behavioral tendency. Extroverted people are more likely to be social and express their emotions, while introverted people are more likely to be more socially withdrawn and conceal their emotions. Emotion is often the driving force behind motivation, positive or optimism love * serenity negative. [4] According to other theories, emotions are not causal forces but simply syndromes of components, interest joy acceptance which might include motivation, feeling, behavior, and anticipation trust aggressiveness submission ecstasy physiological changes, but no one of these components

vigilance admiration is the emotion. Nor is the emotion an entity that causes these components.*[5] annoyance anger rage terror fear apprehension Emotions involve diﬀerent components, such as sub- loathing amazement jective experience, cognitive processes, expressive be- grief contempt disgust surprise awe havior, psychophysiological changes, and instrumental boredom sadness distraction behavior. At one time, academics attempted to identify the emotion with one of the components: William pensiveness

remorse disapproval James with a subjective experience, behaviorists with instrumental behavior, psychophysiologists with physiological changes, and so on. More recently, emotion is said to consist of all the components. The different components of emotion are categorized somewhat Plutchik's wheel of emotions differently depending on the academic discipline. In psychology and philosophy, emotion typically includes a conscious experience characterized by intense men- subjective, conscious experience characterized primarily tal activity and a high degree of pleasure or displea- by psychophysiological expressions, biological reactions, sure.*[1]*[2] Scientific discourse has drifted to other and mental states. A similar multicomponential descrip- meanings and there is no consensus on a definition. tion of emotion is found in sociology. For example, Peggy Emotion is often intertwined with mood, temperament, Thoits*[6] described emotions as involving physiological personality, disposition, and motivation.*[3] In some the- components, cultural or emotional labels (anger, surprise, ories, cognition is an important aspect of emotion. Those etc.), expressive body actions, and the appraisal of situa- acting primarily on the emotions they are feeling may tions and contexts. seem as if they are not thinking, but mental processes are still essential, particularly in the interpretation of events. Research on emotion has increased significantly over the For example, the realization of our believing that we are past two decades with many fields contributing includ- in a dangerous situation and the subsequent arousal of ing psychology, neuroscience, endocrinology, medicine, our body's nervous system (rapid heartbeat and breathing, history, sociology, and computer science. The numerous sweating, muscle tension) is integral to the experience of theories that attempt to explain the origin, neurobiology, our feeling afraid. Other theories, however, claim that experience, and function of emotions have only fostered emotion is separate from and can precede cognition. more intense research on this topic. Current areas of research in the concept of emotion include the development Emotions are complex. According to some theories,

80 6.1. EMOTION 81

of materials that stimulate and elicit emotion. In addition for much longer durations than emotions and are PET scans and fMRI scans help study the affective pro- also usually less intense than emotions. cesses in the brain.*[7] • Affect is an encompassing term, used to describe “Emotions can be defined as a positive or negative expe- the topics of emotion, feelings, and moods together, rience that is associated with a particular pattern of phys- even though it is commonly used interchangeably iological activity.”Emotions produce different physio- with emotion. logical, behavioral and cognitive changes. The original role of emotions was to motivate adaptive behaviors that in the past would have contributed to the survival of hu- In addition, relationships exist between emotions, such as mans. Emotions are responses to significant internal and having positive or negative influences, with direct oppo- external events.*[8] sites existing. These concepts are described in contrasting and categorization of emotions. Graham differentiates emotions as functional or dysfunctional and argues all 6.1.1 Etymology, definitions, and differ- functional emotions have benefits.*[19] entiation

The word “emotion”dates back to 1579, when it was 6.1.2 Components adapted from the French word émouvoir, which means “to stir up”. The term emotion was introduced into In Scherer's components processing model of emo- * academic discussion to replace passion.*[9] According to tion, [20] five crucial elements of emotion are said to ex- one dictionary, the earliest precursors of the word likely ist. From the component processing perspective, emotion dates back to the very origins of language.*[10] The mod- experience is said to require that all of these processes ern word emotion is heterogeneous*[11] In some uses of become coordinated and synchronized for a short period the word, emotions are intense feelings that are directed at of time, driven by appraisal processes. Although the in- someone or something.*[12] On the other hand, emotion clusion of cognitive appraisal as one of the elements is can be used to refer to states that are mild (as in annoyed slightly controversial, since some theorists make the as- or content) and to states that are not directed at anything sumption that emotion and cognition are separate but in- (as in anxiety and depression). One line of research thus teracting systems, the component processing model pro- looks at the meaning of the word emotion in everyday lan- vides a sequence of events that effectively describes the guage*[11] and this usage is rather different from that in coordination involved during an emotional episode. academic discourse. Another line of research asks about languages other than English, and one interesting finding • Cognitive appraisal: provides an evaluation of is that many languages have a similar but not identical events and objects. term*[13]*[14] • Bodily symptoms: the physiological component of Emotions have been described by some theorists as emotional experience. discrete and consistent responses to internal or external events which have a particular significance for the • Action tendencies: a motivational component for organism. Emotions are brief in duration and con- the preparation and direction of motor responses. sist of a coordinated set of responses, which may include verbal, physiological, behavioral, and neural mech- • Expression: facial and vocal expression almost al- anisms.*[15] Psychotherapist Michael C. Graham de- ways accompanies an emotional state to communi- scribes all emotions as existing on a continuum of inten- cate reaction and intention of actions. sity.*[16] Thus fear might range from mild concern to ter- • Feelings: the subjective experience of emotional ror or shame might range from simple embarrassment to state once it has occurred. toxic shame.*[17] Emotions have also been described as biologically given and a result of evolution because they provided good solutions to ancient and recurring prob- 6.1.3 Classification lems that faced our ancestors.*[18] Moods are feelings that tend to be less intense than emotions and that often Main article: Emotion classification lack a contextual stimulus.*[12] Emotion can be differentiated from a number of similar * A distinction can be made between emotional episodes constructs within the field of affective neuroscience: [15] and emotional dispositions. Emotional dispositions are also comparable to character traits, where someone may • Feelings are best understood as a subjective repre- be said to be generally disposed to experience certain sentation of emotions, private to the individual ex- emotions. For example, an irritable person is generally periencing them. disposed to feel irritation more easily or quickly than oth- • Moods are diffuse affective states that generally last ers do. Finally, some theorists place emotions within a 82 CHAPTER 6. DAY 6 more general category of “affective states”where af- emotions. The complex emotions could arise from cul- fective states can also include emotion-related phenom- tural conditioning or association combined with the basic ena such as pleasure and pain, motivational states (for emotions. Alternatively, similar to the way primary col- example, hunger or curiosity), moods, dispositions and ors combine, primary emotions could blend to form the traits.*[21] full spectrum of human emotional experience. For exam- The classification of emotions has mainly been re- ple, interpersonal anger and disgust could blend to form contempt. Relationships exist between basic emotions, searched from two fundamental viewpoints. The first * viewpoint is that emotions are discrete and fundamen- resulting in positive or negative influences. [23] tally different constructs while the second viewpoint asserts that emotions can be characterized on a dimensional Multi-dimensional analysis basis in groupings.

Basic emotions

Two Dimensions of Emotion

Through the use of multidimensional scaling, psychologists can map out similar emotional experiences, which allows a visual depiction of the “emotional distance” between experiences.*[24] A further step can be taken by looking at the map's dimensions of the emotional experiences. The emotional experiences are divided into two dimensions known as valence (how negative or positive the experience feels) and arousal (how energized or enervated the experience feels). These two dimensions Examples of basic emotions can be depicted on a 2D coordinate map.*[25] This two- dimensional map was theorized to capture one important For more than 40 years, Paul Ekman has supported the component of emotion called core affect.*[26]*[27] Core view that emotions are discrete, measurable, and phys- affect is not the only component to emotion, but gives the iologically distinct. Ekman's most influential work re- emotion its hedonic and felt energy. volved around the finding that certain emotions appeared to be universally recognized, even in cultures that were The idea that core affect is but one component of the “ preliterate and could not have learned associations for fa- emotion led to a theory called psychological con- ”* cial expressions through media. Another classic study struction. [13] According to this theory, an emotional found that when participants contorted their facial mus- episode consists of a set of components, each of which cles into distinct facial expressions (for example, disgust), is an ongoing process and none of which is necessary or they reported subjective and physiological experiences sufficient for the emotion to be instantiated. The set of that matched the distinct facial expressions. His research components is not fixed, either by human evolutionary findings led him to classify six emotions as basic: anger, history or by social norms and roles. Instead, the emo- disgust, fear, happiness, sadness and surprise.*[22] tional episode is assembled at the moment of its occur- rence to suit its specific circumstances. One implication Robert Plutchik agreed with Ekman's biologically driven is that all cases of, for example, fear are not identical but perspective but developed the "wheel of emotions", sug- instead bear a family resemblance to one another. gesting eight primary emotions grouped on a positive or negative basis: joy versus sadness; anger versus fear; * trust versus disgust; and surprise versus anticipation. [22] 6.1.4 Theories Some basic emotions can be modified to form complex 6.1. EMOTION 83

Ancient Greece and Middle Ages Perspectives on emotions from evolutionary theory were initiated during the mid-late 19th century with Charles Theories about emotions stretch back to at least as far Darwin's 1872 book The Expression of the Emotions in as the stoics of Ancient Greece and Ancient China. In Man and Animals.*[33] Darwin argued that emotions China, excessive emotion was believed to cause damage actually served a purpose for humans, in communica- to qi, which in turn, damages the vital organs.*[28] The tion and also in aiding their survival. Darwin, therefore, four humours theory made popular by Hippocrates con- argued that emotions evolved via natural selection and tributed to the study of emotion in the same way that it therefore have universal cross-cultural counterparts. Dar- did for medicine. win also detailed the virtues of experiencing emotions and the parallel experiences that occur in animals. This Western philosophy regarded emotion in varying ways. led the way for animal research on emotions and the even- In stoic theories it was seen as a hindrance to reason and tual determination of the neural underpinnings of emo- therefore a hindrance to virtue. Aristotle believed that tion. emotions were an essential component of virtue.*[29] In the Aristotelian view all emotions (called passions) cor- responded to appetites or capacities. During the Middle Contemporary Ages, the Aristotelian view was adopted and further developed by scholasticism and Thomas Aquinas*[30] in More contemporary views along the evolutionary psy- particular. There are also theories of emotions in the chology spectrum posit that both basic emotions and so- works of philosophers such as René Descartes, Niccolò cial emotions evolved to motivate (social) behaviors that Machiavelli, Baruch Spinoza,*[31] Thomas Hobbes*[32] were adaptive in the ancestral environment.*[4] Current and David Hume. In the 19th century emotions were con- research suggests that emotion is an essential part of any sidered adaptive and were studied more frequently from human decision-making and planning, and the famous an empiricist psychiatric perspective. distinction made between reason and emotion is not as clear as it seems. Paul D. MacLean claims that emotion competes with even more instinctive responses, on Evolutionary theories one hand, and the more abstract reasoning, on the other hand. The increased potential in neuroimaging has also Main articles: Evolution of emotion and Evolutionary allowed investigation into evolutionarily ancient parts of psychology the brain. Important neurological advances were derived from these perspectives in the 1990s by Joseph E. LeDoux and António Damásio. Research on social emotion also focuses on the physical displays of emotion including body language of animals and humans (see aﬀect display). For example, spite seems to work against the individual but it can establish an individual's reputation as someone to be feared.*[4] Shame and pride can motivate behaviors that help one maintain one's standing in a community, and self-esteem is one's estimate of one's status.*[4]*[34]

Somatic theories

Somatic theories of emotion claim that bodily responses, rather than cognitive interpretations, are essential to emotions. The ﬁrst modern version of such theories came from William James in the 1880s. The theory lost favor in the 20th century, but has regained popularity more recently due largely to theorists such as John Cacioppo,*[35] António Damásio,*[36] Joseph E. LeDoux*[37] and Robert Zajonc*[38] who are able to appeal to neurological evidence. Illustration from Charles Darwin's The Expression of the Emo- tions in Man and Animals. James–Lange theory Main article: James–Lange theory 19th century 84 CHAPTER 6. DAY 6

In his 1884 article*[39] William James argued that feel- tense subjective awareness of emotion.*[44] He also beings and emotions were secondary to physiological phe- lieved that the richness, variety, and temporal course of nomena. In his theory, James proposed that the percep- emotional experiences could not stem from physiologi- tion of what he called an “exciting fact”directly led cal reactions, that reflected fairly undifferentiated fight or to a physiological response, known as “emotion.”*[40] flight responses.*[45]*[46] An example of this theory in To account for different types of emotional experiences, action is as follows: An emotion-evoking event (snake) James proposed that stimuli trigger activity in the auto- triggers simultaneously both a physiological response and nomic nervous system, which in turn produces an emo- a conscious experience of an emotion. tional experience in the brain. The Danish psychologist Phillip Bard contributed to the theory with his work on Carl Lange also proposed a similar theory at around the animals. Bard found that sensory, motor, and physiolog- same time, and therefore this theory became known as the ical information all had to pass through the diencephalon “ James–Lange theory. As James wrote, the perception (particularly the thalamus), before being subjected to any of bodily changes, as they occur, is the emotion.”James further processing. Therefore, Cannon also argued that it “ further claims that we feel sad because we cry, angry was not anatomically possible for sensory events to trig- because we strike, afraid because we tremble, and either ger a physiological response prior to triggering conscious we cry, strike, or tremble because we are sorry, angry, or awareness and emotional stimuli had to trigger both phys- ”* fearful, as the case may be. [39] iological and experiential aspects of emotion simultane- An example of this theory in action would be as fol- ously.*[45] lows: An emotion-evoking stimulus (snake) triggers a pattern of physiological response (increased heart rate, faster breathing, etc.), which is interpreted as a particular emotion (fear). This theory is supported by experiments in which by manipulating the bodily state induces a desired emotional state.*[41] Some people may believe that emotions give rise to emotion-specific actions, for exam- Two-factor theory Main article: Two-factor theory ple,“I'm crying because I'm sad,”or“I ran away because of emotion I was scared.”The issue with the James–Lange theory is that of causation (bodily states causing emotions and Stanley Schachter formulated his theory on the earlier being a priori), not that of the bodily influences on emo- work of a Spanish physician, Gregorio Marañón, who in- tional experience (which can be argued and is still quite jected patients with epinephrine and subsequently asked prevalent today in biofeedback studies and embodiment them how they felt. Interestingly, Marañón found that theory).*[42] most of these patients felt something but in the absence Although mostly abandoned in its original form, Tim of an actual emotion-evoking stimulus, the patients were Dalgleish argues that most contemporary neuroscientists unable to interpret their physiological arousal as an ex- have embraced the components of the James-Lange the- perienced emotion. Schachter did agree that physiologi- ory of emotions.*[43] cal reactions played a big role in emotions. He suggested that physiological reactions contributed to emotional experience by facilitating a focused cognitive appraisal of The James–Lange theory has remained in- a given physiologically arousing event and that this ap- fluential. Its main contribution is the emphasis praisal was what defined the subjective emotional expe- it places on the embodiment of emotions, es- rience. Emotions were thus a result of two-stage process: pecially the argument that changes in the bod- general physiological arousal, and experience of emotion. ily concomitants of emotions can alter their ex- For example, the physiological arousal, heart pounding, perienced intensity. Most contemporary neu- in a response to an evoking stimulus, the sight of a bear in roscientists would endorse a modified James– the kitchen. The brain then quickly scans the area, to ex- Lange view in which bodily feedback modu- plain the pounding, and notices the bear. Consequently, lates the experience of emotion.”(p. 583) the brain interprets the pounding heart as being the result of fearing the bear.*[47] With his student, Jerome Singer, Schachter demonstrated that subjects can have different Cannon–Bard theory Main article: Cannon–Bard emotional reactions despite being placed into the same theory physiological state with an injection of epinephrine. Sub- jects were observed to express either anger or amusement Walter Bradford Cannon agreed that physiological re- depending on whether another person in the situation (a sponses played a crucial role in emotions, but did not confederate) displayed that emotion. Hence, the combi- believe that physiological responses alone could explain nation of the appraisal of the situation (cognitive) and the subjective emotional experiences. He argued that physi- participants' reception of adrenaline or a placebo together ological responses were too slow and often imperceptible determined the response. This experiment has been crit- and this could not account for the relatively rapid and in- icized in Jesse Prinz's (2004) Gut Reactions. 6.1. EMOTION 85

Cognitive theories It has also been suggested that emotions (affect heuristics, feelings and gut-feeling reactions) are often used as short- With the two-factor theory now incorporating cognition, cuts to process information and influence behavior.*[48] several theories began to argue that cognitive activity in The affect infusion model (AIM) is a theoretical model the form of judgments, evaluations, or thoughts were en- developed by Joseph Forgas in the early 1990s that at- tirely necessary for an emotion to occur. One of the main tempts to explain how emotion and mood interact with proponents of this view was Richard Lazarus who argued one's ability to process information. that emotions must have some cognitive intentionality. The cognitive activity involved in the interpretation of an Perceptual theory emotional context may be conscious or unconscious and may or may not take the form of conceptual processing. Theories dealing with perception either use one or mul- Lazarus' theory is very influential; emotion is a distur- tiples perceptions in order to find an emotion (Goldie, bance that occurs in the following order: 2007).A recent hybrid of the somatic and cognitive theories of emotion is the perceptual theory. This theory is 1. Cognitive appraisal —The individual assesses the neo-Jamesian in arguing that bodily responses are cen- event cognitively, which cues the emotion. tral to emotions, yet it emphasizes the meaningfulness of emotions or the idea that emotions are about something, 2. Physiological changes —The cognitive reaction as is recognized by cognitive theories. The novel claim starts biological changes such as increased heart rate of this theory is that conceptually-based cognition is un- or pituitary adrenal response. necessary for such meaning. Rather the bodily changes 3. Action —The individual feels the emotion and themselves perceive the meaningful content of the emo- chooses how to react. tion because of being causally triggered by certain situations. In this respect, emotions are held to be analogous to faculties such as vision or touch, which provide informa- For example: Jenny sees a snake. tion about the relation between the subject and the world in various ways. A sophisticated defense of this view is 1. Jenny cognitively assesses the snake in her presence. found in philosopher Jesse Prinz's book Gut Reactions, Cognition allows her to understand it as a danger. and psychologist James Laird's book Feelings. 2. Her brain activates adrenaline gland which pumps adrenaline through her blood stream resulting in in- Affective events theory creased heartbeat. This is a communication-based theory developed by 3. Jenny screams and runs away. Howard M. Weiss and Russell Cropanzano (1996), that looks at the causes, structures, and consequences of emo- Lazarus stressed that the quality and intensity of emotional experience (especially in work contexts). This the- tions are controlled through cognitive processes. These ory suggests that emotions are influenced and caused by processes underline coping strategies that form the emo- events which in turn influence attitudes and behaviors. tional reaction by altering the relationship between the This theoretical frame also emphasizes time in that hu- person and the environment. man beings experience what they call emotion episodes George Mandler provided an extensive theoretical and —a “series of emotional states extended over time and empirical discussion of emotion as influenced by cogni- organized around an underlying theme.”This theory has tion, consciousness, and the autonomic nervous system been utilized by numerous researchers to better under- in two books (Mind and Emotion, 1975, and Mind and stand emotion from a communicative lens, and was re- Body: Psychology of Emotion and Stress, 1984) viewed further by Howard M. Weiss and Daniel J. Beal in their article, “Reflections on Affective Events The- There are some theories on emotions arguing that cog- ory”, published in Research on Emotion in Organizations nitive activity in the form of judgments, evaluations, or in 2005. thoughts are necessary in order for an emotion to occur. A prominent philosophical exponent is Robert C. Solomon (for example, The Passions, Emotions and the Situated perspective on emotion Meaning of Life, 1993). Solomon claims that emotions are judgments. He has put forward a more nuanced view A situated perspective on emotion, developed by Paul E. which response to what he has called the‘standard objec- Griffiths and Andrea Scarantino , emphasizes the impor- tion’to cognitivism, the idea that a judgment that some- tance of external factors in the development and commu- thing is fearsome can occur with or without emotion, so nication of emotion, drawing upon the situationism ap- judgment cannot be identified with emotion. The theory proach in psychology.*[49] This theory is markedly dif- proposed by Nico Frijda where appraisal leads to action ferent from both cognitivist and neo-Jamesian theories of tendencies is another example. emotion, both of which see emotion as a purely internal 86 CHAPTER 6. DAY 6 process, with the environment only acting as a stimulus 6.1.6 Neurocircuitry to the emotion. In contrast, a situationist perspective on emotion views emotion as the product of an organism in- Based on discoveries made through neural mapping of vestigating its environment, and observing the responses the limbic system, the neurobiological explanation of of other organisms. Emotion stimulates the evolution of human emotion is that emotion is a pleasant or un- social relationships, acting as a signal to mediate the be- pleasant mental state organized in the limbic system of havior of other organisms. In some contexts, the expres- the mammalian brain. If distinguished from reactive sion of emotion (both voluntary and involuntary) could be responses of reptiles, emotions would then be mam- seen as strategic moves in the transactions between differ- malian elaborations of general vertebrate arousal patent organisms. The situated perspective on emotion states terns, in which neurochemicals (for example, dopamine, that conceptual thought is not an inherent part of emo- noradrenaline, and serotonin) step-up or step-down the tion, since emotion is an action-oriented form of skillful brain's activity level, as visible in body movements, ges- engagement with the world. Griffiths and Scarantino sug- tures and postures. Emotions can likely be mediated by gested that this perspective on emotion could be helpful in pheromones (see fear).*[50] understanding phobias, as well as the emotions of infants For example, the emotion of love is proposed to be the ex- and animals. pression of paleocircuits of the mammalian brain (specifically, modules of the cingulate gyrus) which facilitate the care, feeding, and grooming of offspring. Paleocircuits are neural platforms for bodily expression configured be- 6.1.5 Genetics fore the advent of cortical circuits for speech. They consist of pre-configured pathways or networks of nerve cells Emotions can motivate social interactions and relation- in the forebrain, brain stem and spinal cord. ships and therefore are directly related with basic physi- The motor centers of reptiles react to sensory cues ology, particularly with the stress systems. This is impor- of vision, sound, touch, chemical, gravity, and motion tant because emotions are related to the anti-stress com- with pre-set body movements and programmed postures. plex, with an oxytocin-attachment system, which plays a With the arrival of night-active mammals, smell replaced major role in bonding. Emotional phenotype tempera- vision as the dominant sense, and a different way of re- ments affect social connectedness and fitness in complex sponding arose from the olfactory sense, which is prosocial systems (Kurt Kortschal 2013). These character- posed to have developed into mammalian emotion and istics are shared with other species and taxa and are due emotional memory. The mammalian brain invested heav- to the effects of genes and their continuous transmission. ily in olfaction to succeed at night as reptiles slept—one Information that is encoded in the DNA sequences pro- explanation for why olfactory lobes in mammalian brains vides the blueprint for assembling proteins that make up are proportionally larger than in the reptiles. These odor our cells. Zygotes require genetic information from their pathways gradually formed the neural blueprint for what parental germ cells, and at every speciation event, heri- was later to become our limbic brain.*[50] table traits that have enabled its ancestor to survive and reproduce successfully are passed down along with new Anger Rage Interest traits that could be potentially beneficial to the offspring. Excitement In the five million years since the linages leading to modern humans and chimpanzees split, only about 1.2% of Distress Anguish their genetic material has been modified. This suggests Surprise that everything that separates us from chimpanzees must be encoded in that very small amount of DNA, including Fear our behaviors. Students that study animal behaviors have Noradrenaline Terror Enjoyment Joy only identified intraspecific examples of gene-dependent behavioral phenotypes. In voles (Microtus spp.) minor Dopamine genetic differences have been identified in a vasopressin Shame Humiliation Contempt receptor gene that corresponds to major species differ- Serotonin Disgust ences in social organization and the mating system (Ham- mock & Young 2005). Another potential example with Lövheim cube of emotion behavioral differences is the FOCP2 gene, which is involved in neural circuitry handling speech and language Emotions are thought to be related to certain activities (Vargha-Khadem et al. 2005). Its present form in hu- in brain areas that direct our attention, motivate our be- mans differed from that of the chimpanzees by only a few havior, and determine the significance of what is go- mutations and has been present for about 200,000 years, ing on around us. Pioneering work by Broca (1878), coinciding with the beginning of modern humans (Enard Papez (1937), and MacLean (1952) suggested that emo- et al. 2002). Speech, language, and social organization tion is related to a group of structures in the center of are all part of the basis for emotions. the brain called the limbic system, which includes the 6.1. EMOTION 87

hypothalamus, cingulate cortex, hippocampi, and other Derek Denton defines the latter as “the subjective el- structures. More recent research has shown that some of ement of the instincts, which are the genetically pro- these limbic structures are not as directly related to emo- grammed behavior patterns which contrive homeostasis. tion as others are while some non-limbic structures have They include thirst, hunger for air, hunger for food, pain been found to be of greater emotional relevance. and hunger for specific minerals etc. There are two con- In 2011, Lövheim proposed a direct relation between spe- stituents of a primordial emotion--the specific sensation cific combinations of the levels of the signal substances which when severe may be imperious, and the compelling ”* dopamine, noradrenaline and serotonin and eight basic intention for gratification by a consummatory act. [61] emotions. A model was presented where the signal sub- EMG studies show The left prefrontal hemisphere is stances form the axes of a coordinate system, and the thought to be responsible for Positive emotions (happi- eight basic emotions according to Silvan Tomkins are ness and joy) while the right prefrontal is thought to be placed in the eight corners. Anger is, according to the tied to Negative states (disgust, stress).*[62] model, for example produced by the combination of low serotonin, high dopamine and high noradrenaline.*[51] 6.1.7 Disciplinary approaches

Prefrontal cortex Many different disciplines have produced work on the emotions. Human sciences study the role of emotions There is ample evidence that the left prefrontal cortex is in mental processes, disorders, and neural mechanisms. activated by stimuli that cause positive approach.*[52] If In psychiatry, emotions are examined as part of the attractive stimuli can selectively activate a region of the discipline's study and treatment of mental disorders in brain, then logically the converse should hold, that selec- humans. Nursing studies emotions as part of its ap- tive activation of that region of the brain should cause a proach to the provision of holistic health care to humans. stimulus to be judged more positively. This was demon- Psychology examines emotions from a scientific perspec- strated for moderately attractive visual stimuli*[53] and tive by treating them as mental processes and behavior replicated and extended to include negative stimuli.*[54] and they explore the underlying physiological and neurological processes. In neuroscience sub-fields such as Two neurobiological models of emotion in the prefrontal social neuroscience and affective neuroscience, scientists cortex made opposing predictions. The Valence Model study the neural mechanisms of emotion by combining predicted that anger, a negative emotion, would activate neuroscience with the psychological study of personality, the right prefrontal cortex. The Direction Model pre- emotion, and mood. In linguistics, the expression of emo- dicted that anger, an approach emotion, would activate tion may change to the meaning of sounds. In education, the left prefrontal cortex. The second model was sup- the role of emotions in relation to learning is examined. ported.*[55] Social sciences often examine emotion for the role that This still left open the question of whether the opposite it plays in human culture and social interactions. In of approach in the prefrontal cortex is better described as sociology, emotions are examined for the role they play moving away (Direction Model), as unmoving but with in human society, social patterns and interactions, and strength and resistance (Movement Model), or as unmov- culture. In anthropology, the study of humanity, schol- ing with passive yielding (Action Tendency Model). Sup- ars use ethnography to undertake contextual analyses and port for the Action Tendency Model (passivity related cross-cultural comparisons of a range of human activities. to right prefrontal activity) comes from research on shy- Some anthropology studies examine the role of emotions * * ness [56] and research on behavioral inhibition. [57] Re- in human activities. In the field of communication sci- search that tested the competing hypotheses generated ences, critical organizational scholars have examined the by all four models also supported the Action Tendency role of emotions in organizations, from the perspectives * * Model. [58] [59] of managers, employees, and even customers. A focus on emotions in organizations can be credited to Arlie Russell Hochschild's concept of emotional labor. The University * Homeostatic/primordial emotion of Queensland hosts EmoNet, [63] an e-mail distribution list representing a network of academics that facilitates Another neurological approach distinguishes two classes scholarly discussion of all matters relating to the study of emotion: “classical”emotions such as love, anger of emotion in organizational settings. The list was estab- and fear that are evoked by environmental stimuli, lished in January 1997 and has over 700 members from and“primordial”or "homeostatic emotions" – attention- across the globe. demanding feelings evoked by body states, such as pain, In economics, the social science that studies the produc- hunger and fatigue, that motivate behavior (withdrawal, tion, distribution, and consumption of goods and ser- eating or resting in these examples) aimed at maintaining vices, emotions are analyzed in some sub-fields of mi- the body's internal milieu at its ideal state.*[60] croeconomics, in order to assess the role of emotions 88 CHAPTER 6. DAY 6

on purchase decision-making and risk perception. In some traumatic emotions can be passed on from parents criminology, a social science approach to the study of to offspring to second and even third generation, pre- crime, scholars often draw on behavioral sciences, sociol- sented as examples of transgenerational trauma. ogy, and psychology; emotions are examined in criminology issues such as anomie theory and studies of “tough- ness,”aggressive behavior, and hooliganism. In law, Sociology which underpins civil obedience, politics, economics and society, evidence about people's emotions is often raised Main article: Sociology of emotions in tort law claims for compensation and in criminal law prosecutions against alleged lawbreakers (as evidence of A common way in which emotions are conceptualized in the defendant's state of mind during trials, sentencing, sociology is in terms of the multidimensional character- and parole hearings). In political science, emotions are istics including cultural or emotional labels (for example, examined in a number of sub-fields, such as the analysis anger, pride, fear, happiness), physiological changes (for of voter decision-making. example, increased perspiration, changes in pulse rate), In philosophy, emotions are studied in sub-fields expressive facial and body movements (for example, smil- such as ethics, the philosophy of art (for example, ing, frowning, baring teeth), and appraisals of situational * sensory–emotional values, and matters of taste and cues. [6] One comprehensive theory of emotional arousal sentimentality), and the philosophy of music (see also in humans has been developed by Jonathan Turner (2007: * * Music and emotion). In history, scholars examine doc- 2009). [66] [67] Two of the key eliciting factors for uments and other sources to interpret and analyze past the arousal of emotions within this theory are expecta- activities; speculation on the emotional state of the au- tions states and sanctions. When people enter a situa- thors of historical documents is one of the tools of inter- tion or encounter with certain expectations for how the pretation. In literature and film-making, the expression of encounter should unfold, they will experience different emotion is the cornerstone of genres such as drama, melo- emotions depending on the extent to which expectations drama, and romance. In communication studies, schol- for Self, other and situation are met or not met. People ars study the role that emotion plays in the dissemination can also provide positive or negative sanctions directed of ideas and messages. Emotion is also studied in non- at Self or other which also trigger different emotional ex- human animals in ethology, a branch of zoology which periences in individuals. Turner analyzed a wide range focuses on the scientific study of animal behavior. Ethol- of emotion theories across different fields of research ogy is a combination of laboratory and field science, with including sociology, psychology, evolutionary science, strong ties to ecology and evolution. Ethologists often and neuroscience. Based on this analysis, he identified study one type of behavior (for example, aggression) in a four emotions that all researchers consider being founded number of unrelated animals. on human neurology including assertive-anger, aversion- fear, satisfaction-happiness, and disappointment-sadness. These four categories are called primary emotions and History there is some agreement amongst researchers that these primary emotions become combined to produce more The history of emotions has become an increasingly pop- elaborate and complex emotional experiences. These ular topic recently, with some scholars arguing that it is more elaborate emotions are called first-order elabora- an essential category of analysis, not unlike class, race, tions in Turner's theory and they include sentiments such or gender. Historians, like other social scientists, assume as pride, triumph, and awe. Emotions can also be expe- that emotions, feelings and their expressions are regulated rienced at different levels of intensity so that feelings of in different ways by both different cultures and differ- concern are a low-intensity variation of the primary emo- ent historical times, and constructivist school of history tion aversion-fear whereas depression is a higher intensity claims even that some sentiments and meta-emotions, for variant. example Schadenfreude, are learnt and not only regulated Attempts are frequently made to regulate emotion ac- by culture. Historians of emotion trace and analyse the cording to the conventions of the society and the situa- changing norms and rules of feeling, while examining tion based on many (sometimes conflicting) demands and emotional regimes, codes, and lexicons from social, cul- expectations which originate from various entities. The tural or political history perspectives. Others focus on the emotion of anger is in many cultures discouraged in girls history of medicine, science or psychology. What some- and women, while fear is discouraged in boys and men. body can and may feel (and show) in a given situation, to- Expectations attached to social roles, such as “acting as wards certain people or things, depends on social norms man”and not as a woman, and the accompanying“feel- and rules. It is thus historically variable and open to ing rules”contribute to the differences in expression of change.*[64] Several research centers have opened in the * certain emotions. Some cultures encourage or discourage past few years in Germany, England, Spain, [65] Sweden happiness, sadness, or jealousy, and the free expression and Australia. of the emotion of disgust is considered socially unaccept- Furthermore, research in historical trauma suggests that able in most cultures. Some social institutions are seen as 6.1. EMOTION 89 based on certain emotion, such as love in the case of con- Apart from interaction ritual traditions of the sociology temporary institution of marriage. In advertising, such as of emotion, other approaches have been classed into one health campaigns and political messages, emotional ap- of 6 other categories (Turner, 2009) including: peals are commonly found. Recent examples include no- smoking health campaigns and political campaigns em- 1. evolutionary/biological theories, phasizing the fear of terrorism. 2. symbolic interactionist theories, Sociological attention to emotion has varied over time. * Emilé Durkheim (1915/1965) [68] wrote about the col- 3. dramaturgical theories, lective effervescence or emotional energy that was experienced by members of totemic rituals in Australian 4. ritual theories, aborigine society. He explained how the heightened state of emotional energy achieved during totemic rituals 5. power and status theories, transported individuals above themselves giving them the 6. stratification theories, and sense that they were in the presence of a higher power, a force, that was embedded in the sacred objects that were 7. exchange theories. worshipped. These feelings of exaltation, he argued, ultimately lead people to believe that there were forces that This list provides a general overview of different tradi- governed sacred objects. tions in the sociology of emotion that sometimes con- In the 1990s, sociologists focused on different aspects of ceptualise emotion in different ways and at other times specific emotions and how these emotions were socially in complementary ways. Many of these different ap- relevant. For Cooley (1992),*[69] pride and shame were proaches were synthesized by Turner (2007) in his soci- the most important emotions that drive people to take var- ological theory of human emotions in an attempt to pro- ious social actions. During every encounter, he proposed duce one comprehensive sociological account that draws that we monitor ourselves through the “looking glass” on developments from many of the above traditions. that the gestures and reactions of others provide. De- *[79] *[80] *[81] pending on these reactions, we either experience pride or shame and this results in particular paths of action. Retzinger (1991)*[70] conducted studies of married cou- Psychotherapy and regulation ples who experienced cycles of rage and shame. Draw- ing predominantly on Goffman and Cooley's work, Scheff Emotion regulation refers to the cognitive and behav- (1990)*[71] developed a micro sociological theory of the ioral strategies people use to influence their own emo- social bond. The formation or disruption of social bonds tional experience.*[82] For example, a behavioral strat- is dependent on the emotions that people experience dur- egy in which one avoids a situation to avoid unwanted ing interactions. emotions (trying not to think about the situation, doing * Subsequent to these developments, Randall Collins distracting activities, etc.). [83] Depending on the partic- (2004)*[72] formulated his interaction ritual theory by ular school's general emphasis on either cognitive com- drawing on Durkheim's work on totemic rituals that was ponents of emotion, physical energy discharging, or on * * symbolic movement and facial expression components extended by Goffman (1964/2013; 1967) [73] [74] into * everyday focused encounters. Based on interaction rit- of emotion, [84] different schools of psychotherapy ap- ual theory, we experience different levels or intensities of proach the regulation of emotion differently. Cognitively emotional energy during face-to-face interactions. Emo- oriented schools approach them via their cognitive com- tional energy is considered to be a feeling of confidence to ponents, such as rational emotive behavior therapy. Yet take action and a boldness that one experiences when they others approach emotions via symbolic movement and facial expression components (like in contemporary Gestalt are charged up from the collective effervescence gener- * ated during group gatherings that reach high levels of in- therapy). [85] tensity. There is a growing body of research applying the sociol- Cross-cultural research ogy of emotion to understanding the learning experiences of students during classroom interactions with teach- Research on emotions reveals the strong presence of ers and other students (for example, Milne & Otieno, cross-cultural differences in emotional reactions and that 2007;*[75] Olitsky, 2007;*[76] Tobin, et al., 2013;*[77] emotional reactions are likely to be culture-specific.*[86] Zembylas, 2002*[78]). These studies show that learning In strategic settings, cross-cultural research on emotions subjects like science can be understood in terms of class- is required for understanding the psychological situation room interaction rituals that generate emotional energy of a given population or specific actors. This implies the and collective states of emotional arousal like emotional need to comprehend the current emotional state, mental climate. disposition or other behavioral motivation of a target audience located in a different culture, basically founded on 90 CHAPTER 6. DAY 6

its national political, social, economic, and psychological peculiarities but also subject to the inﬂuence of circumstances and events. *[87]

Computer science

Main article: Aﬀective computing

In the 2000s, research in computer science, engineering, psychology and neuroscience has been aimed at developing devices that recognize human affect display and model emotions.*[88] In computer science, affective computing is a branch of the study and development of artificial intelligence that deals with the design of systems and devices that can recognize, interpret, and process human emotions. It is an interdisciplinary field spanning computer sciences, psychology, and cognitive science.*[89] While the origins of the field may be traced as far back as to early philosophical enquiries into emotion,*[39] the more modern branch of computer science originated with Rosalind Picard's 1995 paper*[90] on affective computing.*[91]*[92] Detecting emotional information begins with passive sensors which capture data about the user's physical state or behavior without interpreting the input. The data gathered is analogous to the cues humans use to perceive emotions in others. Another William James area within affective computing is the design of computational devices proposed to exhibit either innate emotional capabilities or that are capable of convincingly simulat- life.*[94] ing emotions. Emotional speech processing recognizes the user's emotional state by analyzing speech patterns. Some of the most influential theorists on emotion from The detection and processing of facial expression or body the 20th century have died in the last decade. They in- gestures is achieved through detectors and sensors. clude Magda B. Arnold (1903–2002), an American psychologist who developed the appraisal theory of emotions;*[95] Richard Lazarus (1922–2002), an American 6.1.8 Notable theorists psychologist who specialized in emotion and stress, especially in relation to cognition; Herbert A. Simon (1916– In the late 19th century, the most influential theo- 2001), who included emotions into decision making and rists were William James (1842–1910) and Carl Lange artificial intelligence; Robert Plutchik (1928–2006), an (1834–1900). James was an American psychologist and American psychologist who developed a psychoevolu- philosopher who wrote about educational psychology, tionary theory of emotion;*[96] Robert Zajonc (1923– psychology of religious experience/mysticism, and the 2008) a Polish–American social psychologist who spe- philosophy of pragmatism. Lange was a Danish physician cialized in social and cognitive processes such as social and psychologist. Working independently, they devel- facilitation; Robert C. Solomon (1942–2007), an Amer- oped the James–Lange theory, a hypothesis on the origin ican philosopher who contributed to the theories on the and nature of emotions. The theory states that within hu- philosophy of emotions with books such as What Is An man beings, as a response to experiences in the world, the Emotion?: Classic and Contemporary Readings (Oxford, autonomic nervous system creates physiological events 2003); Peter Goldie (1946–2011), a British philosopher such as muscular tension, a rise in heart rate, perspira- who specialized in ethics, aesthetics, emotion, mood and tion, and dryness of the mouth. Emotions, then, are feel- character; Nico Frijda (1927–2015), a Dutch psycholo- ings which come about as a result of these physiological gist who advanced the theory that human emotions serve changes, rather than being their cause.*[93] to promote a tendency to undertake actions that are ap- Silvan Tomkins (1911–1991) developed the Affect the- propriate in the circumstances, detailed in his book The ory and Script theory. The Affect theory introduced Emotions (1986). the concept of basic emotions, and was based on the Influential theorists who are still active include the follow- idea that the dominance of the emotion, which he called ing psychologists, neurologists, philosophers, and sociol- the affected system, was the motivating force in human ogists: 6.1. EMOTION 91

• Lisa Feldman Barrett – Social philosopher and psy- • Klaus Scherer (born 1943) – Swiss psychologist and chologist specializing in affective science and human director of the Swiss Center for Affective Sciences emotion. in Geneva; he specializes in the psychology of emotion. • John Cacioppo – from the University of Chicago, founding father with Gary Berntson of social neuro- • Ronald de Sousa (born 1940) – English–Canadian science. philosopher who specializes in the philosophy of emotions, philosophy of mind and philosophy of bi- • Randall Collins - (born 1941) American sociologist ology. from the University of Pennsylvania developed the • interaction ritual theory which includes emotional Jonathan H. Turner (born 1942) - American soci- entrainment model. ologist from the University of California, Riverside who is a general sociological theorist with specialty • António Damásio (born 1944) – Portuguese behav- areas including the sociology of emotions, ethnic re- ioral neurologist and neuroscientist who works in the lations, social institutions, social stratification, and US. bio-sociology. • • Richard Davidson (born 1951) – American psychol- Dominique Moïsi (born 1946) - Authored a book ogist and neuroscientist; pioneer in affective neuro- titled The Geopolitics of Emotion focusing on emo- science. tions related to globalization.

• Paul Ekman (born 1934) – Psychologist specializing in the study of emotions and their relation to facial 6.1.9 See also expressions. • Affect measures • Barbara Fredrickson – Social psychologist who spe- • Affective Computing cializes in emotions and positive psychology. • Affective forecasting • Arlie Russell Hochschild (born 1940) – American sociologist whose central contribution was in forging • Affective neuroscience a link between the subcutaneous flow of emotion in • Affective science social life and the larger trends set loose by modern capitalism within organizations. • Contrasting and categorization of emotions

• Joseph E. LeDoux (born 1949) – American neuro- • CyberEmotions scientist who studies the biological underpinnings of • memory and emotion, especially the mechanisms of Emoticons fear. • Emotion classification • George Mandler (born 1924) - American psychol- • Emotion in animals ogist who wrote influential books on cognition and emotion. • Emotions and culture • Emotion and memory • Jaak Panksepp (born 1943) – Estonian-born Amer- • ican psychologist, psychobiologist and neuroscien- Emotional expression tist; pioneer in affective neuroscience. • Emotional climate • Jesse Prinz – American philosopher who specializes • Emotions in virtual communication in emotion, moral psychology, aesthetics and consciousness. • Empathy • • James A. Russell (born 1947) – American psychol- Endocrinology ogist who developed or co-developed the PAD the- • Facial expressions ory of environmental impact, circumplex model of affect, prototype theory of emotion concepts, a cri- • Fear tique of the hypothesis of universal recognition of • emotion from facial expression, concept of core Feeling affect, developmental theory of differentiation of • Fuzzy-trace theory emotion concepts, and, more recently, the theory of the psychological construction of emotion. • Group emotion 92 CHAPTER 6. DAY 6

• International Aﬀective Picture System [13] Russell, J.A. (1991). “Culture and the Categorization of Emotion”. Psychological Bulletin. 110 (3): 426–450. • List of emotions doi:10.1037/0033-2909.110.3.426. PMID 1758918.

• Measuring Emotions [14] Wierzbicka, Anna. Emotions across languages and cul- • tures: diversity and universals. Cambridge University Neuroendocrinology Press. 1999. • Sociology of emotions [15] Fox 2008, pp. 16–17. • Social emotion [16] Graham, Michael C. (2014). Facts of Life: ten issues of • Social neuroscience contentment. Outskirts Press. p. 63. ISBN 978-1-4787- 2259-5. • Social sharing of emotions [17] Graham, Michael C. (2014). Facts of Life: Ten Issues of • Somatic markers hypothesis Contentment. Outskirts Press. ISBN 978-1-4787-2259-5.

[18] Ekman, Paul (1992). “An argument for basic emo- 6.1.10 References tions”. Cognition & Emotion. 6 (3): 169–200. doi:10.1080/02699939208411068.

Notes [19] Graham, Michael C. (2014). Facts of Life: ten issues of contentment. Outskirts Press. ISBN 978-1-4787-2259-5. [1] Cabanac, Michel (2002). “What is emotion?" Be- havioural Processes 60(2): 69-83. "[E]motion is any men- [20] Scherer, K. R. (2005). “What are emotions? And how tal experience with high intensity and high hedonic con- can they be measured?". Social Science Information. 44 tent (pleasure/displeasure).” (4): 693–727. doi:10.1177/0539018405058216.

[2] Scirst=Daniel L. (2011). Psychology Second Edition. 41 [21] Schwarz, N. H. (1990). Feelings as information: Infor- Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10010: Worth Publish- mational and motivational functions of aﬀective states. ers. p. 310. ISBN 978-1-4292-3719-2. Handbook of motivation and cognition: Foundations of social behavior, 2, 527-561. [3] “Theories of Emotion”. Psychology.about.com. 13 September 2013. Retrieved 11 November 2013. [22] Handel, Steven.“Classiﬁcation of Emotions”. Retrieved 30 April 2012. [4] Gaulin, Steven J. C. and Donald H. McBurney. Evolu- tionary Psychology. Prentice Hall. 2003. ISBN 978-0- [23] Plutchik, R (2002). “Nature of emotions”. American 13-111529-3, Chapter 6, p 121-142. Scientist. 89 (4): 349. doi:10.1511/2001.28.739.

[5] Barrett, L.F. and Russell, J.A. The psychological con- [24] Shah, R.; Lewis, M.B. (2003). “Locating the neutral ex- struction of emotion. Guilford Press. 2015. ISBN 978- pression in the facial-emotion space”. Visual Cognition. 1462516971. 10: 540–566.

[6] Thoits, P. A. (1989). “The sociology of emo- [25] Schacter, Daniel L. (2011). Psychology Ed. 2. 41 Madi- tions”. Annual Review of Sociology. 15: 317–342. son Avenue New York, NY 10010: Worth Publishers. doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.15.1.317. ISBN 1-4292-3719-8. [7] Cacioppo, J.T & Gardner, W.L (1999). Emotion. “An- [26] Russell, J. A.; Barrett, L. F. (1999). “Core aﬀect, proto- nual Review of Psychology”, 191. typical emotional episodes, and other things called emo- [8] Schacter, D. L., Gilbert, D. T., Wegner, D. M., & Hood, tion: Dissecting the elephant”. Journal of Personality and B. M. (2011). Psychology (European ed.). Basingstoke: Social Psychology. 76 (5): 805–819. doi:10.1037/0022- Palgrave Macmillan. 3514.76.5.805. PMID 10353204.

[9] Dixon, Thomas. From passions to emotions: the creation [27] Russell, J. A. (2003). “Core aﬀect and the psycholog- of a secular psychological category. Cambridge Univer- ical construction of emotion”. Psychological Review. sity Press. 2003. ISBN 978-0521026697. 110 (1): 145–172. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.110.1.145. PMID 12529060. [10] Merriam-Webster (2004). The Merriam-Webster dictionary (11th ed.). Springﬁeld, MA: Author. [28] Suchy, Yana (2011). Clinical neuropsychology of emotion. New York, NY: Guilford. [11] Fehr, B.; Russell, J.A. (1984). “Concept of Emo- tion Viewed from a Prototype Perspective”. Journal of [29] Aristotle. Nicomachean Ethics. Book 2. Chapter 6. Experimental Psychology, General. 113 (3): 464–486. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.113.3.464. [30] Aquinas, Thomas. Summa Theologica. Q.59, Art.2.

[12] Hume, D. Emotions and Moods. Organizational Behav- [31] See for instance Antonio Damasio (2005) Looking for ior, 258-297. Spinoza. 6.1. EMOTION 93

[32] Leviathan (1651), VI: Of the Interior Beginnings of Vol- [49] Griﬃths, Paul Edmund and Scarantino, Andrea (2005) untary Notions, Commonly called the Passions; and the Emotions in the wild: The situated perspective on emo- Speeches by which They are Expressed tion.

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[76] Olitsky, S. (2007). Science learning, status and identity [91] Kleine-Cosack, Christian (October 2006). “Recogni- formation in an urban middle school. In W.-M. Roth & K. tion and Simulation of Emotions”(PDF). Archived from G. Tobin (Eds.), Science, learning, identity: Sociocultural the original (PDF) on 28 May 2008. Retrieved 13 May and cultural-historical perspectives. (pp. 41-62). Rotter- 2008. The introduction of emotion to computer science dam, The Netherlands: Sense. was done by Pickard (sic) who created the field of affective computing. [77] Tobin, K.; Ritchie, S. M.; Oakley, J.; Mergard, V.; Hud- son, P. (2013).“Relationships between emotional climate [92] Diamond, David (December 2003).“The Love Machine; and the fluency of classroom interactions”. Learning En- Building computers that care.”. Wired. Retrieved 13 vironments Research. 16: 71–89. doi:10.1007/s10984- May 2008. Rosalind Picard, a genial MIT professor, is the 013-9125-y. field's godmother; her 1997 book, Affective Computing, triggered an explosion of interest in the emotional side of [78] Zembylas, M (2002).“Constructing genealogies of teach- computers and their users. ers' emotions in science teaching”. Journal of Research in Science Teaching. 39: 79–103. doi:10.1002/tea.10010. [93] Cherry, Kendra. “What Is the James-Lange Theory of Emotion?". Retrieved 30 April 2012. [79] Vargha-Khadem, F; Gadian, DG; Copp, A; Mishkin, M (2005). “FOXP2 and the neuroanatomy of speech and [94] The Tomkins Institute. “Applied Studies in Motivation, language”. Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 6: 131–138. Emotion, and Cognition”. Archived from the original on doi:10.1038/nrn1605. PMID 15685218. 19 March 2012. Retrieved 30 April 2012. 6.1. EMOTION 95

[95] Reisenzein, R (2006). “Arnolds theory of emotion in his- • LeDoux, J.E. (1986). The neurobiology of emotion. torical perspective”. Cognition & emotion. 20 (7): 920– Chap. 15 in J.E. LeDoux & W. Hirst (Eds.) Mind 951. doi:10.1080/02699930600616445. and Brain: dialogues in cognitive neuroscience. New York: Cambridge. [96] Plutchik, R (1982). “A psychoevolutionary theory of emotions”. Social Science Information. 21: 529–553. • Mandler, G. (1984). Mind and Body: Psy- doi:10.1177/053901882021004003. chology of emotion and stress. New York: Norton.http://www.affective-sciences.org/system/ Bibliography files/2005_Scherer_SSI.pdf

• Denton, Derek (2006). The Primordial Emotions: • Nussbaum, Martha C. (2001) Upheavals of The Dawning of Consciousness. Oxford University Thought: The Intelligence of Emotions. Cambridge: Press. ISBN 978-0-19-920314-7. Cambridge University Press.

• Fox, Elaine (2008). Emotion Science: An Integration • Plutchik, R. (1980). A general psychoevolutionary of Cognitive and Neuroscientiﬁc Approaches. Pal- theory of emotion. In R. Plutchik & H. Kellerman grave MacMillan. ISBN 978-0-230-00517-4. (Eds.), Emotion: Theory, research, and experience: Vol. 1. Theories of emotion (pp. 3–33). New York: Academic. 6.1.11 Further reading • Roberts, Robert. (2003). Emotions: An Essay in • Dana Sugu & Amita Chaterjee“Flashback: Reshuf- Aid of Moral Psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge ﬂing Emotions”, International Journal on Human- University Press. istic Ideology, Vol. 3 No. 1, Spring–Summer 2010. • Scherer, K (2005). “What are emotions • Cornelius, R. (1996). The science of emotion. New and how can they be measured?" (PDF). So- Jersey: Prentice Hall. cial Science Information. 44 (4): 695–729. doi:10.1177/0539018405058216. Archived from • Freitas-Magalhães, A. (Ed.). (2009). Emotional the original (PDF) on 25 February 2015. Expression: The Brain and The Face. Porto: Uni- versity Fernando Pessoa Press. ISBN 978-989-643- • Solomon, R. (1993). The Passions: Emotions and 034-4. the Meaning of Life. Indianapolis: Hackett Publish- ing. • Freitas-Magalhães, A. (2007). The Psychology of Emotions: The Allure of Human Face. Oporto: • Zeki, S.; Romaya, J.P. (2008). “Neural cor- University Fernando Pessoa Press. relates of hate”. PLoS ONE. 3 (10): 3556. • González, Ana Marta (2012). The Emotions and doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0003556. PMC Cultural Analysis. Burlington, VT : Ashgate. ISBN 2569212 . PMID 18958169. 978-1-4094-5317-8 • Wikibook Cognitive psychology and cognitive neu- • Ekman, P. (1999). "Basic Emotions". In: T. Dal- roscience gleish and M. Power (Eds.). Handbook of Cognition and Emotion. John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Sussex, UK:. • Dror Green (2011).“Emotional Training, the art of creating a sense of a safe place in a changing world” • Frijda, N.H. (1986). The Emotions. Maison des Sci- . Bulgaria: Books, Publishers and the Institute of ences de l'Homme and Cambridge University Press Emotional Training. • Russell Hochschild, Arlie (1983). The man- • Goldie, Peter (2007). “Emotion”. Philoso- aged heart: commercialization of human feeling. phy Compass. 1 (6): 6. doi:10.1111/j.1747- Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 9991.2007.00105.x. 9780520054547

• Hogan, Patrick Colm. (2011). What Literature Teaches Us about Emotion Cambridge: Cambridge 6.1.12 External links University Press. • The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Theories • Hordern, Joshua. (2013). Political Aﬀections: Civic of Emotion Participation and Moral Theology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0199646813 • The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Emotion 96 CHAPTER 6. DAY 6

6.2 Love

This article is about the general concept of“love”. For other uses, see Love (disambiguation).

Love is a variety of different feelings, states, and attitudes that ranges from interpersonal affection (“I love my mother”) to pleasure (“I loved that meal”). It can refer to an emotion of a strong attraction and personal attachment.*[1] It can also be a virtue representing human kindness, compassion, and affection—"the unselfish loyal and benevolent concern for the good of another” .*[2] It may also describe compassionate and affectionate actions towards other humans, one's self or animals.*[3] Non-Western traditions have also distinguished variants or symbioses of these states; words like storge, philia, eros, and agape each describe a unique “concept”of love.*[4] Love has additional religious or spiritual meaning—notably in Abrahamic religions. This diversity of uses and meanings combined with the complexity of the feelings involved makes love unusually difficult to consistently define, compared to other emotional states. Love in its various forms acts as a major facilitator of interpersonal relationships and, owing to its central psychological importance, is one of the most common themes in the creative arts.*[5] Archetypal lovers Romeo and Juliet portrayed by Frank Dicksee Love may be understood as a function to keep human beings together against menaces and to facilitate the continuation of the species.*[6]

6.2.1 Deﬁnitions

The word“love”can have a variety of related but distinct meanings in different contexts. Many other languages use multiple words to express some of the different concepts that in English are denoted as“love"; one example is the plurality of Greek words for“love”which includes agape and eros.*[7] Cultural differences in conceptualizing love thus doubly impede the establishment of a universal definition.*[8]

Although the nature or essence of love is a subject of fre- Fraternal love (Prehispanic sculpture from 250–900 AD, of quent debate, different aspects of the word can be clari- Huastec origin). Museum of Anthropology in Xalapa, Veracruz, fied by determining what isn't love (antonyms of “love” Mexico ). Love as a general expression of positive sentiment (a stronger form of like) is commonly contrasted with hate (or neutral apathy); as a less sexual and more emotionally caring for, or identifying with, a person or thing (cf. intimate form of romantic attachment, love is commonly vulnerability and care theory of love), including oneself contrasted with lust; and as an interpersonal relationship (cf. narcissism). In addition to cross-cultural differences with romantic overtones, love is sometimes contrasted in understanding love, ideas about love have also changed with friendship, although the word love is often applied greatly over time. Some historians date modern concep- to close friendships. (Further possible ambiguities come tions of romantic love to courtly Europe during or after with usages “girlfriend”, “boyfriend”, “just good the Middle Ages, although the prior existence of romantic friends”). attachments is attested by ancient love poetry.*[9] Abstractly discussed love usually refers to an experi- The complex and abstract nature of love often reduces ence one person feels for another. Love often involves discourse of love to a thought-terminating cliché. Sev- 6.2. LOVE 97

eral common proverbs regard love, from Virgil's "Love conquers all" to The Beatles'"All You Need Is Love". St. Thomas Aquinas, following Aristotle, defines love as “to will the good of another.”*[10] Bertrand Russell describes love as a condition of“absolute value,”as opposed to relative value. Philosopher Gottfried Leibniz said that love is “to be delighted by the happiness of another.” *[11] Meher Baba stated that in love there is a “feeling of unity”and an“active appreciation of the intrinsic worth of the object of love.”*[12] Biologist Jeremy Grif- fith defines love as “unconditional selflessness”.*[13]

6.2.2 Impersonal love

A person can be said to love an object, principle, or goal to which they are deeply committed and greatly value. For example, compassionate outreach and volunteer workers' “love”of their cause may sometimes be born not of interpersonal love but impersonal love, altruism, and strong spiritual or political convictions.*[14] People can also“love”material objects, animals, or activities if they invest themselves in bonding or otherwise identifying with those things. If sexual passion is also involved, then this feeling is called paraphilia.*[15]

Pair of Lovers. 1480–1485 6.2.3 Interpersonal love

* Interpersonal love refers to love between human beings. volves feelings of safety and security. [17] Three distinct It is a much more potent sentiment than a simple liking neural circuitries, including neurotransmitters, and three for another. Unrequited love refers to those feelings of behavioral patterns, are associated with these three ro- * love that are not reciprocated. Interpersonal love is most mantic styles. [17] * closely associated with interpersonal relationships. [14] Lust is the initial passionate sexual desire that promotes Such love might exist between family members, friends, mating, and involves the increased release of chemicals and couples. There are also a number of psychological such as testosterone and estrogen. These effects rarely disorders related to love, such as erotomania. last more than a few weeks or months. Attraction is Throughout history, philosophy and religion have done the more individualized and romantic desire for a spe- the most speculation on the phenomenon of love. In the cific candidate for mating, which develops out of lust 20th century, the science of psychology has written a as commitment to an individual mate forms. Recent great deal on the subject. In recent years, the sciences studies in neuroscience have indicated that as people of psychology, anthropology, neuroscience, and biology fall in love, the brain consistently releases a certain set have added to the understanding the concept of love. of chemicals, including the neurotransmitter hormones, dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin, the same compounds released by amphetamine, stimulating the brain's Biological basis pleasure center and leading to side effects such as increased heart rate, loss of appetite and sleep, and an Main article: Biological basis of love intense feeling of excitement. Research has indicated that this stage generally lasts from one and a half to three * Biological models of sex tend to view love as a years. [18] mammalian drive, much like hunger or thirst.*[16] Helen Since the lust and attraction stages are both consid- Fisher, a leading expert in the topic of love, divides the ered temporary, a third stage is needed to account for experience of love into three partly overlapping stages: long-term relationships. Attachment is the bonding that lust, attraction, and attachment. Lust is the feeling of promotes relationships lasting for many years and even sexual desire; romantic attraction determines what part- decades. Attachment is generally based on commit- ners mates find attractive and pursue, conserving time and ments such as marriage and children, or on mutual friend- energy by choosing; and attachment involves sharing a ship based on things like shared interests. It has been home, parental duties, mutual defense, and in humans in- linked to higher levels of the chemicals oxytocin and 98 CHAPTER 6. DAY 6 vasopressin to a greater degree than short-term relation- are unlike themselves (e.g., with an orthogonal immune ships have.*[18] Enzo Emanuele and coworkers reported system), since this will lead to a baby that has the best of the protein molecule known as the nerve growth factor both worlds.*[23] In recent years, various human bond- (NGF) has high levels when people first fall in love, but ing theories have been developed, described in terms of these return to previous levels after one year.*[19] attachments, ties, bonds, and affinities. Some Western authorities disaggregate into two main components, the altruistic and the narcissistic. This view is represented Psychological basis in the works of Scott Peck, whose work in the field of applied psychology explored the definitions of love and evil. Peck maintains that love is a combination of the “concern for the spiritual growth of another,”and simple narcissism.*[24] In combination, love is an activity, not simply a feeling. Psychologist Erich Fromm maintained in his book The Art of Loving that love is not merely a feeling but is also actions, and that in fact, the“feeling”of love is superficial in comparison to one's commitment to love via a series of loving actions over time.*[14] In this sense, Fromm held that love is ultimately not a feeling at all, but rather is a commitment to, and adherence to, loving actions towards another, oneself, or many others, over a sustained * Grandmother and grandchild in Sri Lanka duration. [14] Fromm also described love as a conscious choice that in its early stages might originate as an invol- Further information: Human bonding untary feeling, but which then later no longer depends on those feelings, but rather depends only on conscious commitment.*[14] Psychology depicts love as a cognitive and social phenomenon. Psychologist Robert Sternberg formulated a triangular theory of love and argued that love has three Evolutionary basis different components: intimacy, commitment, and passion. Intimacy is a form in which two people share con- Evolutionary psychology has attempted to provide var- fidences and various details of their personal lives, and ious reasons for love as a survival tool. Humans are is usually shown in friendships and romantic love affairs. dependent on parental help for a large portion of their Commitment, on the other hand, is the expectation that lifespans compared to other mammals. Love has there- the relationship is permanent. The last and most com- fore been seen as a mechanism to promote parental sup- mon form of love is sexual attraction and passion. Pas- port of children for this extended time period. An- sionate love is shown in infatuation as well as romantic other factor may be that sexually transmitted diseases love. All forms of love are viewed as varying combi- can cause, among other effects, permanently reduced nations of these three components. Non-love does not fertility, injury to the fetus, and increase complications include any of these components. Liking only includes during childbirth. This would favor monogamous rela- intimacy. Infatuated love only includes passion. Empty tionships over polygamy.*[25] love only includes commitment. Romantic love includes both intimacy and passion. Companionate love includes intimacy and commitment. Fatuous love includes pas- Comparison of scientific models sion and commitment. Lastly, consummate love includes * all three. [20] American psychologist Zick Rubin sought Biological models of love tend to see it as a mammalian to define love by psychometrics in the 1970s. His work drive, similar to hunger or thirst.*[16] Psychology sees states that three factors constitute love: attachment, car- * * love as more of a social and cultural phenomenon. Cer- ing, and intimacy. [21] [22] tainly love is influenced by hormones (such as oxytocin), Following developments in electrical theories such as neurotrophins (such as NGF), and pheromones, and how Coulomb's law, which showed that positive and negative people think and behave in love is influenced by their con- charges attract, analogs in human life were developed, ceptions of love. The conventional view in biology is that such as “opposites attract”. Over the last century, re- there are two major drives in love: sexual attraction and search on the nature of human mating has generally found attachment. Attachment between adults is presumed to this not to be true when it comes to character and person- work on the same principles that lead an infant to become ality—people tend to like people similar to themselves. attached to its mother. The traditional psychological view However, in a few unusual and specific domains, such as sees love as being a combination of companionate love immune systems, it seems that humans prefer others who and passionate love. Passionate love is intense longing, 6.2. LOVE 99

and is often accompanied by physiological arousal (short- philosophers are all inspired to seek truth by eros. Some ness of breath, rapid heart rate); companionate love is translations list it as “love of the body.”*[29] affection and a feeling of intimacy not accompanied by Philia (φιλία philía), a dispassionate virtuous love, was a physiological arousal. concept addressed and developed by Aristotle. It includes loyalty to friends, family, and community, and requires virtue, equality, and familiarity. Philia is motivated by 6.2.4 Cultural views practical reasons; one or both of the parties benefit from the relationship. It can also mean “love of the mind.” Storge (στοργή storgē) is natural affection, like that felt by parents for offspring. Xenia (ξενία xenía), hospitality, was an extremely important practice in ancient Greece. It was an almost rit- ualized friendship formed between a host and his guest, who could previously have been strangers. The host fed and provided quarters for the guest, who was expected to repay only with gratitude. The importance of this can be seen throughout Greek mythology—in particular, Homer's Iliad and Odyssey.

Ancient Roman (Latin)

Wall of Love in Paris: “I love you”in 250 languages The Latin language has several different verbs corresponding to the English word “love.”amō is the basic verb meaning I love, with the infinitive amare (“to love” Ancient Greek ) as it still is in Italian today. The Romans used it both in an affectionate sense as well as in a romantic or sex- See also: Greek words for love ual sense. From this verb come amans—a lover, amator, “professional lover,”often with the accessory notion of lechery—and amica, “girlfriend”in the English sense, Greek distinguishes several different senses in which the often being applied euphemistically to a prostitute. The “ ” word love is used. Ancient Greeks identified four corresponding noun is amor (the significance of this term forms of love: kinship or familiarity (in Greek, storge), for the Romans is well illustrated in the fact, that the name friendship and/or platonic desire (philia), sexual and/or of the City, Rome—in Latin: Roma—can be viewed as romantic desire (eros), and self-emptying or divine love * * an anagram for amor, which was used as the secret name (agape). [26] [27] Modern authors have distinguished of the City in wide circles in ancient times),*[30] which further varieties of romantic love.*[28] However, with is also used in the plural form to indicate love affairs or Greek (as with many other languages), it has been his- sexual adventures. This same root also produces ami- torically difficult to separate the meanings of these words cus—"friend”—and amicitia,“friendship”(often based totally. At the same time, the Ancient Greek text of the to mutual advantage, and corresponding sometimes more Bible has examples of the verb agapo having the same closely to“indebtedness”or“influence”). Cicero wrote meaning as phileo. a treatise called On Friendship (de Amicitia), which dis- Agape (ἀγάπη agápē) means love in modern-day Greek. cusses the notion at some length. Ovid wrote a guide to The term s'agapo means I love you in Greek. The word dating called Ars Amatoria (The Art of Love), which ad- agapo is the verb I love. It generally refers to a “pure,” dresses, in depth, everything from extramarital affairs to ideal type of love, rather than the physical attraction sug- overprotective parents. gested by eros. However, there are some examples of Latin sometimes uses amāre where English would simply agape used to mean the same as eros. It has also been say to like. This notion, however, is much more gener- “ ”* translated as love of the soul. [29] ally expressed in Latin by placere or delectāre, which are Eros (ἔρως érōs) (from the Greek deity Eros) is passion- used more colloquially, the latter used frequently in the ate love, with sensual desire and longing. The Greek word love poetry of Catullus. Diligere often has the notion“to erota means in love. Plato refined his own definition. Al- be affectionate for,”“to esteem,”and rarely if ever is though eros is initially felt for a person, with contempla- used for romantic love. This word would be appropriate tion it becomes an appreciation of the beauty within that to describe the friendship of two men. The correspond- person, or even becomes appreciation of beauty itself. ing noun diligentia, however, has the meaning of “dili- Eros helps the soul recall knowledge of beauty and con- gence”or“carefulness,”and has little semantic overlap tributes to an understanding of spiritual truth. Lovers and with the verb. Observare is a synonym for diligere; despite 100 CHAPTER 6. DAY 6

the cognate with English, this verb and its corresponding Later in Chinese Buddhism, the term Ai (愛) was adopted noun, observantia, often denote“esteem”or“affection.” to refer to a passionate caring love and was considered a Caritas is used in Latin translations of the Christian Bible fundamental desire. In Buddhism, Ai was seen as capa- to mean“charitable love"; this meaning, however, is not ble of being either selfish or selfless, the latter being a found in Classical pagan Roman literature. As it arises key element towards enlightenment. from a conflation with a Greek word, there is no corre- In contemporary Chinese, Ai (愛) is often used as the sponding verb. equivalent of the Western concept of love. Ai is used as both a verb (e.g. wo ai ni 我愛你, or“I love you”) and Chinese and other Sinic cultures a noun (such as aiqing 愛情, or“romantic love”). How- ever, due to the influence of Confucian Ren, the phrase 'Wo ai ni' (I love you) carries with it a very specific sense of responsibility, commitment and loyalty. Instead of frequently saying“I love you”as in some Western societies, the Chinese are more likely to express feelings of affection in a more casual way. Consequently, “I like you” (Wo xihuan ni, 我喜欢你) is a more common way of ex- pressing affection in Chinese; it is more playful and less serious.*[31] This is also true in Japanese (suki da, 好きだ). The Chinese are also more likely to say“I love you” in English or other foreign languages than they would in their mother tongue.

Japanese

“Ai,”the traditional Chinese character for love (愛) consists of a heart (心, middle) inside of“accept,”“feel,”or“perceive,” (受) which shows a graceful emotion. It can also be interpreted as a hand oﬀering one's heart to another hand.

Two philosophical underpinnings of love exist in the Chi- nese tradition, one from Confucianism which emphasized actions and duty while the other came from Mohism which championed a universal love. A core concept to Confucianism is Ren (“benevolent love”, 仁), which focuses on duty, action and attitude in a relationship rather Ohatsu and Tokubei, characters of Sonezaki Shinjū than love itself. In Confucianism, one displays benevolent love by performing actions such as filial piety from The Japanese language uses three words to convey the children, kindness from parent, loyalty to the king and so English equivalent of“love”. Because“love”covers a forth. wide range of emotions and behavioral phenomena, there The concept of Ai (愛) was developed by the Chinese are nuances distinguishing the three terms.*[32]*[33] philosopher Mozi in the 4th century BC in reaction to The term ai (愛), which is often associated with mater- Confucianism's benevolent love. Mozi tried to replace nal love*[32] or selfless love,*[33] originally referred to what he considered to be the long-entrenched Chinese beauty and was often used in religious context. Follow- over-attachment to family and clan structures with the ing the Meiji Restoration 1868, the term became associ- concept of“universal love”(jiān'ài, 兼愛). In this, he ar- ated with“love”in order to translate Western literature. gued directly against Confucians who believed that it was Prior to Western influence, the term koi (恋) generally natural and correct for people to care about different peo- represented romantic love, and was often the subject of ple in different degrees. Mozi, by contrast, believed peo- the popular Man'yōshū Japanese poetry collection.*[32] ple in principle should care for all people equally. Mo- Koi describes a longing for a member of the opposite sex hism stressed that rather than adopting different attitudes and is typical interpreted as selfish and wanting.*[33] The towards different people, love should be unconditional term's origins come from the concept of lonely solitude and offered to everyone without regard to reciprocation, as a result of separation from a loved one. Though mod- not just to friends, family and other Confucian relations. ern usage of koi focuses on sexual love and infatuation, 6.2. LOVE 101

the Manyō used the term to cover a wider range of situations, including tenderness, benevolence, and material desire.*[32] The third term, ren'ai (恋愛), is a more modern construction that combines the kanji characters for both ai and koi, though its usage more closely resembles that of koi in the form of romantic love.*[32]*[33]

Persian

The children of Adam are limbs of one body Having been created of one essence. When the calamity of time afflicts one limb The other limbs cannot remain at rest. Robert Indiana's 1977 Love sculpture spelling ahava. If you have no sympathy for the troubles of others You are not worthy to be called by the name of“man”. There are several Greek words for “love”that are reg- Sa'di, Gulistan ularly referred to in Christian circles. Rumi, Hafiz and Sa'di are icons of the passion and love • Agape: In the New Testament, agapē is charitable, that the Persian culture and language present. The Persian selfless, altruistic, and unconditional. It is parental word for love is Ishq, which is derived from Arabic lan- love, seen as creating goodness in the world; it is the guage,*[34] however it is considered by most to be too way God is seen to love humanity, and it is seen as stalwart a term for interpersonal love and is more com- the kind of love that Christians aspire to have for one monly substituted for 'doost dashtan' ('liking'). In the Per- another.*[29] sian culture, everything is encompassed by love and all is for love, starting from loving friends and family, husbands • Phileo: Also used in the New Testament, phileo is and wives, and eventually reaching the divine love that is a human response to something that is found to be the ultimate goal in life. delightful. Also known as “brotherly love.” • Two other words for love in the Greek language, eros Turkish (Shaman and Islamic) (sexual love) and storge (child-to-parent love), were never used in the New Testament.*[29] In Turkish, the word“love”comes up with several meanings. A person can love a god, a person, parents, or fam- Christians believe that to Love God with all your heart, ily. But that person can “love”just one special person, mind, and strength and Love your neighbor as yourself are which they call the word “aşk.”Aşk (a word of Arabic the two most important things in life (the greatest com- origin) is a feeling for to love, or being“in love”(Aşık), mandment of the Jewish Torah, according to Jesus; cf. as it still is in Turkish today. The Turks used this word Gospel of Mark chapter 12, verses 28–34). Saint Augus- just for their loves in a romantic or sexual sense. If a tine summarized this when he wrote "Love God, and do Turk says that he is in love (Aşık) with somebody, it is as thou wilt.” not a love that a person can feel for his or her parents; it The Apostle Paul glorified love as the most important is just for one person, and it indicates a huge infatuation. virtue of all. Describing love in the famous poetic in- The word is also common for Turkic languages, such as terpretation in 1 Corinthians, he wrote,“Love is patient, Azerbaijani (eşq) and Kazakh (ғашық). love is kind. It does not envy, it does not boast, it is not proud. It is not rude, it is not self-seeking, it is not easily 6.2.5 Religious views angered, it keeps no record of wrongs. Love does not de- light in evil but rejoices with the truth. It always protects, always trusts, always hopes, and always perseveres.”(1 Main article: Religious views on love Cor. 13:4–7, NIV) The Apostle John wrote, “For God so loved the world that he gave his one and only Son, that whoever believes Abrahamic religions in him shall not perish but have eternal life. For God did not send his Son into the world to condemn the world, but Christianity The Christian understanding is that love to save the world through him.” (John 3:16–17, NIV) comes from God. The love of man and woman—eros John also wrote, “Dear friends, let us love one another in Greek—and the unselfish love of others (agape), are for love comes from God. Everyone who loves has been often contrasted as“ascending”and“descending”love, born of God and knows God. Whoever does not love does respectively, but are ultimately the same thing.*[35] not know God, because God is love.”(1 John 4:7–8, NIV) 102 CHAPTER 6. DAY 6

receiving and experiencing God's love in contemplation (eros). This life of love, according to him, is the life of the saints such as Teresa of Calcutta and the Blessed Vir- gin Mary and is the direction Christians take when they believe that God loves them.*[35] In Christianity the practical definition of love is best sum- marised by St. Thomas Aquinas, who defined love as“to will the good of another,”or to desire for another to succeed.*[10] This is the explanation of the Christian need to love others, including their enemies. As Thomas Aquinas explains, Christian love is motivated by the need to see others succeed in life, to be good people. Regarding love for enemies, Jesus is quoted in the Gospel of Matthew chapter five: “You have heard that it was said, ‘Love your neighbor and hate your enemy.’But I tell you, love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you, that you may be children of your Father in heaven. He causes his sun to rise on the evil and the good, and sends rain on the righteous and the unrighteous. If you love those who love you, what reward will you get? Are not even the tax collectors doing that? And if you greet only your own people, what are you doing more than others? Do not even pagans do that? Be perfect, therefore, as your heavenly Father is perfect.” - Matthew 5: 43-48 Tertullian wrote regarding love for enemies: “Our in- Sacred Love Versus Profane Love (1602–03) by Giovanni dividual, extraordinary, and perfect goodness consists in Baglione. Intended as an attack on his hated enemy the artist Caravaggio, it shows a boy (hinting at Caravaggio's homosexual- loving our enemies. To love one's friends is common prac- * ity) on one side, a devil with Caravaggio's face on the other, and tice, to love one's enemies only among Christians.” [37] between an angel representing pure, meaning non-erotic, love.

Judaism See also: Jewish views on love Saint Augustine says that one must be able to decipher the difference between love and lust. Lust, according to In Hebrew, Ahava is the most commonly used term for Saint Augustine, is an overindulgence, but to love and be both interpersonal love and love between God and God's loved is what he has sought for his entire life. He even creations. Chesed, often translated as loving-kindness, “ ” says, I was in love with love. Finally, he does fall in is used to describe many forms of love between human love and is loved back, by God. Saint Augustine says the beings. only one who can love you truly and fully is God, because love with a human only allows for flaws such as “jeal- The commandment to love other people is given in the ousy, suspicion, fear, anger, and contention.”According Torah, which states, “Love your neighbor like yourself” to Saint Augustine, to love God is “to attain the peace (Leviticus 19:18). The Torah's commandment to love which is yours.” (Saint Augustine's Confessions) God “with all your heart, with all your soul and with all your might”(Deuteronomy 6:5) is taken by the Mishnah Augustine regards the duplex commandment of love in (a central text of the Jewish oral law) to refer to good Matthew 22 as the heart of Christian faith and the in- deeds, willingness to sacrifice one's life rather than com- terpretation of the Bible. After the review of Christian mit certain serious transgressions, willingness to sacrifice doctrine, Augustine treats the problem of love in terms all of one's possessions, and being grateful to the Lord of use and enjoyment until the end of Book I of De Doc- * despite adversity (tractate Berachoth 9:5). Rabbinic lit- trina Christiana (1.22.21-1.40.44;). [36] erature differs as to how this love can be developed, e.g., Christian theologians see God as the source of love, which by contemplating divine deeds or witnessing the marvels is mirrored in humans and their own loving relationships. of nature. As for love between marital partners, this is Influential Christian theologian C.S. Lewis wrote a book deemed an essential ingredient to life: “See life with called The Four Loves. Benedict XVI wrote his first the wife you love”(Ecclesiastes 9:9). The biblical book encyclical on "God is love". He said that a human being, Song of Solomon is considered a romantically phrased created in the image of God, who is love, is able to prac- metaphor of love between God and his people, but in its tice love; to give himself to God and others (agape) and by plain reading, reads like a love song. The 20th-century 6.2. LOVE 103

Rabbi Eliyahu Eliezer Dessler is frequently quoted as interest. Instead, in Buddhism it refers to detachment and defining love from the Jewish point of view as “giving unselfish interest in others' welfare. ” without expecting to take (from his Michtav me-Eliyahu, The Bodhisattva ideal in Mahayana Buddhism involves Vol. 1). the complete renunciation of oneself in order to take on the burden of a suffering world. The strongest motivation one has in order to take the path of the Bodhisattva is Islam Love encompasses the Islamic view of life as the idea of salvation within unselfish, altruistic love for universal brotherhood that applies to all who hold faith. all sentient beings. Amongst the 99 names of God (Allah), there is the name Al-Wadud, or“the Loving One,”which is found in Surah *[Quran 11:90] as well as Surah *[Quran 85:14]. God is also referenced at the beginning of every chapter in the Qur'an as Ar-Rahman and Ar-Rahim, or the“Most Com- passionate”and the“Most Merciful”, indicating that nobody is more loving, compassionate and benevolent than God. The Qur'an refers to God as being “full of loving kindness.” The Qur'an exhorts Muslim believers to treat all people, those who have not persecuted them, with birr or “deep kindness”as stated in Surah *[Quran 6:8-9]. Birr is also used by the Qur'an in describing the love and kindness that children must show to their parents. Ishq, or divine love, is the emphasis of Sufism in the Is- lamic tradition. Practitioners of Sufism believe that love is a projection of the essence of God to the universe. God desires to recognize beauty, and as if one looks at a mirror to see oneself, God“looks”at himself within the dynamics of nature. Since everything is a reflection of God, the school of Sufism practices to see the beauty inside the apparently ugly. Sufism is often referred to as the religion of love. God in Sufism is referred to in three main terms, which are the Lover, Loved, and Beloved, with the last of these terms being often seen in Sufi poetry. A com- Kama (left) with Rati on a temple wall of Chennakesava Temple, mon viewpoint of Sufism is that through love, humankind Belur can get back to its inherent purity and grace. The saints of Sufism are infamous for being “drunk”due to their Hinduism In Hinduism, kāma is pleasurable, sexual love of God; hence, the constant reference to wine in Sufi love, personified by the god Kamadeva. For many Hindu poetry and music. schools, it is the third end (Kama) in life. Kamadeva is often pictured holding a bow of sugar cane and an arrow of flowers; he may ride upon a great parrot. He is usu- Bahá'í Faith In his Paris Talks, Àbdu'l-Bahá de- ally accompanied by his consort Rati and his companion scribed four types of love: the love that flows from God to Vasanta, lord of the spring season. Stone images of Ka- human beings; the love that flows from human beings to madeva and Rati can be seen on the door of the Chen- God; the love of God towards the Self or Identity of God; nakeshava temple at Belur, in Karnataka, India. Maara is and the love of human beings for human beings.*[38] another name for kāma. In contrast to kāma, prema – or prem – refers to elevated Eastern religions love. Karuna is compassion and mercy, which impels one to help reduce the suffering of others. Bhakti is a “ Buddhism In Buddhism, Kāma is sensuous, sexual Sanskrit term, meaning loving devotion to the supreme ” love. It is an obstacle on the path to enlightenment, since God. A person who practices bhakti is called a bhakta. it is selfish. Karuṇā is compassion and mercy, which Hindu writers, theologians, and philosophers have distin- reduces the suffering of others. It is complementary to guished nine forms of bhakti, which can be found in the wisdom and is necessary for enlightenment. Adveṣa and Bhagavata Purana and works by Tulsidas. The philo- mettā are benevolent love. This love is unconditional sophical work Narada Bhakti Sutras, written by an un- and requires considerable self-acceptance. This is quite known author (presumed to be Narada), distinguishes different from ordinary love, which is usually about at- eleven forms of love. tachment and sex and which rarely occurs without self- In certain Vaishnava sects within Hinduism, attaining 104 CHAPTER 6. DAY 6

unadulterated, unconditional and incessant love for God- human happiness.”Middle-class Americans wanted the head is considered the foremost goal of life. Gaudiya home to be a place of stability in an uncertain world. Vaishnavas who worship Krishna as the Supreme Per- This mentality created a vision of strongly defined gen- sonality of Godhead and the cause of all causes consider der roles, which provoked the advancement of the free Love for Godhead (Prema) to act in two ways: sambhoga love movement as a contrast.*[43] and vipralambha (union and separation)—two opposites * The term "sex radical" is also used interchangeably with . [39] the term “free lover”, and was the preferred term by In the condition of separation, there is an acute yearn- advocates because of the negative connotations of “free ing for being with the beloved and in the condition of love”. By whatever name, advocates had two strong be- union there is supreme happiness and nectarean. Gaudiya liefs: opposition to the idea of forceful sexual activity in Vaishnavas consider that Krishna-prema (Love for God- a relationship and advocacy for a woman to use her body head) is not fire but that it still burns away one's material in any way that she pleases.*[44] These are also beliefs of desires. They consider that Kṛṣṇa-prema is not a weapon, Feminism. but it still pierces the heart. It is not water, but it washes away everything—one's pride, religious rules, and one's shyness. Krishna-prema is considered to make one drown 6.2.7 Philosophical views in the ocean of transcendental ecstasy and pleasure. The love of Radha, a cowherd girl, for Krishna is often cited Main article: Philosophy of love as the supreme example of love for Godhead by Gaudiya The philosophy of love is a field of social philosophy and Vaishnavas. Radha is considered to be the internal po- tency of Krishna, and is the supreme lover of Godhead. Her example of love is considered to be beyond the understanding of material realm as it surpasses any form of selfish love or lust that is visible in the material world. The reciprocal love between Radha (the supreme lover) and Krishna (God as the Supremely Loved) is the subject of many poetic compositions in India such as the Gita Govinda and Hari Bhakti Shuddhodhaya. In the Bhakti tradition within Hinduism, it is believed that execution of devotional service to God leads to the development of Love for God (taiche bhakti-phale krsne prema upajaya), and as love for God increases in the heart, the more one becomes free from material contamination (krishna-prema asvada haile, bhava nasa paya). Being perfectly in love with God or Krishna makes one Graffiti in East Timor perfectly free from material contamination. and this is the ultimate way of salvation or liberation. In this tradition, ethics that attempts to explain the nature of love.*[45] salvation or liberation is considered inferior to love, and The philosophical investigation of love includes the tasks just an incidental by-product. Being absorbed in Love for of distinguishing between the various kinds of personal God is considered to be the perfection of life.*[40] love, asking if and how love is or can be justified, asking what the value of love is, and what impact love has on the autonomy of both the lover and the beloved. 6.2.6 Political views Many different theories attempt to explain the nature and function of love. Explaining love to a hypothetical per- Free love son who had not himself or herself experienced love or being loved would be very difficult because to such a per- Main article: Free love son love would appear to be quite strange if not outright irrational behavior. Among the prevailing types of theo- The term free love has been used*[41] to describe a social ries that attempt to account for the existence of love are: movement that rejects marriage, which is seen as a form psychological theories, the vast majority of which con- of social bondage. The Free Love movement's initial goal sider love to be very healthy behavior; evolutionary theo- was to separate the state from sexual matters such as mar- ries which hold that love is part of the process of natural riage, birth control, and adultery. It claimed that such is- selection; spiritual theories which may, for instance con- sues were the concern of the people involved, and no one sider love to be a gift from a god; and theories that con- else.*[42] sider love to be an unexplainable mystery, very much like Many people in the early 19th century believed that mar- a mystical experience. riage was an important aspect of life to “fulfill earthly There were many attempts to find the equation of love. 6.2. LOVE 105

One such attempt was by Christian Rudder, a mathemati- [15] DiscoveryHealth.“Paraphilia”. Retrieved 16 December cian and co-founder of online dating website OKCupid, 2007. one of the largest online dating sites. The mathemat- [16] Lewis, Thomas; Amini, F.; Lannon, R. (2000). A General ical approach was through the collection of large data Theory of Love. Random House. ISBN 0-375-70922-3. from the dating site. Another interesting equation of love is found by in the philosophical blog 'In the Quest of [17] http://homepage.mac.com/helenfisher/archives_of_sex_ Truth'.*[46] Love is defined as a measure of selfless give beh.pdf Defining the Brain Systems of Lust, Romantic and take, and the author attempted to draw a graph that Attraction, and Attachment by Fisher et. al shows the equation of love. Aggregately, dating resources [18] Winston, Robert (2004). Human. Smithsonian Institu- indicate a nascent line of variables effectively synchronis- tion. ISBN 0-03-093780-9. ing couples in naturally determined yearning. [19] Emanuele, E.; Polliti, P.; Bianchi, M.; Minoretti, P.; Bertona, M.; Geroldi, D. (2005). “Raised plasma nerve 6.2.8 See also growth factor levels associated with early-stage romantic love”. Psychoneuroendocrinology. Sept. 05 (3): 288–94. • Love at first sight doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2005.09.002. PMID 16289361. “ • [20] Sternberg, R. J. (1986). A triangular theory of Polyamory love”. Psychological Review. 93 (2): 119–135. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.93.2. 6.2.9 References [21] Rubin, Zick (1970). “Measurement of Romantic Love” . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 16 (2): [1] Oxford Illustrated American Dictionary (1998) + 265–27. doi:10.1037/h0029841. PMID 5479131. Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary (2000) [22] Rubin, Zick (1973). Liking and Loving: an invitation to [2] “Love - Definition of love by Merriam-Webster”. social psychology. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. merriam-webster.com. [23] Berscheid, Ellen; Walster, Elaine H. (1969). Interpersonal [3] Fromm, Erich; The Art of Loving, Harper Peren- Attraction. Addison-Wesley Publishing Co. ISBN 0-201- nial (1956), Original English Version, ISBN 978-0-06- 00560-3. CCCN 69-17443. 095828-2 [24] Peck, Scott (1978). The Road Less Traveled. Simon & Schuster. p. 169. ISBN 0-671-25067-1. [4] Mascaró, Juan (2003). The Bhagavad Gita. Penguin Clas- sics. Penguin. ISBN 0-14-044918-3. (J. Mascaró, trans- [25] The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology, edited by lator) David M. Buss, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2005. Chap- ter 14, Commitment, Love, and Mate Retention by Lorne [5] “Article On Love”. Retrieved 13 September 2011. Campbell and Bruce J. Ellis.

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[33] Abe, Namiko.“Japanese Words for“Love": The Differ- • Oord, Thomas Jay (2010). Defining Love: A Philo- ence between“Ai”and“Koi"". About.com. Retrieved sophical, Scientific, and Theological Engagement. November 5, 2014. Grand Rapids, MI: Brazos. ISBN 978-1-58743257- 6. [34] Mohammad Najib ur Rehman, Hazrat Sakhi Sultan. Day of Alast-The start of creation. Sultan ul Faqr Publications • Singer, Irving (1966). The Nature of Love. (in three Regd. ISBN 9789699795084. volumes) (v.1 reprinted and later volumes from The [35] Pope Benedict XVI.“papal encyclical, Deus Caritas Est.” University of Chicago Press, 1984 ed.). Random . House. ISBN 0-226-76094-4.

[36] Woo, B. Hoon (2013). “Augustine's Hermeneutics and • Sternberg, R.J. (1986). “A triangular theory of Homiletics in De doctrina christiana". Journal of Chris- love”. Psychological Review. 93 (2): 119–135. tian Philosophy. 17: 97–117. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.93.2.119.

[37] Swartley, Willard M. (1992). The Love of Enemy and • Sternberg, R.J. (1987). “Liking versus loving: A Nonretaliation in the New Testament, Studies in peace comparative evaluation of theories”. Psychologi- and scripture; (As Scapulam I) cited by Hans Haas, Idee cal Bulletin. 102 (3): 331–345. doi:10.1037/0033- und Ideal de Feindesliebe in der ausserchristlichen Welt (Leipzig: University of Leipzig, 1927). Westminster John 2909.102.3.331. Knox Press. p. 24. ISBN 9780664253547. • Tennov, Dorothy (1979). Love and Limerence: the [38] Abdu'l-Bahá, “Paris Talks”, Reference.Bahai.org. Experience of Being in Love. New York: Stein and Day. ISBN 0-8128-6134-5. [39] Gour Govinda Swami.“Wonderful Characteristic of Kr- ishna Prema, Gour Govinda Swami.”. • Wood Samuel E., Ellen Wood and Denise Boyd (2005). The World of Psychology (5th ed.). Pearson “ ” [40] A C Bhaktivedanta Swami. Being Perfectly in Love . Education. pp. 402–403. ISBN 0-205-35868-3. [41] The Handbook of the Oneida Community claims to have coined the term around 1850, and laments that its use was appropriated by socialists to attack marriage, an in- 6.2.11 Further reading stitution that they felt protected women and children from abandonment • Bayer, A, ed. (2008). Art and love in Renaissance Italy. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. [42] McElroy, Wendy. “The Free Love Movement and Radi- cal Individualism.”Libertarian Enterprise .19 (1996): 1.

[43] Spurlock, John C. Free Love Marriage and Middle-Class 6.2.12 External links Radicalism in America. New York, NY: New York UP, • 1988. Friendship at DMOZ • [44] Passet, Joanne E. Sex Radicals and the Quest for Women's Philanthropy at DMOZ Equality. Chicago,IL: U of Illinois P, 2003. • Romance at DMOZ [45] Soren Kierkegaard. Works of Love. [46] “In the Quest of Truth”. The Equation of Love. 6.3 Knowledge

6.2.10 Sources For other uses, see Knowledge (disambiguation).

• Chadwick, Henry (1998). Saint Augustine Confes- sions. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0- Knowledge is a familiarity, awareness or understand- 19-283372-3. ing of someone or something, such as facts, information, descriptions, or skills, which is acquired through • Fisher, Helen. Why We Love: the Nature and Chem- experience or education by perceiving, discovering, or istry of Romantic Love. ISBN 0-8050-6913-5. learning.

• Giles, James (1994). “A theory of love and sex- Knowledge can refer to a theoretical or practical under- ual desire”. Journal for the Theory of Social Be- standing of a subject. It can be implicit (as with practical haviour. 24 (4): 339–357. doi:10.1111/j.1468- skill or expertise) or explicit (as with the theoretical un- 5914.1994.tb00259.x. derstanding of a subject); it can be more or less formal or systematic.*[1] In philosophy, the study of knowledge is • Kierkegaard, Søren (2009). Works of Love. New called epistemology; the philosopher Plato famously de- York City: Harper Perennial Modern Classics. ﬁned knowledge as "justiﬁed true belief", though this def- ISBN 978-0-06-171327-9. inition is now agreed by most analytic philosophers to be 6.3. KNOWLEDGE 107

problematic because of the Gettier problems. However, Simon Blackburn's additional requirement that we do not several definitions of knowledge and theories to explain want to say that those who meet any of these condi- it exist. tions 'through a defect, flaw, or failure' have knowledge. Knowledge acquisition involves complex cognitive pro- Richard Kirkham suggests that our definition of knowl- * edge requires that the evidence for the belief necessitates cesses: perception, communication, and reasoning; [2] * while knowledge is also said to be related to the capacity its truth. [5] of acknowledgment in human beings.*[3] In contrast to this approach, Ludwig Wittgenstein observed, following Moore's paradox, that one can say“He believes it, but it isn't so,”but not “He knows it, but it 6.3.1 Theories of knowledge isn't so.”*[6] He goes on to argue that these do not correspond to distinct mental states, but rather to distinct ways of talking about conviction. What is different here is not the mental state of the speaker, but the activity in which they are engaged. For example, on this account, to know that the kettle is boiling is not to be in a particular state of mind, but to perform a particular task with the statement that the kettle is boiling. Wittgenstein sought to bypass the difficulty of definition by looking to the way“knowledge”is used in natural languages. He saw knowledge as a case of a family resemblance. Following this idea, “knowledge”has been reconstructed as a cluster concept that points out relevant features but that is not adequately captured by any definition.*[7]

6.3.2 Communicating knowledge

Robert Reid, Knowledge (1896). Thomas Jeﬀerson Building, Washington, D.C.

See also: Epistemology

The eventual demarcation of philosophy from science was made possible by the notion that philosophy's core was “theory of knowledge,”a theory distinct from the sciences because it was their foundation... Without this idea of a “theory of knowledge,”it is hard to imagine what “philosophy”could have been in the age of modern science. —Richard Rorty, Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature

The definition of knowledge is a matter of ongoing debate among philosophers in the field of epistemology. The classical definition, described but not ultimately endorsed by Plato,*[4] specifies that a statement must meet three Los portadores de la antorcha (The Torch-Bearers) – Sculp- criteria in order to be considered knowledge: it must ture by Anna Hyatt Huntington symbolizing the transmission of be justified, true, and believed. Some claim that these knowledge from one generation to the next (Ciudad Universi- conditions are not sufficient, as Gettier case examples taria, Madrid, Spain) allegedly demonstrate. There are a number of alternatives proposed, including Robert Nozick's arguments Symbolic representations can be used to indicate meaning for a requirement that knowledge 'tracks the truth' and and can be thought of as a dynamic process. Hence the 108 CHAPTER 6. DAY 6

transfer of the symbolic representation can be viewed as Major libraries today can have millions of books of one ascription process whereby knowledge can be trans- knowledge (in addition to works of fiction). It is only ferred. Other forms of communication include observa- recently that audio and video technology for recording tion and imitation, verbal exchange, and audio and video knowledge have become available and the use of these recordings. Philosophers of language and semioticians still requires replay equipment and electricity. Verbal construct and analyze theories of knowledge transfer or teaching and handing down of knowledge is limited to communication. those who would have contact with the transmitter or While many would agree that one of the most universal someone who could interpret written work. Writing is still the most available and most universal of all forms and significant tools for the transfer of knowledge is writing and reading (of many kinds), argument over the use- of recording and transmitting knowledge. It stands un- challenged as mankind's primary technology of knowl- fulness of the written word exists nonetheless, with some scholars skeptical of its impact on societies. In his col- edge transfer down through the ages and to all cultures and languages of the world. lection of essays Technopoly, Neil Postman demonstrates the argument against the use of writing through an excerpt from Plato's work Phaedrus (Postman, Neil (1992) 6.3.3 Situated knowledge Technopoly, Vintage, New York, pp 73). In this excerpt, the scholar Socrates recounts the story of Thamus, the Situated knowledge is knowledge specific to a particular Egyptian king and Theuth the inventor of the written situation. It is a term coined by Donna Haraway as an word. In this story, Theuth presents his new invention extension of the feminist approaches of “successor sci- “writing”to King Thamus, telling Thamus that his new ence”suggested by Sandra Harding, one which “offers invention“will improve both the wisdom and memory of a more adequate, richer, better account of a world, in or- the Egyptians”(Postman, Neil (1992) Technopoly, Vin- der to live in it well and in critical, reflexive relation to our tage, New York, pp 74). King Thamus is skeptical of this own as well as others' practices of domination and the un- new invention and rejects it as a tool of recollection rather equal parts of privilege and oppression that makes up all than retained knowledge. He argues that the written word positions.”*[10] This situation partially transforms sci- will infect the Egyptian people with fake knowledge as ence into a narrative, which Arturo Escobar explains as, they will be able to attain facts and stories from an exter- “neither fictions nor supposed facts.”This narrative of nal source and will no longer be forced to mentally retain situation is historical textures woven of fact and fiction, large quantities of knowledge themselves (Postman, Neil and as Escobar explains further, “even the most neutral (1992) Technopoly, Vintage, New York,pp 74). scientific domains are narratives in this sense,”insisting Classical early modern theories of knowledge, especially that rather than a purpose dismissing science as a trivial those advancing the influential empiricism of the philoso- matter of contingency, “it is to treat (this narrative) in pher John Locke, were based implicitly or explicitly on a the most serious way, without succumbing to its mystifi- model of the mind which likened ideas to words.*[8] This cation as 'the truth' or to the ironic skepticism common analogy between language and thought laid the founda- to many critiques.”*[11] tion for a graphic conception of knowledge in which the Haraway's argument stems from the limitations of the mind was treated as a table, a container of content, that human perception, as well as the overemphasis of the had to be stocked with facts reduced to letters, numbers sense of vision in science. According to Haraway, vision or symbols. This created a situation in which the spatial in science has been, “used to signify a leap out of the alignment of words on the page carried great cognitive marked body and into a conquering gaze from nowhere.” weight, so much so that educators paid very close atten- This is the“gaze that mythically inscribes all the marked tion to the visual structure of information on the page and bodies, that makes the unmarked category claim the * in notebooks. [9] power to see and not be seen, to represent while escaping Media theorists like Andrew Robinson emphasise that the representation.”*[10] This causes a limitation of views visual depiction of knowledge in the modern world was in the position of science itself as a potential player in the often seen as being 'truer' than oral knowledge. This plays creation of knowledge, resulting in a position of“modest into a longstanding analytic notion in the Western intel- witness”. This is what Haraway terms a“god trick”, or lectual tradition in which verbal communication is gen- the aforementioned representation while escaping repre- erally thought to lend itself to the spread of falsehoods as sentation.*[12] In order to avoid this, “Haraway perpet- much as written communication. It is harder to preserve uates a tradition of thought which emphasizes the impor- records of what was said or who originally said it – usually tance of the subject in terms of both ethical and political neither the source nor the content can be verified. Gos- accountability”.*[13] sip and rumors are examples prevalent in both media. As Some methods of generating knowledge, such as trial and to the value of writing, the extent of human knowledge error, or learning from experience, tend to create highly is now so great, and the people interested in a piece of situational knowledge. One of the main attributes of the knowledge so separated in time and space, that writing is scientific method is that the theories it generates are much considered central to capturing and sharing it. less situational than knowledge gained by other meth- 6.3. KNOWLEDGE 109 ods. Situational knowledge is often embedded in language, culture, or traditions. This integration of situational knowledge is an allusion to the community, and its attempts at collecting subjective perspectives into an embodiment “of views from somewhere.”*[10] Knowledge generated through experience is called knowledge “a posteriori”, meaning afterwards. The pure existence of a term like “a posteriori”means this also has a counterpart. In this case, that is knowledge“a priori”, meaning before. The knowledge prior to any experience means that there are certain “assumptions” that one takes for granted. For example, if you are being told about a chair, it is clear to you that the chair is in space, that it is 3D. This knowledge is not knowledge that one can“forget”, even someone suffering from amnesia experiences the world in 3D. Even though Haraway's arguments are largely based on feminist studies,*[10] this idea of different worlds, as well as the skeptic stance of situated knowledge is present in the main arguments of post-structuralism. Fundamen- tally, both argue the contingency of knowledge on the presence of history; power, and geography, as well as the rejection of universal rules or laws or elementary structures; and the idea of power as an inherited trait of objectification.*[14]

6.3.4 Partial knowledge

One discipline of epistemology focuses on partial knowl- Sir Francis Bacon,"Knowledge is Power" edge. In most cases, it is not possible to understand an information domain exhaustively; our knowledge is always incomplete or partial. Most real problems have to through observation and experimentation, and the formu- be solved by taking advantage of a partial understanding lation and testing of hypotheses.*[18] Science, and the of the problem context and problem data, unlike the typ- nature of scientific knowledge have also become the sub- ical math problems one might solve at school, where all ject of Philosophy. As science itself has developed, sci- data is given and one is given a complete understanding entific knowledge now includes a broader usage*[19] in of formulas necessary to solve them. the soft sciences such as biology and the social sciences This idea is also present in the concept of bounded ra- —discussed elsewhere as meta-epistemology, or genetic tionality which assumes that in real life situations people epistemology, and to some extent related to "theory of often have a limited amount of information and make de- cognitive development". Note that "epistemology" is the cisions accordingly. study of knowledge and how it is acquired. Science is “the process used everyday to logically complete thoughts Intuition is the ability to acquire partial knowledge with- through inference of facts determined by calculated ex- out inference or the use of reason.*[15] An individual periments.”Sir Francis Bacon was critical in the histor- may “know”about a situation and be unable to explain ical development of the scientific method; his works es- the process that led to their knowledge. tablished and popularized an inductive methodology for scientific inquiry. His famous aphorism, "knowledge is * 6.3.5 Scientific knowledge power", is found in the Meditations Sacrae (1597). [20] Until recent times, at least in the Western tradition, it was The development of the scientific method has made a sig- simply taken for granted that knowledge was something nificant contribution to how knowledge of the physical possessed only by humans —and probably adult humans world and its phenomena is acquired.*[16] To be termed at that. Sometimes the notion might stretch to (ii) Society- scientific, a method of inquiry must be based on gather- as-such, as in (e.g.) “the knowledge possessed by the ing observable and measurable evidence subject to spe- Coptic culture”(as opposed to its individual members), cific principles of reasoning and experimentation.*[17] but that was not assured either. Nor was it usual to con- The scientific method consists of the collection of data sider unconscious knowledge in any systematic way until 110 CHAPTER 6. DAY 6

ʿilm) is given great ,علم :this approach was popularized by Freud.*[21] In Islam, knowledge (Arabic “ ” Other biological domains where “knowledge”might be significance. The Knowing (al-ʿAlīm) is one of the 99 said to reside, include: (iii) the immune system, and (iv) names reflecting distinct attributes of God. The Qur'an in the DNA of the genetic code. See the list of four“epis- asserts that knowledge comes from God (2:239) and temological domains": Popper, (1975);*[22] and Traill various hadith encourage the acquisition of knowledge. “ (2008:*[23] Table S, page 31)—also references by both Muhammad is reported to have said Seek knowledge ” “ to Niels Jerne. from the cradle to the grave and Verily the men of knowledge are the inheritors of the prophets”. Islamic Such considerations seem to call for a separate definition scholars, theologians and jurists are often given the title of “knowledge”to cover the biological systems. For alim, meaning “knowledgeble”. biologists, knowledge must be usefully available to the (da'ath דעת :system, though that system need not be conscious. Thus In Jewish tradition, knowledge (Hebrew the criteria seem to be: is considered one of the most valuable traits a person can acquire. Observant Jews recite three times a day in the Amidah “Favor us with knowledge, understand- • The system should apparently be dynamic and self- ing and discretion that come from you. Exalted are organizing (unlike a mere book on its own). you, Existent-One, the gracious giver of knowledge.”The Tanakh states, “A wise man gains power, and a man of • The knowledge must constitute some sort of repre- knowledge maintains power”, and“knowledge is chosen “ ” * sentation of the outside world , [24] or ways of above gold”. dealing with it (directly or indirectly).

• Some way must exist for the system to access this As a measure of religiosity (in sociology of religion) information quickly enough for it to be useful. According to the sociologist Mervin Verbit, knowledge Scientific knowledge may not involve a claim to certainty, may be understood as one of the key components of reli- maintaining skepticism means that a scientist will never giosity. Religious knowledge itself may be broken down be absolutely certain when they are correct and when they into four dimensions: are not. It is thus an irony of proper scientific method that • one must doubt even when correct, in the hopes that this content practice will lead to greater convergence on the truth in • frequency general.*[25] • intensity • centrality 6.3.6 Religious meaning of knowledge The content of one's religious knowledge may vary from In many expressions of Christianity, such as Catholicism person to person, as will the degree to which it may oc- and Anglicanism, knowledge is one of the seven gifts of cupy the person's mind (frequency), the intensity of the * the Holy Spirit. [26] knowledge, and the centrality of the information (in that The Old Testament's tree of the knowledge of good and religious tradition, or to that individual).*[29]*[30]*[31] evil contained the knowledge that separated Man from God: “And the LORD God said, Behold, the man is become as one of us, to know good and evil...”(Genesis 6.3.7 See also 3:22) • Outline of knowledge – guide to the subject of In Gnosticism, divine knowledge or gnosis is hoped to be knowledge presented as a tree structured list of its attained. subtopics. विद्या दान (Vidya Daan) i.e. knowledge sharing is • Analytic-synthetic distinction a major part of Daan, a tenet of all Dharmic Reli- • gions.*[27] Hindu Scriptures present two kinds of knowl- Epistemic modal logic edge, Paroksh Gyan and Prataksh Gyan. Paroksh Gyan • Inductive inference (also spelled Paroksha-Jnana) is secondhand knowledge: knowledge obtained from books, hearsay, etc. Prataksh • Inductive probability Gyan (also spelled Prataksha-Jnana) is the knowledge • Intelligence borne of direct experience, i.e., knowledge that one dis- covers for oneself.*[28] Jnana yoga“( path of knowledge” • Metaknowledge ) is one of three main types of yoga expounded by Krishna • Philosophical skepticism in the Bhagavad Gita. (It is compared and contrasted with Bhakti Yoga and Karma yoga.) • Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge 6.3. KNOWLEDGE 111

6.3.8 References [18] scientiﬁc method, Merriam-Webster Dictionary.

[1]“knowledge: deﬁnition of knowledge in Oxford dictionary [19] http://articles.latimes.com/2012/jul/12/opinion/ (American English) (US)". oxforddictionaries.com. la-oe-wilson-social-sciences-20120712

[2] Dekel, Gil. “Methodology”. Retrieved 3 July 2006. [20] “Sir Francis Bacon – Quotationspage.com”. Retrieved 2009-07-08. [3] Stanley Cavell, “Knowing and Acknowledging”, Must We Mean What We Say? (Cambridge University Press, [21] There is quite a good case for this exclusive specializa- 2002), 238–266. tion used by philosophers, in that it allows for in-depth [4] In Plato's Theaetetus, Socrates and Theaetetus discuss study of logic-procedures and other abstractions which three definitions of knowledge: knowledge as nothing are not found elsewhere. However this may lead to prob- but perception, knowledge as true judgment, and, finally, lems whenever the topic spills over into those excluded knowledge as a true judgment with an account. Each of domains—e.g. when Kant (following Newton) dismissed these definitions is shown to be unsatisfactory. Space and Time as axiomatically “transcendental”and “a priori”—a claim later disproved by Piaget's clinical [5] Kirkham, Richard L. (October 1984). “Does the Gettier studies. It also seems likely that the vexed problem of Problem Rest on a Mistake?". Mind, New Series. Oxford "infinite regress" can be largely (but not completely) solved University Press on behalf of the Mind Association. pp. by proper attention to how unconscious concepts are ac- 501–513. JSTOR 2254258. jstor (subscription required) tually developed, both during infantile learning and as inherited“pseudo-transcendentals”inherited from the trial- [6] Ludwig Wittgenstein, On Certainty, remark 42 and-error of previous generations. See also "Tacit knowl- [7] Gottschalk-Mazouz, N. (2008): “Internet and the flow edge". of knowledge,”in: Hrachovec, H.; Pichler, A. (Hg.): • Piaget, J., and B.Inhelder (1927 / 1969). The child's Philosophy of the Information Society. Proceedings conception of time. Routledge & Kegan Paul: Lon- of the 30. International Ludwig Wittgenstein Sympo- don. sium Kirchberg am Wechsel, Austria 2007. Volume 2, Frankfurt, Paris, Lancaster, New Brunswik: Ontos, • Piaget, J., and B.Inhelder (1948 / 1956). The child's S. 215–232. http://sammelpunkt.philo.at:8080/2022/1/ conception of space. Routledge & Kegan Paul: Lon- Gottschalk-Mazouz.pdf don.

[8] Hacking, Ian (1975). Why Does Language Matter to Phi- [22] Popper, K.R. (1975). “The rationality of scientific revo- losophy?. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. lutions"; in Rom Harré (ed.), Problems of Scientific Revo- lution: Scientific Progress and Obstacles to Progress in the [9] Eddy, Matthew Daniel (2013). “The Shape of Knowl- Sciences. Clarendon Press: Oxford. edge: Children and the Visual Culture of Literacy ” and Numeracy . Science in Context. 26: 215–245. [23] http://www.ondwelle.com/OSM02.pdf doi:10.1017/s0269889713000045. [24] This “outside world”could include other subsystems [10]“Situated Knowledges: The Science Question in Femi- within the same organism—e.g. different“mental levels” nism and the Privilege of Partial Perspective”. Haraway, corresponding to different Piagetian stages. See Theory Donna. Feminist Studies Vol. 14, No. 3. pp. 575–599. of cognitive development. 1988.

[11]“Introduction: Development and the Anthropology of [25] “philosophy bites”. philosophybites.com. Modernity”. Escobar, Arturo. Encountering Develop- “ ” ment: The Making and Unmaking of the Third World. [26] Part Three, No. 1831 . Catechism of the Catholic Church. Retrieved 2007-04-20. [12] Chapter 1. Haraway, Donna. Mod- est_Witness@Second_Millennium. FemaleMan© [27] "विद्या दान ही सबसे बडा दान : विहिप - Vishva Hindu Meets_OncoMouse2. Feminism and Technoscience. 1997. Parishad – Oﬃcial Website”. vhp.org.

[13]“Posthuman, All Too Human: Towards a New Process [28] Swami Krishnananda. “Chapter 7”. The Philosophy Ontology”. Braidotti, Rosi. Theory Culture Vol. 23. pp. of the Panchadasi. The Divine Life Society. Retrieved 197–208. 2006. 2008-07-05.

[14]“The Subject and Power”. Foucault, Michel. Critical In- [29] Verbit, M. F. (1970). The components and dimensions of quiry Volume 9, No. 4. pp. 777–795. 1982 religious behavior: Toward a reconceptualization of reli- [15] Oxford English Dictionary giosity. American mosaic, 24, 39.

[16] “Science – Deﬁnition of science by Merriam-Webster”. [30] Küçükcan, T. (2010). Multidimensional Approach to Re- merriam-webster.com. ligion: a way of looking at religious phenomena. Journal for the Study of Religions and Ideologies, 4(10), 60–70. [17] "[4] Rules for the study of natural philosophy", Newton 1999, pp. 794–6, from the General Scholium, which fol- [31] http://www.eskieserler.com/dosyalar/mpdf%20(1135) lows Book 3, The System of the World. .pdf 112 CHAPTER 6. DAY 6

6.3.9 External links

• Knowledge at PhilPapers •“Knowledge”. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

• “The Value of Knowledge”. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

• “The Analysis of Knowledge”. Stanford Encyclo- pedia of Philosophy.

• “Knowledge by Acquaintance vs. Description”. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

• Knowledge at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project Chapter 7

Day 7

7.1 Perception progressed by combining a variety of techniques.*[3] Psychophysics quantitatively describes the relationships “ ”“ ”“ ” “ between the physical qualities of the sensory input and Percept , Perceptual , Perceptible , and Imper- * ceptible”redirect here. For the Brian Blade album, see perception. [5] Sensory neuroscience studies the brain Perceptual (album). For the perceptibility of digital wa- mechanisms underlying perception. Perceptual systems termarks, see Digital watermarking § Perceptibility. For can also be studied computationally, in terms of the infor- other uses, see Perception (disambiguation) and Percept mation they process. Perceptual issues in philosophy in- (disambiguation). clude the extent to which sensory qualities such as sound, Perception (from the Latin perceptio, percipio) is the smell or color exist in objective reality rather than in the mind of the perceiver.*[3] Although the senses were traditionally viewed as passive receptors, the study of illusions and ambiguous images has demonstrated that the brain's perceptual systems actively and pre-consciously attempt to make sense of their input.*[3] There is still active debate about the extent to which perception is an active process of hypothesis testing, analogous to science, or whether realistic sensory information is rich enough to make this process unnecessary.*[3] The Necker cube and Rubin vase can be perceived in more than one way. The perceptual systems of the brain enable individuals to see the world around them as stable, even though the organization, identification, and interpretation of sensory sensory information is typically incomplete and rapidly information in order to represent and understand the varying. Human and animal brains are structured in a environment.*[1] All perception involves signals in the modular way, with different areas processing different nervous system, which in turn result from physical or kinds of sensory information. Some of these modules chemical stimulation of the sense organs.*[2] For exam- take the form of sensory maps, mapping some aspect of ple, vision involves light striking the retina of the eye, the world across part of the brain's surface. These differ- smell is mediated by odor molecules, and hearing in- ent modules are interconnected and influence each other. volves pressure waves. Perception is not the passive re- For instance, taste is strongly influenced by smell.*[6] ceipt of these signals, but is shaped by learning, memory, expectation, and attention.*[3]*[4] 7.1.1 Process and terminology Perception can be split into two processes.*[4] Firstly, processing sensory input, which transforms these low- The process of perception begins with an object in the level information to higher-level information (e.g., ex- real world, termed the distal stimulus or distal object.*[2] tracts shapes for object recognition). Secondly, pro- By means of light, sound or another physical process, the cessing which is connected with a person's concepts object stimulates the body's sensory organs. These sen- and expectations (knowledge) and selective mechanisms sory organs transform the input energy into neural activ- (attention) that influence perception. ity—a process called transduction.*[2]*[7] This raw pat- Perception depends on complex functions of the nervous tern of neural activity is called the proximal stimulus.*[2] system, but subjectively seems mostly effortless because These neural signals are transmitted to the brain and pro- this processing happens outside conscious awareness.*[2] cessed.*[2] The resulting mental re-creation of the distal Since the rise of experimental psychology in the 19th stimulus is the percept. Century, psychology's understanding of perception has An example would be a shoe. The shoe itself is the distal

113 114 CHAPTER 7. DAY 7 stimulus. When light from the shoe enters a person's eye absence of them, may result in different percepts depend- and stimulates their retina, that stimulation is the prox- ing on subject's culture and previous experiences. Am- imal stimulus.*[8] The image of the shoe reconstructed biguous figures demonstrate that a single stimulus can re- by the brain of the person is the percept. Another ex- sult in more than one percept; for example the Rubin vase ample would be a telephone ringing. The ringing of the which can be interpreted either as a vase or as two faces. telephone is the distal stimulus. The sound stimulating The percept can bind sensations from multiple senses into a person's auditory receptors is the proximal stimulus, a whole. A picture of a talking person on a television and the brain's interpretation of this as the ringing of a screen, for example, is bound to the sound of speech from telephone is the percept. The different kinds of sensa- speakers to form a percept of a talking person. "Percept" tion such as warmth, sound, and taste are called "sensory is also a term used by Leibniz,*[11] Bergson, Deleuze and modalities".*[7]*[9] Guattari*[12] to define perception independent from per- Psychologist Jerome Bruner has developed a model of ceivers. perception. According to him people go through the fol- * lowing process to form opinions: [10] 7.1.2 Reality

1. When we encounter an unfamiliar target we are open In the case of visual perception, some people can actually to different informational cues and want to learn see the percept shift in their mind's eye.*[13] Others, who more about the target. are not picture thinkers, may not necessarily perceive the 'shape-shifting' as their world changes. The 'esemplastic' 2. In the second step we try to collect more informa- nature has been shown by experiment: an ambiguous im- tion about the target. Gradually, we encounter some age has multiple interpretations on the perceptual level. familiar cues which help us categorize the target. This confusing ambiguity of perception is exploited in 3. At this stage, the cues become less open and selec- human technologies such as camouflage, and also in bio- tive. We try to search for more cues that confirm the logical mimicry, for example by European Peacock but- categorization of the target. We also actively ignore terflies, whose wings bear eye markings that birds respond and even distort cues that violate our initial percep- to as though they were the eyes of a dangerous predator. tions. Our perception becomes more selective and we finally paint a consistent picture of the target. There is also evidence that the brain in some ways operates on a slight “delay”, to allow nerve impulses from distant parts of the body to be integrated into simultane- According to Alan Saks and Gary Johns, there are three ous signals.*[14] components to perception.*[10] Perception is one of the oldest fields in psychology. The oldest quantitative laws in psychology are Weber's law 1. The Perceiver, the person who becomes aware – which states that the smallest noticeable difference in about something and comes to a final understand- stimulus intensity is proportional to the intensity of the ing. There are 3 factors that can influence his or her reference – and Fechner's law which quantifies the re- perceptions: experience, motivational state and fi- lationship between the intensity of the physical stimulus nally emotional state. In different motivational or and its perceptual counterpart (for example, testing how emotional states, the perceiver will react to or per- much darker a computer screen can get before the viewer ceive something in different ways. Also in different actually notices). The study of perception gave rise to “ situations he or she might employ a perceptual de- the Gestalt school of psychology, with its emphasis on ” “ fence where they tend to see what they want to holistic approach. see”.

2. The Target. This is the person who is being perceived or judged. “Ambiguity or lack of informa- 7.1.3 Features tion about a target leads to a greater need for interpretation and addition.” Constancy

3. The Situation also greatly influences perceptions be- Main article: Subjective constancy cause different situations may call for additional information about the target. Perceptual constancy is the ability of perceptual systems to recognize the same object from widely varying sen- Stimuli are not necessarily translated into a percept and sory inputs.*[4]*:118–120*[15] For example, individual rarely does a single stimulus translate into a percept. An people can be recognized from views, such as frontal and ambiguous stimulus may be translated into multiple per- profile, which form very different shapes on the retina. cepts, experienced randomly, one at a time, in what is A coin looked at face-on makes a circular image on the called "multistable perception". And the same stimuli, or retina, but when held at angle it makes an elliptical im- 7.1. PERCEPTION 115

age.*[16] In normal perception these are recognized as a den by other objects, or if part of the information needed single three-dimensional object. Without this correction to make a complete picture in our minds is missing. For process, an animal approaching from the distance would example, if part of a shape's border is missing people still appear to gain in size.*[17]*[18] One kind of percep- tend to see the shape as completely enclosed by the bor- tual constancy is color constancy: for example, a white der and ignore the gaps. The principle of good continu- piece of paper can be recognized as such under differ- ation makes sense of stimuli that overlap: when there is ent colors and intensities of light.*[18] Another exam- an intersection between two or more objects, people tend ple is roughness constancy: when a hand is drawn quickly to perceive each as a single uninterrupted object. The across a surface, the touch nerves are stimulated more principle of common fate groups stimuli together on the intensely. The brain compensates for this, so the speed basis of their movement. When visual elements are seen of contact does not affect the perceived roughness.*[18] moving in the same direction at the same rate, percep- Other constancies include melody, odor, brightness and tion associates the movement as part of the same stim- words.*[19] These constancies are not always total, but ulus. This allows people to make out moving objects the variation in the percept is much less than the varia- even when other details, such as color or outline, are ob- tion in the physical stimulus.*[18] The perceptual systems scured. The principle of good form refers to the tendency of the brain achieve perceptual constancy in a variety of to group together forms of similar shape, pattern, color, ways, each specialized for the kind of information being etc.*[21]*[22]*[23]*[24] Later research has identified ad- processed.*[20] ditional grouping principles.*[25]

Grouping

Main article: Principles of grouping The principles of grouping (or Gestalt laws of group- Contrast eﬀects

Main article: Contrast eﬀect

A common finding across many different kinds of perception is that the perceived qualities of an object can be affected by the qualities of context. If one object is extreme on some dimension, then neighboring objects are perceived as further away from that extreme. “Simulta- neous contrast effect”is the term used when stimuli are presented at the same time, whereas “successive con- Law of Closure. The human brain tends to perceive complete shapes even if those forms are incomplete. trast”applies when stimuli are presented one after another.*[26] ing) are a set of principles in psychology, first proposed The contrast effect was noted by the 17th Century by Gestalt psychologists to explain how humans natu- philosopher John Locke, who observed that lukewarm rally perceive objects as organized patterns and objects. water can feel hot or cold, depending on whether the hand Gestalt psychologists argued that these principles exist touching it was previously in hot or cold water.*[27] In the because the mind has an innate disposition to perceive early 20th Century, Wilhelm Wundt identified contrast as patterns in the stimulus based on certain rules. These a fundamental principle of perception, and since then the principles are organized into six categories, namely prox- effect has been confirmed in many different areas.*[27] imity, similarity, closure, good continuation, common fate These effects shape not only visual qualities like color and and good form. The principle of proximity states that, all brightness, but other kinds of perception, including how else being equal, perception tends to group stimuli that heavy an object feels.*[28] One experiment found that are close together as part of the same object, and stimuli thinking of the name “Hitler”led to subjects rating a that are far apart as two separate objects. The principle of person as more hostile.*[29] Whether a piece of music is similarity states that, all else being equal, perception lends perceived as good or bad can depend on whether the mu- itself to seeing stimuli that physically resemble each other sic heard before it was pleasant or unpleasant.*[30] For as part of the same object, and stimuli that are different the effect to work, the objects being compared need to as part of a different object. This allows for people to dis- be similar to each other: a television reporter can seem tinguish between adjacent and overlapping objects based smaller when interviewing a tall basketball player, but not on their visual texture and resemblance. The principle of when standing next to a tall building.*[28] In the brain, closure refers to the mind's tendency to see complete fig- brightness contrast exerts effects on both neuronal firing ures or forms even if a picture is incomplete, partially hid- rates and neuronal synchrony.*[31] 116 CHAPTER 7. DAY 7

7.1.4 Effect of experience sociated with the pleasant task, subjects were more likely to perceive a letter B, and when letters were associated Main article: Perceptual learning with the unpleasant task they tended to perceive a number 13.*[34] With experience, organisms can learn to make finer per- Perceptual set has been demonstrated in many social conceptual distinctions, and learn new kinds of categoriza- texts. People who are primed to think of someone as tion. Wine-tasting, the reading of X-ray images and mu- “warm”are more likely to perceive a variety of posi- sic appreciation are applications of this process in the tive characteristics in them, than if the word “warm” human sphere. Research has focused on the relation of is replaced by “cold”. When someone has a reputa- this to other kinds of learning, and whether it takes place tion for being funny, an audience is more likely to find in peripheral sensory systems or in the brain's processing them amusing.*[36] Individual's perceptual sets reflect of sense information.*[32] Empirical research show that their own personality traits. For example, people with specific practices (such as Yoga, Mindfulness, Tai-chi, an aggressive personality are quicker to correctly identify Meditation, Daoshi and other mind-body disciplines) can aggressive words or situations.*[36] modify human perceptual modality. Specifically, these One classic psychological experiment showed slower re- practices enable perception skills to switch from the ex- action times and less accurate answers when a deck of teroceptive field (perception focused on external signals) playing cards reversed the color of the suit symbol for towards a higher ability to focus on proprioceptive sig- some cards (e.g. red spades and black hearts).*[38] nals. Also, when asked to provide verticality judgments, highly self-transcendent yoga practitioners were signifi- Philosopher Andy Clark explains that perception, al- cantly less influenced by a misleading visual context. In- though it occurs quickly, is not simply a bottom-up pro- creasing self-transcendence may enable yoga practition- cess (where minute details are put together to form larger ers to optimize verticality judgment tasks by relying more wholes). Instead, our brains use what he calls 'predic- on internal (vestibular and proprioceptive) signals coming tive coding'. It starts with very broad constraints and ex- from their own body, rather than on exteroceptive, visual pectations for the state of the world, and as expectations cues.*[33] are met, it makes more detailed predictions (errors lead to new predictions, or learning processes). Clark says this research has various implications; not only can there 7.1.5 Effect of motivation and expectation be no completely“unbiased, unfiltered”perception, but this means that there is a great deal of feedback between perception and expectation (perceptual experiences of- Main article: Set (psychology) ten shape our beliefs, but those perceptions were based on existing beliefs).*[39] A perceptual set, also called perceptual expectancy or just set is a predisposition to perceive things in a certain way.*[34] It is an example of how perception can 7.1.6 Theories be shaped by “top-down”processes such as drives and * expectations. [35] Perceptual sets occur in all the differ- Perception as direct perception ent senses.*[17] They can be long term, such as a special sensitivity to hearing one's own name in a crowded room, Cognitive theories of perception assume there is a poverty or short term, as in the ease with which hungry people * of stimulus. This (with reference to perception) is the notice the smell of food. [36] A simple demonstration of claim that sensations are, by themselves, unable to pro- the effect involved very brief presentations of non-words vide a unique description of the world.*[40] Sensations “ ” such as sael . Subjects who were told to expect words require 'enriching', which is the role of the mental model. “ ” about animals read it as seal , but others who were A different type of theory is the perceptual ecology ap- “ ” * expecting boat-related words read it as sail . [36] proach of James J. Gibson. Gibson rejected the assump- Sets can be created by motivation and so can result in tion of a poverty of stimulus by rejecting the notion that people interpreting ambiguous figures so that they see perception is based upon sensations – instead, he inves- what they want to see.*[35] For instance, how someone tigated what information is actually presented to the per- perceives what unfolds during a sports game can be bi- ceptual systems. His theory “assumes the existence of ased if they strongly support one of the teams.*[37] In stable, unbounded, and permanent stimulus-information one experiment, students were allocated to pleasant or in the ambient optic array. And it supposes that the vi- unpleasant tasks by a computer. They were told that ei- sual system can explore and detect this information. The ther a number or a letter would flash on the screen to say theory is information-based, not sensation-based.”*[41] whether they were going to taste an orange juice drink or He and the psychologists who work within this paradigm an unpleasant-tasting health drink. In fact, an ambiguous detailed how the world could be specified to a mobile, ex- figure was flashed on screen, which could either be read as ploring organism via the lawful projection of information the letter B or the number 13. When the letters were as- about the world into energy arrays.*[42]“Specification” 7.1. PERCEPTION 117

would be a 1:1 mapping of some aspect of the world into to fitness.*[46] Perception accurately mirrors the world; a perceptual array; given such a mapping, no enrichment animals get useful, accurate information through their is required and perception is direct perception.*[43] senses.*[46] Scientists who study perception and sensation have long * Perception-in-action understood the human senses as adaptations. [46] Depth perception consists of processing over half a dozen visual An ecological understanding of perception derived from cues, each of which is based on a regularity of the phys- * Gibson's early work is that of “perception-in-action”, ical world. [46] Vision evolved to respond to the narrow the notion that perception is a requisite property of an- range of electromagnetic energy that is plentiful and that * imate action; that without perception, action would be does not pass through objects. [46] Sound waves provide unguided, and without action, perception would serve no useful information about the sources of and distances to purpose. Animate actions require both perception and objects, with larger animals making and hearing lower- motion, and perception and movement can be described frequency sounds and smaller animals making and hear- * as“two sides of the same coin, the coin is action”. Gibson ing higher-frequency sounds. [46] Taste and smell re- works from the assumption that singular entities, which spond to chemicals in the environment that were signifi- he calls “invariants”, already exist in the real world cant for fitness in the environment of evolutionary adapt- * and that all that the perception process does is to home edness. [46] The sense of touch is actually many senses, * in upon them. A view known as constructivism (held by including pressure, heat, cold, tickle, and pain. [46] Pain, * such philosophers as Ernst von Glasersfeld) regards the while unpleasant, is adaptive. [46] An important adap- continual adjustment of perception and action to the ex- tation for senses is range shifting, by which the organ- ternal input as precisely what constitutes the “entity”, ism becomes temporarily more or less sensitive to sen- * which is therefore far from being invariant.*[44] sation. [46] For example, one's eyes automatically adjust to dim or bright ambient light.*[46] Sensory abilities of “ ” Glasersfeld considers an invariant as a target to be different organisms often coevolve, as is the case with homed in upon, and a pragmatic necessity to allow an the hearing of echolocating bats and that of the moths initial measure of understanding to be established prior that have evolved to respond to the sounds that the bats to the updating that a statement aims to achieve. The in- make.*[46] variant does not and need not represent an actuality, and Glasersfeld describes it as extremely unlikely that what is Evolutionary psychologists claim that perception demon- desired or feared by an organism will never suffer change strates the principle of modularity, with specialized * as time goes on. This social constructionist theory thus mechanisms handling particular perception tasks. [46] allows for a needful evolutionary adjustment.*[45] For example, people with damage to a particular part of the brain suffer from the specific defect of not being able A mathematical theory of perception-in-action has been to recognize faces (prospagnosia).*[46] EP suggests that devised and investigated in many forms of controlled this indicates a so-called face-reading module.*[46] movement, and has been described in many different species of organism using the General Tau Theory. Ac- cording to this theory, tau information, or time-to-goal Theories of perception information is the fundamental 'percept' in perception. • Empirical theories of perception

Evolutionary psychology (EP) and perception • Enactivism • Many philosophers, such as Jerry Fodor, write that the Anne Treisman's feature integration theory purpose of perception is knowledge, but evolutionary • Interactive activation and competition psychologists hold that its primary purpose is to guide action.*[46] For example, they say, depth perception seems • Irving Biederman's recognition by components the- to have evolved not to help us know the distances to other ory objects but rather to help us move around in space.*[46] Evolutionary psychologists say that animals from fiddler crabs to humans use eyesight for collision avoidance, sug- 7.1.7 Physiology gesting that vision is basically for directing action, not providing knowledge.*[46] Main article: Sensory system Building and maintaining sense organs is metabolically expensive, so these organs evolve only when they improve A sensory system is a part of the nervous system respon- an organism's fitness.*[46] More than half the brain is de- sible for processing sensory information. A sensory sys- voted to processing sensory information, and the brain tem consists of sensory receptors, neural pathways, and itself consumes roughly one-fourth of one's metabolic re- parts of the brain involved in sensory perception. Com- sources, so the senses must provide exceptional benefits monly recognized sensory systems are those for vision, 118 CHAPTER 7. DAY 7

hearing, somatic sensation (touch), taste and olfaction Stapes (smell). It has been suggested that the immune system (attached to oval window) * Semicircular is an overlooked sensory modality. [47] In short, senses Canals Incus are transducers from the physical world to the realm of Malleus Vestibular the mind. Nerve The receptive ﬁeld is the speciﬁc part of the world to

which a receptor organ and receptor cells respond. For Cochlear instance, the part of the world an eye can see, is its re- Nerve Cochlea External ceptive field; the light that each rod or cone can see, is its Auditory Canal Tympanic receptive field.*[48] Receptive fields have been identified Cavity Tympanic Eustachian Tube for the visual system, auditory system and somatosensory Membrane Round system, so far. Research attention is currently focused not Window only on external perception processes, but also to “Inte- roception”, considered as the process of receiving, accessing and appraising internal bodily signals. Maintain- Anatomy of the human ear. (The length of the auditory canal is ing desired physiological states is critical for an organ- exaggerated in this image) ism’s well being and survival. Interoception is an iterative process, requiring the interplay between perception of body states and awareness of these states to generate response to the sound. By the ascending auditory path- proper self-regulation. Afferent sensory signals continu- way these are led to the primary auditory cortex within ously interact with higher order cognitive representations the temporal lobe of the human brain, which is where the of goals, history, and environment, shaping emotional ex- auditory information arrives in the cerebral cortex and is * perience and motivating regulatory behavior. [49] further processed there. Sound does not usually come from a single source: in real 7.1.8 Types situations, sounds from multiple sources and directions are superimposed as they arrive at the ears. Hearing in- Vision volves the computationally complex task of separating out the sources of interest, often estimating their distance and Main article: Visual perception direction as well as identifying them.*[16]

In many ways, vision is the primary human sense. Light is taken in through each eye and focused in a way which sorts it on the retina according to direction of origin. A dense surface of photosensitive cells, including rods, Touch cones, and intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells captures information about the intensity, color, and Main article: Haptic perception position of incoming light. Some processing of texture and movement occurs within the neurons on the retina Haptic perception is the process of recognizing ob- before the information is sent to the brain. In total, about jects through touch. It involves a combination of 15 differing types of information are then forwarded to somatosensory perception of patterns on the skin surface the brain proper via the optic nerve.*[50] (e.g., edges, curvature, and texture) and proprioception of hand position and conformation. People can rapidly Sound and accurately identify three-dimensional objects by touch.*[52] This involves exploratory procedures, such as Main article: Hearing (sense) moving the fingers over the outer surface of the object or holding the entire object in the hand.*[53] Haptic percep- * Hearing (or audition) is the ability to perceive sound tion relies on the forces experienced during touch. [54] by detecting vibrations. Frequencies capable of being Gibson defined the haptic system as “The sensibility of heard by humans are called audio or sonic. The range the individual to the world adjacent to his body by use of is typically considered to be between 20 Hz and 20,000 his body”.*[55] Gibson and others emphasized the close Hz.*[51] Frequencies higher than audio are referred to link between haptic perception and body movement: hap- as ultrasonic, while frequencies below audio are referred tic perception is active exploration. The concept of haptic to as infrasonic. The auditory system includes the outer perception is related to the concept of extended physio- ears which collect and filter sound waves, the middle ear logical proprioception according to which, when using a for transforming the sound pressure (impedance match- tool such as a stick, perceptual experience is transparently ing), and the inner ear which produces neural signals in transferred to the end of the tool. 7.1. PERCEPTION 119

Taste words across this wide range of different conditions. An- other variation is that reverberation can make a large dif- Main article: Taste ference in sound between a word spoken from the far side of a room and the same word spoken up close. Experi- ments have shown that people automatically compensate Taste (or, the more formal term, gustation) is the abil- for this effect when hearing speech.*[16]*[63] ity to perceive the flavor of substances including, but not limited to, food. Humans receive tastes through sen- The process of perceiving speech begins at the level of sory organs called taste buds, or gustatory calyculi, con- the sound within the auditory signal and the process of centrated on the upper surface of the tongue.*[56] The audition. The initial auditory signal is compared with human tongue has 100 to 150 taste receptor cells on visual information —primarily lip movement —to ex- each of its roughly ten thousand taste buds.*[57] There tract acoustic cues and phonetic information. It is pos- are five primary tastes: sweetness, bitterness, sourness, sible other sensory modalities are integrated at this stage saltiness, and umami. Other tastes can be mimicked as well.*[64] This speech information can then be used by combining these basic tastes.*[57]*[58] The recogni- for higher-level language processes, such as word recog- tion and awareness of umami is a relatively recent de- nition. * velopment in Western cuisine. [59] The basic tastes con- Speech perception is not necessarily uni-directional. tribute only partially to the sensation and flavor of food That is, higher-level language processes connected with in the mouth —other factors include smell, detected * morphology, syntax, or semantics may interact with baby the olfactory epithelium of the nose; [6] texture, sic speech perception processes to aid in recognition of detected through a variety of mechanoreceptors, mus- speech sounds. It may be the case that it is not necessary cle nerves, etc.;*[58]*[60] and temperature, detected by * and maybe even not possible for a listener to recognize thermoreceptors. [58] All basic tastes are classified as ei- phonemes before recognizing higher units, like words for ther appetitive or aversive, depending upon whether the * example. In one experiment, Richard M. Warren re- things they sense are harmful or beneficial. [61] placed one phoneme of a word with a cough-like sound. His subjects restored the missing speech sound percep- Social tually without any difficulty and what is more, they were not able to identify accurately which phoneme had been * Main article: Social perception disturbed. [65]

Social perception is the part of perception that allows peo- Faces Main article: Face perception ple to understand the individuals and groups of their social world, and thus an element of social cognition.*[62] Facial perception refers to cognitive processes specialized for handling human faces, including perceiving the iden- Speech Main article: Speech perception tity of an individual, and facial expressions such as emo- Speech perception is the process by which spoken lan- tional cues.

Social Touch Main article: Somatosensory system § Neural Processing of Social Touch

The somatosensory cortex encodes incoming sensory information from receptors all over the body. Affective touch is a type of sensory information that elicits an emotional reaction and is usually social in nature, such as a physical human touch. This type of information is actually coded differently than other sensory information. Though the phrase “I owe you”can be heard as three distinct Intensity of affective touch is still encoded in the pri- words, a spectrogram reveals no clear boundaries. mary somatosensory cortex, but the feeling of pleasantness associated with affective touch activates the anterior guages are heard, interpreted and understood. Research cingulate cortex more than the primary somatosensory in speech perception seeks to understand how human lis- cortex. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) teners recognize speech sounds and use this information data shows that increased blood oxygen level contrast to understand spoken language. The sound of a word can (BOLD) signal in the anterior cingulate cortex as well as vary widely according to words around it and the tempo of the prefrontal cortex is highly correlated with pleasant- the speech, as well as the physical characteristics, accent ness scores of an affective touch. Inhibitory transcranial and mood of the speaker. Listeners manage to perceive magnetic stimulation (TMS) of the primary somatosen- 120 CHAPTER 7. DAY 7 sory cortex inhibits the perception of affective touch in- 7.1.10 Notes tensity, but not affective touch pleasantness. Therefore, the S1 is not directly involved in processing socially af- [1] Schacter, Daniel (2011). Psychology. Worth Publishers. fective touch pleasantness, but still plays a role in discrim- [2] Goldstein (2009) pp. 5–7 inating touch location and intensity.*[66] [3] Gregory, Richard. “Perception”in Gregory, Zangwill (1987) pp. 598–601. Other senses [4] Bernstein, Douglas A. (5 March 2010). Essentials of Psy- chology. Cengage Learning. pp. 123–124. ISBN 978-0- Main article: Sense 495-90693-3. Retrieved 25 March 2011.

[5] Gustav Theodor Fechner. Elemente der Psychophysik. Other senses enable perception of body balance, acceler- Leipzig 1860 ation, gravity, position of body parts, temperature, pain, time, and perception of internal senses such as suﬀoca- [6] DeVere, Ronald; Calvert, Marjorie (31 August 2010). tion, gag reﬂex, intestinal distension, fullness of rectum Navigating Smell and Taste Disorders. Demos Medical and urinary bladder, and sensations felt in the throat and Publishing. pp. 33–37. ISBN 978-1-932603-96-5. Re- lungs. trieved 26 March 2011. [7] Pomerantz, James R. (2003): “Perception: Overview”. In: Lynn Nadel (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science, 7.1.9 See also Vol. 3, London: Nature Publishing Group, pp. 527–537

“ ” • Action-speciﬁc perception [8] Sensation and Perception . [9] Willis, William D.; Coggeshall, Richard E. (31 January • Alice in Wonderland syndrome 2004). Sensory Mechanisms of the Spinal Cord: Primary aﬀerent neurons and the spinal dorsal horn. Springer. p. • Apophenia 1. ISBN 978-0-306-48033-1. Retrieved 25 March 2011.

• Change blindness [10] Alan S. & Gary J. (2011). Perception, Attribution, and Judgment of Others. Organizational Behaviour: Under- • Ideasthesia standing and Managing Life at Work Vol. 7 [11] Leibniz' Monadology • Introspection [12] Deleuze and Guattari's What is Philosophy? • Model-dependent realism [13] Wettlaufer, Alexandra K. (2003). In the mind's eye : the • Multisensory integration visual impulse in Diderot, Baudelaire and Ruskin, pg. 257. Amsterdam: Rodopi. ISBN 90-420-1035-5.

• Near sets [14] The Secret Advantage Of Being Short by Robert Krul- wich. All Things Considered, NPR. 18 May 2009. • Neural correlates of consciousness [15] Atkinson, Rita L.; Atkinson, Richard C.; Smith, Ed- • Pareidolia ward E. (March 1990). Introduction to psychology. Har- court Brace Jovanovich. pp. 177–183. ISBN 978-0-15- • Perceptual paradox 543689-3. Retrieved 24 March 2011. “ ” • [16] Moore, Brian C. J. (15 October 2009). Audition . In Philosophy of perception Goldstein, E. Bruce. Encyclopedia of Perception. Sage. pp. 136–137. ISBN 978-1-4129-4081-8. Retrieved 26 • Qualia March 2011. • Recept [17] Sonderegger, Theo (16 October 1998). Psychology. John Wiley and Sons. pp. 43–46. ISBN 978-0-8220-5327-9. • Samjñā, the Buddhist concept of perception Retrieved 24 March 2011. [18] Goldstein, E. Bruce (15 October 2009). “Constancy”. • Simulated reality In E. Bruce Goldstein. Encyclopedia of Perception. Sage. pp. 309–313. ISBN 978-1-4129-4081-8. Retrieved 26 • Simulation March 2011.

• Visual routine [19] Roeckelein, Jon E. (2006). Elsevier's dictionary of psychological theories. Elsevier. p. 126. ISBN 978-0-444- • Transsaccadic memory 51750-0. Retrieved 24 March 2011. 7.1. PERCEPTION 121

[20] Yantis, Steven (2001). Visual perception: essential read- [36] Hardy, Malcolm; Heyes, Steve (2 December 1999). ings. Psychology Press. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-86377-598-7. Beginning Psychology. Oxford University Press. pp. 24– Retrieved 24 March 2011. 27. ISBN 978-0-19-832821-6. Retrieved 24 March 2011. [21] Gray, Peter O. (2006): Psychology, 5th ed., New York: Worth, p. 281. ISBN 978-0-7167-0617-5 [37] Block, J. R.; Yuker, Harold E. (1 October 2002). Can You Believe Your Eyes?: Over 250 Illusions and Other Visual [22] Wolfe, Jeremy M.; Kluender, Keith R.; Levi, Dennis M.; Oddities. Robson. pp. 173–174. ISBN 978-1-86105- Bartoshuk, Linda M.; Herz, Rachel S.; Klatzky, Roberta 586-6. Retrieved 24 March 2011. L.; Lederman, Susan J. (2008). “Gestalt Grouping Prin- ” ciples . Sensation and Perception (2nd ed.). Sinauer As- [38]“On the Perception of Incongruity: A Paradigm”by sociates. pp. 78, 80. ISBN 978-0-87893-938-1. Jerome S. Bruner and Leo Postman. Journal of Personal- [23] Goldstein (2009). pp. 105–107 ity, 18, pp. 206-223. 1949. Yorku.ca

[24] Banerjee, J. C. (1994). “Gestalt Theory of Perception”. [39] “Predictive Coding”. Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Psychological Terms. M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. pp. 107–108. ISBN 978-81- [40] Stone, James V. (2012): “Vision and Brain: How we 85880-28-0. perceive the world”, Cambridge, MIT Press, pp. 155- 178. [25] Weiten, Wayne (1998). Psychology: themes and variations (4th ed.). Brooks/Cole Pub. Co. p. 144. ISBN [41] Gibson, James J. (2002):“A Theory of Direct Visual Per- 978-0-534-34014-8. ception”. In: Alva Noë/Evan Thompson (Eds.), Vision and Mind. Selected Readings in the Philosophy of Percep- [26] Corsini, Raymond J. (2002). The dictionary of psychol- tion, Cambridge, MIT Press, pp. 77–89. ogy. Psychology Press. p. 219. ISBN 978-1-58391-328- 4. Retrieved 24 March 2011. [42] Sokolowski, Robert (2008). Phenomenology of the Hu- man Person. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. [27] Kushner, Laura H. (2008). Contrast in judgments of men- 199–200. ISBN 978-0521717663. tal health. ProQuest. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-549-91314-6. Retrieved 24 March 2011. [43] Richards, Robert J. (December 1976). “James Gib- [28] Plous, Scott (1993). The psychology of judgment and de- son's Passive Theory of Perception: A Rejection of the cision making. McGraw-Hill. pp. 38–41. ISBN 978-0- Doctrine of Speciﬁc Nerve Energies” (PDF). Philoso- 07-050477-6. Retrieved 24 March 2011. phy and Phenomenological Research. 37 (2): 218–233. doi:10.2307/2107193. [29] Moskowitz, Gordon B. (2005). Social cognition: understanding self and others. Guilford Press. p. 421. ISBN [44] Consciousness in Action, S. L. Hurley, illustrated, Har- 978-1-59385-085-2. Retrieved 24 March 2011. vard University Press, 2002, 0674007964, pp. 430–432.

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[35] Coon, Dennis; Mitterer, John O. (29 December 2008). [50] Tim Gollisch, Markus Meister (28 January 2010). “Eye Introduction to Psychology: Gateways to Mind and Behav- Smarter than Scientists Believed: Neural Computations ior. Cengage Learning. pp. 171–172. ISBN 978-0-495- in Circuits of the Retina”. Neuron. 65 (2): 150–164. 59911-1. Retrieved 24 March 2011. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2009.12.009. 122 CHAPTER 7. DAY 7

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[53] Lederman SJ, Klatzky RL (1987). “Hand movements: A window into haptic object recognition”. Cogni- 7.1.11 References tive Psychology. 19 (3): 342–368. doi:10.1016/0010- • 0285(87)90008-9. PMID 3608405. Goldstein, E. Bruce (13 February 2009a). Sensation and perception. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0- [54] Robles-de-la-torre, Gabriel; Hayward, Vincent (2001). 495-60149-4. Retrieved 26 March 2011. “Force can overcome object geometry in the perception of shape through active touch”. Nature. 412 (6845): • Gregory, Richard L.; Zangwill, O. L. (1987). The 445–448. doi:10.1038/35086588. PMID 11473320. Oxford companion to the mind. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 24 March 2011. [55] Gibson, J.J. (1966). The senses considered as perceptual systems. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-313-23961- 4. 7.1.12 Bibliography [56] Human biology (Page 201/464) Daniel D. Chiras. Jones & Bartlett Learning, 2005. • Arnheim, R. (1969). Visual Thinking. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520- [57] DeVere, Ronald; Calvert, Marjorie (31 August 2010). 24226-5. Navigating Smell and Taste Disorders. Demos Medical Publishing. pp. 39–40. ISBN 978-1-932603-96-5. Re- • Flanagan, J. R., & Lederman, S. J. (2001). Neuro- trieved 26 March 2011. biology: Feeling bumps and holes. News and Views, [58] Siegel, George J.; Albers, R. Wayne (2006). Basic neuro- Nature, 412(6845):389–91. (PDF) chemistry: molecular, cellular, and medical aspects. Aca- • Gibson, J. J. (1966). The Senses Considered as Per- demic Press. p. 825. ISBN 978-0-12-088397-4. Re- ceptual Systems. trieved 26 March 2011. • [59] • Oh, Mama, What's Up With Umami? Gibson, J. J. (1987). The Ecological Approach to foxnews.com, 5 January 2010 Visual Perception. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN 0-89859-959-8 • Umami Dearest: The mysterious fifth taste has df- ficially infiltrated the food scene trendcentral.com, • Robles-De-La-Torre, G. (2006). The Importance 23 February 2010 of the Sense of Touch in Virtual and Real Envi- • #8 Food Trend for 2010: I Want My Umami food- ronments. IEEE Multimedia,13(3), Special issue on channel.com, 6 December 2009 Haptic User Interfaces for Multimedia Systems, pp. 24–30. (PDF) [60] Food texture: measurement and perception (page 3– 4/311) Andrew J. Rosenthal. Springer, 1999.

[61] Why do two great tastes sometimes not taste great to- 7.1.13 External links gether? scientificamerican.com. Dr. Tim Jacob, Cardiff University. 22 May 2009. • Theories of Perception Several different aspects on perception [62] E. R. Smith, D. M. Mackie (2000). Social Psychology. Psychology Press, 2nd ed., p. 20 • Richard L Gregory Theories of Richard. L. Gre- gory. [63] Watkins, Anthony J.; Raimond, Andrew; Makin, Simon J. (23 March 2010). “Room reflection and constancy in • Comprehensive set of optical illusions, presented by ” speech-like sounds: Within-band effects . In Enrique A. Michael Bach. Lopez-Poveda. The Neurophysiological Bases of Auditory Perception. Springer. p. 440. ISBN 978-1-4419-5685-9. • Optical Illusions Examples of well-known optical il- Retrieved 26 March 2011. lusions. [64] Lawrence D. Rosenblum. “Primacy of Multimodal Speech Perception”. In David Pisoni, Robert Remez. The Handbook of Speech Perception. p. 51. 7.2 Creativity [65] Warren, R.M. (1970). “Restoration of missing speech sounds”. Science. 167 (3917): 392–393. “Creative engineering”redirects here. For the anima- doi:10.1126/science.167.3917.392. PMID 5409744. tronic and arcade games manufacturer, see Creative 7.2. CREATIVITY 123

Engineering Inc. theories of creative process. A focus on creative product usually appears in attempts to measure creativity (psychometrics, see below) and in creative ideas framed as suc- Creativity is a phenomenon whereby something new and * somehow valuable is formed. The created item may be cessful memes. [6] The psychometric approach to creativity reveals that it also involves the ability to produce intangible (such as an idea, a scientific theory, a musical * composition, or a joke) or a physical object (such as an more. [7] A focus on the nature of the creative person invention, a literary work, or a painting). considers more general intellectual habits, such as openness, levels of ideation, autonomy, expertise, exploratory Scholarly interest in creativity involves many defini- behavior, and so on. A focus on place considers the cir- tions and concepts pertaining to a number of dis- cumstances in which creativity flourishes, such as degrees ciplines: engineering, psychology, cognitive science, of autonomy, access to resources, and the nature of gate- education, philosophy (particularly philosophy of sci- keepers. Creative lifestyles are characterized by noncon- ence), technology, theology, sociology, linguistics, forming attitudes and behaviors as well as flexibility.*[7] business studies, songwriting, and economics, covering the relations between creativity and general intelligence, mental and neurological processes, personality type and creative ability, creativity and mental health; the potential 7.2.3 Etymology for fostering creativity through education and training, especially as augmented by technology; the maximization The lexeme in the English word creativity comes from the of creativity for national economic benefit, and the appli- Latin term creō“to create, make": its derivational suffixes cation of creative resources to improve the effectiveness also come from Latin. The word “create”appeared in of teaching and learning. English as early as the 14th century, notably in Chaucer, to indicate divine creation*[8] (in The Parson's Tale*[9]). However, its modern meaning as an act of human creation 7.2.1 Definition did not emerge until after the Enlightenment.*[8] In a summary of scientific research into creativity, Michael Mumford suggested: “Over the course of the last decade, however, we seem to have reached a gen- 7.2.4 History of the concept eral agreement that creativity involves the production of novel, useful products”(Mumford, 2003, p. 110),*[1] or, Main article: History of the concept of creativity in Robert Sternberg's words, the production of “something original and worthwhile”.*[2] Authors have di- verged dramatically in their precise definitions beyond these general commonalities: Peter Meusburger reckons that over a hundred different analyses can be found in the literature.*[3] As an illustration, one definition given by Dr. E. Paul Torrance described it as “a process of becoming sensitive to problems, deficiencies, gaps in knowledge, missing elements, disharmonies, and so on; identifying the difficulty; searching for solutions, making guesses, or formulating hypotheses about the deficiencies: testing and retesting these hypotheses and possibly mod- ifying and retesting them; and finally communicating the results.”*[4]

7.2.2 Aspects

Theories of creativity (particularly investigation of why some people are more creative than others) have focused on a variety of aspects. The dominant factors are usually identiﬁed as “the four Ps”—process, product, person, and place (according to Mel Rhodes).*[5] A focus on process is shown in cognitive approaches that try to describe Greek philosophers like Plato rejected the concept of creativity, preferring to see art as a form of discovery. Asked in The Re- thought mechanisms and techniques for creative think- public, “Will we say, of a painter, that he makes something?", ing. Theories invoking divergent rather than convergent Plato answers, “Certainly not, he merely imitates.”*[10] thinking (such as Guilford), or those describing the stag- ing of the creative process (such as Wallas) are primarily 124 CHAPTER 7. DAY 7

Ancient views cept of imagination, became more frequent.*[19] In the writing of Thomas Hobbes, imagination became a key Most ancient cultures, including thinkers of Ancient element of human cognition;*[8] William Duff was one Greece,*[10] Ancient China, and Ancient India,*[11] of the first to identify imagination as a quality of genius, lacked the concept of creativity, seeing art as a form of typifying the separation being made between talent (pro- discovery and not creation. The ancient Greeks had no ductive, but breaking no new ground) and genius.*[15] terms corresponding to“to create”or“creator”except for As a direct and independent topic of study, creativ- the expression "poiein"(“to make”), which only applied ity effectively received no attention until the 19th cen- to poiesis (poetry) and to the poietes (poet, or “maker” tury.*[15] Runco and Albert argue that creativity as the ) who made it. Plato did not believe in art as a form of subject of proper study began seriously to emerge in the creation. Asked in The Republic,*[12] “Will we say, of late 19th century with the increased interest in individ- a painter, that he makes something?", he answers,“Cer- ual differences inspired by the arrival of Darwinism. In tainly not, he merely imitates.”*[10] particular, they refer to the work of Francis Galton, who It is commonly argued that the notion of “creativity” through his eugenicist outlook took a keen interest in the originated in Western culture through Christianity, as a heritability of intelligence, with creativity taken as an as- matter of divine inspiration.*[8] According to the histo- pect of genius.*[8] rian Daniel J. Boorstin, “the early Western conception In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, leading mathe- of creativity was the Biblical story of creation given in maticians and scientists such as Hermann von Helmholtz the Genesis.”*[13] However, this is not creativity in the (1896) and Henri Poincaré (1908) began to reflect on and modern sense, which did not arise until the Renaissance. publicly discuss their creative processes. In the Judaeo-Christian tradition, creativity was the sole province of God; humans were not considered to have the ability to create something new except as an expression Twentieth century to the present day of God's work.*[14] A concept similar to that of Chris- tianity existed in Greek culture, for instance, Muses were The insights of Poincaré and von Helmholtz were built seen as mediating inspiration from the Gods.*[15] Ro- on in early accounts of the creative process by pio- mans and Greeks invoked the concept of an external cre- neering theorists such as Graham Wallas*[20] and Max ative "daemon" (Greek) or "genius" (Latin), linked to the Wertheimer. In his work Art of Thought, published in sacred or the divine. However, none of these views are 1926, Wallas presented one of the first models of the cre- similar to the modern concept of creativity, and the in- ative process. In the Wallas stage model, creative insights dividual was not seen as the cause of creation until the and illuminations may be explained by a process consist- Renaissance.*[16] It was during the Renaissance that cre- ing of 5 stages: ativity was first seen, not as a conduit for the divine, but from the abilities of "great men".*[16] (i) preparation (preparatory work on a problem that focuses the individual's mind on the problem and explores the problem's dimensions), The Enlightenment and after (ii) incubation (where the problem is internal- The rejection of creativity in favor of discovery and the ized into the unconscious mind and nothing ap- belief that individual creation was a conduit of the divine pears externally to be happening), would dominate the West probably until the Renaissance (iii) intimation (the creative person gets a“feel- and even later.*[14] The development of the modern con- ing”that a solution is on its way), cept of creativity begins in the Renaissance, when cre- (iv) illumination or insight (where the creative ation began to be perceived as having originated from idea bursts forth from its preconscious process- the abilities of the individual, and not God. This could ing into conscious awareness); be attributed to the leading intellectual movement of the (v) verification (where the idea is consciously time, aptly named humanism, which developed an in- verified, elaborated, and then applied). tensely human-centric outlook on the world, valuing the intellect and achievement of the individual.*[17] From “ this philosophy arose the Renaissance man (or polymath), Wallas' model is often treated as four stages, with inti- ” an individual who embodies the principals of human- mation seen as a sub-stage. ism in their ceaseless courtship with knowledge and cre- Wallas considered creativity to be a legacy of the ation.*[18] One of the most well-known and immensely evolutionary process, which allowed humans to quickly accomplished examples is Leonardo da Vinci. adapt to rapidly changing environments. Simonton*[21] However, this shift was gradual and would not become provides an updated perspective on this view in his book, immediately apparent until the Enlightenment.*[16] By Origins of genius: Darwinian perspectives on creativity. the 18th century and the Age of Enlightenment, mention In 1927, Alfred North Whitehead gave the Gifford Lec- of creativity (notably in aesthetics), linked with the con- tures at the University of Edinburgh, later published 7.2. CREATIVITY 125

as Process and Reality.*[22] He is credited with hav- creative people in order to map patterns and predictors of ing coined the term “creativity”to serve as the ulti- creative productivity.*[32] mate category of his metaphysical scheme: “Whitehead actually coined the term – our term, still the preferred currency of exchange among literature, science, and the 7.2.5 Theories of creative processes arts. . . a term that quickly became so popular, so om- nipresent, that its invention within living memory, and by There has been much empirical study in psychology and Alfred North Whitehead of all people, quickly became cognitive science of the processes through which creativ- occluded”.*[23] ity occurs. Interpretation of the results of these studies has led to several possible explanations of the sources and The formal psychometric measurement of creativity, methods of creativity. from the standpoint of orthodox psychological literature, is usually considered to have begun with J. P. Guilford's 1950 address to the American Psychological Association, Incubation which helped popularize the topic*[24] and focus attention on a scientific approach to conceptualizing creativity. Incubation is a temporary break from creative problem (It should be noted that the London School of Psychol- solving that can result in insight.*[33] There has been ogy had instigated psychometric studies of creativity as some empirical research looking at whether, as the con- early as 1927 with the work of H. L. Hargreaves into the cept of “incubation”in Wallas' model implies, a period Faculty of Imagination,*[25] but it did not have the same of interruption or rest from a problem may aid creative impact.) Statistical analysis led to the recognition of cre- problem-solving. Ward*[34] lists various hypotheses that ativity (as measured) as a separate aspect of human cogni- have been advanced to explain why incubation may aid tion to IQ-type intelligence, into which it had previously creative problem-solving, and notes how some empirical been subsumed. Guilford's work suggested that above a evidence is consistent with the hypothesis that incubation threshold level of IQ, the relationship between creativity aids creative problem-solving in that it enables “forget- and classically measured intelligence broke down.*[26] ting”of misleading clues. Absence of incubation may lead the problem solver to become fixated on inappro- priate strategies of solving the problem.*[35] This work “Four C”model disputes the earlier hypothesis that creative solutions to problems arise mysteriously from the unconscious mind * James C. Kaufman and Beghetto introduced a “four while the conscious mind is occupied on other tasks. [36] C”model of creativity; mini-c (“transformative learn- This earlier hypothesis is discussed in Csikszentmihalyi's ing”involving“personally meaningful interpretations of five phase model of the creative process which describes experiences, actions, and insights”), little-c (everyday incubation as a time that your unconscious takes over. problem solving and creative expression), Pro-C (exhib- This allows for unique connections to be made without ited by people who are professionally or vocationally cre- your consciousness trying to make logical order out of * ative though not necessarily eminent) and Big-C (creativ- the problem. [37] ity considered great in the given field). This model was intended to help accommodate models and theories of Convergent and divergent thinking creativity that stressed competence as an essential component and the historical transformation of a creative do- J. P. Guilford*[38] drew a distinction between convergent main as the highest mark of creativity. It also, the authors and divergent production (commonly renamed conver- argued, made a useful framework for analyzing creative gent and divergent thinking). Convergent thinking in- * processes in individuals. [27] volves aiming for a single, correct solution to a problem, The contrast of terms “Big C”and “Little c”has whereas divergent thinking involves creative generation been widely used. Kozbelt, Beghetto and Runco use of multiple answers to a set problem. Divergent thinking a little-c/Big-C model to review major theories of cre- is sometimes used as a synonym for creativity in psychol- ativity.*[26] Margaret Boden distinguishes between h- ogy literature. Other researchers have occasionally used creativity (historical) and p-creativity (personal).*[28] the terms flexible thinking or fluid intelligence, which are roughly similar to (but not synonymous with) creativity. Robinson*[29] and Anna Craft*[30] have focused on creativity in a general population, particularly with respect to education. Craft makes a similar distinction between Creative cognition approach “high”and“little c”creativity.*[30] and cites Ken Robin- son as referring to “high”and “democratic”creativ- In 1992, Finke et al. proposed the“Geneplore”model, in ity. Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi*[31] has defined creativity which creativity takes place in two phases: a generative in terms of those individuals judged to have made signif- phase, where an individual constructs mental represen- icant creative, perhaps domain-changing contributions. tations called preinventive structures, and an exploratory Simonton has analysed the career trajectories of eminent phase where those structures are used to come up with 126 CHAPTER 7. DAY 7

creative ideas. Some evidence shows that when people Honing theory use their imagination to develop new ideas, those ideas are heavily structured in predictable ways by the prop- Honing theory, developed principally by psychologist erties of existing categories and concepts.*[39] Weis- Liane Gabora, posits that creativity arises due to the self- berg*[40] argued, by contrast, that creativity only in- organizing, self-mending nature of a worldview. The volves ordinary cognitive processes yielding extraordi- creative process is a way in which the individual hones nary results. (and re-hones) an integrated worldview. Honing theory places emphasis not only on the externally visible creative outcome but also the internal cognitive restructuring The Explicit–Implicit Interaction (EII) theory and repair of the worldview brought about by the creative process. When faced with a creatively demanding task, Helie and Sun*[41] recently proposed a unified frame- there is an interaction between the conception of the task work for understanding creativity in problem solving, and the worldview. The conception of the task changes namely the Explicit–Implicit Interaction (EII) theory of through interaction with the worldview, and the world- creativity. This new theory constitutes an attempt at pro- view changes through interaction with the task. This in- viding a more unified explanation of relevant phenomena teraction is reiterated until the task is complete, at which (in part by reinterpreting/integrating various fragmentary point not only is the task conceived of differently, but the existing theories of incubation and insight). worldview is subtly or drastically transformed as it follows the natural tendency of a worldview to attempt to The EII theory relies mainly on five basic principles, resolve dissonance and seek internal consistency amongst namely: its components, whether they be ideas, attitudes, or bits of knowledge. 1. The co-existence of and the difference between ex- A central feature of honing theory is the notion of a po- plicit and implicit knowledge; tentiality state.*[43] Honing theory posits that creative thought proceeds not by searching through and randomly 2. The simultaneous involvement of implicit and ex- ‘mutating’predefined possibilities, but by drawing upon plicit processes in most tasks; associations that exist due to overlap in the distributed neural cell assemblies that participate in the encoding of 3. The redundant representation of explicit and im- experiences in memory. Midway through the creative plicit knowledge; process one may have made associations between the current task and previous experiences, but not yet disam- 4. The integration of the results of explicit and implicit biguated which aspects of those previous experiences are processing; relevant to the current task. Thus the creative idea may feel‘half-baked’. It is at that point that it can be said to 5. The iterative (and possibly bidirectional) processing. be in a potentiality state, because how it will actualize depends on the different internally or externally generated contexts it interacts with. A computational implementation of the theory was developed based on the CLARION cognitive architecture and Honing theory is held to explain certain phenomena not used to simulate relevant human data. This work repre- dealt with by other theories of creativity, for example, sents an initial step in the development of process-based how different works by the same creator are observed theories of creativity encompassing incubation, insight, in studies to exhibit a recognizable style or 'voice' even and various other related phenomena. through in different creative outlets. This is not predicted by theories of creativity that emphasize chance processes or the accumulation of expertise, but it is pre- Conceptual blending dicted by honing theory, according to which personal style reflects the creator's uniquely structured worldview. Main article: Conceptual blending Another example is in the environmental stimulus for creativity. Creativity is commonly considered to be fostered by a supportive, nurturing, trustworthy environment con- In The Act of Creation, Arthur Koestler introduced the ducive to self-actualization. However, research shows concept of bisociation —that creativity arises as a result that creativity is also associated with childhood adversity, of the intersection of two quite different frames of ref- which would stimulate honing. erence.*[42] This idea was later developed into conceptual blending. In the '90s, various approaches in cognitive science that dealt with metaphor, analogy, and structure Everyday imaginative thought mapping have been converging, and a new integrative approach to the study of creativity in science, art and humor In everyday thought, people often spontaneously imag- has emerged under the label conceptual blending. ine alternatives to reality when they think “if only...” 7.2. CREATIVITY 127

.*[44] Their counterfactual thinking is viewed as an ex- The Creativity Achievement Questionnaire, a self-report ample of everyday creative processes.*[45] It has been test that measures creative achievement across 10 do- proposed that the creation of counterfactual alternatives mains, was described in 2005 and shown to be reliable to reality depends on similar cognitive processes to ratio- and valid when compared to other measures of creativity nal thought.*[46] and to independent evaluation of creative output.*[50] Such tests, sometimes called Divergent Thinking (DT) * * 7.2.6 Assessing individual creative ability tests have been both supported [51] and criticized. [52] Considerable progress has been made in automated scor- Creativity quotient ing of divergent thinking tests using semantic approach. When compared to human raters, NLP techniques were Several attempts have been made to develop a creativity shown to be reliable and valid in scoring the original- quotient of an individual similar to the intelligence quo- ity (when compared to human raters).*[53]*[54] The re- tient (IQ); however, these have been unsuccessful.*[47] ported computer programs were able to achieve a correlation of 0.60 and 0.72 respectively to human graders. Semantic networks were also used to devise origi- Psychometric approach nality scores that yielded significant correlations with socio-personal measures.*[55] Most recently, an NSF- J. P. Guilford's group,*[38] which pioneered the modern funded*[56] team of researchers led by James C. Kauf- psychometric study of creativity, constructed several tests man and Mark A. Runco*[57] combined expertise in cre- to measure creativity in 1967: ativity research, natural language processing, computational linguistics, and statistical data analysis to devise • Plot Titles, where participants are given the plot of a scalable system for computerized automated testing a story and asked to write original titles. (SparcIt Creativity Index Testing system). This system enabled automated scoring of DT tests that is reliable, • Quick Responses is a word-association test scored objective, and scalable, thus addressing most of the is- for uncommonness. sues of DT tests that had been found and reported.*[52] The resultant computer system was able to achieve a cor- • Figure Concepts, where participants were given sim- relation of 0.73 to human graders.*[58] ple drawings of objects and individuals and asked to find qualities or features that are common by two or more drawings; these were scored for uncommonness. Social-personality approach • Unusual Uses is finding unusual uses for common everyday objects such as bricks. Some researchers have taken a social-personality ap- • Remote Associations, where participants are asked proach to the measurement of creativity. In these stud- to find a word between two given words (e.g. Hand ies, personality traits such as independence of judgement, _____ Call) self-confidence, attraction to complexity, aesthetic orientation, and risk-taking are used as measures of the cre- • Remote Consequences, where participants are ativity of individuals.*[24] A meta-analysis by Gregory asked to generate a list of consequences of unex- Feist showed that creative people tend to be“more open pected events (e.g. loss of gravity) to new experiences, less conventional and less conscientious, more self-confident, self-accepting, driven, ambi- Building on Guilford's work, Torrance*[48] developed tious, dominant, hostile, and impulsive.”Openness, con- the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking in 1966.*[49] scientiousness, self-acceptance, hostility, and impulsivity They involved simple tests of divergent thinking and had the strongest effects of the traits listed.*[59] Within other problem-solving skills, which were scored on: the framework of the Big Five model of personality, some consistent traits have emerged.*[60] Openness to experi- • ence has been shown to be consistently related to a whole Fluency – The total number of interpretable, mean- * ingful, and relevant ideas generated in response to host of different assessments of creativity. [61] Among the stimulus. the other Big Five traits, research has demonstrated subtle differences between different domains of creativity. • Originality – The statistical rarity of the responses Compared to non-artists, artists tend to have higher levels among the test subjects. of openness to experience and lower levels of conscien- tiousness, while scientists are more open to experience, • Elaboration – The amount of detail in the re- conscientious, and higher in the confidence-dominance sponses. facets of extraversion compared to non-scientists.*[59] 128 CHAPTER 7. DAY 7

7.2.7 Creativity and intelligence Picasso (spatial intelligence); Freud (intraper- sonal); Einstein (logical-mathematical); and Gandhi The potential relationship between creativity and (interpersonal). intelligence has been of interest since the late 1900s, • when a multitude of influential studies – from Getzels Sternberg’s Theory of Successful intelli- * * * & Jackson,*[62] Barron,*[63] Wallach & Kogan,*[64] gence [68] [69] [71] (see Triarchic theory of and Guilford*[65] – focused not only on creativity, but intelligence) includes creativity as a main compo- also on intelligence. This joint focus highlights both the nent, and comprises 3 sub-theories: Componential theoretical and practical importance of the relationship: (Analytic), Contextual (Practical), and Experiential researchers are interested not only if the constructs are (Creative). Experiential sub-theory – the ability related, but also how and why.*[66] to use pre-existing knowledge and skills to solve new and novel problems – is directly related to There are multiple theories accounting for their relation- creativity. ship, with the 3 main theories as follows: • The Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory includes creativity • Threshold Theory – Intelligence is a necessary, but as a subset of intelligence. Specifically, it is associ- not sufficient condition for creativity. There is a ated with the broad group factor of long-term stor- moderate positive relationship between creativity age and retrieval (Glr). Glr narrow abilities relating * and intelligence until IQ ~120.*[63]*[65] to creativity include: [72] ideational fluency, associational fluency, and originality/creativity. Silvia et • Certification Theory – Creativity is not intrinsi- al.*[73] conducted a study to look at the relationship cally related to intelligence. Instead, individuals between divergent thinking and verbal fluency tests, are required to meet the requisite level intelligence and reported that both fluency and originality in di- in order to gain a certain level of education/work, vergent thinking were significantly affected by the which then in turn offers the opportunity to be cre- broad level Glr factor. Martindale*[74] extended ative. Displays of creativity are moderated by intel- the CHC-theory in the sense that it was proposed ligence.*[67] that those individuals who are creative are also selective in their processing speed Martindale argues • Interference Theory – Extremely high intelligence that in the creative process, larger amounts of infor- might interfere with creative ability.*[68] mation are processed more slowly in the early stages, and as the individual begins to understand the prob- Sternberg and O’Hara*[69] proposed a framework of 5 lem, the processing speed is increased. possible relationships between creativity and intelligence: • The Dual Process Theory of Intelligence*[75] posits 1. Creativity is a subset of intelligence a two-factor/type model of intelligence. Type 1 is a conscious process, and concerns goal directed 2. Intelligence is a subset of creativity thoughts, which are explained by g. Type 2 is an unconscious process, and concerns spontaneous cogni- 3. Creativity and intelligence are overlapping con- tion, which encompasses daydreaming and implicit structs learning ability. Kaufman argues that creativity oc- 4. Creativity and intelligence are part of the same con- curs as a result of Type 1 and Type 2 processes struct (coincident sets) working together in combination. The use of each type in the creative process can be used to varying 5. Creativity and intelligence are distinct constructs degrees. (disjoint sets) Intelligence as a subset of creativity Creativity as a subset of intelligence In this relationship model, intelligence is a key component A number of researchers include creativity, either explic- in the development of creativity. itly or implicitly, as a key component of intelligence. Theories of creativity that include intelligence as a subset Examples of theories that include creativity as a subset of of creativity intelligence • Sternberg & Lubart’s Investment The- • Gardner’s Theory of multiple intelligences ory.*[76]*[77] Using the metaphor of a stock (MIT)*[70] – implicitly includes creativity as a market, they demonstrate that creative thinkers are subset of MIT. To demonstrate this, Gardner cited like good investors – they buy low and sell high (in examples of different famous creators, each of their ideas). Like under/low-valued stock, creative whom differed in their types of intelligences e.g. individuals generate unique ideas that are initially 7.2. CREATIVITY 129

rejected by other people. The creative individual e.g. individual lines in a free verse poem / in- has to persevere, and convince the others of the dividual rides at the waterpark. ideas value. After convincing the others, and thus increasing the ideas value, the creative individual ‘sells high’by leaving the idea with the other Creativity and intelligence as overlapping yet distinct people, and moves onto generating another idea. constructs According to this theory, six distinct, but related elements contribute to successful creativity: intel- This possible relationship concerns creativity and intelli- ligence, knowledge, thinking styles, personality, gence as distinct, but intersecting constructs. motivation, and environment. Intelligence is just Theories that include Creativity and Intelligence as Over- one of the six factors that can either solely, or in lapping Yet Distinct Constructs conjunction with the other five factors, generate creative thoughts. • Renzulli’s Three-Ring Conception of Gifted- * • Amabile’s Componential Model of Creativ- ness. [81] In this conceptualisation, giftedness oc- ity.*[78]*[79] In this model, there are 3 within- curs as a result from the overlap of above average individual components needed for creativity – intellectual ability, creativity, and task commitment. domain-relevant skills, creativity-relevant pro- Under this view, creativity and intelligence are dis- cesses, and task motivation – and 1 component tinct constructs, but they do overlap under the cor- external to the individual: their surrounding social rect conditions. environment. Creativity requires a confluence of • PASS theory of intelligence. In this theory, the plan- all components. High creativity will result when ning component – relating to the ability to solve an individual is: intrinsically motivated, possesses problems, make decisions and take action – strongly both a high level of domain-relevant skills and has overlaps with the concept of creativity.*[82] high skills in creative thinking, and is working in a highly creative environment. • Threshold Theory (TT). A number of previous research findings have suggested that a threshold ex- • * Amusement Park Theoretical Model. [80] In this ists in the relationship between creativity and intel- 4-step theory, both domain-specific and generalist ligence – both constructs are moderately positively views are integrated into a model of creativity. The correlated up to an IQ of ~120. Above this thresh- researchers make use of the metaphor of the amuse- old of an IQ of 120, if there is a relationship at all, ment park to demonstrate that within each of these it is small and weak.*[62]*[63]*[83] TT posits that creative levels, intelligence plays a key role: a moderate level of intelligence is necessary for creativity. • To get into the amusement park, there are initial requirements (e.g., time/transport to go to * * the park). Initial requirements (like intelli- In support of the TT, Barron [63] [84] reported finding gence) are necessary, but not sufficient for cre- a non-significant correlation between creativity and intel- ativity. They are more like prerequisites for ligence in a gifted sample; and a significant correlation * creativity, and if an individual does not possess in a non-gifted sample. Yamamoto [85] in a sample of the basic level of the initial requirement (intel- secondary school children, reported a significant corre- ligence), then they will not be able to generate lation between creativity and intelligence of r = .3, and creative thoughts/behaviour. reported no significant correlation when the sample consisted of gifted children. Fuchs-Beauchamp et al.*[86] in • Secondly are the subcomponents – general the- a sample of preschoolers found that creativity and intel- matic areas – that increase in specificity. Like ligence correlated from r = .19 to r = .49 in the group choosing which type of amusement park to of children who had an IQ below the threshold; and in visit (e.g. a zoo or a water park), these areas the group above the threshold, the correlations were r = relate to the areas in which someone could be <.12. Cho et al.*[87] reported a correlation of .40 be- creative (e.g. poetry). tween creativity and intelligence in the average IQ group • Thirdly, there are specific domains. After of a sample of adolescents and adults; and a correlation choosing the type of park to visit e.g. wa- of close to r = .0 for the high IQ group. Jauk et al.*[88] terpark, you then have to choose which spe- found support for the TT, but only for measures of cre- cific park to go to. Within the poetry domain, ative potential; not creative performance. there are many different types (e.g. free verse, Much modern day research reports findings against TT. riddles, sonnet, etc.) that have to be selected Wai et al.*[89] in a study using data from the longitudi- from. nal Study of Mathematically Precocious Youth – a co- • Lastly, there are micro-domains. These are the hort of elite students from early adolescence into adult- specific tasks that reside within each domain hood – found that differences in SAT scores at age 13 130 CHAPTER 7. DAY 7

were predictive of creative real-life outcomes 20 years Wallach and Kogan*[64] administered 5 measures of cre- later. Kim’s*[90] meta-analysis of 21 studies did not ativity, each of which resulted in a score for originality find any supporting evidence for TT, and instead negligi- and fluency; and 10 measures of general intelligence to ble correlations were reported between intelligence, cre- 151 5th grade children. These tests were untimed, and ativity, and divergent thinking both below and above IQ's given in a game-like manner (aiming to facilitate creativ- of 120. Preckel et al.,*[91] investigating fluid intelligence ity). Inter-correlations between creativity tests were on and creativity, reported small correlations of r = .3 to r = average r = .41. Inter-correlations between intelligence .4 across all levels of cognitive ability. measures were on average r = .51 with each other. Cre- ativity tests and intelligence measures correlated r = .09.

Creativity and intelligence as coincident sets

Under this view, researchers posit that there are no dif- 7.2.8 Neuroscience ferences in the mechanisms underlying creativity in those used in normal problem solving; and in normal problem The neuroscience of creativity looks at the operation of solving, there is no need for creativity. Thus, creativity the brain during creative behaviour. It has been ad- * and Intelligence (problem solving) are the same thing. dressed [95] in the article “Creative Innovation: Pos- Perkins*[92] referred to this as the ‘nothing-special’ sible Brain Mechanisms.”The authors write that “cre- view. ative innovation might require coactivation and commu- * nication between regions of the brain that ordinarily are Weisberg & Alba [93] examined problem solving by not strongly connected.”Highly creative people who excel having participants complete the 9-dot problem (see at creative innovation tend to diﬀer from others in three Thinking outside the box#Nine dots puzzle) – where the ways: participants are asked to connect all 9 dots in the 3 rows of 3 dots using 4 straight lines or less, without lifting their pen or tracing the same line twice. The problem can only • they have a high level of specialized knowledge, be solved if the lines go outside the boundaries of the square of dots. Results demonstrated that even when participants were given this insight, they still found it diﬃcult • they are capable of divergent thinking mediated by to solve the problem, thus showing that to successfully the frontal lobe. complete the task it is not just insight (or creativity) that is required. • and they are able to modulate neurotransmitters such as norepinephrine in their frontal lobe.

Creativity and intelligence as disjoint sets Thus, the frontal lobe appears to be the part of the cortex In this view, creativity and intelligence are completely that is most important for creativity. different, unrelated constructs. This article also explored the links between creativity and Getzels and Jackson*[62] administered 5 creativity mea- sleep, mood and addiction disorders, and depression. sures to a group of 449 children from grades 6-12, and In 2005, Alice Flaherty presented a three-factor model compared these test findings to results from previously of the creative drive. Drawing from evidence in brain administered (by the school) IQ tests. They found that the imaging, drug studies and lesion analysis, she described correlation between the creativity measures and IQ was r the creative drive as resulting from an interaction of the = .26. The high creativity group scored in the top 20% of frontal lobes, the temporal lobes, and dopamine from the the overall creativity measures, but were not included in limbic system. The frontal lobes can be seen as respon- the top 20% of IQ scorers. The high intelligence group sible for idea generation, and the temporal lobes for idea scored the opposite: they scored in the top 20% for IQ, editing and evaluation. Abnormalities in the frontal lobe but were outside the top 20% scorers for creativity, thus (such as depression or anxiety) generally decrease cre- showing that creativity and intelligence are distinct and ativity, while abnormalities in the temporal lobe often in- unrelated. crease creativity. High activity in the temporal lobe typ- However, this work has been heavily criticised. Wallach ically inhibits activity in the frontal lobe, and vice versa. and Kogan*[64] highlighted that the creativity measures High dopamine levels increase general arousal and goal were not only weakly related to one another (to the ex- directed behaviors and reduce latent inhibition, and all tent that they were no more related to one another than three effects increase the drive to generate ideas.*[96] A they were with IQ), but they seemed to also draw upon 2015 study on creativity found that it involves the interac- non-creative skills. McNemar*[94] noted that there were tion of multiple neural networks, including those that sup- major measurement issues, in that the IQ scores were a port associative thinking, along with other default mode mixture from 3 different IQ tests. network functions.*[97] 7.2. CREATIVITY 131

Working memory and the cerebellum explains the success of the self-driven, individualized pat- terning of repetitions initiated by the teaching methods of the Khan Academy. The model proposed by Vandervert * Vandervert [98] described how the brain's frontal lobes has, however, received incisive critique from several au- and the cognitive functions of the cerebellum collabo- thors.*[110]*[111] rate to produce creativity and innovation. Vandervert's explanation rests on considerable evidence that all processes of working memory (responsible for processing all REM sleep thought*[99]) are adaptively modeled for increased efficiency by the cerebellum.*[100] The cerebellum (consist- Creativity involves the forming of associative ele- ing of 100 billion neurons, which is more than the entirety ments into new combinations that are useful or meet of the rest of the brain*[101]) is also widely known to some requirement. Sleep aids this process.*[112] adaptively model all bodily movement for efficiency. The REM rather than NREM sleep appears to be re- cerebellum's adaptive models of working memory pro- sponsible.*[113]*[114] This has been suggested to cessing are then fed back to especially frontal lobe work- be due to changes in cholinergic and noradrenergic ing memory control processes*[102] where creative and neuromodulation that occurs during REM sleep.*[113] innovative thoughts arise.*[103] (Apparently, creative in- During this period of sleep, high levels of acetylcholine in sight or the “aha”experience is then triggered in the the hippocampus suppress feedback from the hippocam- temporal lobe.*[104]) pus to the neocortex, and lower levels of acetylcholine According to Vandervert, the details of creative adapta- and norepinephrine in the neocortex encourage the spread tion begin in“forward”cerebellar models which are antic- of associational activity within neocortical areas without * ipatory/exploratory controls for movement and thought. control from the hippocampus. [115] This is in contrast These cerebellar processing and control architectures to waking consciousness, where higher levels of nore- have been termed Hierarchical Modular Selection and pinephrine and acetylcholine inhibit recurrent connec- Identification for Control (HMOSAIC).*[105] New, hi- tions in the neocortex. It is proposed that REM sleep adds erarchically arranged levels of the cerebellar control ar- creativity by allowing “neocortical structures to reorga- chitecture (HMOSAIC) develop as mental mulling in nize associative hierarchies, in which information from working memory is extended over time. These new levels the hippocampus would be reinterpreted in relation to * of the control architecture are fed forward to the frontal previous semantic representations or nodes.” [113] lobes. Since the cerebellum adaptively models all movement and all levels of thought and emotion,*[106] Van- dervert's approach helps explain creativity and innovation 7.2.9 Affect in sports, art, music, the design of video games, technology, mathematics, the child prodigy, and thought in gen- Some theories suggest that creativity may be particularly eral. susceptible to affective influence. As noted in voting behavior, the term“affect”in this context can refer to liking Essentially, Vandervert has argued that when a person is or disliking key aspects of the subject in question. This confronted with a challenging new situation, visual-spatial work largely follows from findings in psychology regard- working memory and speech-related working memory ing the ways in which affective states are involved in hu- are decomposed and re-composed (fractionated) by the man judgment and decision-making.*[116] cerebellum and then blended in the cerebral cortex in an attempt to deal with the new situation. With repeated attempts to deal with challenging situations, the cerebro- Positive affect relations cerebellar blending process continues to optimize the efficiency of how working memory deals with the situation According to Alice Isen, positive affect has three primary or problem.*[107] Most recently, he has argued that this effects on cognitive activity: is the same process (only involving visual-spatial working memory and pre-language vocalization) that led to the * 1. Positive affect makes additional cognitive material evolution of language in humans. [108] Vandervert and available for processing, increasing the number of Vandervert-Weathers have pointed out that this blend- cognitive elements available for association; ing process, because it continuously optimizes efficien- cies, constantly improves prototyping attempts toward 2. Positive affect leads to defocused attention and the invention or innovation of new ideas, music, art, or a more complex cognitive context, increasing the * technology. [109] Prototyping, they argue, not only pro- breadth of those elements that are treated as rele- duces new products, it trains the cerebro-cerebellar path- vant to the problem; ways involved to become more efficient at prototyping itself. Further, Vandervert and Vandervert-Weathers be- 3. Positive affect increases cognitive flexibility, in- lieve that this repetitive“mental prototyping”or mental creasing the probability that diverse cognitive el- rehearsal involving the cerebellum and the cerebral cortex ements will in fact become associated. Together, 132 CHAPTER 7. DAY 7

these processes lead positive affect to have a posi- patterns in both actions and observations. This motivates tive influence on creativity. the agent to perform continual, open-ended, active, creative exploration. Barbara Fredrickson in her broaden-and-build model sug- According to Schmidhuber, his objective func- gests that positive emotions such as joy and love broaden tion explains the activities of scientists, artists, and a person's available repertoire of cognitions and actions, comedians.*[121]*[122] For example, physicists are thus enhancing creativity. motivated to create experiments leading to observations According to these researchers, positive emotions in- obeying previously unpublished physical laws permitting crease the number of cognitive elements available for as- better data compression. Likewise, composers receive sociation (attention scope) and the number of elements intrinsic reward for creating non-arbitrary melodies that are relevant to the problem (cognitive scope). with unexpected but regular harmonies that permit Various meta-analyses, such as Baas et al. (2008) of 66 wow-effects through data compression improvements. “ studies about creativity and affect support the link be- Similarly, a comedian gets intrinsic reward for in- tween creativity and positive affect.*[117]*[118] venting a novel joke with an unexpected punch line, related to the beginning of the story in an initially unexpected but quickly learnable way that also allows 7.2.10 Creativity and artificial intelligence for better compression of the perceived data.”*[123] Schmidhuber argues that ongoing computer hardware Jürgen Schmidhuber's formal theory of creativ- advances will greatly scale up rudimentary artificial ity*[119]*[120] postulates that creativity, curiosity, and scientists and artists based on simple implementations of interestingness are by-products of a simple computational the basic principle since 1990.*[124] He used the theory principle for measuring and optimizing learning progress. to create low-complexity art*[125] and an attractive Consider an agent able to manipulate its environment and human face.*[126] thus its own sensory inputs. The agent can use a black box optimization method such as reinforcement learning to learn (through informed trial and error) sequences of 7.2.11 Mental health actions that maximize the expected sum of its future reward signals. There are extrinsic reward signals for Main article: Creativity and mental illness achieving externally given goals, such as finding food when hungry. But Schmidhuber's objective function to be maximized also includes an additional, intrinsic A study by psychologist J. Philippe Rushton “ ” found creativity to correlate with intelligence and term to model wow-effects. This non-standard term * motivates purely creative behavior of the agent even psychoticism. [127] Another study found creativity to be greater in schizotypal than in either normal or when there are no external goals. A wow-effect is formally defined as follows. As the agent is creating schizophrenic individuals. While divergent thinking was associated with bilateral activation of the prefrontal and predicting and encoding the continually growing cortex, schizotypal individuals were found to have much history of actions and sensory inputs, it keeps improving * the predictor or encoder, which can be implemented greater activation of their right prefrontal cortex. [128] as an artificial neural network or some other machine This study hypothesizes that such individuals are bet- learning device that can exploit regularities in the data to ter at accessing both hemispheres, allowing them to improve its performance over time. The improvements make novel associations at a faster rate. In agreement can be measured precisely, by computing the difference with this hypothesis, ambidexterity is also associated in computational costs (storage size, number of required with schizotypal and schizophrenic individuals. Three synapses, errors, time) needed to encode new observa- recent studies by Mark Batey and Adrian Furnham have demonstrated the relationships between schizoty- tions before and after learning. This difference depends * * * on the encoder's present subjective knowledge, which pal [129] [130] and hypomanic personality [131] and changes over time, but the theory formally takes this into several different measures of creativity. account. The cost difference measures the strength of Particularly strong links have been identified between cre- the present “wow-effect”due to sudden improvements ativity and mood disorders, particularly manic-depressive in data compression or computational speed. It becomes disorder (a.k.a. bipolar disorder) and depressive disorder an intrinsic reward signal for the action selector. The (a.k.a. unipolar disorder). In Touched with Fire: Manic- objective function thus motivates the action optimizer Depressive Illness and the Artistic Temperament, Kay Red- to create action sequences causing more wow-effects. field Jamison summarizes studies of mood-disorder rates Irregular, random data (or noise) do not permit any in writers, poets, and artists. She also explores re- wow-effects or learning progress, and thus are “boring” search that identifies mood disorders in such famous writ- by nature (providing no reward). Already known and ers and artists as Ernest Hemingway (who shot him- predictable regularities also are boring. Temporarily self after electroconvulsive treatment), Virginia Woolf interesting are only the initially unknown, novel, regular (who drowned herself when she felt a depressive episode 7.2. CREATIVITY 133 coming on), composer Robert Schumann (who died in (iii) “Motivation”(Intrinsic, Extrinsic and a mental institution), and even the famed visual artist Achievement) Michelangelo. (iv)“Confidence”(Producing, Sharing and Im- A study looking at 300,000 persons with schizophrenia, plementing) bipolar disorder, or unipolar depression, and their relatives, found overrepresentation in creative professions for those with bipolar disorder as well as for undiagnosed This model was developed in a sample of 1000 working siblings of those with schizophrenia or bipolar disorder. adults using the statistical techniques of Exploratory Fac- tor Analysis followed by Confirmatory Factor Analysis by There was no overall overrepresentation, but overrepre- * sentation for artistic occupations, among those diagnosed Structural Equation Modelling. [136] with schizophrenia. There was no association for those An important aspect of the creativity profiling approach with unipolar depression or their relatives.*[132] is to account for the tension between predicting the cre- Another study involving more than one million people, ative profile of an individual, as characterised by the psychometric approach, and the evidence that team cre- conducted by Swedish researchers at the Karolinska In- * stitute, reported a number of correlations between creativity is founded on diversity and difference. [137] ative occupations and mental illnesses. Writers had a One characteristic of creative people, as measured by higher risk of anxiety and bipolar disorders, schizophre- some psychologists, is what is called divergent production. nia, unipolar depression, and substance abuse, and were divergent production is the ability of a person to gener- almost twice as likely as the general population to kill ate a diverse assortment, yet an appropriate amount of themselves. Dancers and photographers were also more responses to a given situation.*[138] One way of measur- likely to have bipolar disorder.*[133] ing divergent production is by administering the Torrance * However, as a group, those in the creative professions Tests of Creative Thinking. [139] The Torrance Tests of were no more likely to suffer from psychiatric disorders Creative Thinking assesses the diversity, quantity, and than other people, although they were more likely to have appropriateness of participants responses to a variety of a close relative with a disorder, including anorexia and, to open-ended questions. some extent, autism, the Journal of Psychiatric Research Other researchers of creativity see the difference in cre- reports.*[133] ative people as a cognitive process of dedication to prob- According to psychologist Robert Epstein, PhD, creativ- lem solving and developing expertise in the field of their ity can be obstructed through stress.*[134] creative expression. Hard working people study the work of people before them and within their current area, become experts in their fields, and then have the ability 7.2.12 Creativity and personality to add to and build upon previous information in innovative and creative ways. In a study of projects by Creativity can be expressed in a number of different design students, students who had more knowledge on forms, depending on unique people and environments. A their subject on average had greater creativity within their number of different theorists have suggested models of projects.*[140] the creative person. One model suggests that there are The aspect of motivation within a person's personality kinds to produce growth, innovation, speed, etc. These may predict creativity levels in the person. Motivation are referred to as the four “Creativity Profiles”that can stems from two different sources, intrinsic and extrin- * help achieve such goals. [135] sic motivation. Intrinsic motivation is an internal drive within a person to participate or invest as a result of per- (i) Incubate (Long-term Development) sonal interest, desires, hopes, goals, etc. Extrinsic mo- (ii) Imagine (Breakthrough Ideas) tivation is a drive from outside of a person and might (iii) Improve (Incremental Adjustments) take the form of payment, rewards, fame, approval from others, etc. Although extrinsic motivation and intrinsic (iv) Invest (Short-term Goals) motivation can both increase creativity in certain cases, strictly extrinsic motivation often impedes creativity in Research by Dr Mark Batey of the Psychometrics at people.*[141] Work Research Group at Manchester Business School has suggested that the creative profile can be explained by From a personality-traits perspective, there are a num- four primary creativity traits with narrow facets within ber of traits that are associated with creativity in peo- each ple.*[142] Creative people tend to be more open to new experiences, are more self-confident, are more ambitious, (i) “Idea Generation”(Fluency, Originality, self-accepting, impulsive, driven, dominant, and hostile, Incubation and Illumination) compared to people with less creativity. (ii)“Personality”(Curiosity and Tolerance for From an evolutionary perspective, creativity may be a re- Ambiguity) sult of the outcome of years of generating ideas. As ideas 134 CHAPTER 7. DAY 7

are continuously generated, the need to evolve produces a thinking. Researches Harris and Reiter-Palmon investi- need for new ideas and developments. As a result, people gated the role of aggression in levels of MC, in particu- have been creating and developing new, innovative, and lar levels of implicit aggression and the tendency to em- creative ideas to build our progress as a society.*[143] ploy aggressive actions in response to problem solving. In studying exceptionally creative people in history, some The personality traits of physical aggression, conscien- tiousness, emotional intelligence and implicit aggression common traits in lifestyle and environment are often * found. Creative people in history usually had supportive all seem to be related with MC. [148] Harris and Reiter- parents, but rigid and non-nurturing. Most had an interest Palmon's research showed that when subjects were presented with a problem that triggered malevolent creativ- in their field at an early age, and most had a highly supportive and skilled mentor in their field of interest. Of- ity, participants high in implicit aggression and low in premeditation expressed the largest number of malevolently- ten the field they chose was relatively uncharted, allowing for their creativity to be expressed more in a field with themed solutions. When presented with the more benign problem that triggered prosocial motives of helping oth- less previous information. Most exceptionally creative people devoted almost all of their time and energy into ers and cooperating, those high in implicit aggression, even if they were high in impulsiveness, were far less de- their craft, and after about a decade had a creative breakthrough of fame. Their lives were marked with extreme structive in their imagined solutions. They concluded pre- dedication and a cycle of hard-work and breakthroughs meditation, more than implicit aggression controlled an ’ * as a result of their determination.*[144] individual s expression of malevolent creativity. [149] Another theory of creative people is the investment the- The current measure for malevolent creativity is the 13 item test Malevolent Creativity Behaviour Scale (MCBS) ory of creativity. This approach suggest that there are * many individual and environmental factors that must ex- [150] ist in precise ways for extremely high levels of creativity opposed to average levels of creativity. In the invest- Malevolent Creativity and Crime ment sense, a person with their particular characteristics in their particular environment may see an opportunity Malevolent creativity has strong links with crime. As cre- to devote their time and energy into something that has ativity requires deviating from the conventional, there is a been overlooked by others. The creative person develops permanent tension between being creative and producing an undervalued or under-recognised idea to the point that products that go too far and in some cases to the point of it is established as a new and creative idea. Just like in breaking the law. Aggression is a key predictor of malev- the financial world, some investments are worth the buy olent creativity, studies have also shown that increased in, while others are less productive and do not build to the levels of aggression also correlates to a higher likelihood extent that the investor expected. This investment theory of committing crime.*[151] of creativity views creativity in a unique perspective compared to others, by asserting that creativity might rely to some extent on the right investment of effort being added to a field at the right time in the right way.*[145] 7.2.14 Creativity across cultures

Creativity is viewed differently in different coun- 7.2.13 Malevolent creativity tries.*[152] For example, cross-cultural research centred on Hong Kong found that Westerners view creativity Malevolent creativity (MC) focuses on the 'darker side' more in terms of the individual attributes of a creative of creativity.*[146] This type of creativity is not typi- person, such as their aesthetic taste, while Chinese peo- cally accepted within society and is defined by the inten- ple view creativity more in terms of the social influence tion to cause harm to others through original and inno- of creative people e.g. what they can contribute to so- vative means. MC should be distinguished from negative ciety.*[153] Mpofu et al. surveyed 28 African languages creativity in that negative creativity may unintentionally and found that 27 had no word which directly translated to cause harm to others, whereas MC is explicitly malevo- 'creativity' (the exception being Arabic).*[154] The prin- lently motivated. MC is often a key contributor to crime ciple of linguistic relativity, i.e. that language can af- and in it's most destructive form can even manifest as ter- fect thought, suggests that the lack of an equivalent word rorism. However, MC can also be observed in ordinary for 'creativity' may affect the views of creativity among day to day life as lying, cheating and betrayal.*[147] Al- speakers of such languages. However, more research though everyone shows some levels of MC under certain would be needed to establish this, and there is certainly conditions, those that have a higher propensity towards no suggestion that this linguistic difference makes people malevolent creativity have increased tendencies to de- any less (or more) creative; Africa has a rich heritage of ceive and manipulate others to their own gain. Although creative pursuits such as music, art, and storytelling. Nev- levels of MC appear to dramatically increase when an in- ertheless, it is true that there has been very little research dividual is placed under unfair conditions, personality is on creativity in Africa,*[155] and there has also been very also a key predictor in anticipating levels of malevolent little research on creativity in Latin America.*[156] Cre- 7.2. CREATIVITY 135 ativity has been more thoroughly researched in the north- • Challenge – matching people with the right assign- ern hemisphere, but here again there are cultural differ- ments; ences, even between countries or groups of countries in • close proximity. For example, in Scandinavian countries, Freedom – giving people autonomy choosing means creativity is seen as an individual attitude which helps in to achieve goals; coping with life's challenges,*[157] while in Germany, • Resources – such as time, money, space, etc. There creativity is seen more as a process that can be applied must be balance fit among resources and people; to help solve problems.*[158] • Work group features – diverse, supportive teams, where members share the excitement, willingness to 7.2.15 In organizations help, and recognize each other's talents;

• Supervisory encouragement – recognitions, cheer- ing, praising;

• Organizational support – value emphasis, information sharing, collaboration.

Nonaka, who examined several successful Japanese companies, similarly saw creativity and knowledge creation as being important to the success of organizations.*[160] In particular, he emphasized the role that tacit knowledge has to play in the creative process. In business, originality is not enough. The idea must also be appropriate—useful and actionable.*[161]*[162] Training meeting in an eco-design stainless steel company in Creative competitive intelligence is a new solution to Brazil. The leaders among other things wish to cheer and encourage the workers in order to achieve a higher level of creativity. solve this problem. According to Reijo Siltala it links creativity to innovation process and competitive intelligence It has been the topic of various research studies to es- to creative workers. tablish that organizational effectiveness depends on the Creativity can be encouraged in people and professionals creativity of the workforce to a large extent. For any and in the workplace. It is essential for innovation, and given organization, measures of effectiveness vary, de- is a factor affecting economic growth and businesses. In pending upon its mission, environmental context, nature 2013, the sociologist Silvia Leal Martín, using the Innova of work, the product or service it produces, and customer 3DX method, suggested measuring the various parame- demands. Thus, the first step in evaluating organizational ters that encourage creativity and innovation: corporate effectiveness is to understand the organization itself — culture, work environment, leadership and management, how it functions, how it is structured, and what it empha- creativity, self-esteem and optimism, locus of control and sizes. learning orientation, motivation, and fear.*[163] Amabile*[159] argued that to enhance creativity in business, three components were needed: 7.2.16 Economic views of creativity • Expertise (technical, procedural and intellectual Economic approaches to creativity have focussed on three knowledge), aspects —the impact of creativity on economic growth, • Creative thinking skills (how flexibly and imagina- methods of modelling markets for creativity, and the tively people approach problems), maximisation of economic creativity (innovation). • and Motivation (especially intrinsic motivation). In the early 20th century, Joseph Schumpeter introduced the economic theory of creative destruction, to describe the way in which old ways of doing things are en- There are two types of motivation: dogenously destroyed and replaced by the new. Some economists (such as Paul Romer) view creativity as an im- • extrinsic motivation – external factors, for example portant element in the recombination of elements to pro- threats of being fired or money as a reward, duce new technologies and products and, consequently, • intrinsic motivation – comes from inside an individ- economic growth. Creativity leads to capital, and creative ual, satisfaction, enjoyment of work, etc. products are protected by intellectual property laws. Mark A. Runco and Daniel Rubenson have tried to de- Six managerial practices to encourage motivation are: scribe a "psychoeconomic" model of creativity.*[164] In 136 CHAPTER 7. DAY 7

such a model, creativity is the product of endowments and Some see the conventional system of schooling as “sti- active investments in creativity; the costs and benefits of fling”of creativity and attempt (particularly in the bringing creative activity to market determine the supply preschool/kindergarten and early school years) to pro- of creativity. Such an approach has been criticised for vide a creativity-friendly, rich, imagination-fostering en- its view of creativity consumption as always having posi- vironment for young children.*[167]*[168]*[169] Re- tive utility, and for the way it analyses the value of future searchers have seen this as important because technol- innovations.*[165] ogy is advancing our society at an unprecedented rate The creative class is seen by some to be an important and creative problem solving will be needed to cope with these challenges as they arise.*[169] In addition to driver of modern economies. In his 2002 book, The Rise of the Creative Class, economist Richard Florida popular- helping with problem solving, creativity also helps stu- “ dents identify problems where others have failed to do ized the notion that regions with 3 T's of economic de- * * * velopment: Technology, Talent and Tolerance”also have so. [167] [168] [170] See the Waldorf School as an example of an education program that promotes creative high concentrations of creative professionals and tend to have a higher level of economic development. thought. Promoting intrinsic motivation and problem solving are two areas where educators can foster creativity 7.2.17 Fostering creativity in students. Students are more creative when they see a task as intrinsically motivating, valued for its Main article: Creativity techniques own sake.*[168]*[169]*[171]*[172] To promote creative thinking, educators need to identify what motivates their Daniel Pink, in his 2005 book A Whole New Mind, re- students and structure teaching around it. Providing stu- peating arguments posed throughout the 20th century, ar- dents with a choice of activities to complete allows them gues that we are entering a new age where creativity is be- to become more intrinsically motivated and therefore cre- * * coming increasingly important. In this conceptual age, we ative in completing the tasks. [167] [173] will need to foster and encourage right-directed thinking Teaching students to solve problems that do not have well (representing creativity and emotion) over left-directed defined answers is another way to foster their creativ- thinking (representing logical, analytical thought). How- ity. This is accomplished by allowing students to explore ever, this simplification of 'right' versus 'left' brain think- problems and redefine them, possibly drawing on knowl- ing is not supported by the research data.*[166] edge that at first may seem unrelated to the problem in * * * * Nickerson*[167] provides a summary of the various cre- order to solve it. [167] [168] [169] [171] ativity techniques that have been proposed. These include Several different researchers have proposed methods of approaches that have been developed by both academia increasing the creativity of an individual. Such ideas and industry: range from the psychological-cognitive, such as Osborn- Parnes Creative Problem Solving Process, Synectics, 1. Establishing purpose and intention science-based creative thinking, Purdue Creative Think- ing Program, and Edward de Bono's lateral thinking; to 2. Building basic skills the highly structured, such as TRIZ (the Theory of Inven- tive Problem-Solving) and its variant Algorithm of Inven- 3. Encouraging acquisitions of domain-specific knowl- tive Problem Solving (developed by the Russian scientist edge Genrich Altshuller), and Computer-Aided morphological 4. Stimulating and rewarding curiosity and exploration analysis. Creativity has also been identified as one of the key 21st 5. Building motivation, especially internal motivation century skills and as one of the Four Cs of 21st century learning by educational leaders and theorists in the United 6. Encouraging confidence and a willingness to take States. risks

7. Focusing on mastery and self-competition 7.2.18 List of academic journals address- 8. Promoting supportable beliefs about creativity ing creativity

9. Providing opportunities for choice and discovery • Creativity Research Journal

10. Developing self-management (metacognitive skills) • Creativity. Theories – Research - Applications

11. Teaching techniques and strategies for facilitating • International Journal of Creative Computing creative performance • International Journal of Creativity and Problem 12. Providing balance Solving 7.2. CREATIVITY 137

• Journal of Creative Behavior [4] Torrance, Paul. “Verbal Tests. Forms A and B-Figural Tests, Forms A and B.”. The Torrance Tests of Cre- • Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts ative Thinking-Norms-Technical Manual Research Edi- tion. Princeton, New Jersey: Personnel Press. p. 6. • Thinking Skills and Creativity [5] Mel Rhodes: An Analysis of Creativity. in Phi Delta Kap- pan 1961, Vol. 42, No. 7, p. 306–307 7.2.19 See also [6] Gabora, Liane (1997).“The Origin and Evolution of Cul- • ture and Creativity”. Journal of Memetics – Evolutionary Adaptive performance Models of Information Transmission. 1. • Brainstorming [7] Sternberg, Robert J. (2009). Jaime A. Perkins; Dan Mon- • eypenny; Wilson Co, eds. Cognitive Psychology. CEN- Computational creativity GAGE Learning. p. 468. ISBN 978-0-495-50629-4. • Confabulation (neural networks) [8] Runco, Mark A.; Albert, Robert S. (2010). “Creativity Research”. In James C. Kaufman; Robert J. Sternberg. • E-scape, a technology and approach that looks The Cambridge Handbook of Creativity. Cambridge Uni- speciﬁcally at the assessment of creativity and col- versity Press. ISBN 978-0-521-73025-9. laboration. [9]“And eke Job saith, that in hell is no order of rule. And • Greatness albeit that God hath created all things in right order, and nothing without order, but all things be ordered and num- • Heroic theory of invention and scientiﬁc develop- bered, yet nevertheless they that be damned be not in or- ment der, nor hold no order.”

• Innovation [10] Władysław Tatarkiewicz, A History of Six Ideas: an Essay in Aesthetics, p. 244. • Invention (such as“artistic invention”in the visual arts) [11] Albert, R. S.; Runco, M. A. (1999). ":A History of Re- search on Creativity”. In Sternberg, R. J. Handbook of • Lateral thinking Creativity. Cambridge University Press.

• Learned industriousness [12] Plato, The Republic, Book X – wikisource:The Repub- lic/Book X • Malevolent creativity [13] Albert, R. S.; Runco, M. A. (1999). ":A History of Re- ” • Multiple discovery search on Creativity . In Sternberg, R. J. Handbook of Creativity. Cambridge University Press. p. 5. • Music therapy [14] Niu, Weihua; Sternberg, Robert J. (2006). “The Philo- • Musical improvisation sophical Roots of Western and Eastern Conceptions of Creativity”(PDF). Journal of Theoretical and Philosoph- • Management Innovation ical Psychology. 26: 18–38. doi:10.1037/h0091265. Re- trieved 23 October 2010.; cf. Michel Weber,"Creativity, • Why Man Creates (ﬁlm) Eﬃcacy and Vision: Ethics and Psychology in an Open Universe,”in Michel Weber and Pierfrancesco Basile (eds.), Subjectivity, Process, and Rationality, Frank- furt/Lancaster, ontos verlag, Process Thought XIV, 2006, 7.2.20 Notes pp. 263-281.

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• Smith, S. M.; Blakenship, S.E. (1 April 1991).“In- • Vandervert, L (2003a).“How working memory and cubation and the persistence of fixation in problem cognitive modeling functions of the cerebellum con- solving”. American Journal of Psychology. 104 (1): tribute to discoveries in mathematics”. New Ideas 61–87. doi:10.2307/1422851. ISSN 0002-9556. in Psychology. 21: 159–175. doi:10.1016/s0732- JSTOR 1422851. PMID 2058758. 118x(03)00012-6. • • Taylor, C. W. (1988). “Various approaches to Vandervert, L. (2003b). The neurophysiological ba- and definitions of creativity”. In Sternberg, R. J. sis of innovation. In L. V. Shavinina (Ed.) The The nature of creativity: Contemporary psychologi- international handbook on innovation (pp. 17–30). cal perspectives. Cambridge University Press. Oxford, England: Elsevier Science. • Vandervert, L (2011). “The evolution of lan- • Torrance, E. P. (1974). Torrance Tests of Creative guage: The cerebro-cerebellar blending of visual- Thinking. Personnel Press. spatial working memory with vocalizations”. The • von Franz, Marie-Louise, Psyche and Matter Journal of Mind and Behavior. 32: 317–334. (Shambhala, 1992) ISBN 0-87773-902-1 • Vandervert, L. (in press). How the blending of cerebellar internal models can explain the evolution of • Andersen B.; Korbo L.; Pakkenberg B. (1992). “A thought and language. Cerebellum. quantitative study of the human cerebellum with unbiased stereological techniques”. The Journal • Vandervert, L.; Schimpf, P.; Liu, H. (2007).“How of Comparative Neurology. 326 (4): 549–560. working memory and the cerebellum collaborate doi:10.1002/cne.903260405. PMID 1484123. to produce creativity and innovation [Special Is- sue]". Creativity Research Journal. 19 (1): 1–19. • Imamizu H.; Kuroda T.; Miyauchi S.; Yoshioka T.; doi:10.1080/10400410709336873. Kawato M. (2003). “Modular organization of in- • ternal models of tools in the cerebellum”. Proceed- Vandervert, L., & Vandervert-Weathers, K. (in ings of the National Academy of Sciences. 100 (9): press). New brain-imaging studies indicate how pro- 5461–5466. doi:10.1073/pnas.0835746100. PMC totyping is related to entrepreneurial giftedness and innovation education in children. In L. Shavinina 154367 . PMID 12704240. (Ed.), The International Handbook of Innovation • Jung-Beeman, M.; Bowden, E.; Haberman, J.; Education. London: Routlage. Frymiare, J.; Arambel-Liu, S.; Greenblatt, R.; Re- • DeGraff, J.; Lawrence, K. (2002). Creativity at ber, P.; Kounios, J. (2004). “Neural activity when Work. Jossey-Bass. ISBN 0-7879-5725-9. people solve verbal problems with insight”. PLOS Biology. 2: 500–510. • Gielen, P. (2013). Creativity and other Fundamen- talisms. Mondriaan: Amsterdam. • Miller E.; Cohen J. (2001). “An integrative theory of prefrontal cortex function”. An- nual Review of Neuroscience. 24: 167–202. 7.2.22 Further reading doi:10.1146/annurev.neuro.24.1.167. PMID • Chung-yuan, Chang (1970). Creativity and Taoism, 11283309. A Study of Chinese Philosophy, Art, and Poetry. New • Miyake, A., & Shah, P. (Eds.). (1999). Models York: Harper Torchbooks. ISBN 0-06-131968-6. of working memory: Mechanisms of active mainte- • Cropley, David H.; Cropley, Arthur J.; Kaufman, nance and executive control. New York: Cambridge James C.; et al., eds. (2010). The Dark Side University Press. of Creativity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-13960-1. Lay summary • Schmahmann, J. (Ed.). (1997). The cerebellum and (24 November 2010). cognition. New York: Academic Press. • Robinson, Andrew (2010). Sudden Genius?: The • Schmahmann J (2004). “Disorders of the cerebel- Gradual Path to Creative Breakthroughs. Oxford: lum: Ataxia, dysmetria of thought, and the cere- Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-956995- bellar cognitive affective syndrome”. Journal of 3. Lay summary (24 November 2010). Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience. 16 (3): • 367–378. doi:10.1176/appi.neuropsych.16.3.367. The Roots of Human Genius Are Deeper Than Ex- PMID 15377747. pected (March 10, 2013) Scientific American • Isaac Asimov (2014-10-20) on Cultivating Creativ- • Sullivan, Ceri and Graeme Harper, ed., The Creative ity Environment: Authors at Work (Cambridge: English Association/Boydell and Brewer, 2009) • John Cleese (2014-08-08) on Fostering Creativity 7.3. IMAGINATION 145

7.2.23 External links such as seeing or hearing. Imagination helps make knowledge applicable in solving problems and is funda- Videos mental to integrating experience and the learning process.*[1]*[2]*[3]*[4] A basic training for imagination is • Raphael DiLuzio (2012-06-28) on 7 Steps of Cre- listening to storytelling (narrative),*[1]*[5] in which the ative Thinking exactness of the chosen words is the fundamental factor to “evoke worlds”.*[6] It is accepted as the innate ability and process of inventing 7.3 Imagination partial or complete personal realms within the mind from elements derived from sense perceptions of the shared For other uses, see Imagination (disambiguation). world. The term is technically used in psychology for Imagination, also called the faculty of imagining, the process of reviving in the mind, percepts of objects formerly given in sense perception. Since this use of the term conﬂicts with that of ordinary language, some psychologists have preferred to describe this process as "imaging" or "imagery" or to speak of it as “reproductive”as opposed to“productive”or“constructive”imagination. Constructive imagination is further divided into voluntary top-down imagination driven by the prefrontal cortex, that is called mental synthesis, and spontaneous bottom up involuntary generation of novel images that occurs during dreaming. Imagined images, both novel and recalled, are seen with the "mind's eye". Imagination can also be expressed through stories such as fairy tales or fantasies. Children often use such narratives and pretend play in order to exercise their imaginations. When children develop fantasy they play at two levels: ﬁrst, they use role playing to act out what they have developed with their imagination, and at the second level they play again with their make-believe situation by acting as if what they have developed is an actual reality.*[7]

7.3.1 Description

The common use of the term is for the process of forming new images in the mind that have not been previously experienced with the help of what has been seen, heard, or felt before, or at least only partially or in diﬀerent combinations. Some typical examples follow:

• Fairy tale

• Fiction

• A form of verisimilitude often invoked in fantasy and science ﬁction invites readers to pretend such stories are true by referring to objects of the mind such as ﬁctional books or years that do not exist apart from an imaginary world.

Imagination, not being limited to the acquisition of ex- Olin Levi Warner, Imagination (1896). Library of Congress act knowledge by the requirements of practical necessity Thomas Jeﬀerson Building, Washington, D.C. is largely free from objective restraints. The ability to imagine one's self in another person's place is very impor- is the creative ability to form images, ideas, and sensa- tant to social relations and understanding. Albert Einstein tions in the mind without direct input from the senses, said,“Imagination ... is more important than knowledge. 146 CHAPTER 7. DAY 7

Knowledge is limited. Imagination encircles the world.” 7.3.3 Memory *[8] Memory and imagination have been shown to be affected In various spheres, however, even imagination is in prac- by one another.*[13] “Images made by functional mag- tice limited: thus a person whose imaginations do vio- netic resonance imaging technology show that remem- lence to the elementary laws of thought, or to the neces- bering and imagining sends blood to identical parts of sary principles of practical possibility, or to the reason- the brain.”*[13] An optimal balance of intrinsic, ex- able probabilities of a given case is usually regarded by traneous, and germane forms of information processing mental health professionals as insane. can heighten the chance of the brain to retain informa- The same limitations beset imagination in the field of tion as long term memories, rather than short term mem- scientific hypothesis. Progress in scientific research is due ories. This is significant because experiences stored as largely to provisional explanations which are developed long term memories are easier to be recalled, as they are by imagination, but such hypotheses must be framed in ingrained deeper in the mind. Each of these forms require relation to previously ascertained facts and in accordance information to be taught in a specific manner so as to use with the principles of the particular science. various regions of the brain when being processed.*[14] Imagination is an experimental partition of the mind used This information can potentially help develop programs to develop theories and ideas based on functions. Tak- for young students to cultivate or further enhance their ing objects from real perceptions, the imagination uses creative abilities from a young age. The neocortex and complex IF-functions to develop new or revised ideas. thalamus are responsible for controlling the brain's imag- This part of the mind is vital to developing better and ination, along with many of the brain's other functions * easier ways to accomplish old and new tasks. In soci- such as consciousness and abstract thought. [15] Since ology, Imagination is used to part ways with reality and imagination involves many different brain functions, such have an understanding of social interactions derived from as emotions, memory, thoughts, etc., portions of the brain a perspective outside of society itself. This leads to the where multiple functions occur—such as the thalamus development of theories through questions that wouldn't and neocortex—are the main regions where imaginative * usually be asked. These experimental ideas can be safely processing has been documented. [16] The understand- conducted inside a virtual world and then, if the idea is ing of how memory and imagination are linked in the probable and the function is true, the idea can be actual- brain, paves the way to better understand one's ability to ized in reality. Imagination is the key to new development link significant past experiences with their imagination. of the mind and can be shared with others, progressing collectively. 7.3.4 Perception Regarding the volunteer effort, imagination can be classified as: Piaget posited that perceptions depend on the world view of a person. The world view is the result of arranging perceptions into existing imagery by imagination. Piaget • voluntary (the dream from the sleep, the daydream) cites the example of a child saying that the moon is following her when she walks around the village at night. • involuntary (the reproductive imagination, the cre- Like this, perceptions are integrated into the world view ative imagination, the dream of perspective) to make sense. Imagination is needed to make sense of perceptions.*[17]

7.3.2 Psychology 7.3.5 Versus belief

Psychologists have studied imaginative thought, not only Imagination is diﬀerent from belief because the subject in its exotic form of creativity and artistic expression but understands that what is personally invented by the mind also in its mundane form of everyday imagination.*[9] does not necessarily aﬀect the course of action taken in Ruth M.J. Byrne has proposed that everyday imagina- the apparently shared world, while beliefs are part of what tive thoughts about counterfactual alternatives to reality one holds as truths about both the shared and personal may be based on the same cognitive processes on which worlds. The play of imagination, apart from the obvious rational thoughts are also based.*[10] Children can en- limitations (e.g. of avoiding explicit self-contradiction), gage in the creation of imaginative alternatives to reality is conditioned only by the general trend of the mind at from their very early years.*[11] Cultural psychology is a given moment. Belief, on the other hand, is immedi- currently elaborating a view of imagination as a higher ately related to practical activity: it is perfectly possible mental function involved in a number of everyday activ- to imagine oneself a millionaire, but unless one believes ities, both at the individual and collective level*[12] that it one does not, therefore, act as such. Belief endeavors to enables people to manipulate complex meanings of both conform to the subject's experienced conditions or faith linguistic and iconic forms in the process of experiencing. in the possibility of those conditions; whereas imagina- 7.3. IMAGINATION 147

tion as such is specifically free. The dividing line between nesses. In some cases, they can seem so “real”that imagination and belief varies widely in different stages of specific physical manifestations occur such as rashes and technological development. Thus in more extreme cases, bruises appearing on the skin, as though imagination had someone from a primitive culture who ill frames an ideal passed into belief or the events imagined were actually reconstruction of the causes of his illness, and attributes in progress. See, for example, psychosomatic illness and it to the hostile magic of an enemy based on faith and tra- folie a deux. dition rather than science. In ignorance of the science It has also been proposed that the whole of human cog- of pathology the subject is satisfied with this explana- nition is based upon imagination. That is, nothing that is tion, and actually believes in it, sometimes to the point perceived is purely observation but all is a blend between of death, due to what is known as the nocebo effect. sense and imagination. It follows that the learned distinction between imagination and belief depends in practice on religion, tradition, and culture. 7.3.8 See also

• Art 7.3.6 Brain activation • Creativity

A study using fMRI while subjects were asked to • Fictional countries imagine precise visual figures, to mentally disassemble • Idea them, or mentally blend them, showed activity in the occipital, frontoparietal, posterior parietal, precuneus, • Imagination inflation and dorsolateral prefrontal regions of the subject's brains.*[18] • Intuition (psychology) • Mimesis 7.3.7 As a reality • Sociological imagination • Truth The world as experienced is an interpretation of data ar- riving from the senses; as such, it is perceived as real by contrast to most thoughts and imaginings. Users of 7.3.9 References hallucinogenic drugs are said to have a heightened imagination. This difference is only one of degree and can [1] Norman 2000 pp. 1-2 be altered by several historic causes, namely changes to brain chemistry, hypnosis or other altered states of con- [2] Brian Sutton-Smith 1988, p. 22 sciousness, meditation, many hallucinogenic drugs, and [3] Archibald MacLeish 1970, p. 887 electricity applied directly to specific parts of the brain. The difference between imagined and perceived reality [4] Kieran Egan 1992, pp. 50 can be proven by psychosis. Many mental illnesses can [5] Northrop Frye 1963, p. 49 be attributed to this inability to distinguish between the sensed and the internally created worlds. Some cultures [6] As noted by Giovanni Pascoli and traditions even view the apparently shared world as [7] Laurence Goldman (1998). Child's play: myth, mimesis an illusion of the mind as with the Buddhist maya, or and make-believe. Oxford New York: Berg Publishers. go to the opposite extreme and accept the imagined and ISBN 1-85973-918-0. Basically what this means is that dreamed realms as of equal validity to the apparently the children use their make-believe situation and act as if shared world as the Australian Aborigines do with their what they are acting out is from a reality that already exists concept of dreamtime. even though they have made it up.

Imagination, because of having freedom from external [8] Viereck, George Sylvester (October 26, 1929).“What life limitations, can often become a source of real pleasure means to Einstein: an interview”. The Saturday Evening and unnecessary suﬀering. Consistent with this idea, Post. imagining pleasurable and fearful events is found to engage emotional circuits involved in emotional perception [9] Ward, T.B., Smith, S.M, & Vaid, J. (1997). Creative thought. Washington DC: APA and experience.*[19] A person of vivid imagination often suﬀers acutely from the imagined perils besetting friends, [10] Byrne, R.M.J. (2005). The Rational Imagination: How relatives, or even strangers such as celebrities. Also crip- People Create Alternatives to Reality. Cambridge, MA: pling fear can result from taking an imagined painful fu- MIT Press. ture too seriously. [11] Harris, P. (2000). The work of the imagination. London: Imagination can also produce some symptoms of real ill- Blackwell. 148 CHAPTER 7. DAY 7

[12] Tateo, L. (2015). Giambattista Vico and the psychologi- • Watkins, Mary: “Waking Dreams”[Harper cal imagination. Culture and Psychology, vol. 21(2):145- Colophon Books, 1976] and“Invisible Guests - The 161. Development of Imaginal Dialogues”[The Analytic Press, 1986] [13] Long, Priscilla (2011). My Brain On My Mind. p. 27. ISBN 1612301363. • Moss, Robert: “The Three “Only”Things: Tap- [14] Leahy, Wayne; John Sweller (5 June 2007). “The Imag- ping the Power of Dreams, Coincidence, and Imag- ination Eﬀect Increases with an Increased Intrinsic Cog- ination”[New World Library, September 10, 2007] nitive Load”. Applied Cognitive Psychology. 22: 275. • This article incorporates text from a publication now doi:10.1002/acp.1373. in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). [15] “Welcome to Brain Health and Puzzles!". Retrieved "*article name needed". Encyclopædia Britannica 2011-03-05. (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.

[16] “Welcome to ScienceForums.Net!". Three philosophers for whom imagination is a central [17] Piaget, J. (1967). The child's conception of the world. (J. concept are Kendall Walton, John Sallis and Richard & A. Tomlinson, Trans.). London: Routledge & Kegan Kearney. See in particular: Paul. BF721 .P5 1967X

[18] Alexander Schlegel, Peter J. Kohler, Sergey V. Fogelson, • Kendall Walton, Mimesis as Make-Believe: On the Prescott Alexander, Dedeepya Konuthula, and Peter Ulric Foundations of the Representational Arts. Har- Tse (Sep 16, 2013) Network structure and dynamics of the vard University Press, 1990. ISBN 0-674-57603-9 mental workspace PNAS early edition (pbk.). [19] Costa, VD, Lang, PJ, Sabatinelli, D, Bradley MM, • John Sallis, Force of Imagination: The Sense of the and Versace, F (2010). “Emotional imagery: As- Elemental (2000) sessing pleasure and arousal in the brain's reward circuitry”. Human Brain Mapping. 31 (9): 1446– • John Sallis, Spacings-Of Reason and Imagination. In 1457. doi:10.1002/hbm.20948. PMC 3620013 . PMID Texts of Kant, Fichte, Hegel (1987) 20127869. • Richard Kearney, The Wake of Imagination. Min- neapolis: University of Minnesota Press (1988); 1st 7.3.10 Further reading Paperback Edition- (ISBN 0-8166-1714-7) • Richard Kearney, “Poetics of Imagining: Modern • Byrne, R.M.J. (2005). The Rational Imagination: to Post-modern.”Fordham University Press (1998) How People Create Alternatives to Reality. Cam- bridge, MA: MIT Press

• Egan, Kieran (1992). Imagination in Teaching and 7.3.11 External links Learning. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. • • Fabiani, Paolo“The Philosophy of the Imagination • Imagination on In Our Time at the BBC.(listen now) in Vico and Malebranche”. F.U.P. (Florence UP), Italian edition 2002, English edition 2009. • Imagination, Mental Imagery, Consciousness, and Cognition: Scientiﬁc, Philosophical and Historical • Frye, N. (1963). The Educated Imagination. Approaches Toronto: Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. • Two-Factor Imagination Scale at the Open Direc- • Norman, Ron (2000) Cultivating Imagination in tory Project Adult Education Proceedings of the 41st Annual Adult Education Research. • “The neuroscience of imagination”. TED-Ed.

• Salazar, Noel B. (2011). The power of imagination in transnational mobilities. Identities: Global Stud- ies in Culture and Power 18(6):576-598.

• Sutton-Smith, Brian. (1988). In Search of the Imag- ination. In K. Egan and D. Nadaner (Eds.), Imagi- nation and Education. New York, Teachers College Press.

See also: Chapter 8

Day 8

8.1 Artistic inspiration gift of the Holy Spirit. In the 18th century philosopher John Locke proposed a model of the human mind in which ideas associate or res- onate with one another in the mind. In the 19th century, Romantic poets such as Coleridge and Shelley believed that inspiration came to a poet because the poet was attuned to the (divine or mystical)“winds”and because the soul of the poet was able to receive such visions. In the early 20th century, Psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud located inspiration in the inner psyche of the artist. Psychiatrist Carl Gustav Jung's theory of inspiration suggests that an artist is one who was attuned to racial memory, which encoded the archetypes of the human mind. The Marxist theory of art sees it as the expression of the friction between economic base and economic superstructural positions, or as an unaware dialog of competing ideologies, or as an exploitation of a“ﬁssure”in the ruling class's ideology. In modern psychology inspiration is not frequently studied, but it is generally seen as an entirely internal process.

8.1.1 History of the concepts

Ancient models of inspiration

In Greek thought, inspiration meant that the poet or artist would go into ecstasy or furor poeticus, the divine frenzy or poetic madness. He or she would be transported beyond his own mind and given the gods' or goddesses own A woman searches for inspiration, in this 1898 painting by thoughts to embody. William-Adolphe Bouguereau. Inspiration is prior to consciousness and outside of skill (ingenium in Latin). Technique and performance are in- Inspiration (from the Latin inspirare, meaning “to dependent of inspiration, and therefore it is possible for breathe into”) refers to an unconscious burst of creativity the non-poet to be inspired and for a poet or painter's skill in a literary, musical, or other artistic endeavour. The to be insuﬃcient to the inspiration. In Hebrew poetics, concept has origins in both Hellenism and Hebraism. The inspiration is similarly a divine matter. In the Book of Greeks believed that inspiration or "enthusiasm" came Amos, 3:8 the prophet speaks of being overwhelmed by from the muses, as well as the gods Apollo and Dionysus. God's voice and compelled to speak. However, inspira- Similarly, in the Ancient Norse religions, inspiration de- tion is also a matter of revelation for the prophets, and rives from the gods, such as Odin. Inspiration is also a the two concepts are intermixed to some degree. Reve- divine matter in Hebrew poetics. In the Book of Amos lation is a conscious process, where the writer or painter the prophet speaks of being overwhelmed by God's voice is aware and interactive with the vision, while inspiration and compelled to speak. In Christianity, inspiration is a is involuntary and received without any complete under-

149 150 CHAPTER 8. DAY 8

standing. Enlightenment and Romantic models In Christianity, inspiration is a gift of the Holy Spirit. Saint Paul said that all scripture is given by inspiration In the 18th century in England, nascent psychology com- of God (2 Timothy) and the account of Pentecost records peted with a renascent celebration of the mystical nature the Holy Spirit descending with the sound of a mighty of inspiration. John Locke's model of the human mind wind. This understanding of “inspiration”is vital for suggested that ideas associate with one another and that a those who maintain Biblical literalism, for the authors of string in the mind can be struck by a resonant idea. There- the scriptures would, if possessed by the voice of God, fore, inspiration was a somewhat random but wholly nat- not “filter”or interpose their personal visions onto the ural association of ideas and sudden unison of thought. text. For church fathers like Saint Jerome, David was the Additionally, Lockean psychology suggested that a natu- perfect poet, for he best negotiated between the divine ral sense or quality of mind allowed persons to see unity impulse and the human consciousness. in perceptions and to discern differences in groups. This “fancy”and“wit,”as they were later called, were both nat- In northern societies, such as Old Norse, inspiration was ural and developed faculties that could account for greater likewise associated with a gift of the gods. As with the or lesser insight and inspiration in poets and painters. Greek, Latin, and Romance literatures, Norse bards were inspired by a magical and divine state and then shaped the The musical model was satirized, along with the afflatus, words with their conscious minds. Their training was an and “fancy”models of inspiration, by Jonathan Swift attempt to learn to shape forces beyond the human. In in A Tale of a Tub. Swift's narrator suggests that mad- the Venerable Bede's account of Cædmon, the Christian ness is contagious because it is a ringing note that strikes and later Germanic traditions combine. Cædmon was a “chords”in the minds of followers and that the differ- herder with no training or skill at verse. One night, he ence between an inmate of Bedlam and an emperor was had a dream where Jesus asked him to sing. He then what pitch the insane idea was. At the same time, he composed Cædmon's Hymn, and from then on was a great satirized “inspired”radical Protestant ministers who poet. Inspiration in the story is the product of grace: it is preached through “direct inspiration.”In his prefatory unsought (though desired), uncontrolled, and irresistible, materials, he describes the ideal dissenter's pulpit as a and the poet's performance involves his whole mind and barrel with a tube running from the minister's posterior body, but it is fundamentally a gift. to a set of bellows at the bottom, whereby the minister could be inflated to such an extent that he could shout out his inspiration to the congregation. Furthermore, Swift saw fancy as an antirational, mad quality, where, “once a man's fancy gets astride his reason, common sense is Renaissance revival of furor poeticus kick't out of doors.” The divergent theories of inspiration that Swift satirized The Greco-Latin doctrine of the divine origin of poetry would continue, side by side, through the 18th and 19th was available to medieval authors through the writings centuries. Edward Young's Conjectures on Original Com- of Horace (on Orpheus) and others, but it was the Latin position was pivotal in the formulation of Romantic no- translations and commentaries by the neo-platonic author tions of inspiration. He said that genius is “the god Marsilio Ficino of Plato's dialogues Ion and (especially) within”the poet who provides the inspiration. Thus, Phaedrus at the end of the 15th century that led to a sig- Young agreed with psychologists who were locating in- nificant return of the conception of furor poeticus.*[1] spiration within the personal mind (and significantly away Ficino's commentaries explained how gods inspired the from the realm either of the divine or demonic) and yet poets, and how this frenzy was subsequently transmitted still positing a supernatural quality. Genius was an inex- to the poet's auditors through his rhapsodic poetry, al- plicable, possibly spiritual and possibly external, font of lowing the listener to come into contact with the divine inspiration. In Young's scheme, the genius was still some- through a chain of inspiration. Ficino himself sought to what external in its origin, but Romantic poets would experience ecstatic rapture in rhapsodic performances of soon locate its origin wholly within the poet. Roman- Orphic-Platonic hymns accompanied by a lyre.*[2] tic writers such as Ralph Waldo Emerson (The Poet), and The doctrine was also an important part of the poetic Percy Bysshe Shelley saw inspiration in terms similar to program of the French Renaissance poets collectively re- the Greeks: it was a matter of madness and irrationality. ferred to as La Pléiade (Pierre de Ronsard, Joachim du Inspiration came because the poet tuned himself to the Bellay, etc.); a full theory of divine fury / enthusiasm was (divine or mystical) “winds”and because he was made elaborated by Pontus de Tyard in his Solitaire Premier, ou in such a way as to receive such visions. Samuel Tay- Prose des Muses, et de la fureur poétique (Tyard classified lor Coleridge's accounts of inspiration were the most dra- four kinds of divine inspiration: (1) poetic fury, gift of matic, and his The Eolian Harp was only the best of the the Muses; (2) knowledge of religious mysteries, through many poems Romantics would write comparing poetry to Bacchus; (3) prophecy and divination through Apollo; (4) a passive reception and natural channelling of the divine inspiration brought on by Venus/Eros.)*[1] winds. The story he told about the composition of Kubla 8.2. MUSE 151

Khan has the poet reduced to the level of scribe. William • Epiphany (feeling) Butler Yeats would later experiment and value automatic writing. Inspiration was evidence of genius, and genius • Genius (literature), the development of the concept was a thing that the poet could take pride in, even though of the genius from daemon to innate gift he could not claim to have created it himself. • Glossolalia (or speaking in tongues) • Modernist and modern concepts Muses, the Classical source of inspiration

Sigmund Freud and other later psychologists located inspiration in the inner psyche of the artist. The artist's in- 8.1.3 References spiration came out of unresolved psychological conflict [1] Grahame Castor. Pléiade Poetics: A Study in Sixteenth- or childhood trauma. Further, inspiration could come di- Century Thought and Terminology. Cambridge University rectly from the subconscious. Like the Romantic genius Press: 1964, pp. 26–31. theory and the revived notion of“poetic phrenzy,”Freud saw artists as fundamentally special, and fundamentally [2] Michael J. B. Allen. “Renaissance Neoplatonism.”The wounded. Because Freud situated inspiration in the sub- Cambridge History of Literary Criticism. Vol III: The Re- conscious mind, Surrealist artists sought out this form naissance. Glyn P. Norton, ed. Cambridge U: 1999, pp. of inspiration by turning to dream diaries and automatic 436-438. ISBN 0-521-30008-8. writing, the use of Ouija boards and found poetry to try to tap into what they saw as the true source of art. Carl Gus- • Brogan, T.V.F.“Inspiration”in Alex Preminger and tav Jung's theory of inspiration reiterated the other side of T.V.F. Brogan, eds., The New Princeton Encyclope- the Romantic notion of inspiration indirectly by suggest- dia of Poetry and Poetics. Princeton, NJ: Princeton ing that an artist is one who was attuned to something im- University Press, 1993. 609-610. personal, something outside of the individual experience: racial memory. Materialist theories of inspiration again diverge between 8.2 Muse purely internal and purely external sources. Karl Marx did not treat the subject directly, but the Marxist theory For the English rock band, see Muse (band). For other of art sees it as the expression of the friction between eco- uses, see Muse (disambiguation). nomic base and economic superstructural positions, or as The Muses are the inspirational goddesses of literature, an unaware dialog of competing ideologies, or as an ex- science, and the arts in Greek mythology. They were ploitation of a “fissure”in the ruling class's ideology. considered the source of the knowledge embodied in the Therefore, where there have been fully Marxist schools poetry, lyric songs, and myths that were related orally of art, such as Soviet Realism, the “inspired”painter for centuries in these ancient cultures. They were later or poet was also the most class-conscious painter or poet, adopted by the Romans as a part of their pantheon. and "formalism" was explicitly rejected as decadent (e.g. Sergei Eisenstein's late films condemned as“formalist er- In current English usage,“muse”can refer in general to * ror”). Outside of state-sponsored Marxist schools, Marx- a person who inspires an artist, writer, or musician. [1] ism has retained its emphasis on the class consciousness of the inspired painter or poet, but it has made room for what Frederic Jameson called a “political unconscious” 8.2.1 Etymology that might be present in the artwork. However, in each of these cases, inspiration comes from the artist being par- The Muses /ˈmjuːzᵻz/ (Ancient Greek: Μοῦσαι, Moũsai; ticularly attuned to receive the signals from an external perhaps from the o-grade of the Proto-Indo-European “ ”* “ crisis. root *men- to think [2] or from root *men- to tower, mountain”, since all the most important cult-centres of In modern psychology, inspiration is not frequently stud- the Muses were on mountains or hills.*[3] ied, but it is generally seen as an entirely internal process. In each view, however, whether empiricist or mystical, inspiration is, by its nature, beyond control. 8.2.2 Number and names

The earliest known records of the Nine Muses are from 8.1.2 See also Boeotia, the homeland of Hesiod. Some ancient authorities thought that the Nine Muses were of Thracian ori- • Aﬄatus, the Romantic concept of inspiration gin.*[4] There, a tradition persisted that the Muses had * • Automatic writing once been three in number. [5] In the ﬁrst century BC, Diodorus Siculus quotes Hesiod to the contrary, observ- • Divine spark ing: 152 CHAPTER 8. DAY 8

Muse reading a scroll, perhaps Clio (Attic red-ﬁgure lekythos, Boeotia, c. 430 BC) Gustave Moreau: Hesiod and the Muse (1891)—Musée d'Orsay, Paris Writers similarly disagree also concerning the number of the Muses; for some say that were also reported in Plutarch's (46–120 AD) Quaes- there are three, and others that there are nine, tiones Convivales*[7] (9.I4.2–4).*[8] but the number nine has prevailed since it rests upon the authority of the most distinguished men, such as Homer and Hesiod and others like them.*[6]

Diodorus also states (Book I.18) that Osiris first recruited the nine Muses, along with the Satyrs or male dancers, while passing through Ethiopia, before embarking on a tour of all Asia and Europe, teaching the arts of cultiva- tion wherever he went. According to Hesiod's account The nine muses on a Roman sarcophagus (second century AD) (c. 600 BC), generally followed by the writers of antiq- —Louvre, Paris uity, the Nine Muses were the nine daughters of Zeus and “ ” Mnemosyne (i. e. Memory personified), figuring as However, the classical understanding of the muses tripled personifications of knowledge and the arts, especially lit- their triad, and established a set of nine goddesses, who erature, dance and music. embody the arts and inspire creation with their graces The Roman scholar Varro (116–27 BC) relates that there through remembered and improvised song and mime, are only three Muses: one who is born from the move- writing, traditional music, and dance. It was not un- ment of water, another who makes sound by striking the til Hellenistic times that the following systematic set of air, and a third who is embodied only in the human voice. functions was assigned to them, and even then there They were again called Melete or“Practice”, Mneme or was some variation in both their names and their at- “Memory”and Aoide or“Song”. Three ancient Muses tributes: Calliope (epic poetry), Clio (history), Euterpe 8.2. MUSE 153

(flutes and lyric poetry), Thalia (comedy and pastoral po- It was said that the winged horse Pegasus touched his etry), Melpomene (tragedy), Terpsichore (dance), Erato hooves to the ground on Helicon, causing four sacred (love poetry), Polyhymnia (sacred poetry), Urania (as- springs to burst forth, from which the muses were tronomy). born.*[11] Athena later tamed the horse and presented According to Pausanias in the later second century him to the muses. (Compare the Roman inspiring AD,*[9] there were three original Muses, worshiped on nymphs of springs, the Camenae, the Völva of Norse Mount Helicon in Boeotia: Aoidḗ (“song”or “tune” Mythology and also the apsaras in the mythology of clas- ), Melétē (“practice”or “occasion”), and Mnḗmē ( sical India.) “memory”). Together, these three form the complete Classical writers set Apollo as their leader, Apollon picture of the preconditions of poetic art in cult prac- Mousagetēs (“Apollo Muse-leader”).*[12] In one myth, tice. In Delphi three Muses were worshiped as well, but the Muses judged a contest between Apollo and Marsyas. with other names: Nḗtē, Mésē, and Hýpatē, which are They also gathered the pieces of the dead body of assigned as the names of the three chords of the ancient Orpheus, son of Calliope, and buried them. In a later musical instrument, the lyre. Alternatively they later were myth, Thamyris challenged them to a singing contest. called Kēphisṓ, Apollōnís, and Borysthenís, which names They won and punished Thamyris by blinding him and characterize them as daughters of Apollo. In later tra- robbing him of his singing ability. dition, a set of four Muses were recognized: Thelxinóē, According to a myth from Ovid's Metamorphoses—allud- Aoidḗ Archē, and Melétē, said to be daughters of Zeus ing to the connection of the Muses with Pieria—King and Plusia or of Uranus. Pierus, king of Macedon, had nine daughters he named One of the people frequently associated with the Muses after the nine Muses, believing that their skills were a was Pierus. By some he was called the father (by a great match to the Muses. He thus challenged the Muses Pimpleian nymph, called Antiope by Cicero) of a total of to a match, resulting in his daughters, the Pierides, be- seven Muses, called Neilṓ (Νειλώ), Tritṓnē (Τριτώνη), ing turned into chattering magpies for their presump- Asōpṓ (Ἀσωπώ), Heptápora (Ἑπτάπορα), Achelōís, tion.*[13] * Tipoplṓ (Τιποπλώ), and Rhodía (Ῥοδία). [10] Pausanias records a tradition of two generations of Muses; the first are the daughters of Uranus and Gaia, the 8.2.3 Mythology second of Zeus and Mnemosyne. Another, rarer genealogy is that they are daughters of Harmonia (the daugh- According to Hesiod's Theogony (seventh century BC), ter of Aphrodite and Ares), which contradicts the myth they were daughters of Zeus, the second generation king in which they were dancing at the wedding of Harmonia of the gods, and the offspring of Mnemosyne, goddess of and Cadmus. memory. For Alcman and Mimnermus, they were even more primordial, springing from the early deities, Uranus and Gaia. Gaia is Mother Earth, an early mother goddess 8.2.4 Emblems who was worshipped at Delphi from prehistoric times, long before the site was rededicated to Apollo, possibly Some Greek writers give the names of the nine Muses as indicating a transfer to association with him after that Kallichore, Helike, Eunike, Thelxinoë, Terpsichore, Eu- time. terpe, Eukelade, Dia, and Enope.*[14] In Renaissance and Neoclassical art, the dissemination of emblem books such as Cesare Ripa's Iconologia (1593 and many further editions) helped standardize the depiction of the Muses in sculpture and painting, so they could be distinguished by certain props. These props, or emblems, became readily identifiable by the viewer, enabling one immediately to recognize the Muse and the art with which they had become associated. Here again, Cal- liope (epic poetry) carries a writing tablet; Clio (history) carries a scroll and books; Euterpe (song and elegiac poetry) carries a flute, the aulos; Erato (lyric poetry) is often seen with a lyre and a crown of roses; Melpomene (tragedy) is often seen with a tragic mask; Polyhymnia Apollo and the Muses on Mount Helicon (1680) by Claude Lor- (sacred poetry) is often seen with a pensive expression; rain Terpsichore (choral dance and song) is often seen dancing and carrying a lyre; Thalia (comedy) is often seen with Sometimes the Muses are referred to as water nymphs, a comic mask; and Urania (astronomy) carries a pair of associated with the springs of Helicon and with Pieris. compasses and the celestial globe. 154 CHAPTER 8. DAY 8

Thalia, muse of comedy, holding a comic mask (detail from the Polyhymnia, the Muse of sacred poetry, sacred hymn and “Muses Sarcophagus”) eloquence as well as agriculture and pantomime.

8.2.5 Functions

In society

Greek mousa is a common noun as well as a type of goddess: it literally means “art”or “poetry”. According to Pindar, to “carry a mousa" is “to excel in the arts”. The word probably derives from the Indo-European root men-, which is also the source of Greek Mnemosyne, En- glish“mind”,“mental”and“memory”and Sanskrit "mantra". The Muses, therefore, were both the embodiments and sponsors of performed metrical speech: mousike (whence the English term“music”) was just“one of the arts of the Muses”. Others included Science, Geography, Math- ematics, Philosophy, and especially Art, Drama, and inspiration. In the archaic period, before the widespread availability of books (scrolls), this included nearly all of learning. The ﬁrst Greek book on astronomy, by The Muses Clio, Euterpe, and Thalia, by Eustache Le Sueur Thales, took the form of dactylic hexameters, as did many works of pre-Socratic philosophy. Both Plato and the Pythagoreans explicitly included philosophy as a named after the nine Muses. sub-species of mousike.*[15] The Histories of Herodotus, For poet and “law-giver”Solon,*[16] the Muses were whose primary medium of delivery was public recitation, “the key to the good life"; since they brought both pros- were divided by Alexandrian editors into nine books, perity and friendship. Solon sought to perpetuate his po- 8.2. MUSE 155 litical reforms by establishing recitations of his poetry— Besides Homer and Virgil, other famous works that complete with invocations to his practical-minded Muses included an invocation of the muse are the ﬁrst of —by Athenian boys at festivals each year. He believed the carmina by Catullus, Ovid's Metamorphoses and that the muses would help inspire people to do their best. Amores, Dante's Inferno (Canto II), Chaucer's Troilus and Criseyde (Book II), Shakespeare's Henry V (Act 1, Pro- logue), his 38th sonnet, and Milton's Paradise Lost (open- ing of Book 1).

The Muses Melpomene, Erato, and Polyhymnia, by Eustache Le Sueur

Invoking the Muse in literature

Ancient authors and their imitators invoke Muses when writing poetry, hymns or epic history. The invocation occurs near the beginning of their work. It asks for help or inspiration from the Muses, or simply invites the Muse to sing directly through the author. Originally, the invocation of the Muse was an indication that the speaker was working inside the poetic tradition, according to the established formulas. For example: Melpomene and Polyhymnia, Palacio de Bellas Artes, Mexico Homer, in Book I of The Odyssey: “ Sing to me of the man, Muse, the From cults to modern museums man of twists and turns driven time and again off course, When Pythagoras arrived at Croton, his first advice to once he had plundered the Crotoniates was to build a shrine to the Muses at the the hallowed heights of Troy.” center of the city, to promote civic harmony and learn- (Robert Fagles translation, 1996) ing. Local cults of the Muses often became associated with springs or with fountains. The Muses themselves Virgil, in Book I of the Aeneid: were sometimes called Aganippids because of their as- O Muse! the causes and the crimes sociation with a fountain called Aganippe. Other foun- relate; tains, Hippocrene and Pirene, were also important locations associated with the Muses. Some sources occasion- What goddess was provok'd, and ally referred to the Muses as“Corycides”(or“Corycian whence her hate; nymphs") after a cave on Mount Parnassos, called the For what offense the Queen of Corycian Cave. The Muses were venerated especially in Heav'n began Boeotia, in the Valley of the Muses near Helicon, and in To persecute so brave, so just a Delphi and the Parnassus, where Apollo became known man; [...] as Mousagetes“( Muse-leader”) after the sites were reded- (John Dryden translation, 1697) icated to his cult. 156 CHAPTER 8. DAY 8

Often Muse-worship was associated with the hero-cults art collection of Dante's Inferno by Dino Di Durante, of poets: the tombs of Archilochus on Thasos and of which is printed in books titled “Inferno - The Art Col- Hesiod and Thamyris in Boeotia all played host to fes- lection”available in 33 languages. This said collection tivals in which poetic recitations accompanied sacrifices was also featured in the medium length film Dante's Hell to the Muses. The Library of Alexandria and its circle of Animated by Boris Acosta. scholars formed around a mousaion (i. e. "museum" or There is a modern tendency to speak of Kinema as the shrine of the Muses) close to the tomb of Alexander the tenth Muse.*[19] Great. Many Enlightenment figures sought to re-establish a “Cult of the Muses”in the 18th century. A famous Masonic lodge in pre-Revolutionary Paris was called Les 8.2.7 Gallery Neuf Soeurs (“The Nine Sisters”, that is, the Nine Muses); Voltaire, Benjamin Franklin, Danton, and other influential Enlightenment figures attended it. As a side- effect of this movement the word“museum”(originally, “cult place of the Muses”) came to refer to a place for the public display of knowledge.

• Terpsichore

• Erato

• Clio

Chariot clock by Carlo Franzoni, 1819, depicting Clio.

8.2.6 Modern use

Not only are the Muses explicitly used in modern English • Thalia to refer to an artistic inspiration, as when one cites one's own artistic muse, but they also are implicit in words and phrases such as“amuse”,“museum”(Latinised from mouseion—a place where the muses were worshipped), “music”, and “musing upon”.*[17] In current literature, the influential role that the muse plays has been extended to the political sphere.*[18] Along with a majority of the Greek Gods, five of the Muses (Thalia, Clio, Cal- liope, Melpomene and Terpsicore) appeared in the Walt Disney animated film Hercules (based on Hercules). All • Polyhymnia nine muses appeared in several paintings in the 72-piece 8.2. MUSE 157

8.2.9 References

[1] "muse". The Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Re- trieved February 15, 2009.

[2] From which mind and mental are also derived; see Oxford English Dictionary. • Calliope [3] • A. B. Cook (1914), Zeus: A Study in Ancient Reli- gion, Vol. I, p. 104, Cambridge University Press

[4] H. Munro Chadwick, Nora K. Chadwick (2010). “The Growth of Literature”. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781108016155.

[5] At least, this was reported to Pausanias in the second century AD. Cfr. Karl Kerényi: The Gods of the Greeks, Thames & Hudson, London 1951, p. 104 and note 284.

• Apollo and the Muses [6] Diodorus Siculus, 4.7.1–2 (on-line text) [7] See also the Italian article on this writer.

[8] Diodorus, Plutarch and Pausanias are all noted by Susan Scheinberg, in reporting other Hellenic maiden triads, in “The Bee Maidens of the Homeric Hymn to Hermes”, Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, 83 (1979:1–28), p. 2.

[9] Pausanias, Description of Greece 9.29.1. • Euterpe [10] Smith, William; Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biogra- phy and Mythology, London (1873). “Musae”.

[11] “Elysium Gates - Historical Pegasus”.

[12] For example, Plato, Laws 653d.

[13] Ovid, Metamorphoses 5.677–78: “Now their previous eloquence also remained in the birds, as well as their stri- dent chattering and their great zeal for speaking.”See also Antoninus Liberalis 9. • Parnassus [14] Tzetzes, Scholia in Hesiodi Opera 1,23

[15] Strabo 10.3.10.

[16] Solon, fragment 13.

[17] OED derives “amuse”from French a- (“from”) and muser, “to stare stupidly or distractedly”.

• Urania and Melpomene [18] Adam J. Sorkin: Politics and the Muse. Studies in the Pol- itics of Recent American Literature. Bowling Green State University Popular Press, Bowling Green/OH 1989 (online version).

8.2.8 See also [19] http://www.kinema.uwaterloo.ca/article.php?id=405& feature • Apsara • Artistic inspiration 8.2.10 External links • Divine inspiration • The dictionary deﬁnition of Muse at Wiktionary • Leibethra • Media related to Muses at Wikimedia Commons • Pimpleia • Muses in the ancient art • Saraswati • Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (ca 1,000 • Muses in popular culture images of the Muses) 158 CHAPTER 8. DAY 8

8.3 Aﬄatus

Afflatus is a Latin term derived from Cicero (in De Na- tura Deorum (The Nature of the Gods)) that has been translated as “inspiration.”Cicero's usage was a literal- izing of“inspiration,”which had already become figurative. As“inspiration”came to mean simply the gathering of a new idea, Cicero reiterated the idea of a rush of unexpected breath, a powerful force that would render the poet helpless and unaware of its origin. Literally, the Latin “afflatus”means “to blow upon/toward”. It was originally spelt “adflatus,”made up of “ad”(to) and “flatus”(blowing/breathing), the noun form of “flāre”(to blow). It can be taken to mean “to be blown upon”by a divine wind, not unlike its English equivalent “inspiration,”which comes from “inspire,”meaning “to breathe/blow onto”. In English,“afflatus”is used for this literal form of inspiration. It generally refers not to the usual sudden originality, but to the staggering and stunning blow of a new idea, an idea that the recipient may be unable to explain. In Romantic literature and criticism, in particular, the usage of“afflatus”was revived for the mystical form of poetic inspiration tied to“genius”, such as the story Coleridge offered for the composition of Kubla Khan. The frequent usage of the Aeolian harp as a symbol for the poet was a play on the renewed emphasis on afflatus. See also: List of Latin phrases (N): “Nemo igitur vir magnus sine aliquo adflatu divino umquam fuit” (No great man ever existed who did not enjoy some portion of divine inspiration). Example: Divino afflante Spiritu ('Inspired by the Holy Spirit'), an encyclical letter of Pope Pius XII dealing with Biblical inspiration and biblical criticism, laying out his desire to see new translations from the original language instead of the Vulgate version.

8.3.1 References

• Brogan, T.V.F.“Inspiration”in Alex Preminger and T.V.F. Brogan, eds., The New Princeton Encyclope- dia of Poetry and Poetics. Princeton, NJ: Prince- ton University Press, 1993. p. 609. ISBN 978- 0691021232 Chapter 9

Day 9

9.1 Baroque

For other uses, see Baroque (disambiguation). The Baroque (US /bəˈroʊk/ or UK /bəˈrɒk/) is often

The Triumph of the Immaculate by Paolo de Matteis

The Church of Sant'Andrea al Quirinale, designed by Gian Lorenzo Bernini thought of as a period of artistic style which used exaggerated motion and clear, easily interpreted detail to produce drama, tension, exuberance, and grandeur in sculp- 9.1.1 Etymology ture, painting, architecture, literature, dance, theater, and music. The style began around 1600 in Rome and Italy, The French word baroque is derived from the Portuguese and spread to most of Europe.*[1] word “barroco”or Spanish “barrueco”both of which “ ” The popularity and success of the Baroque style was en- refer to a rough or imperfect pearl , though whether it entered those languages via Latin, Arabic, or some couraged by the Catholic Church, which had decided * at the time of the Council of Trent, in response to the other source is uncertain. [5] It is also yields the Ital- “ ” “ ” Protestant Reformation, that the arts should communi- ian barocco and modern Spanish barroco , Ger- “ ” “ ” cate religious themes with direct and emotional involve- man Barock , Dutch Barok , and so on. The ment.*[2]*[3] The aristocracy viewed the dramatic style 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica 11th edition thought the of Baroque art and architecture as a means of impress- term was derived from the Spanish barrueco, a large, irregularly-shaped pearl, and that it had for a time been ing visitors by projecting triumph, power, and control. * Baroque palaces are built around an entrance of courts, conﬁned to the craft of the jeweller. [6] Others derive it from the mnemonic term “Baroco”, a supposedly grand staircases, and reception rooms of sequentially in- * “ ” laboured form of syllogism in logical Scholastica. [7] The creasing opulence. However, baroque has a resonance * and application that extend beyond a simple reduction to Latin root can be found in bis-roca. [8] either a style or period.*[4] In informal usage, the word baroque can simply mean that

159 160 CHAPTER 9. DAY 9

Federico Barocci.

9.1.2 Modern taste and usage

The Swiss-born art historian, Heinrich Wölfflin (1864– 1945), started the rehabilitation of the word Baroque in his Renaissance und Barock (1888); Wölfflin identified the Baroque as “movement imported into mass”, an art antithetic to Renaissance art. He did not make the distinctions between Mannerism and Baroque that modern writers do, and he ignored the later phase, the academic Baroque that lasted into the 18th century. Long despised, Baroque art and architecture became fashion- able between the two World Wars, and has largely remained in critical favour. For example, the often extreme Sicilian Baroque architecture is today recognised largely due to the work of Sir Sacheverall Sitwell, whose Southern Baroque Art of 1924 was the first book to ap- preciate the style, followed by the more academic work of Anthony Blunt. In painting the gradual rise in popular esteem of Caravaggio has been the best barometer of modern taste. In art history it has become common to recognise “Baroque”stylistic phases, characterized by energetic Brooch of an African, Walters Art Museum movement and display, in earlier art, so that Sir John Boardman describes the ancient sculpture Laocoön and His Sons as“one of the finest examples of the Hellenistic something is “elaborate”, with many details, without baroque”,*[11] and a later phase of Imperial Roman reference to the Baroque styles of the 17th and 18th cen- sculpture is also often called“Baroque”. William Wat- turies. son describes a late phase of Shang-dynasty Chinese rit- * The word“Baroque”, like most periodic or stylistic des- ual bronzes of the 11th century BC as“baroque”. [12] ignations, was invented by later critics rather than practi- The term “Baroque”may still be used, usually pejora- tioners of the arts in the 17th and early 18th centuries. tively, describing works of art, craft, or design that are It is a French transliteration of the Portuguese phrase thought to have excessive ornamentation or complexity “pérola barroca”, which means“irregular pearl", and nat- of line. ural pearls that deviate from the usual, regular forms so they do not have an axis of rotation are known as "baroque pearls".*[9] 9.1.3 Development The term “Baroque”was initially used in a derogatory sense, to underline the excesses of its emphasis. In particular, the term was used to describe its eccentric redun- dancy and noisy abundance of details, which sharply contrasted the clear and sober rationality of the Renaissance. Although it was long thought that the word as a critical term was first applied to architecture, in fact it appears earlier in reference to music. In an anonymous satirical review of the première of Jean-Philippe Rameau's Hippolyte et Aricie in October 1733, which was printed in the Mercure de France in May 1734, the critic implied that the novelty in this opera was “du barocque”, complaining that the music lacked coherent melody, was unsparing with dissonances, constantly changed key and meter, and speedily ran through every compositional de- Aeneas Flees Burning Troy, Federico Barocci, 1598 vice.*[10] Another hypothesis says that the word comes from pre- The Baroque originated around 1600, several decades af- cursors of the style: Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola and ter the Council of Trent (1545–63), by which the Roman 9.1. BAROQUE 161

Catholic Church answered many questions of internal re- Bernini's David.) form and formulated policy on the representational arts The dryer, less dramatic and coloristic, chastened later by demanding that paintings and sculptures in church con- stages of 18th century Baroque architectural style are texts should speak to the illiterate rather than to the well- often seen as a separate Late Baroque manifestation, informed. Many art historians see this turn toward a pop- for example in buildings by Claude Perrault. Academic ulist conception of the function of ecclesiastical art as characteristics in the neo-Palladian style, epitomized by driving the innovations of Caravaggio and of the brothers William Kent, show a parallel development in Britain and Agostino and Annibale Carracci, all of whom were work- the British colonies: within interiors, Kent's furniture de- ing (and competing for commissions) in Rome around signs are vividly influenced by the Baroque furniture of 1600. Rome and Genoa, hierarchical tectonic sculptural ele- The appeal of Baroque style turned consciously from the ments, meant never to be moved from their positions, witty, intellectual qualities of 16th-century Mannerist art completed the wall decoration. Baroque is a style of unity to a visceral appeal aimed at the senses. It employed an imposed upon rich, heavy detail. iconography that was direct, simple, obvious, and theatri- Heinrich Wölfflin defined the Baroque as the age where cal (illustration, right). Baroque art drew on certain broad the oval replaced the circle as the center of composition, and heroic tendencies in Annibale Carracci and his cir- where centralization replaced balance, and where coloris- cle, and found inspiration in other artists like Correggio tic and“painterly”effects began to become more promi- and Caravaggio and Federico Barocci (illustration, right), nent. Art historians, often Protestant ones, have tradi- nowadays sometimes termed 'proto-Baroque'. Germinal tionally emphasized that the Baroque style evolved dur- ideas of the Baroque can also be found in the work of ing a time in which the Roman Catholic Church had to Michelangelo. Some general parallels in music make the react against the many revolutionary cultural movements expression "Baroque music" useful: there are contrasting that produced a new science and new forms of religion — phrase lengths, harmony and counterpoint have ousted the Reformation. It has been said that the monumental polyphony, and orchestral color makes a stronger appear- Baroque is a style that could give the Papacy, like secular ance. Even more generalized parallels perceived by some absolute monarchies, a formal, imposing way of expres- experts in philosophy, prose style and poetry, are harder sion that could restore its prestige, at the point of becom- to pinpoint. ing somehow symbolic of the Counter-Reformation. Though Baroque was superseded in many centers by the Whatever the truth of this interpretation, the Baroque was Rococo style, beginning in France in the late 1720s, espe- successfully developed in Rome, where Baroque archi- cially for interiors, paintings and the decorative arts, the tecture widely renewed the central areas with perhaps the Baroque style continued in use in architecture until the most important urbanistic revision. advent of Neoclassicism in the later 18th century. See the Neapolitan palace of Caserta, a Baroque palace (though in a chaste exterior) whose construction began in 1752. Periods

The Baroque era is sometimes divided into three approximate phases for convenience:*[13]*[14]*[15]

• Early Baroque, c. 1590 – c. 1625 • High Baroque, c. 1625 – c. 1660 • Late Baroque, c. 1660 – c. 1725

The term “Late Baroque”is also sometimes used syn- onymously with the succeeding Rococo movement.

9.1.4 Painting St. Nicholas Church in Lesser Town in Prague was founded in 1703 under the lead of Baroque architect Christoph Dientzen- Main article: Baroque painting hofer. A defining statement of what Baroque signifies in painting is provided by the series of paintings exe- In paintings Baroque gestures are broader than Manner- cuted by Peter Paul Rubens for Marie de Medici at the ist gestures: less ambiguous, less arcane and mysterious, Luxembourg Palace in Paris (now at the Louvre),*[16] more like the stage gestures of opera, a major Baroque in which a Catholic painter satisfied a Catholic pa- art-form. Baroque poses depend on contrapposto“( coun- tron: Baroque-era conceptions of monarchy, iconogra- terpoise”), the tension within the figures that move the phy, handling of paint, and compositions as well as the planes of shoulders and hips in counterdirections. (See depiction of space and movement. 162 CHAPTER 9. DAY 9

used for Vermeer and many other Dutch artists. Flemish Baroque painting shared a part in this trend, while also continuing to produce the traditional categories. In a similar way the French classical style of painting ex- empliﬁed by Poussin is often classed as Baroque, and does share many qualities of the Italian painting of the same period, although the poise and restraint derived from following classical ideas typically give it a very different overall mood.

9.1.5 Sculpture

Main article: Baroque sculpture Caravaggio, The Crowning with Thorns In Baroque sculpture, groups of ﬁgures assumed new im-

Baroque style featured “exaggerated lighting, intense emotions, release from restraint, and even a kind of artistic sensationalism”. Baroque art did not really depict the life style of the people at that time; however,“closely tied to the Counter-Reformation, this style melodramatically reaffirmed the emotional depths of the Catholic faith and glorified both church and monarchy”of their power and influence.*[17] There were highly diverse strands of Italian baroque painting, from Caravaggio to Cortona; both approaching emotive dynamism with different styles. The most prominent Spanish painter of the Baroque was Diego Velázquez.*[18] Another frequently cited work of Baroque art is Bernini's Saint Theresa in Ecstasy for the Cornaro chapel in Saint Maria della Vittoria, which brings together architecture, sculpture, and theatre into one grand conceit.*[19]

Stanislaus Kostka on his deathbed by Pierre Le Gros the Younger

portance and there was a dynamic movement and energy of human forms—they spiraled around an empty central vortex, or reached outwards into the surrounding space. For the first time, Baroque sculpture often had multiple ideal viewing angles. The characteristic Baroque sculpture added extra-sculptural elements, for example, con- cealed lighting, or water fountains. Aleijadinho in Brazil Still-life, by Josefa de Óbidos, c. 1679, Santarém, Portugal, Mu- was also one of the great names of baroque sculpture, and nicipal Library his master work is the set of statues of the Santuário de Bom Jesus de Matosinhos in Congonhas. The soapstone The later Baroque style gradually gave way to a more dec- sculptures of old testament prophets around the terrace orative Rococo. are considered amongst his finest work. A rather different art developed out of northern realist The architecture, sculpture and fountains of Bernini traditions in 17th century Dutch Golden Age painting, (1598–1680) give highly charged characteristics of which had very little religious art, and little history paint- Baroque style. Bernini was undoubtedly the most im- ing, instead playing a crucial part in developing secu- portant sculptor of the Baroque period. He approached lar genres such as still life, genre paintings of everyday Michelangelo in his omnicompetence: Bernini sculpted, scenes, and landscape painting. While the Baroque na- worked as an architect, painted, wrote plays, and staged ture of Rembrandt's art is clear, the label is less often spectacles. In the late 20th century Bernini was most val- 9.1. BAROQUE 163

ued for his sculpture, both for his virtuosity in carving in spirituality. In her writings, she described the love of marble and his ability to create figures that combine the God as piercing her heart like a burning arrow. Bernini physical and the spiritual. He was also a fine sculptor of materializes this by placing St. Theresa on a butt while bust portraits in high demand among the powerful. a Cupid figure holds a golden arrow made of metal and smiles down at her. The angelic figure is not preparing to plunge the arrow into her heart—rather, he has with- Bernini's Cornaro chapel drawn it. St. Theresa's face reflects not the anticipation of ecstasy, but her current fulfillment. A good example of Bernini's Baroque work is his St. Theresa in Ecstasy (1645–52), created for the Cornaro This work is widely considered a masterpiece of the Chapel of the church of Santa Maria della Vittoria, Baroque, although the mix of religious and erotic im- Rome. Bernini designed the entire chapel, a subsidiary agery (faithful to St Teresa's own written account) may space along the side of the church, for the Cornaro fam- raise modern eyebrows. However, Bernini was a devout ily. Catholic and was not attempting to satirize the experience of a chaste nun. Rather, he aimed to portray religious experience as an intensely physical one. Theresa described her bodily reaction to spiritual enlightenment in a language of ecstasy used by many mystics, and Bernini's depiction is earnest. The Cornaro family promotes itself discreetly in this chapel; they are represented visually, but are placed on the sides of the chapel, witnessing the event from bal- conies. As in an opera house, the Cornaro have a priv- ileged position in respect to the viewer, in their private reserve, closer to the saint; the viewer, however, has a better view from the front. They attach their name to the chapel, but St. Theresa is the focus. It is a private chapel in the sense that no one could say mass on the altar beneath the statue (in the 17th century and probably through the 19th) without permission from the family, but the only thing that divides the viewer from the image is the altar rail. The spectacle functions both as a demonstration of mysticism and as a piece of family pride.

9.1.6 Architecture

Bernini's Ecstasy of St. Teresa

Saint Theresa, the focal point of the chapel, is a soft white marble statue surrounded by a polychromatic marble architectural framing. This structure conceals a window which lights the statue from above. Figure-groups of the Cornaro family sculpted in shallow relief inhabit opera boxes on the two side walls of the chapel. The setting places the viewer as a spectator in front of the statue with The main altar of St. John's Co-Cathedral, Malta the Cornaro family leaning out of their box seats and cran- ing forward to see the mystical ecstasy of the saint. Main article: Baroque architecture St. Theresa is highly idealized and in an imaginary setting. She was a popular saint of the Catholic Reforma- In Baroque architecture, new emphasis was placed tion. She wrote of her mystical experiences for an audi- on bold massing, colonnades, domes, light-and-shade ence of the nuns of her Carmelite Order; these writings (chiaroscuro), 'painterly' color eﬀects, and the bold play had become popular reading among lay people interested of volume and void. In interiors, Baroque movement 164 CHAPTER 9. DAY 9

around and through a void informed monumental stair- Palace in Warsaw cases that had no parallel in previous architecture. The other Baroque innovation in worldly interiors was the state apartment, a sequence of increasingly rich interiors that culminated in a presence chamber or throne room or a state bedroom. The sequence of monumental stairs followed by a state apartment was copied in smaller scale everywhere in aristocratic dwellings of any pretensions. Baroque architecture was taken up with enthusiasm in central Germany (see, e.g., Ludwigsburg Palace • Interior and Zwinger, Dresden), Austria and Russia (see, e.g., of the Cornaro Chapel, Santa Maria della Vittoria Peterhof). In England the culmination of Baroque archi- church, Rome, including the Cornaro portraits, but tecture was embodied in work by Sir Christopher Wren, omitting the lower parts of the chapel. Sir John Vanbrugh and Nicholas Hawksmoor, from ca. 1660 to ca. 1725. Many examples of Baroque architecture and town planning are found in other European towns, and in Latin America. Town planning of this period featured radiating avenues intersecting in squares, which took cues from Baroque garden plans. In Sicily, Baroque developed new shapes and themes as in Noto, Ragusa and Acireale “Basilica di San Sebastiano”. Another example of Baroque architecture is the Cathedral of Morelia, in Michoacán, Mexico. Built in • Peterhof the 17th century by Vincenzo Barrochio, it is one of the Palace in Saint Petersburg many Baroque cathedrals in Mexico. Baroque churches built during the Spanish period are also seen in other former colonies of Spain.*[20] Francis Ching described Baroque architecture as“a style 9.1.7 Theatre of architecture originating in Italy in the early 17th century and variously prevalent in Europe and the New World for a century and a half, characterized by free and sculptural use of the classical orders and ornament, dynamic opposition and interpenetration of spaces, and the dramatic combined eﬀects of architecture, sculpture, painting, and the decorative arts.”*[21]

• Architecture

• Trevi Fountain in Rome

18th-century painting of the Royal Theatre of Turin

In theatre, the elaborate conceits, multiplicity of plot turns and a variety of situations characteristic of Mannerism, in Shakespeare's tragedies for instance, were superseded by opera, which drew together all the arts into • Wilanów a uniﬁed whole. 9.1. BAROQUE 165

Theatre evolved in the Baroque era and became a multimedia experience, starting with the actual architectural space. In fact, much of the technology used in current Broadway or commercial plays was invented and developed during this era. The stage could change from a romantic garden to the interior of a palace in a matter of seconds. The entire space became a framed selected area that only allows the users to see a specific action, hiding all the machinery and technology – mostly ropes and pul- leys. This technology affected the content of the narrated or performed pieces, practicing at its best the Deus ex Machina solution. Gods were finally able to come down – literally – from the heavens and rescue the hero in the most extreme and dangerous, even absurd situations. The term Theatrum Mundi – the world is a stage – was also created. The social and political realm in the real world is manipulated in exactly the same way the actor and the machines are presenting/limiting what is being presented on stage, hiding selectively all the machinery that makes the actions happen. The films Vatel and Farinelli give a good idea of the style of productions of the Baroque period. The American Lope de Vega musician William Christie and Les Arts Florissants have performed extensive research on all the French Baroque Opera, performing pieces from Charpentier and Lully, Renaissance.*[22] The Hispanic Baroque theater aimed among others that are extremely faithful to the original for a public content with an ideal reality that manifested 17th-century creations. fundamental three sentiments: Catholic religion, monar- chist and national pride and honor originating from the * England chivalric, knightly world. [23] Two periods are known in the Baroque Spanish theater, The influence of the Renaissance was also very late in with the division occurring in 1630. The first period is England, and Baroque theatre is only partly a useful con- represented chiefly by Lope de Vega, but also by Tirso de cept here, for example in discussing Restoration comedy. Molina, Gaspar de Aguilar, Guillén de Castro, Antonio There was an 18-year break when the London theatres Mira de Amescua, Luis Vélez de Guevara, Juan Ruiz were closed during the English Civil War and English de Alarcón, Diego Jiménez de Enciso, Luis Belmonte Commonwealth until the Restoration of Charles II in Bermúdez, Felipe Godínez, Luis Quiñones de Benavente 1660. or Juan Pérez de Montalbán. The second period is represented by Pedro Calderón de la Barca and fellow drama- tists Antonio Hurtado de Mendoza, Álvaro Cubillo de Germany Aragón, Jerónimo de Cáncer, Francisco de Rojas Zor- rilla, Juan de Matos Fragoso, Antonio Coello y Ochoa, German theatre in the 17th century lacked major con- Agustín Moreto, and Francisco Bances Candamo.*[24] tributions. The best known playwright was Andreas These classifications are loose because each author had Gryphius, who used the Jesuit model of the Dutch Joost his own way and could occasionally adhere himself to van den Vondel and Pierre Corneille. There was also the formula established by Lope. It may even be that the Johannes Velten who combined the traditions of the En- “manner”of Lope was more liberal and structured than glish comedians and the commedia del'arte with the clas- Calderón's.*[25] sic theater of Corneille and Molière. His touring company was perhaps the most significant and important of Lope de Vega introduced through his Arte nuevo de hacer the 17th century. comedias en este tiempo (1609) the new comedy. He established a new dramatic formula that broke the three Aristotle unities of the Italian school of poetry (action, Spain time and place) and a forth unity of Aristotle which is about style, mixing of tragic and comic elements show- The Baroque had a Catholic and conservative character ing different types of verses and stanzas upon what is rep- in Spain, following an Italian literary models during the resented.*[26] Although Lope has a great knowledge of 166 CHAPTER 9. DAY 9

the plastic arts, he did not use it during the major part Pedro Calderon de la Barca and Lope de Vega, poet Juana of his career nor in theater or scenography. The Lope's Inés de la Cruz as well as Miguel de Cervantes who is comedy granted a second role to the visual aspects of the regarded as the first novelist. theatrical representation.*[27] Tirso de Molina, Lope de Vega, and Calderón were the most important play writers in Golden Era Spain. Their 9.1.9 Philosophy works, known for their subtle intelligence and profound comprehension of a person's humanity, could be consid- Further information: 17th century philosophy and ered a bridge between Lope's primitive comedy and the Scientific revolution more elaborate comedy of Calderón. Tirso de Molina is best known for two works, The Convicted Suspicions and René Descartes, John Locke, Gottfried Wilhelm Leib- The Trickster of Seville, one of the first versions of the niz, Baruch Spinoza, Thomas Hobbes, Francis Bacon, * Don Juan myth. [28] Galileo Galilei and Isaac Newton are the most appreci- Upon his arrival to Madrid, Cosimo Lotti brought to the ated thinkers of the 17th century. This period was char- Spanish court the most advanced theatrical techniques of acterized by mixing new ideas with religious tradition. Europe. His techniques and mechanic knowledge were Neostoicism of Justus Lipsius, scholasticism of Francisco applied in palace exhibitions called“Fiestas”and in lavish Suárez and casuistry of Jesuits were predominant. exhibitions of rivers or artificial fountains called “Nau- maquias”. He was in charge of styling the Gardens of Buen Retiro, of Zarzuela and of Aranjuez and the con- 9.1.10 Music struction of the theatrical building of Coliseo del Buen Retiro.*[29] Lope's formulas begins with a verse that it Main article: Baroque music unbefitting of the palace theater foundation and the birth The term Baroque is also used to designate the style of of new concepts that begun the careers of some play writers like Calderón de la Barca. Marking the principal innovations of the New Lopesian Comedy, Calderón's style marked many differences, with a great deal of constructive care and attention to his internal structure. Calderón's work is in formal perfection and a very lyric and symbolic language. Liberty, vitality and openness of Lope gave a step to Calderón's intellectual reflection and formal precision. In his comedy it reflected his ideological and doctrine intentions in above the passion and the action, the work of Autos sacramentales achieved high ranks.*[30] The genre of Comedia is political, multi-artistic and in a sense hybrid. The poetic text interweaved with Me- dias and resources originating from architecture, music and painting freeing the deception that is in the Lopesian comedy was made up from the lack of scenery and en- gaging the dialogue of action.*[31]

9.1.8 Literature

Further information: 17th century in literature and Early Modern literature

George Frideric Handel, 1733 The most important English authors of the 17th century were playwright William Shakespeare and epic poet John music composed during a period that overlaps with that Milton. of Baroque art, but usually encompasses a slightly later In France it was a brilliant period known as Grand Siècle. period. Molière, Pierre Corneille and Jean Racine wrote famous It is a still-debated question as to what extent Baroque plays while Jean de La Fontaine and Charles Perrault – music shares aesthetic principles with the visual and lit- fables. erary arts of the Baroque period. A fairly clear, shared Baroque was the greatest era in the history of Spanish element is a love of ornamentation, and it is perhaps sig- literature which is called Siglo de Oro with playwrights niﬁcant that the role of ornament was greatly diminished 9.1. BAROQUE 167

in this opera was “du barocque,”complaining that the music lacked coherent melody, was filled with unremit- ting dissonances, constantly changed key and meter, and speedily ran through every compositional device.*[32] However this was an isolated reference, and consistent use of the term as a period designator was only begun in 1919, by Curt Sachs,*[33] and it was not until 1940 that it was first used in English (in an article published by Manfred Bukofzer).*[32] Many musical forms were born in that era, like the concerto and sinfonia. Forms such as the sonata, cantata and oratorio flourished. Also, opera was born out of the experimentation of the Florentine Camerata, the creators of monody, who attempted to recreate the theatrical arts of the Ancient Greeks. An important technique used in baroque music was the use of ground bass, a repeated bass line. Dido's Lament by Henry Purcell is a famous example of this technique.*[34]

Composers and examples

Johann Sebastian Bach, 1748 • Giovanni Gabrieli (c. 1554/1557–1612) Sonata pian' e forte (1597), In Ecclesiis (from Symphoniae sacrae book 2, 1615) • Giovanni Girolamo Kapsperger (c. 1580 – 1651) Libro primo di villanelle , 20 (1610), • Claudio Monteverdi (1567–1643), L'Orfeo, favola in musica (1610) • Heinrich Schütz (1585–1672), Musikalische Exe- quien (1629, 1647, 1650) • Francesco Cavalli (1602–1676), L'Egisto (1643), Ercole amante (1662), Scipione aﬀricano (1664) • Jean-Baptiste Lully (1632–1687), Armide (1686) • Marc-Antoine Charpentier (1643–1704), Te Deum (1688–1698) • Heinrich Ignaz Franz Biber (1644–1704), Mystery Sonatas (1681) • John Blow (1649–1708), Venus and Adonis (1680– 1687) • Antonio Vivaldi, 1723 Johann Pachelbel (1653–1706), Canon in D (1680) • Arcangelo Corelli (1653–1713), 12 concerti grossi, Op. 6 (1714) in both music and architecture as the Baroque gave way to the Classical period. • Marin Marais (1656–1728), Sonnerie de Ste- The application of the term“Baroque”to music is a rel- Geneviève du Mont-de-Paris (1723) atively recent development, although it has recently been • Henry Purcell (1659–1695), Dido and Aeneas “ ” pointed out that the ﬁrst use of the word baroque in (1688) criticism of any of the arts related to music, in an anonymous, satirical review of the première in October 1733 • Alessandro Scarlatti (1660–1725), L'honestà negli of Rameau's Hippolyte et Aricie, printed in the Mercure de amori (1680), Il Pompeo (1683), Mitridate Eupatore France in May 1734. The critic implied that the novelty (1707) 168 CHAPTER 9. DAY 9

• François Couperin (1668–1733), Les barricades • Petrine Baroque mystérieuses (1717) • Siberian Baroque • Tomaso Albinoni (1671–1751), Didone abbando- • Spanish Baroque nata (1724) • Ukrainian Baroque • Antonio Vivaldi (1678–1741), The Four Seasons (1723) 9.1.12 Notes • Jan Dismas Zelenka (1679–1745), Il Serpente di Bronzo (1730), Missa Sanctissimae Trinitatis (1736) [1] Fargis, Paul (1998). The New York Public Library Desk Reference (third ed.). New York: Macmillan General • Georg Philipp Telemann (1681–1767), Der Tag des Reference. p. 262. ISBN 0-02-862169-7. Gerichts (1762) [2] Hughes, J. Quentin (1953). The Inﬂuence of Italian Man- • Johann David Heinichen (1683–1729) nerism Upon Maltese Architecture. Melitensiawath. Re- trieved 8 July 2016. p. 104-110. • Jean-Philippe Rameau (1683–1764), Dardanus (1739) [3] Helen Gardner, Fred S. Kleiner, and Christin J. Mamiya, Gardner's Art Through the Ages (Belmont, CA: Thom- • George Frideric Handel (1685–1759), Water Music son/Wadsworth, 2005), p. 516. (1717), Messiah (1741) [4] Helen Hills (ed), Rethinking the Baroque (Farnham (Sur- • Domenico Scarlatti (1685–1757), Sonatas for harp- rey) and Burlington (Vermont): Ashgate Publishing, sichord 2011):.

• Johann Sebastian Bach (1685–1750), Toccata and [5] OED Online. Accessed 6 June 2008. Fugue in D minor (1703–1707), Brandenburg Con- [6] “Baroque”. Encyclopædia Britannica 1911. Retrieved certos (1721), St Matthew Passion (1727) 20 April 2011. • Nicola Porpora (1686–1768), Semiramide riconosci- [7] Panofsky, Erwin (1995). “Three Essays on Style”. The uta (1729) MIT Press: 19. |contribution= ignored (help)

• Giovanni Battista Pergolesi (1710–1736), Stabat [8] “Baroque”. Vocabolario Etimologico della Lingua Ital- Mater (1736) iana di Ottorino Pianigiani. Retrieved 26 July 2012. [9] Diogo Mayo (15 September 1967). “Scale Regia”. Scalaregia.blogspot.ca. Retrieved 20 April 2013. 9.1.11 See also [10] Claude V. Palisca,“Baroque”. The New Grove Dictionary • List of Baroque architecture of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell (London: Macmillan Publishers, • Baroque in Brazil 2001).

• Czech Baroque architecture [11] Boardman, John ed., The Oxford History of Classical Art, 1993, OUP, ISBN 0-19-814386-9 • Dutch Baroque architecture [12] Watson W. (1974), Style in the Arts of China, p. 34, 1974, • English Baroque Penguin, ISBN 0-14-021863-7 [13] The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed. 2011 • French Baroque architecture [14] “Encyclopædia Britannica: Western painting”. Britan- • Italian Baroque nica.com. Retrieved 20 April 2013.

• Sicilian Baroque [15] Shearer West (ed.) The Bulﬁnch Guide to Art History: A Comprehensive Survey and Dictionary of Western Art • New Spanish Baroque and Architecture. Bullﬁnch 1996. ISBN 0-8212-2137-X

• Neoclassicism (music) [16] Peter Paul Rubens The Life of Marie de' Medici. • Andean Baroque [17] Hunt, Martin, Rosenwein, and Smith (2010). The Making of the West (third ed.). Boston: Bedford/ St. Martin's. pp. • Polish Baroque 469

• Baroque architecture in Portugal [18] González de Zarate, J. M. (1985). Las claves emblemáti- cas en la lectura del retrato barroco. Goya: Revista de • Naryshkin Baroque Arte, (187-188), 53-62. 9.1. BAROQUE 169

[19] “Cornaro Chapel”at Bogelwood.com. • Gardner, Helen, Fred S. Kleiner, and Christin J. Mamiya. 2005. Gardner's Art Through the Ages, [20]“Spanish Architecture in the Baroque Period.”. Boundless 12th edition. Belmont, CA: Thomson/Wadsworth. Art History. Boundless. 30 September 2016. Retrieved ISBN 978-0-15-505090-7 (hardcover) 31 January 2017. • Palisca, Claude V. (1991) [1961]. Baroque Mu- [21] Francis DK Ching, A Visual Dictionary of Architecture, p. sic. Prentice Hall History of Music (3rd ed.). En- 133 glewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13- [22] González Mas , Ezequiel (1980). Historia de la literatura 058496-7. OCLC 318382784. española: (Siglo XVII). Barroco, Volumen 3. La Edito- • Palisca, Claude V. (2001), Missing or empty |title= rial, UPR, pp. 1–2 (help) [23] González Mas , Ezequiel (1980). Historia de la literatura • Wakefield, Steve. 2004. Carpentier's Baroque Fic- española: (Siglo XVII). Barroco, Volumen 3. La Edito- rial, UPR, p. 8. tion: Returning Medusa's Gaze. Colección Támesis. Serie A, Monografías 208. Rochester, NY: Tame- [24] González Mas , Ezequiel (1980). Historia de la literatura sis. ISBN 1-85566-107-1. española: (Siglo XVII). Barroco, Volumen 3. La Editorial, UPR, p. 13 9.1.14 Further reading [25] González Mas , Ezequiel (1980). Historia de la literatura española: (Siglo XVII). Barroco, Volumen 3. La Editorial, • Bazin, Germain, 1964. Baroque and Rococo. UPR, p. 91 Praeger World of Art Series. New York: Praeger. (Originally published in French, as Classique, [26] Lope de Vega, 2010, Comedias: El Remedio en la Des- baroque et rococo. Paris: Larousse. English edition dicha. El Mejor Alcalde El Rey, pp. 446–447 reprinted as Baroque and Rococo Art, New York: [27] Amadei-Pulice, 1990, María Alicia (1990). Calderón y el Praeger, 1974) barroco: exaltación y engaño de los sentidos. John Ben- • jamins Publishing Company, p. 6 Hills, Helen (ed.). 2011. Rethinking the Baroque. Farnham, Surrey; Burlington, VT: Ashgate. ISBN [28] Wilson, Edward M.; Moir, Duncan (1992). Historia de 978-0-7546-6685-1. la literatura española: Siglo De Oro: Teatro (1492–1700). • Editorial Ariel, pp. 155–158 Hortolà, Policarp, 2013, The Aesthetics of Haemo- taphonomy. Sant Vicent del Raspeig: ECU. ISBN [29] Amadei-Pulice, 1990, María Alicia (1990). Calderón y el 978-84-9948-991-9. barroco: exaltación y engaño de los sentidos. John Ben- jamins Publishing Company, pp. 26–27 • Kitson, Michael. 1966. The Age of Baroque. Land- marks of the World's Art. London: Hamlyn; New [30] Molina Jiménez, María Belén (2008). El teatro musical York: McGraw-Hill. de Calderón de la Barca: Análisis textual. EDITUM, p. 56 • Lambert, Gregg, 2004. Return of the Baroque in Modern Culture. Continuum. ISBN 978-0-8264- [31] Amadei-Pulice, 1990, María Alicia (1990). Calderón y el 6648-8. barroco: exaltación y engaño de los sentidos. John Ben- jamins Publishing Company, pp. 6–9 • Martin, John Rupert. 1977. Baroque. Icon Edi- tions. New York: Harper and Rowe. ISBN 0-06- [32] Palisca 2001. 435332-X (cloth); ISBN 0-06-430077-3 (pbk.) [33] Sachs, Curt (1919). Barockmusik [Baroque Music]. • Wölfflin, Heinrich. 1964. Renaissance and Baroque Jahrbuch der Musikbibliothek Peters (in German). 26. (Reprinted 1984; originally published in German, Leipzig: Edition Peters. pp. 7–15. 1888) The classic study. ISBN 0-8014-9046-4 [34] We asked an expert to explain why Dido's Lament breaks • Vuillemin, Jean-Claude, 2013. Episteme baroque: le our heart every single time | Purcell - Classic FM mot et la chose. Hermann. ISBN 978-2-7056-8448- 8. 9.1.13 References 9.1.15 External links • Andersen, Liselotte. 1969. “Baroque and Rococo Art”, New York: H. N. Abrams. • "Baroque". Encyclopædia Britannica. 3 (11th ed.). 1911. • Buci-Glucksmann, Christine. 1994. Baroque Rea- son: The Aesthetics of Modernity. Sage. • The baroque and rococo culture 170 CHAPTER 9. DAY 9

• Webmuseum Paris spread to the rest of Europe, marking the beginning of the Early Modern Age. • barocke in Val di Noto – Sizilien The intellectual basis of the Renaissance was its own • Baroque in the “History of Art” invented version of humanism, derived from the rediscovery of classical Greek philosophy, such as that of • The Baroque style and Luis XIV influence Protagoras, who said that “Man is the measure of all • Melvyn Bragg's BBC Radio 4 program In Our Time: things.”This new thinking became manifest in art, ar- The Baroque chitecture, politics, science and literature. Early examples were the development of perspective in oil painting • “Baroque Style Guide”. British Galleries. Victoria and the recycled knowledge of how to make concrete. and Albert Museum. Archived from the original on Although the invention of metal movable type sped the 19 August 2007. Retrieved 16 July 2007. dissemination of ideas from the later 15th century, the changes of the Renaissance were not uniformly experienced across Europe. 9.2 Renaissance As a cultural movement, the Renaissance encompassed innovative flowering of Latin and vernacular literatures, This article is about the European Renaissance of the beginning with the 14th-century resurgence of learning 14th–17th centuries. For the earlier European Renais- based on classical sources, which contemporaries cred- sance, see Renaissance of the 12th century. For other ited to Petrarch; the development of linear perspective uses, see Renaissance (disambiguation). and other techniques of rendering a more natural reality The Renaissance (UK /rᵻˈneɪsəns/, US /rɛnəˈsɑːns/)*[1] in painting; and gradual but widespread educational reform. In politics, the Renaissance contributed to the development of the customs and conventions of diplomacy, and in science to an increased reliance on observation and inductive reasoning. Although the Renaissance saw revolutions in many intellectual pursuits, as well as social and political upheaval, it is perhaps best known for its artistic developments and the contributions of such polymaths as Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo, who inspired the term “Renaissance man”.*[2]*[3] The Renaissance began in Florence, in the 14th century.*[4] Various theories have been proposed to account for its origins and characteristics, focusing on a variety of factors including the social and civic peculiarities of Florence at the time: its political structure; the patronage of its dominant family, the Medici;*[5]*[6] and the mi- gration of Greek scholars and texts to Italy following the Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks.*[7]*[8]*[9] Other major centres were northern Italian city-states such as Venice, Genoa, Milan, Bologna, and finally Rome during the Renaissance Papacy. The Renaissance has a long and complex historiography, and, in line with general scepticism of discrete periodizations, there has been much debate among historians reacting to the 19th-century glorification of the “Renaissance”and individual culture heroes as“Renais- sance men”, questioning the usefulness of Renaissance as a term and as a historical delineation.*[10] The art historian Erwin Panofsky observed of this resistance to the concept of “Renaissance": David, by Michelangelo (Accademia di Belle Arti, Florence) is a masterpiece of Renaissance and world art. It is perhaps no accident that the factual- ity of the Italian Renaissance has been most was a period in European history, from the 14th to the vigorously questioned by those who are not 17th century, regarded as the cultural bridge between the obliged to take a professional interest in the Middle Ages and modern history. It started as a cultural aesthetic aspects of civilization—historians of movement in Italy in the Late Medieval period and later economic and social developments, political 9.2. RENAISSANCE 171

and religious situations, and, most particularly, natural science—but only exceptionally by students of literature and hardly ever by historians of Art.*[11]

Some observers have called into question whether the Re- naissance was a cultural“advance”from the Middle Ages, instead seeing it as a period of pessimism and nostalgia for classical antiquity,*[12] while social and economic historians, especially of the longue durée, have instead focused on the continuity between the two eras,*[13] which are linked, as Panofsky observed, “by a thousand ties” .*[14] The word Renaissance, literally meaning “Rebirth”in French, ﬁrst appeared in English in the 1830s.*[15] The word also occurs in Jules Michelet's 1855 work, Histoire de France. The word Renaissance has also been extended to other historical and cultural movements, such as the Carolingian Renaissance and the Renaissance of the 12th century.*[16]

9.2.1 Overview

The Renaissance was a cultural movement that pro- foundly affected European intellectual life in the early modern period. Beginning in Italy, and spreading to the rest of Europe by the 16th century, its influence was felt Portrait of a young woman (c. 1480-85) (Simonetta Vespucci) by Sandro Botticelli in literature, philosophy, art, music, politics, science, religion, and other aspects of intellectual inquiry. Renais- sance scholars employed the humanist method in study, and searched for realism and human emotion in art.*[17] and Erasmus, would help pave the way for the Protestant Renaissance humanists such as Poggio Bracciolini sought Reformation. out in Europe's monastic libraries the Latin literary, his- Well after the first artistic return to classicism had been torical, and oratorical texts of Antiquity, while the Fall of exemplified in the sculpture of Nicola Pisano, Floren- Constantinople (1453) generated a wave of émigré Greek tine painters led by Masaccio strove to portray the hu- scholars bringing precious manuscripts in ancient Greek, man form realistically, developing techniques to render many of which had fallen into obscurity in the West. It perspective and light more naturally. Political philoso- is in their new focus on literary and historical texts that phers, most famously Niccolò Machiavelli, sought to de- Renaissance scholars differed so markedly from the me- scribe political life as it really was, that is to understand it dieval scholars of the Renaissance of the 12th century, rationally. A critical contribution to Italian Renaissance who had focused on studying Greek and Arabic works humanism Giovanni Pico della Mirandola wrote the fa- of natural sciences, philosophy and mathematics, rather mous text “De hominis dignitate” (Oration on the Dig- than on such cultural texts. nity of Man, 1486), which consists of a series of the- In the revival of neo-Platonism Renaissance humanists ses on philosophy, natural thought, faith and magic de- did not reject Christianity; quite the contrary, many of fended against any opponent on the grounds of reason. In the Renaissance's greatest works were devoted to it, and addition to studying classical Latin and Greek, Renais- the Church patronized many works of Renaissance art. sance authors also began increasingly to use vernacular However, a subtle shift took place in the way that intellec- languages; combined with the introduction of printing, this would allow many more people access to books, es- tuals approached religion that was reflected in many other * areas of cultural life.*[18] In addition, many Greek Chris- pecially the Bible. [19] tian works, including the Greek New Testament, were In all, the Renaissance could be viewed as an attempt brought back from Byzantium to Western Europe and en- by intellectuals to study and improve the secular and gaged Western scholars for the first time since late antiq- worldly, both through the revival of ideas from antiquity, uity. This new engagement with Greek Christian works, and through novel approaches to thought. Some scholars, and particularly the return to the original Greek of the such as Rodney Stark,*[20] play down the Renaissance in New Testament promoted by humanists Lorenzo Valla favor of the earlier innovations of the Italian city-states 172 CHAPTER 9. DAY 9

in the High Middle Ages, which married responsive gov- modern understanding of humanity and its place in the ernment, Christianity and the birth of capitalism. This world.*[23] analysis argues that, whereas the great European states (France and Spain) were absolutist monarchies, and others were under direct Church control, the independent Latin and Greek phases of Renaissance humanism city republics of Italy took over the principles of capitalism invented on monastic estates and set oﬀ a vast un- See also: Transmission of the Greek Classics precedented commercial revolution that preceded and ﬁ- In stark contrast to the High Middle Ages, when Latin nanced the Renaissance.

9.2.2 Origins

Main article: Italian Renaissance Many argue that the ideas characterizing the Renais-

View of Florence, birthplace of the Renaissance

sance had their origin in late 13th-century Florence, in particular with the writings of Dante Alighieri (1265– 1321) and Petrarch (1304–1374), as well as the paintings of Giotto di Bondone (1267–1337). Some writers date the Renaissance quite precisely; one proposed starting point is 1401, when the rival geniuses Lorenzo Ghiberti and Filippo Brunelleschi competed for the con- Coluccio Salutati tract to build the bronze doors for the Baptistery of the Florence Cathedral (Ghiberti won).*[21] Others see more scholars focused almost entirely on studying Greek and general competition between artists and polymaths such Arabic works of natural science, philosophy and math- as Brunelleschi, Ghiberti, Donatello, and Masaccio for ematics,*[24] Renaissance scholars were most interested artistic commissions as sparking the creativity of the Re- in recovering and studying Latin and Greek literary, his- naissance. Yet it remains much debated why the Renais- torical, and oratorical texts. Broadly speaking, this be- sance began in Italy, and why it began when it did. Ac- gan in the 14th century with a Latin phase, when Renais- cordingly, several theories have been put forward to ex- sance scholars such as Petrarch, Coluccio Salutati (1331– plain its origins. 1406), Niccolò de' Niccoli (1364–1437) and Poggio During the Renaissance, money and art went hand in Bracciolini (1380–1459) scoured the libraries of Eu- hand. Artists depended entirely on patrons while the pa- rope in search of works by such Latin authors as Cicero, trons needed money to foster artistic talent. Wealth was Lucretius, Livy and Seneca.*[25] By the early 15th cen- brought to Italy in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries by tury, the bulk of such Latin literature had been recovered; expanding trade into Asia and Europe. Silver mining in the Greek phase of Renaissance humanism was under Tyrol increased the flow of money. Luxuries from the way, as Western European scholars turned to recovering Eastern world, brought home during the Crusades, in- ancient Greek literary, historical, oratorical and theolog- creased the prosperity of Genoa and Venice.*[22] ical texts.*[26] Jules Michelet defined the 16th-century Renaissance in Unlike with Latin texts, which had been preserved and France as a period in Europe's cultural history that studied in Western Europe since late antiquity, the study represented a break from the Middle Ages, creating a of ancient Greek texts was very limited in medieval West- 9.2. RENAISSANCE 173 ern Europe. Ancient Greek works on science, maths and The unique political structures of late Middle Ages Italy philosophy had been studied since the High Middle Ages have led some to theorize that its unusual social climate in Western Europe and in the medieval Islamic world allowed the emergence of a rare cultural efflorescence. (normally in translation), but Greek literary, oratorical Italy did not exist as a political entity in the early modern and historical works (such as Homer, the Greek drama- period. Instead, it was divided into smaller city states and tists, Demosthenes and Thucydides) were not studied in territories: the Kingdom of Naples controlled the south, either the Latin or medieval Islamic worlds; in the Middle the Republic of Florence and the Papal States at the cen- Ages these sorts of texts were only studied by Byzantine ter, the Milanese and the Genoese to the north and west scholars. One of the greatest achievements of Renais- respectively, and the Venetians to the east. Fifteenth- sance scholars was to bring this entire class of Greek cul- century Italy was one of the most urbanised areas in Eu- tural works back into Western Europe for the first time rope.*[29] Many of its cities stood among the ruins of since late antiquity. Arab logicians had inherited Greek ancient Roman buildings; it seems likely that the classi- ideas after they had invaded and conquered Egypt and cal nature of the Renaissance was linked to its origin in the Levant. Their translations and commentaries on these the Roman Empire's heartland.*[30] Spain ideas worked their way through the Arab West into Historian and political philosopher Quentin Skinner and Sicily, which became important centers for this trans- points out that Otto of Freising (c. 1114–1158), a Ger- mission of ideas. This work of translation from Islamic man bishop visiting north Italy during the 12th century, culture, though largely unplanned and disorganized, con- noticed a widespread new form of political and social stituted one of the greatest transmissions of ideas in his- * organization, observing that Italy appeared to have ex- tory. [27] This movement to reintegrate the regular study ited from Feudalism so that its society was based on of Greek literary, historical, oratorical and theological merchants and commerce. Linked to this was anti- texts back into the Western European curriculum is usu- monarchical thinking, represented in the famous early ally dated to the 1396 invitation from Coluccio Salutati to Renaissance fresco cycle Allegory of Good and Bad Gov- the Byzantine diplomat and scholar Manuel Chrysoloras * ernment in Siena by Ambrogio Lorenzetti (painted 1338– (c.1355–1415) to teach Greek in Florence. [28] This 1340), whose strong message is about the virtues of legacy was continued by a number of expatriate Greek fairness, justice, republicanism and good administration. scholars, from Basilios Bessarion to Leo Allatius. Holding both Church and Empire at bay, these city republics were devoted to notions of liberty. Skinner re- Social and political structures in Italy ports that there were many defences of liberty such as the Matteo Palmieri (1406–1475) celebration of Floren- tine genius not only in art, sculpture and architecture, but “the remarkable efflorescence of moral, social and political philosophy that occurred in Florence at the same time”.*[31] Even cities and states beyond central Italy, such as the Republic of Florence at this time, were also notable for their merchant Republics, especially the Republic of Venice. Although in practice these were oligarchical, and bore little resemblance to a modern democracy, they did have democratic features and were responsive states, with forms of participation in governance and belief in liberty.*[32]*[33]*[34] The relative political freedom they afforded was conducive to academic and artistic advancement.*[35] Likewise, the position of Italian cities such as Venice as great trading centres made them intellectual crossroads. Merchants brought with them ideas from far corners of the globe, particularly the Levant. Venice was Europe's gateway to trade with the East, and a producer of fine glass, while Florence was a capital of textiles. The wealth such business brought to Italy meant large public and private artistic projects could be commissioned and individuals had more leisure time for study.*[35]

Black Death/Plague

One theory that has been advanced is that the devastation A political map of the Italian Peninsula circa 1494 in Florence caused by the Black Death, which hit Europe 174 CHAPTER 9. DAY 9 between 1348 and 1350, resulted in a shift in the world view of people in 14th-century Italy. Italy was particularly badly hit by the plague, and it has been speculated that the resulting familiarity with death caused thinkers to dwell more on their lives on Earth, rather than on spirituality and the afterlife.*[36] It has also been argued that the Black Death prompted a new wave of piety, manifested in the sponsorship of religious works of art.*[37] However, this does not fully explain why the Renaissance occurred specifically in Italy in the 14th century. The Black Death was a pandemic that affected all of Europe in the ways described, not only Italy. The Renaissance's emergence in Italy was most likely the result of the complex interaction of the above factors.*[10] The plague was carried by fleas on sailing vessels returning from the ports of Asia, spreading quickly due to lack of proper sanitation: the population of England, then about 4.2 million, lost 1.4 million people to the bubonic plague. Florence's population was nearly halved in the year 1347. As a result of the decimation in the populace the value of the working class increased, and commoners came to enjoy more freedom. To answer the increased need for labor, workers traveled in search of the most fa- vorable position economically.*[38] Lorenzo de' Medici, ruler of Florence and patron of arts (Portrait by Girolamo Macchietti) The demographic decline due to the plague had economic consequences: the prices of food dropped and land values declined by 30 to 40% in most parts of Europe between 1350 and 1400.*[39] Landholders faced a great loss, but for ordinary men and women it was a windfall. The sur- Cultural conditions in Florence vivors of the plague found not only that the prices of food were cheaper but also that lands were more abundant, and many of them inherited property from their dead rela- It has long been a matter of debate why the Renaissance tives. began in Florence, and not elsewhere in Italy. Schol- The spread of disease was significantly more rampant ars have noted several features unique to Florentine cul- in areas of poverty. Epidemics ravaged cities, particu- tural life that may have caused such a cultural movement. larly children. Plagues were easily spread by lice, unsan- Many have emphasized the role played by the Medici, itary drinking water, armies, or by poor sanitation. Chil- a banking family and later ducal ruling house, in pa- dren were hit the hardest because many diseases, such tronizing and stimulating the arts. Lorenzo de' Medici as typhus and syphilis, target the immune system, leav- (1449–1492) was the catalyst for an enormous amount of ing young children without a fighting chance. Children in arts patronage, encouraging his countrymen to commis- city dwellings were more affected by the spread of disease sion works from the leading artists of Florence, including than the children of the wealthy.*[40] Leonardo da Vinci, Sandro Botticelli, and Michelangelo Buonarroti.*[5] Works by Neri di Bicci, Botticelli, da The Black Death caused greater upheaval to Florence's Vinci and Filippino Lippi had been commissioned addi- social and political structure than later epidemics. De- tionally by the convent di San Donato agli Scopeti of the spite a significant number of deaths among members of Augustinians order in Florence.*[42] the ruling classes, the government of Florence continued to function during this period. Formal meetings of The Renaissance was certainly underway before Lorenzo elected representatives were suspended during the height de' Medici came to power – indeed, before the Medici of the epidemic due to the chaotic conditions in the city, family itself achieved hegemony in Florentine society. but a small group of officials was appointed to conduct Some historians have postulated that Florence was the the affairs of the city, which ensured continuity of gov- birthplace of the Renaissance as a result of luck, i.e. ernment.*[41] because "Great Men" were born there by chance:*[43] Leonardo da Vinci, Botticelli and Michelangelo were all born in Tuscany. Arguing that such chance seems improbable, other historians have contended that these “Great Men”were only able to rise to prominence because of the prevailing cultural conditions at the time.*[44] 9.2. RENAISSANCE 175

9.2.3 Characteristics other humanist, is most known for his work Della vita civile (“On Civic Life"; printed 1528), which advo- Humanism cated civic humanism, and for his influence in refining the Tuscan vernacular to the same level as Latin. Palmieri Main article: Renaissance humanism drew on Roman philosophers and theorists, especially In some ways humanism was not a philosophy but a Cicero, who, like Palmieri, lived an active public life as a citizen and official, as well as a theorist and philosopher and also Quintilian. Perhaps the most succinct expression of his perspective on humanism is in a 1465 poetic work La città di vita, but an earlier work, Della vita civile (On Civic Life), is more wide-ranging. Composed as a series of dialogues set in a country house in the Mugello countryside outside Florence during the plague of 1430, Palmieri expounds on the qualities of the ideal citizen. The dialogues include ideas about how children develop mentally and physically, how citizens can conduct themselves morally, how citizens and states can ensure probity in public life, and an important debate on the difference between that which is pragmatically useful and that which is honest. The humanists believed that it is important to transcend to the afterlife with a perfect mind and body, which could be attained with education. The purpose of humanism was to create a universal man whose person combined intellectual and physical excellence and who was capable of functioning honorably in virtually any situation.*[48] This ideology was referred to as the uomo universale, an ancient Greco-Roman ideal. Education during the Re- naissance was mainly composed of ancient literature and history as it was thought that the classics provided moral instruction and an intensive understanding of human be- Pico della Mirandola wrote the famous Oration on the Dignity of havior. Man, which has been called the“Manifesto of the Renaissance” .*[45] Art method of learning. In contrast to the medieval scholastic mode, which focused on resolving contradictions be- Main articles: Renaissance art, Renaissance painting, and tween authors, humanists would study ancient texts in Renaissance architecture the original and appraise them through a combination of See also: Islamic influences on Western art reasoning and empirical evidence. Humanist education Renaissance art marks a cultural rebirth at the close of was based on the programme of 'Studia Humanitatis', the Middle Ages and rise of the Modern world. One of the study of five humanities: poetry, grammar, history, the distinguishing features of Renaissance art was its de- moral philosophy and rhetoric. Although historians have velopment of highly realistic linear perspective. Giotto sometimes struggled to define humanism precisely, most di Bondone (1267–1337) is credited with first treating a have settled on “a middle of the road definition... the painting as a window into space, but it was not until the movement to recover, interpret, and assimilate the lan- demonstrations of architect Filippo Brunelleschi (1377– guage, literature, learning and values of ancient Greece 1446) and the subsequent writings of Leon Battista Al- and Rome”.*[46] Above all, humanists asserted “the berti (1404–1472) that perspective was formalized as an genius of man ... the unique and extraordinary ability of artistic technique.*[49] ” * the human mind . [47] The development of perspective was part of a wider trend Humanist scholars shaped the intellectual landscape towards realism in the arts.*[50] Painters developed other throughout the early modern period. Political philoso- techniques, studying light, shadow, and, famously in the phers such as Niccolò Machiavelli and Thomas More re- case of Leonardo da Vinci, human anatomy. Under- vived the ideas of Greek and Roman thinkers and applied lying these changes in artistic method was a renewed them in critiques of contemporary government. Pico desire to depict the beauty of nature and to unravel della Mirandola wrote the “manifesto”of the Renais- the axioms of aesthetics, with the works of Leonardo, sance, the Oration on the Dignity of Man, a vibrant de- Michelangelo and Raphael representing artistic pinnacles fence of thinking. Matteo Palmieri (1406–1475), an- that were much imitated by other artists.*[51] Other no- 176 CHAPTER 9. DAY 9

Leonardo da Vinci's Vitruvian Man (c. 1490) demonstrates the eﬀect writers of Antiquity had on Renaissance thinkers. Based on the speciﬁcations in Vitruvius' De architectura (1st century BC), Leonardo tried to draw the perfectly proportioned man. The tomb of Michelangelo in the Basilica of Santa Croce, Flo- rence

table artists include Sandro Botticelli, working for the Medici in Florence, Donatello, another Florentine, and During the Renaissance, architects aimed to use columns, Titian in Venice, among others. pilasters, and entablatures as an integrated system. The In the Netherlands, a particularly vibrant artistic culture Roman orders types of columns are used: Tuscan, Doric, developed. The work of Hugo van der Goes and Jan Ionic, Corinthian and Composite. These can either be van Eyck was particularly influential on the development structural, supporting an arcade or architrave, or purely of painting in Italy, both technically with the introduc- decorative, set against a wall in the form of pilasters. tion of oil paint and canvas, and stylistically in terms One of the first buildings to use pilasters as an in- of naturalism in representation (see Renaissance in the tegrated system was in the Old Sacristy (1421–1440) Netherlands). Later, the work of Pieter Brueghel the El- by Brunelleschi.*[54] Arches, semi-circular or (in the der would inspire artists to depict themes of everyday Mannerist style) segmental, are often used in arcades, life.*[52] supported on piers or columns with capitals. There may In architecture, Filippo Brunelleschi was foremost in be a section of entablature between the capital and the studying the remains of ancient classical buildings. With springing of the arch. Alberti was one of the first to use rediscovered knowledge from the 1st-century writer the arch on a monumental. Renaissance vaults do not Vitruvius and the flourishing discipline of mathematics, have ribs; they are semi-circular or segmental and on a Brunelleschi formulated the Renaissance style that emu- square plan, unlike the Gothic vault, which is frequently lated and improved on classical forms. His major feat of rectangular. engineering was building the dome of the Florence Cathe- Renaissance artists were not pagans, although they ad- dral.*[53] Another building demonstrating this style is the mired antiquity and kept some ideas and symbols of the church of St. Andrew in Mantua, built by Alberti. The medieval past. Nicola Pisano (c. 1220–c. 1278) imitated outstanding architectural work of the High Renaissance classical forms by portraying scenes from the Bible. His was the rebuilding of St. Peter's Basilica, combining the Annunciation, from the Baptistry at Pisa, demonstrates skills of Bramante, Michelangelo, Raphael, Sangallo and that classical models influenced Italian art before the Re- Maderno. naissance took root as a literary movement *[55] 9.2. RENAISSANCE 177

Science

Main articles: History of science in the Renaissance and Renaissance technology The rediscovery of ancient texts and the invention of

Portrait of Luca Pacioli, father of accounting, painted by Jacopo de' Barbari, 1495, (Museo di Capodimonte).

Galileo Galilei. Portrait in ink by Renaissance sculptor Leone Leoni

making observational drawings of anatomy and nature. Da Vinci set up controlled experiments in water flow, medical dissection, and systematic study of movement and aerodynamics, and he devised principles of research method that led Fritjof Capra to classify him as the “father of modern science”.*[56] A suitable environment had developed to question scientific doctrine. The discovery in 1492 of the New World by Christopher Columbus challenged the classical worldview. The works of Ptolemy (in geography) and Galen (in medicine) were found to not always match everyday observations. As the Protestant Reformation and Counter- Reformation clashed, the Northern Renaissance showed a decisive shift in focus from Aristotelean natural phi- 1543' Vesalius' studies inspired interest in human anatomy. losophy to chemistry and the biological sciences (botany, anatomy, and medicine).*[57] The willingness to ques- printing democratized learning and allowed a faster prop- tion previously held truths and search for new answers agation of ideas. In the first period of the Italian Re- resulted in a period of major scientific advancements. naissance, humanists favoured the study of humanities Some view this as a "scientific revolution", heralding the over natural philosophy or applied mathematics, and beginning of the modern age,*[58] others as an acceler- their reverence for classical sources further enshrined ation of a continuous process stretching from the ancient the Aristotelian and Ptolemaic views of the universe. world to the present day.*[59] Significant scientific ad- Writing around 1450, Nicholas Cusanus anticipated the vances were made during this time by Galileo Galilei, heliocentric worldview of Copernicus, but in a philosoph- Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler.*[60] Copernicus, in ical fashion. De Revolutionibus, posited that the Earth moved around Science and art were intermingled in the early Renais- the Sun. De humani corporis fabrica (On the Workings sance, with polymath artists such as Leonardo da Vinci of the Human Body), by Andreas Vesalius, gave a new 178 CHAPTER 9. DAY 9

confidence to the role of dissection, observation, and the mechanistic view of anatomy.*[61] Another important development was in the process for discovery, the scientific method,*[61] focusing on empirical evidence and the importance of mathematics, while discarding Aristotelian science. Early and influential proponents of these ideas included Copernicus, Galileo, and Francis Bacon.*[62]*[63] The new scientific method led to great contributions in the fields of astronomy, physics, biology, and anatomy.*[64]*[65] Applied innovation extended to commerce. At the end of the 15th century Luca Pacioli published the first work on bookkeeping, making him the founder of accounting.*[66]

Music

Main article: Renaissance music

From this changing society emerged a common, unify- Alexander VI, a Borgia Pope infamous for his corruption ing musical language, in particular the polyphonic style of the Franco-Flemish school. The development of printing made distribution of music possible on a wide scale. De- mand for music as entertainment and as an activity for educated amateurs increased with the emergence of a bourgeois class. Dissemination of chansons, motets, and masses throughout Europe coincided with the uniﬁcation of polyphonic practice into the ﬂuid style that culminated in the second half of the sixteenth century in the work of composers such as Palestrina, Lassus, Victoria and William Byrd.

Religion

Main articles: Protestant Reformation and Counter- Reformation The new ideals of humanism, although more secular in Adoration of the Magi and Solomon adored by the Queen of Sheba from the Farnese Hours by Giulio Clovio marks the end of some aspects, developed against a Christian backdrop, the Italian Renaissance of illuminated manuscript together with especially in the Northern Renaissance. Much, if not the Index Librorum Prohibitorum. most, of the new art was commissioned by or in dedication to the Church.*[18] However, the Renaissance had a profound eﬀect on contemporary theology, particu- emerged supreme in ecclesiastical matters by the Fifth larly in the way people perceived the relationship between Council of the Lateran (1511), it was dogged by contin- man and God.*[18] Many of the period's foremost the- ued accusations of corruption, most famously in the per- ologians were followers of the humanist method, includ- son of Pope Alexander VI, who was accused variously ing Erasmus, Zwingli, Thomas More, Martin Luther, and of simony, nepotism and fathering four children (most of John Calvin. whom were married oﬀ, presumably for the consolidation * The Renaissance began in times of religious turmoil. The of power) while a cardinal. [68] late Middle Ages was a period of political intrigue sur- Churchmen such as Erasmus and Luther proposed reform rounding the Papacy, culminating in the Western Schism, to the Church, often based on humanist textual criticism in which three men simultaneously claimed to be true of the New Testament.*[18] In October 1517 Luther pub- Bishop of Rome.*[67] While the schism was resolved lished the 95 Theses, challenging papal authority and crit- by the Council of Constance (1414), a resulting reform icizing its perceived corruption, particularly with regard movement known as Conciliarism sought to limit the to instances of sold indulgences.*[note 1] The 95 Theses power of the pope. Although the papacy eventually led to the Reformation, a break with the Roman Catholic 9.2. RENAISSANCE 179

Church that previously claimed hegemony in Western Eu- ods were based on those of Petrarch, but he added a third rope. Humanism and the Renaissance therefore played a period because he believed that Italy was no longer in a direct role in sparking the Reformation, as well as in many state of decline. Flavio Biondo used a similar framework other contemporaneous religious debates and conflicts. in Decades of History from the Deterioration of the Ro- Pope Paul III came to the papal throne (1534–1549) af- man Empire (1439–1453). ter the sack of Rome in 1527, with uncertainties preva- Humanist historians argued that contemporary scholar- lent in the Catholic Church following the Protestant Ref- ship restored direct links to the classical period, thus ormation. Nicolaus Copernicus dedicated De revolution- bypassing the Medieval period, which they then named ibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Ce- for the first time the "Middle Ages". The term first lestial Spheres) to Paul III, who became the grandfather appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas (middle of Alessandro Farnese (cardinal), who had paintings by times).*[71] The term la rinascita (rebirth) first appeared, Titian, Michelangelo, and Raphael, as well as an impor- however, in its broad sense in Giorgio Vasari's Lives tant collection of drawings, and who commissioned the of the Artists, 1550, revised 1568).*[72]*[73] Vasari di- masterpiece of Giulio Clovio, arguably the last major vides the age into three phases: the first phase contains illuminated manuscript, the Farnese Hours. Cimabue, Giotto, and Arnolfo di Cambio; the second phase contains Masaccio, Brunelleschi, and Donatello; the third centers on Leonardo da Vinci and culminates Self-awareness with Michelangelo. It was not just the growing awareness of classical antiquity that drove this development, according to Vasari, but also the growing desire to study and imitate nature.*[74]

9.2.4 Spread

Château de Chambord (1519–1547), one of the most famous examples of Renaissance architecture

In the 15th century, the Renaissance spread rapidly from Leonardo Bruni its birthplace in Florence to the rest of Italy and soon to the rest of Europe. The invention of the printing press By the 15th century, writers, artists, and architects in by German printer Johannes Gutenberg allowed the rapid Italy were well aware of the transformations that were transmission of these new ideas. As it spread, its ideas taking place and were using phrases such as modi an- diversified and changed, being adapted to local culture. In tichi (in the antique manner) or alle romana et alla antica the 20th century, scholars began to break the Renaissance (in the manner of the Romans and the ancients) to de- into regional and national movements. scribe their work. In the 1330s Petrarch referred to pre- Christian times as antiqua (ancient) and to the Christian period as nova (new).*[69] From Petrarch's Italian per- Northern Europe spective, this new period (which included his own time) was an age of national eclipse.*[69] Leonardo Bruni was Main article: Northern Renaissance the first to use tripartite periodization in his History of The Renaissance in Northern Europe has been termed the Florentine People (1442).*[70] Bruni's first two peri- the “Northern Renaissance”. While Renaissance ideas 180 CHAPTER 9. DAY 9

England

Main article: English Renaissance In England, the sixteenth century marked the begin-

Pieter Bruegel's The Triumph of Death (c. 1562) reﬂects the social upheaval and terror that followed the plague that devastated medieval Europe.

were moving north from Italy, there was a simultaneous southward spread of some areas of innovation, particularly in music.*[75] The music of the 15th century Burgundian School defined the beginning of the Renais- sance in music, and the polyphony of the Netherlanders, as it moved with the musicians themselves into Italy, formed the core of the first true international style in music since the standardization of Gregorian Chant in “What a piece of work is a man, how noble in reason, how infinite * the 9th century. [75] The culmination of the Netherlan- in faculties, in form and moving how express and admirable, in dish school was in the music of the Italian composer action how like an angel, in apprehension how like a god!" — Palestrina. At the end of the 16th century Italy again from William Shakespeare's Hamlet. became a center of musical innovation, with the development of the polychoral style of the Venetian School, ning of the English Renaissance with the work of writ- which spread northward into Germany around 1600. ers William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, Edmund Spenser, Sir Thomas More, Francis Bacon, Sir Philip Sid- The paintings of the Italian Renaissance differed from ney, as well as great artists, architects (such as Inigo Jones those of the Northern Renaissance. Italian Renais- who introduced Italianate architecture to England), and sance artists were among the first to paint secular scenes, composers such as Thomas Tallis, John Taverner, and breaking away from the purely religious art of medieval William Byrd. painters. Northern Renaissance artists initially remained focused on religious subjects, such as the contemporary religious upheaval portrayed by Albrecht Dürer. France Later, the works of Pieter Bruegel influenced artists to paint scenes of daily life rather than religious or classical Main article: French Renaissance themes. It was also during the Northern Renaissance that Flemish brothers Hubert and Jan van Eyck perfected the “ ” oil painting technique, which enabled artists to produce The word Renaissance is borrowed from the French “ ” strong colors on a hard surface that could survive for cen- language, where it means re-birth . It was first used turies.*[76] A feature of the Northern Renaissance was its in the eighteenth century and was later popularized by French historian Jules Michelet (1798–1874) in his 1855 use of the vernacular in place of Latin or Greek, which * * allowed greater freedom of expression. This movement work, Histoire de France (History of France). [78] [79] had started in Italy with the decisive influence of Dante In 1495 the Italian Renaissance arrived in France, im- Alighieri on the development of vernacular languages; in ported by King Charles VIII after his invasion of Italy. A fact the focus on writing in Italian has neglected a major factor that promoted the spread of secularism was the in- source of Florentine ideas expressed in Latin.*[77] The ability of the Church to offer assistance against the Black spread of the printing press technology boosted the Re- Death. Francis I imported Italian art and artists, includ- naissance in Northern Europe as elsewhere, with Venice ing Leonardo da Vinci, and built ornate palaces at great becoming a world center of printing. expense. Writers such as François Rabelais, Pierre de 9.2. RENAISSANCE 181

Ronsard, Joachim du Bellay and Michel de Montaigne, Habsburg (ruling 1493–1519) was the ﬁrst truly Renais- painters such as Jean Clouet, and musicians such as Jean sance monarch of the Holy Roman Empire. Mouton also borrowed from the spirit of the Renaissance.

In 1533, a fourteen-year-old Caterina de' Medici (1519– Netherlands 1589), born in Florence to Lorenzo II de' Medici and Madeleine de la Tour d'Auvergne, married Henry II of Main articles: Renaissance in the Netherlands and Dutch France, second son of King Francis I and Queen Claude. and Flemish Renaissance painting Though she became famous and infamous for her role in Culture in the Netherlands at the end of the 15th cen- France's religious wars, she made a direct contribution in bringing arts, sciences and music (including the origins of ballet) to the French court from her native Florence.

Germany

Main article: German Renaissance In the second half of the 15th century, the Renaissance

Erasmus of Rotterdam in 1523, as depicted by Hans Holbein the Younger

tury was influenced by the Italian Renaissance through trade via Bruges, which made Flanders wealthy. Its no- bles commissioned artists who became known across Eu- rope.*[81] In science, the anatomist Andreas Vesalius led the way; in cartography, Gerardus Mercator's map as- The Arnolfini Portrait, by Jan van Eyck, 1434 sisted explorers and navigators. In art, Dutch and Flem- ish Renaissance painting ranged from the strange work of spirit spread to Germany and the Low Countries, where Hieronymus Bosch*[82] to the everyday life depictions of the development of the printing press (ca. 1450) and Pieter Brueghel the Elder.*[81] early Renaissance artists such as the painters Jan van Eyck (1395–1441) and Hieronymus Bosch (1450–1516) and the composers Johannes Ockeghem (1410–1497), Jacob Spain Obrecht (1457–1505) and Josquin des Prez (1455–1521) predated the influence from Italy. In the early Protestant Main article: Spanish Renaissance areas of the country humanism became closely linked to the turmoil of the Protestant Reformation, and the art The Renaissance arrived in the Iberian peninsula through and writing of the German Renaissance frequently re- the Mediterranean possessions of the Aragonese Crown flected this dispute.*[80] However, the gothic style and and the city of Valencia. Many early Spanish Renaissance medieval scholastic philosophy remained exclusively un- writers come from the Kingdom of Aragon, including til the turn of the 16th century. Emperor Maximilian I of Ausiàs March and Joanot Martorell. In the Kingdom of 182 CHAPTER 9. DAY 9

Castile, the early Renaissance was heavily influenced by nology, including Pedro Nunes, João de Castro, Abraham the Italian humanism, starting with writers and poets such Zacuto and Martin Behaim. Cartographers Pedro Reinel, as the Marquis of Santillana, who introduced the new Ital- Lopo Homem, Estêvão Gomes and Diogo Ribeiro made ian poetry to Spain in the early 15th century. Other writ- crucial advances in mapping the world. Apothecary ers, such as Jorge Manrique, Fernando de Rojas, Juan Tomé Pires and physicians Garcia de Orta and Cristóvão del Encina, Juan Boscán Almogáver and Garcilaso de da Costa collected and published works on plants and la Vega, kept a close resemblance to the Italian canon. medicines, soon translated by Flemish pioneer botanist Miguel de Cervantes's masterpiece Don Quixote is cred- Carolus Clusius. ited as the first Western novel. Renaissance humanism In architecture, the huge profits of the spice trade fi- flourished in the early 16th century, with influential writ- nanced a sumptuous composite style in the first decades ers such as philosopher Juan Luis Vives, grammarian of the 16th century, the Manueline, incorporating mar- Antonio de Nebrija and natural historian Pedro de Mexía. itime elements.*[84] The primary painters were Nuno Later Spanish Renaissance tended towards religious Gonçalves, Gregório Lopes and Vasco Fernandes. In mu- themes and mysticism, with poets such as fray Luis de sic, Pedro de Escobar and Duarte Lobo produced four León, Teresa of Ávila and John of the Cross, and treated songbooks, including the Cancioneiro de Elvas. In liter- issues related to the exploration of the New World, with ature, Sá de Miranda introduced Italian forms of verse. chroniclers and writers such as Inca Garcilaso de la Vega Bernardim Ribeiro developed pastoral romance, plays by and Bartolomé de las Casas, giving rise to a body of Gil Vicente fused it with popular culture, reporting the work, now known as Spanish Renaissance literature. The changing times, and Luís de Camões inscribed the Por- late Renaissance in Spain produced artists such as El tuguese feats overseas in the epic poem Os Lusíadas. Greco and composers such as Tomás Luis de Victoria and Travel literature especially flourished: João de Barros, Antonio de Cabezón. Castanheda, António Galvão, Gaspar Correia, Duarte Barbosa, and Fernão Mendes Pinto, among others, described new lands and were translated and spread with the Portugal new printing press.*[83] After joining the Portuguese exploration of Brazil in 1500, Amerigo Vespucci coined the Main article: Portuguese Renaissance term New World,*[85] in his letters to Lorenzo di Pier- Although Italian Renaissance had a modest impact in francesco de' Medici. The intense international exchange produced several cos- mopolitan humanist scholars, including Francisco de Holanda, André de Resende and Damião de Góis, a friend of Erasmus who wrote with rare independence on the reign of King Manuel I. Diogo and André de Gou- veia made relevant teaching reforms via France. Foreign news and products in the Portuguese factory in Antwerp attracted the interest of Thomas More*[86] and Dürer to the wider world.*[87] There, profits and know-how helped nurture the Dutch Renaissance and Golden Age, especially after the arrival of the wealthy cultured Jewish community expelled from Portugal.

Hungary

After Italy, Hungary was the first European country where the renaissance appeared.*[88] The Renaissance São Pedro Papa, 1530-1535, by Grão Vasco Fernandes. A pin- style came directly from Italy during the Quattrocento to nacle piece from when the Portuguese Renaissance had consid- Hungary first in the Central European region, thanks to erable external influence. the development of early Hungarian-Italian relationships – not only in dynastic connections, but also in cultural, hu- Portuguese arts, Portugal was influential in broadening manistic and commercial relations – growing in strength the European worldview,*[83] stimulating humanist in- from the 14th century. The relationship between Hun- quiry. Renaissance arrived through the influence of garian and Italian Gothic styles was a second reason – wealthy Italian and Flemish merchants who invested in exaggerated breakthrough of walls is avoided, preferring the profitable commerce overseas. As the pioneer head- clean and light structures. Large-scale building schemes quarters of European exploration, Lisbon flourished in provided ample and long term work for the artists, for ex- the late 15th century, attracting experts who made several ample, the building of the Friss (New) Castle in Buda, breakthroughs in mathematics, astronomy and naval tech- the castles of Visegrád, Tata and Várpalota. In Sigis- 9.2. RENAISSANCE 183

mund's court there were patrons such as Pipo Spano, a descendant of the Scolari family of Florence, who invited Manetto Ammanatini and Masolino da Pannicale to Hun- gary.*[89] The new Italian trend combined with existing national traditions to create a particular local Renaissance art. Ac- ceptance of Renaissance art was furthered by the continuous arrival of humanist thought in the country. Many young Hungarians studying at Italian universities came closer to the Florentine humanist center, so a direct connection with Florence evolved. The growing number of Italian traders moving to Hungary, specially to Buda, helped this process. New thoughts were carried by the humanist prelates, among them Vitéz János, archbishop of Esztergom, one of the founders of Hungarian humanism.*[90] During the long reign of emperor Sigismund of Luxemburg the Royal Castle of Buda became probably the largest Gothic palace of the late Middle Ages. King Matthias Corvinus (r. 1458–1490) rebuilt the palace in early Renaissance style and further expanded it.*[91]*[92] After the marriage in 1476 of King Matthias to Beatrice of Naples, Buda became one of the most important artistic centres of the Renaissance north of the Alps.*[93] The most important humanists living in Matthias' court were Antonio Bonfini and the famous Hungarian poet Janus Pannonius.*[93] András Hess set up a printing press in Buda in 1472. Matthias Corvinus's library, the Bibliotheca Corviniana, was Europe's greatest collections of secular books: historical chronicles, philosophic and Poznań Town Hall rebuilt from the Gothic style by Giovanni scientific works in the 15th century. His library was sec- Batista di Quadro (1550–1555) ond only in size to the Vatican Library. (However, the Vatican Library mainly contained Bibles and religious Lithuanian Commonwealth) actively participated in the materials.)*[94] broad European Renaissance. The multi-national Pol- In 1489, Bartolomeo della Fonte of Florence wrote ish state experienced a substantial period of cultural that Lorenzo de' Medici founded his own Greek-Latin growth thanks in part to a century without major wars – library encouraged by the example of the Hungarian aside from conflicts in the sparsely populated eastern and king. Corvinus's library is part of UNESCO World Her- southern borderlands. The Reformation spread peace- itage.*[95] Other important figures of Hungarian Renais- fully throughout the country (giving rise to the Polish sance include Bálint Balassi (poet), Sebestyén Tinódi Brethren), while living conditions improved, cities grew, Lantos (poet), Bálint Bakfark (composer and lutenist), and exports of agricultural products enriched the popula- and Master MS (fresco painter). tion, especially the nobility (szlachta) who gained dominance in the new political system of Golden Liberty. The Polish Renaissance architecture has three periods of de- Poland velopment. The greatest monument of this style in the territory of Main article: Renaissance in Poland the former Duchy of Pomerania is the Ducal Castle in An early Italian humanist who came to Poland in the Szczecin. mid-15th century was Filippo Buonaccorsi. Many Ital- ian artists came to Poland with Bona Sforza of Milan, when she married King Sigismund I the Old in 1518.*[96] Russia This was supported by temporarily strengthened monarchies in both areas, as well as by newly established uni- Renaissance trends from Italy and Central Europe influ- versities.*[97] The Polish Renaissance lasted from the enced Russia in many ways. Their influence was rather late 15th to the late 16th century and was the Golden limited, however, due to the large distances between Rus- Age of Polish culture. Ruled by the Jagiellon dynasty, sia and the main European cultural centers and the strong the Kingdom of Poland (from 1569 known as the Polish- adherence of Russians to their Orthodox traditions and 184 CHAPTER 9. DAY 9

Byzantine legacy. Prince Ivan III introduced Renaissance architecture to Russia by inviting a number of architects from Italy, who brought new construction techniques and some Renais- sance style elements with them, while in general following the traditional designs of Russian architecture. In 1475 the Bolognese architect Aristotele Fioravanti came to rebuild the Cathedral of the Dormition in the Moscow Kremlin, which had been damaged in an earthquake. Fio- ravanti was given the 12th-century Vladimir Cathedral as a model, and he produced a design combining traditional Russian style with a Renaissance sense of spaciousness, proportion and symmetry.

The Palace of Facets on the Cathedral Square of the Moscow Kremlin Theotokos and The Child, the late 17th century Russian icon by In 1485 Ivan III commissioned the building of the Karp Zolotaryov, with notably realistic depiction of faces and clothing. royal residence, Terem Palace, within the Kremlin, with Aloisio da Milano as the architect of the first three floors. He and other Italian architects also contributed to the construction of the Kremlin walls and towers. The small advanced technology, may have influenced the inven- banquet hall of the Russian Tsars, called the Palace of tion of the stone tented roof (the wooden tents were known in Russia and Europe long before). According to Facets because of its facetted upper story, is the work of two Italians, Marco Ruffo and Pietro Solario, and shows a one hypothesis, an Italian architect called Petrok Maly may have been an author of the Ascension Church in more Italian style. In 1505, an Italian known in Russia as Aleviz Novyi or Aleviz Fryazin arrived in Moscow. He Kolomenskoye, one of the earliest and most prominent tented roof churches.*[98] may have been the Venetian sculptor, Alevisio Lamberti da Montagne. He built 12 churches for Ivan III, including By the 17th century the influence of Renaissance painting the Cathedral of the Archangel, a building remarkable for resulted in Russian icons becoming slightly more realistic, the successful blending of Russian tradition, Orthodox re- while still following most of the old icon painting canons, quirements and Renaissance style. It is believed that the as seen in the works of Bogdan Saltanov, Simon Ushakov, Cathedral of the Metropolitan Peter in Vysokopetrovsky Gury Nikitin, Karp Zolotaryov and other Russian artists Monastery, another work of Aleviz Novyi, later served of the era. Gradually the new type of secular portrait as an inspiration for the so-called octagon-on-tetragon ar- painting appeared, called parsúna (from“persona”– per- chitectural form in the Moscow Baroque of the late 17th son), which was transitional style between abstract icono- century. graphics and real paintings. Between the early 16th and the late 17th centuries, an In the mid 16th-century Russians adopted printing from original tradition of stone tented roof architecture devel- Central Europe, with Ivan Fyodorov being the first known oped in Russia. It was quite unique and different from Russian printer. In the 17th century printing became the contemporary Renaissance architecture elsewhere in widespread, and woodcuts became especially popular. Europe, though some research terms the style 'Russian That led to the development of a special form of folk art Gothic' and compares it with the European Gothic ar- known as lubok printing, which persisted in Russia well chitecture of the earlier period. The Italians, with their into the 19th century. 9.2. RENAISSANCE 185

A number of technologies from the European Renais- sance period were adopted by Russia rather early and subsequently perfected to become a part of a strong domestic tradition. Mostly these were military technologies, such as cannon casting adopted by at least the 15th century. The Tsar Cannon, which is the world's largest bombard by caliber, is a masterpiece of Russian cannon making. It was cast in 1586 by Andrey Chokhov and is notable for its rich, decorative relief. Another technology, that according to one hypothesis originally was brought from Europe by the Italians, resulted in the development of vodka, the national beverage of Russia. As early as 1386 Genoese ambassadors brought the ﬁrst aqua vitae (“water of life” ) to Moscow and presented it to Grand Duke Dmitry Donskoy. The Genoese likely developed this beverage with the help of the alchemists of Provence, who used an Arab-invented distillation apparatus to convert grape must into alcohol. A Moscovite monk called Isidore used this technology to produce the ﬁrst original Russian vodka c. 1430.*[99]

Further countries

• Renaissance in Croatia

• Renaissance in Scotland A cover of the Lives of the Artists by Giorgio Vasari

9.2.5 Historiography nationalist, Michelet also sought to claim the Renaissance as a French movement.*[10] Conception The Swiss historian Jacob Burckhardt (1818–1897) in The Italian artist and critic Giorgio Vasari (1511–1574) his The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy (1860), first used the term rinascita retrospectively in his book by contrast, defined the Renaissance as the period be- The Lives of the Artists (published 1550). In the book tween Giotto and Michelangelo in Italy, that is, the 14th Vasari attempted to define what he described as a break to mid-16th centuries. He saw in the Renaissance the with the barbarities of gothic art: the arts (he held) had emergence of the modern spirit of individuality, which * fallen into decay with the collapse of the Roman Em- the Middle Ages had stifled. [101] His book was widely pire and only the Tuscan artists, beginning with Cimabue read and became influential in the development of the * (1240–1301) and Giotto (1267–1337) began to reverse modern interpretation of the Italian Renaissance. [102] this decline in the arts. Vasari saw antique art as central However, Buckhardt has been accused of setting forth a to the rebirth of Italian art.*[100] linear Whiggish view of history in seeing the Renaissance as the origin of the modern world.*[13] However, only in the 19th century did the French word Renaissance achieve popularity in describing the self- More recently, some historians have been much less keen conscious cultural movement based on revival of Ro- to define the Renaissance as a historical age, or even as man models that began in the late-13th century. French a coherent cultural movement. The historian Randolph historian Jules Michelet (1798–1874) defined “The Re- Starn, of the University of California Berkeley, stated in naissance”in his 1855 work Histoire de France as an 1998: entire historical period, whereas previously it had been used in a more limited sense.*[16] For Michelet, the Re- “Rather than a period with definitive begin- naissance was more a development in science than in nings and endings and consistent content in be- art and culture. He asserted that it spanned the period tween, the Renaissance can be (and occasion- from Columbus to Copernicus to Galileo; that is, from ally has been) seen as a movement of prac- the end of the 15th century to the middle of the 17th tices and ideas to which specific groups and century.*[78] Moreover, Michelet distinguished between identifiable persons variously responded in dif- what he called,“the bizarre and monstrous”quality of the ferent times and places. It would be in this Middle Ages and the democratic values that he, as a vocal sense a network of diverse, sometimes con- Republican, chose to see in its character.*[10] A French verging, sometimes conflicting cultures, not a 186 CHAPTER 9. DAY 9

single, time-bound culture”.*[13] Johan Huizinga (1872–1945) acknowledged the existence of the Renaissance but questioned whether it was a positive change. In his book The Waning of the Middle Debates about progress Ages, he argued that the Renaissance was a period of decline from the High Middle Ages, destroying much that See also: Continuity thesis was important.*[12] The Latin language, for instance, There is debate about the extent to which the Re- had evolved greatly from the classical period and was still a living language used in the church and elsewhere. The Renaissance obsession with classical purity halted its further evolution and saw Latin revert to its classical form. Robert S. Lopez has contended that it was a period of deep economic recession.*[106] Meanwhile, George Sarton and Lynn Thorndike have both argued that scientific progress was perhaps less original than has traditionally been supposed.*[107] Finally, Joan Kelly argued that the Renaissance led to greater gender di- chotomy, lessening the agency women had had during the Middle Ages.*[108] Some historians have begun to consider the word Renais- Painting of the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre, an event in the sance to be unnecessarily loaded, implying an unambigu- French Wars of Religion, by François Dubois ously positive rebirth from the supposedly more primitive "Dark Ages", the Middle Ages. Most historians now naissance improved on the culture of the Middle Ages. prefer to use the term "early modern" for this period, a Both Michelet and Burckhardt were keen to describe the more neutral designation that highlights the period as a progress made in the Renaissance towards the modern transitional one between the Middle Ages and the mod- age. Burckhardt likened the change to a veil being re- * * ern era. [109] Others such as Roger Osborne have come moved from man's eyes, allowing him to see clearly. [43] to consider the Italian Renaissance as a repository of the myths and ideals of western history in general, and in- In the Middle Ages both sides of human stead of rebirth of ancient ideas as a period of great in- consciousness – that which was turned within novation.*[110] as that which was turned without – lay dreaming or half awake beneath a common veil. The veil was woven of faith, illusion, and childish 9.2.6 Other Renaissances prepossession, through which the world and history were seen clad in strange hues.*[103] The term Renaissance has also been used to define peri- —Jacob Burckhardt, The Civilization of the ods outside of the 15th and 16th centuries. Charles H. Renaissance in Italy Haskins (1870–1937), for example, made a case for a Renaissance of the 12th century.*[111] Other historians have argued for a Carolingian Renaissance in the 8th and 9th centuries, and still later for an Ottonian Renaissance On the other hand, many historians now point out that * most of the negative social factors popularly associated in the 10th century. [112] Other periods of cultural re- “ ” with the medieval period – poverty, warfare, religious and birth have also been termed renaissances , such as the political persecution, for example – seem to have wors- Bengal Renaissance, Tamil Renaissance, Nepal Bhasa re- ened in this era, which saw the rise of Machiavellian pol- naissance, al-Nahda or the Harlem Renaissance. itics, the Wars of Religion, the corrupt Borgia Popes, and the intensified witch-hunts of the 16th century. Many 9.2.7 See also people who lived during the Renaissance did not view it as the "golden age" imagined by certain 19th-century au- Main article: Outline of the Renaissance thors, but were concerned by these social maladies.*[104] Significantly, though, the artists, writers, and patrons involved in the cultural movements in question believed • Italian Renaissance they were living in a new era that was a clean break from the Middle Ages.*[72] Some Marxist historians prefer to • Weser Renaissance describe the Renaissance in material terms, holding the • view that the changes in art, literature, and philosophy Gilded woodcarving were part of a general economic trend from feudalism • List of Renaissance figures towards capitalism, resulting in a bourgeois class with leisure time to devote to the arts.*[105] • List of Renaissance structures 9.2. RENAISSANCE 187

• Renaissance Humanism [13] Starn, Randolph (1998). “Renaissance Redux”. The American Historical Review. 103 (1): 122–124. • Medical Renaissance doi:10.2307/2650779. JSTOR 2650779.

• Age of Enlightenment [14] Panofsky 1969:6.

• Scientiﬁc Revolution [15] The Oxford English Dictionary cites W Dyce and C H Wil- son’s Letter to Lord Meadowbank (1837): “A style pos- • Western culture sessing many points of rude resemblance with the more elegant and reﬁned character of the art of the renaissance • Haskalah in Italy.”And the following year in Civil Engineer & Ar- chitect’s Journal: “Not that we consider the style of the Renaissance to be either pure or good per se.”See Oxford 9.2.8 References English Dictionary, “Renaissance”

Notes [16] Murray, P. and Murray, L. (1963) The Art of the Renais- sance. London: Thames & Hudson (World of Art), p. [1] It is sometimes thought that the Church, as an institu- 9. ISBN 978-0-500-20008-7. "...in 1855 we find, for the tion, formally sold indulgences at the time. This, however, first time, the word 'Renaissance' used —by the French was not the practice. Donations were often received, but historian Michelet —as an adjective to describe a whole only mandated by individuals that were condemned. (See period of history and not confined to the rebirth of Latin Indulgence.) letters or a classically inspired style in the arts.” [17] Perry, M. Humanities in the Western Tradition, Ch. 13 Citations [18] Open University, Looking at the Renaissance: Religious Context in the Renaissance (Retrieved May 10, 2007) [1] French pronunciation: [ʁənɛsɑ̃s], from French: Renais- sance “re-birth”, Italian: Rinascimento [rinaʃʃiˈmento], [19] Open University, Looking at the Renaissance: Urban from rinascere“to be reborn”“Online Etymology Dictio- economy and government (Retrieved May 15, 2007) nary: “Renaissance"". Etymonline.com. Retrieved July 31, 2009. [20] Stark, Rodney, The Victory of Reason, Random House, NY: 2005 [2] BBC Science and Nature, Leonardo da Vinci Retrieved May 12, 2007 [21] Walker, Paul Robert, The Feud that sparked the Renais- sance: How Brunelleschi and Ghiberti Changed the Art [3] BBC History, Michelangelo Retrieved May 12, 2007 World (New York, Perennial-Harper Collins, 2003) [4] Burke, P., The European Renaissance: Centre and Periph- [22] Severy, Merle; Thomas B Allen; Ross Bennett; Jules eries 1998) B Billard; Russell Bourne; Edward Lanoutte; David F [5] Strathern, Paul The Medici: Godfathers of the Renaissance Robinson; Verla Lee Smith (1970). The Renaissance – (2003) Maker of Modern Man. National Geographic Society. ISBN 0-87044-091-8. [6] Peter Barenboim, Sergey Shiyan, Michelangelo: Myster- ies of Medici Chapel, SLOVO, Moscow, 2006. ISBN 5- [23] Brotton, Jerry (2002). The Renaissance Bazaar. Oxford 85050-825-2 University Press. pp. 21–22.

[7] Encyclopædia Britannica, Renaissance, 2008, O.Ed. [24] For information on this earlier, very different approach to a different set of ancient texts (scientific texts rather than [8] Har, Michael H. History of Libraries in the Western World, cultural texts) see Latin translations of the 12th century, Scarecrow Press Incorporate, 1999, ISBN 0-8108-3724-2 and Islamic contributions to Medieval Europe.

[9] Norwich, John Julius, A Short History of Byzantium, 1997, [25] Reynolds and Wilson, pp. 113–123. Knopf, ISBN 0-679-45088-2 [26] Reynolds and Wilson, pp. 123, 130–137. [10] Brotton, J., The Renaissance: A Very Short Introduction, OUP, 2006 ISBN 0-19-280163-5. [27] Western Civilization: Ideas, Politics, and Society, Marvin Perry, Myrna Chase, Margaret C. Jacob, James R. Jacob, [11] Panofsky, Renaissance and Renascences in Western 2008, 903 pages, p.261/262. Art 1969:38; Panofsky's chapter "'Renaissance —self- deﬁnition or self-deception?" succinctly introduces the [28] Reynolds and Wilson, pp. 119, 131. historiographical debate, with copious footnotes to the literature. [29] Kirshner, Julius, Family and Marriage: A socio-legal perspective, Italy in the Age of the Renaissance: 1300–1550, [12] Huizanga, Johan, The Waning of the Middle Ages (1919, ed. John M. Najemy (Oxford University Press, 2004) trans. 1924) p.89 (Retrieved on May 10, 2007) 188 CHAPTER 9. DAY 9

[30] Burckhardt, Jacob, The Revival of Antiquity', The Civi- [51] Vasari, Giorgio, Lives of the Artists, translated by George lization of the Renaissance in Italy (trans. by S.G.C. Mid- Bull, Penguin Classics, 1965, ISBN 0-14-044164-6. dlemore, 1878) [52] Peter Brueghel Biography, Web Gallery of Art (Retrieved [31] Skinner, Quentin, The Foundations of Modern Political May 10, 2007) Thought, vol I: The Renaissance; vol II: The Age of Refor- mation, Cambridge University Press, p. 69 [53] Hooker, Richard, Architecture and Public Space (Re- trieved May 10, 2007) [32] Skinner, Quentin, The Foundations of Modern Political Thought, vol I: The Renaissance; vol II: The Age of Refor- [54] Saalman, Howard (1993). Filippo Brunelleschi: The mation, Cambridge University Press, p. 69) Buildings. Zwemmer. ISBN 0-271-01067-3.

[33] Stark, Rodney, The Victory of Reason, New York, Ran- [55] Hause, S. & Maltby, W. (2001). A History of European dom House, 2005 Society. Essentials of Western Civilization (Vol. 2, pp. 250–251). Belmont, CA: Thomson Learning, Inc. [34] Martin, J. and Romano, D., Venice Reconsidered, Balti- more, Johns Hopkins University, 2000 [56] Capra, Fritjof, The Science of Leonardo; Inside the Mind of the Great Genius of the Renaissance, New York, Dou- [35] Burckhardt, Jacob, The Republics: Venice and Florence, bleday, 2007. Exhaustive 2007 study by Fritjof Capra The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, translated by shows that Leonardo was a much greater scientist than S.G.C. Middlemore, 1878. previously thought, and not just an inventor. Leonardo [36] Barbara Tuchman (1978) A Distant Mirror, Knopf ISBN was innovative in science theory and in conducting actual 0-394-40026-7. science practice. In Capra's detailed assessment of many surviving manuscripts, Leonardo's science in tune with [37] The End of Europe's Middle Ages: The Black Death Uni- holistic non-mechanistic and non-reductive approaches to versity of Calgary website. (Retrieved on April 5, 2007) science, which are becoming popular today.

[38] Netzley, Patricia D. Life During the Renaissance.San [57] Allen Debus, Man and Nature in the Renaissance (Cam- Diego: Lucent Books, Inc., 1998. bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978).

[39] Hause, S. & Maltby, W. (2001). A History of European [58] Butterfield, Herbert, The Origins of Modern Science, Society. Essentials of Western Civilization (Vol. 2, p. 217). 1300–1800, p. viii Belmont, CA: Thomson Learning, Inc. [59] Shapin, Steven. The Scientific Revolution, Chicago: Uni- [40]“Renaissance And Reformation France”Mack P. Holt versity of Chicago Press, 1996, p. 1. pg.30,39,69,166 “ ” [41] Hatty, Suzanne (1999). “Disordered Body: Epidemic [60] Scientific Revolution in Encarta. 2007. ” Disease and Cultural Transformation . ebscohost. State [61] Brotton, J.,“Science and Philosophy”, The Renaissance: University of New York. p. 89. A Very Short Introduction Oxford University Press, 2006 [42] Guido Carocci, I dintorni di Firenze, Vol. II, Galletti e ISBN 0-19-280163-5. Cocci, Firenze, 1907, pagg. 336-337 [62] Van Doren, Charles (1991) A History of Knowledge Bal- [43] Burckhardt, Jacob, The Development of the Individual, lantine, New York, pp. 211–212, ISBN 0-345-37316-2 The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy, translated by S.G.C. Middlemore, 1878. [63] Burke, Peter (2000) A Social History of Knowledge: From Gutenberg to Diderot Polity Press, Cambridge, Mas- [44] Stephens, J., Individualism and the cult of creative person- sachusetts, p. 40, ISBN 0-7456-2484-7 ality, The Italian Renaissance, New York, 1990 p. 121. [64] Joseph Ben-David wrote: [45] Oration on the Dignity of Man (1486) wsu.edu Rapid accumulation of knowledge, which [46] Burke, P., “The spread of Italian humanism”, in The has characterized the development of science Impact of Humanism on Western Europe, ed. A. Goodman since the 17th century, had never occurred and A. MacKay, London, 1990, p. 2. before that time. The new kind of scientific activity emerged only in a few countries [47] As asserted by Gianozzo Manetti in On the Dignity and of Western Europe, and it was restricted to Excellence of Man, cited in Clare, J., Italian Renaissance. that small area for about two hundred years. [48] Hause, S. & Maltby, W. (2001). A History of European (Since the 19th century, scientific knowledge Society. Essentials of Western Civilization (Vol. 2, pp. has been assimilated by the rest of the world). 245–246). Belmont, CA: Thomson Learning, Inc. [65] Hunt, Shelby D. (2003). Controversy in marketing theory: [49] Clare, John D. & Millen, Alan, Italian Renaissance, Lon- for reason, realism, truth, and objectivity. M.E. Sharpe. p. don, 1994, p. 14. 18. ISBN 0-7656-0932-0.

[50] Stork, David G. Optics and Realism in Renaissance Art [66] DIWAN, Jaswith. ACCOUNTING CONCEPTS & THEO- (Retrieved May 10, 2007) RIES. LONDON: MORRE. pp. 001–002. id# 94452. 9.2. RENAISSANCE 189

[67] Catholic Encyclopedia, Western Schism (Retrieved May [86] Bietenholz, Peter G.; Deutscher, Thomas Brian (2003). 10, 2007) Contemporaries of Erasmus: a biographical register of the Renaissance and Reformation, Volumes 1–3. University [68] Catholic Encyclopedia, Alexander VI (Retrieved May 10, of Toronto Press. p. 22. ISBN 0-8020-8577-6. 2007)

[69] Mommsen, Theodore (1942). “Petrarch's Concep- [87] Lach, Donald Frederick (1994). Asia in the making of Eu- tion of the 'Dark Ages'". Speculum. Cambridge MA: rope: A century of wonder. The literary arts. The scholarly Medieval Academy of America. 17 (2): 226–242. disciplines (University of Chicago Press, 1994 ed.). ISBN doi:10.2307/2856364. JSTOR 2856364. 0-226-46733-3. Retrieved July 15, 2011.

[70] Leonardo Bruni, James Hankins, History of the Florentine [88] Peter Farbaky; Louis A. Waldman (November 7, 2011). people, Volume 1, Books 1–4 (2001), p. xvii. Italy & Hungary: Humanism and Art in the Early Re- naissance. Harvard University Press. Retrieved March [71] Albrow, Martin, The Global Age: state and society beyond 6, 2012. modernity (1997), Stanford University Press, p. 205 ISBN 0-8047-2870-4. [89] Title: Hungary (4th edition)Authors: Zoltán Halász / An- drás Balla (photo) / Zsuzsa Béres (translation) Published [72] Panofsky, Erwin. Renaissance and Renascences in West- by Corvina, in 1998 ISBN 963-13-4129-1, 963-13-4727- ern Art, New York: Harper and Row, 1960. 3 [73] The Open University Guide to the Renaissance, Defining the Renaissance (Retrieved May 10, 2007) [90] “the influences of the florentine renaissance in hungary” . Fondazione-delbianco.org. Retrieved July 31, 2009. [74] Sohm, Philip. Style in the Art Theory of Early Mod- ern Italy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001) [91] History section: Miklós Horler: Budapest műemlékei I, ISBN 0-521-78069-1. Bp: 1955, pp. 259–307

[75] Láng, Paul Henry (1939). “The So Called Nether- [92] Post-war reconstruction: László Gerő: A helyreállított bu- lands Schools”. The Musical Quarterly. 25 (1): 48–59. dai vár, Bp, 1980, pp. 11–60. doi:10.1093/mq/xxv.1.48. JSTOR 738699.

[76] Painting in Oil in the Low Countries and Its Spread to [93] Czigány, Lóránt, A History of Hungarian Literature,"The Southern Europe, Metropolitan Museum of Art website. Renaissance in Hungary" (Retrieved May 10, 2007) (Retrieved April 5, 2007) [94] Marcus Tanner, The Raven King: Matthias Corvinus and [77] Celenza, Christopher (2004), The Lost Italian Renais- the Fate of his Lost Library (New Haven: Yale U.P., sance: Humanists, Historians, and Latin's Legacy. Bal- 2008) timore, Johns Hopkins University Press [95] Documentary heritage concerning Hungary and recom- [78] Michelet, Jules. History of France, trans. G. H. Smith mended for inclusion in the Memory of the World Inter- (New York: D. Appleton, 1847) national Register. portal.unesco.org [79] Vincent Cronin (30 June 2011). The Florentine Renais- [96] Bona Sforza (1494–1557). poland.gov.pl (Retrieved sance. Random House. ISBN 978-1-4464-6654-4. April 4, 2007) [80] Strauss, Gerald (1965). “The Religious Renaissance of the German Humanists”. English Historical Review. 80 [97] For example, the re-establishment of Jagiellonian Univer- (314): 156–157. JSTOR 560776. sity in 1364.

[81] Heughebaert, H.; Defoort, A.; Van Der Donck, R. [98] The ﬁrst stone tented roof church and the origins of (1998). Artistieke opvoeding. Wommelgem, Belgium: the tented roof architecture by Sergey Zagraevsky at Den Gulden Engel bvba. ISBN 90-5035-222-7. RusArch.ru (Russian)

[82] Janson, H.W.; Janson, Anthony F. (1997). History of Art [99] Pokhlebkin V. V. / Похлёбкин В. В. (2007). The history (5th, rev. ed.). New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc. ISBN of vodka / История водки. Moscow: Tsentrpoligraph / 0-8109-3442-6. Центрполиграф. p. 272. ISBN 5-9524-1895-3. [83] University, Brown, The John Carter Brown Library.“Por- [100] “Deﬁning the Renaissance, Open University”. tuguese Overseas Travels and European Readers”. Portu- Open.ac.uk. Retrieved July 31, 2009. gal and Renaissance Europe. JCB Exhibitions. Retrieved July 19, 2011. [101] Burckhardt, Jacob. The Civilization of the Renaissance in [84] Bergin, Speake, Jennifer and Thomas G. (2004). Italy (trans. S.G.C Middlemore, London, 1878) Encyclopedia of the Renaissance and the Reformation. In- fobase Publishing. ISBN 0-8160-5451-7. [102] Gay, Peter, Style in History, New York: Basic Books, 1974. [85] Bergin, Speake, Jennifer and Thomas G. (2004). Encyclopedia of the Renaissance and the Reformation. In- [103] Burckhardt, Jacob. “The Civilization of the Renaissance fobase Publishing. p. 490. ISBN 0-8160-5451-7. in Italy”. Retrieved August 31, 2008. 190 CHAPTER 9. DAY 9

[104] Savonarola's popularity is a prime example of the mani- • Davis, Robert C. Renaissance People: Lives that festation of such concerns. Other examples include Philip Shaped the Modern Age. (2011). ISBN 978-1- II of Spain's censorship of Florentine paintings, noted by 60606-078-0 Edward L. Goldberg,“Spanish Values and Tuscan Paint- ing”, Renaissance Quarterly (1998) p.914 • Ergang, Robert (1967), The Renaissance, ISBN 0- 442-02319-7 [105] Renaissance Forum at Hull University, Autumn 1997 (Re- trieved on May 10, 2007) • Ferguson, Wallace K. (1962), Europe in Transition, 1300–1500, ISBN 0-04-940008-8 [106] Lopez, Robert S. & Miskimin, Harry A. (1962). “The Economic Depression of the Renaissance”. Economic • Fisher, Celia. Flowers of the Renaissance. (2011). History Review. 14 (3): 408–26. doi:10.1111/j.1468- ISBN 978-1-60606-062-9 0289.1962.tb00059.x. JSTOR 2591885. • Fletcher, Stella. The Longman Companion to Re- [107] Thorndike, Lynn; Johnson, F. R.; Kristeller, P. O.; Lock- naissance Europe, 1390–1530. (2000). 347 pp. wood, D. P.; Thorndike, L. (1943). “Some Remarks on the Question of the Originality of the Renaissance” • Grendler, Paul F., ed. The Renaissance: An Ency- . Journal of the History of Ideas. 4 (1): 49–74. clopedia for Students. (2003). 970 pp. doi:10.2307/2707236. JSTOR 2707236. • Hale, John. The Civilization of Europe in the Renais- [108] Kelly-Gadol, Joan. “Did Women Have a Renaissance?" Becoming Visible: Women in European History. Edited by sance. (1994). 648 pp.; a magistral survey, heavily Renate Bridenthal and Claudia Koonz. Boston: Houghton illustrated; excerpt and text search Miﬄin, 1977. • Hall, Bert S. Weapons and Warfare in Renais- [109] Stephen Greenblatt Renaissance Self-Fashioning: From sance Europe: Gunpowder, Technology, and Tactics More to Shakespeare, University of Chicago Press, 1980. (2001); http://www.amazon.com/dp/0801869943 excerpt and text search] [110] Osborne, Roger (November 1, 2006). Civilization: a new history of the Western world. Pegasus Books. pp. 180– • Hattaway, Michael, ed. A Companion to English Re- . ISBN 978-1-933648-19-4. Retrieved December 10, naissance Literature and Culture. (2000). 747 pp. 2011. • Jensen, De Lamar (1992), Renaissance Europe, [111] Haskins, Charles Homer, The Renaissance of the Twelfth ISBN 0-395-88947-2 Century, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1927 ISBN 0-674-76075-1. • Johnson, Paul. The Renaissance: A Short History. (2000). 197 pp.; excerpt and text search [112] Hubert, Jean, L'Empire carolingien (English: The Car- olingian Renaissance, translated by James Emmons, New • Keene, Bryan C. Gardens of the Renaissance. York: G. Braziller, 1970). (2013). ISBN 978-1-60606-143-5

• King, Margaret L. Women of the Renaissance (1991) 9.2.9 Bibliography excerpt and text search • • Burckhardt, Jacob, The Civilization of the Renais- Kristeller, Paul Oskar, and Michael Mooney. Re- sance in Italy (1860), a famous classic; excerpt and naissance Thought and its Sources (1979); excerpt text search 2007 edition; also complete text online. and text search • • Reynolds, L. D. and Wilson, Nigel, Scribes and Nauert, Charles G. Historical Dictionary of the Re- Scholars: A guide to the transmission of Greek and naissance. (2004). 541 pp. Latin Literature, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1974. • Patrick, James A., ed. Renaissance and Reforma- tion (5 vol 2007), 1584 pages; comprehensive encyclopedia 9.2.10 Further reading • Plumb, J. H. The Italian Renaissance (2001); • Cronin, Vincent (1969), The Flowering of the Re- excerpt and text search naissance, ISBN 0-7126-9884-1 • Paoletti, John T. and Gary M. Radke. Art in Renais- • Cronin, Vincent (1992), The Renaissance, ISBN 0- sance Italy (4th ed. 2011) 00-215411-0 • Robin, Diana; Larsen, Anne R.; and Levin, Car- • Campbell, Gordon. The Oxford Dictionary of the ole, eds. Encyclopedia of Women in the Renaissance: Renaissance. (2003). 862 pp. online at OUP Italy, France, and England (2007) 459p. 9.2. RENAISSANCE 191

• Rowse, A. L. The Elizabethan Renaissance: The Life Primary sources of the Society (2000); excerpt and text search • Bartlett, Kenneth, ed. The Civilization of the Italian • Ruggiero, Guido. The Renaissance in Italy: A So- Renaissance: A Sourcebook (2nd ed. 2011) cial and Cultural History of the Rinascimento (Cam- bridge University Press, 2015). 648 pp. online re- • Ross, James Bruce, and Mary M. McLaughlin, eds. view The Portable Renaissance Reader (1977); excerpt and text search • Rundle, David, ed. The Hutchinson Encyclopedia of the Renaissance. (1999). 434 pp.; numerous brief articles online edition 9.2.11 External links • Turner, Richard N. Renaissance Florence (2005); • Notable Medieval and Renaissance Women excerpt and text search • • Ward, A. The Cambridge Modern History. Vol 1: Renaissance Style Guide The Renaissance (1902); older essays by scholars; • Interactive Resources emphasis on politics • Florence: 3D Panoramas of Florentine Re- naissance Sites(English/Italian) Historiography • Interactive Glossary of Terms Relating to the • Bouwsma, William J. “The Renaissance and the Renaissance drama of Western history.”American Historical Re- • Multimedia Exploration of the Renaissance view (1979): 1-15. in JSTOR • RSS News Feed: Get an entry from • Caferro, William. Contesting the Renaissance Leonardo's Journal delivered each day (2010); excerpt and text search • Virtual Journey to Renaissance Florence • Ferguson, Wallace K. “The Interpretation of the • Exhibits Collection – Renaissance Renaissance: Suggestions for a Synthesis.”Journal • of the History of Ideas (1951): 483-495. online in Lectures and Galleries JSTOR • Leonardo da Vinci, Gallery of Paintings and • Ferguson, Wallace K. “Recent trends in the eco- Drawings nomic historiography of the Renaissance.”Studies • The Bagatti Valsecchi Museum in the Renaissance (1960): 7-26. • Renaissance in the “History of Art” • Ferguson, Wallace Klippert. The Renaissance in his- • The Society for Renaissance Studies torical thought (AMS Press, 1981) • Grendler, Paul F.“The Future of Sixteenth Century Studies: Renaissance and Reformation Scholarship in the Next Forty Years,”Sixteenth Century Journal Spring 2009, Vol. 40 Issue 1, pp 182+ • Ruggiero, Guido, ed. A Companion to the Worlds of the Renaissance. (2002). 561 pp. • Starn, Randolph. “A Postmodern Renaissance?" Renaissance Quarterly 2007 60(1): 1–24 in Project MUSE • Summit, Jennifer. “Renaissance Humanism and the Future of the Humanities.”Literature Compass (2012) 9#10 pp: 665-678. • Trivellato, Francesca. “Renaissance Italy and the Muslim Mediterranean in Recent Historical Work,” Journal of Modern History (March 2010), 82#1 pp: 127–155. • Woolfson, Jonathan, ed. Palgrave advances in Renaissance historiography (Palgrave Macmillan, 2005) Chapter 10

Day 10

10.1 Photorealism icism when the movement began to gain momentum in the late 1960s,*[7] despite the fact that visual devices had This article is about the artistic movement. For the use of been used since the ﬁfteenth century to aid artists with * the term in computer graphics, see Rendering (computer their work. [8] graphics). Photorealism is a genre of art that encompasses paint-

Ralph's Diner (1981–1982), oil on canvas. Example of photorealist Ralph Goings' work John's Diner with John's Chevelle, 2007 John Baeder, oil on canvas, 30×48 inches. The invention of photography in the nineteenth century ing, drawing and other graphic media, in which an artist had three effects on art: portrait and scenic artists were studies a photograph and then attempts to reproduce the deemed inferior to the photograph and many turned to image as realistically as possible in another medium. Al- photography as careers; within nineteenth- and twentieth- though the term can be used broadly to describe artworks century art movements it is well documented that artists in many different media, it is also used to refer specifi- used the photograph as source material and as an aid cally to a group of paintings and painters of the American —however, they went to great lengths to deny the fact art movement that began in the late 1960s and early 1970s fearing that their work would be misunderstood as imita- tions;*[8] and through the photograph's invention artists were open to a great deal of new experimentation.*[9] 10.1.1 History Thus, the culmination of the invention of the photograph was a break in art's history towards the challenge facing — — Origins the artist since the earliest known cave drawings trying to replicate the scenes they viewed.*[6] As a full-fledged art movement, Photorealism evolved By the time the Photorealists began producing their bod- from Pop Art*[1]*[2]*[3] and as a counter to Abstract ies of work the photograph had become the leading means Expressionism*[2]*[3] as well as Minimalist art move- of reproducing reality and abstraction was the focus of ments*[2]*[3]*[4]*[5] in the late 1960s and early 1970s the art world.*[10] Realism continued as an ongoing in the United States.*[5] Photorealists use a photo- art movement, even experiencing a reemergence in the graph or several photographs to gather the information 1930s, but by the 1950s modernist critics and Abstract to create their paintings and it can be argued that the Expressionism had minimalized realism as a serious art use of a camera and photographs is an acceptance of undertaking.*[6]*[11] Though Photorealists share some Modernism.*[6] However, the admittance to the use of aspects of American realists, such as Edward Hopper, photographs in Photorealism was met with intense crit- they tried to set themselves as much apart from tradi-

192 10.1. PHOTOREALISM 193

tional realists as they did Abstract Expressionists.*[11] Styles Photorealists were much more inﬂuenced by the work of Pop artists and were reacting against Abstract Expression- Photorealist painting cannot exist without the ism.*[12] photograph. In Photorealism, change and movement must be frozen in time which must then be Pop Art and Photorealism were both reactionary move- * ments stemming from the ever increasing and over- accurately represented by the artist. [17] Photorealists whelming abundance of photographic media, which by gather their imagery and information with the camera the mid 20th century had grown into such a massive phe- and photograph. Once the photograph is developed nomenon that it was threatening to lessen the value of (usually onto a photographic slide) the artist will system- imagery in art.*[1]*[13]*[14] However, whereas the Pop atically transfer the image from the photographic slide artists were primarily pointing out the absurdity of much onto canvases. Usually this is done either by projecting the slide onto the canvas or by using traditional grid of the imagery (especially in commercial usage), the Pho- * torealists were trying to reclaim and exalt the value of an techniques. [18] The resulting images are often direct image.*[13]*[14] copies of the original photograph but are usually larger than the original photograph or slide. This results in The association of Photorealism to Trompe L'oeil is a the photorealist style being tight and precise, often with wrongly attributed comparison, an error in observation an emphasis on imagery that requires a high level of or interpretation made by many critics of the 1970s and technical prowess and virtuosity to simulate, such as 1980s.*[11]*[4] Trompe L'oeil paintings attempt to“fool reﬂections in specular surfaces and the geometric rigor the eye”and make the viewer think he is seeing an actual of man-made environs.*[19] object, not a painted one. When observing a Photorealist painting, the viewer is always aware that they are looking at a painting.*[6]*[11] Artists

The first generation of American photorealists includes Definition such painters as John Baeder, Richard Estes, Ralph Go- ings, Chuck Close, Charles Bell, Audrey Flack, Don The word Photorealism was coined by Louis K. * * Eddy, Robert Bechtle, and Tom Blackwell. [20] Often Meisel [15] in 1969 and appeared in print for the first working independently of each other and with widely time in 1970 in a Whitney Museum catalogue for the different starting points, these original photorealists rou- “ ”* show Twenty-two Realists. [16] It is also sometimes tinely tackled mundane or familiar subjects in traditional labeled as Super-Realism, New Realism, Sharp Focus * art genres--landscapes (mostly urban rather than natural- Realism, or Hyper-Realism. [16] istic), portraits, and still lifes.*[20] In the UK, photore- Louis K. Meisel,*[15] two years later, developed a five- alist approaches were favoured by many artists including point definition at the request of Stuart M. Speiser, who Mike Gorman and Eric Scott. The introduction of these had commissioned a large collection of works by the Pho- European painters to a wider US audience was brought torealists, which later developed into a traveling show about through the 1982 'Superhumanism' exhibition at known as 'Photo-Realism 1973: The Stuart M. Speiser the Arnold Katzen Gallery, New York.*[21] Collection', which was donated to the Smithsonian in Though the movement is primarily associated with paint- 1978 and is shown in several of its museums as well as * ing, Duane Hanson and John DeAndrea are sculptors traveling under the auspices of SITE. [16] The definition associated with photorealism for their painted, lifelike for the ORIGINATORS was as follows: sculptures of average people that were complete with simulated hair and real clothes. They are called Verists.*[20] 1. The Photo-Realist uses the camera and photograph to gather information. 2. The Photo-Realist uses a mechanical or Since 2000 semimechanical means to transfer the information to the canvas. Though the height of Photorealism was in the 1970s the movement continues and includes several of the origi- 3. The Photo-Realist must have the techni- nal photorealists as well as many of their contemporaries. cal ability to make the finished work ap- According to Meisel and Chase's Photorealism at the Mil- pear photographic. lennium, only eight of the original photorealists were still 4. The artist must have exhibited work as a creating photorealist work in 2002;*[22] ten including Photo-Realist by 1972 to be considered John Baeder and Howard Kanovitz. one of the central Photo-Realists. Artists Charles Bell, John Kacere, and Howard Kanovitz 5. The artist must have devoted at least five have died; Audrey Flack, Chuck Close, and Don Eddy years to the development and exhibition have moved in different directions other than photoreal- of Photo-Realist work.*[17] ism; and Robert Cottingham no longer considers himself 194 CHAPTER 10. DAY 10

Original photorealists

Signiﬁcant artists whose work helped deﬁne Photoreal- ism:

Photorealists

Signiﬁcant artists whose work meets the criteria of Pho- torealism:

Other photorealists

10.1.3 See also

10.1.4 References

[1] Lindey (1980), pp. 27–33. Dream of Love (2005), Oil on canvas. Example of Photorealist Glennray Tutor's work [2] Meisel and Chase (2002), pp. 14–15. [3] Nochlin, Linda, “The Realist Criminal and the Abstract Law II”, Art In America. 61 (November-December a photorealist. 1973), p. 98. Newer Photorealists are building upon the foundations set [4] Fleming, John and Honour, Hugh (1991), The Visual Arts: by the original photorealists. Examples would be the in- A History, 3rd Edition. New York: Abrams. p. 709. fluence of Richard Estes in works by Anthony Brunelli ISBN 0810939134. or the influence of Ralph Goings and Charles Bell in [5] Battock, Gregory. Preface to Meisel, Louis K. (1980), works by Glennray Tutor. However, this has led many Photorealism. New York:Abrams. pp 8–10 to move on from the strict definition of photorealism as the emulation of the photograph. Photorealism is also [6] Meisel and Chase (2002) no longer simply an American art movement. Starting [7] Meisel and Chase (2002), pp. 11–12. with Franz Gertsch in the 1980s Clive Head, Raphaella Spence, Bertrand Meniel, and Roberto Bernardi are sev- [8] Scharf, Aaron (1969), Art and Photography Baltimore: eral European artists associated with photorealism that Allan Lane, The Penguin Press. have emerged since the mid-1990s.*[6]*[23] This inter- nationalization of photorealism is also seen in photoreal- [9] Meisel and Chase (2002), pp. 11–14. ist events, such as The Prague Project, in which Ameri- [10] Chase, pp. 12–14. can and non-American photorealist painters have traveled together to locations including Prague, Zurich, Monaco [11] Lindey (1980), p. 12. and New York, to work alongside each other in produc- [12] Lindey (1980), p. 23. ing work. [13] Chase, p. 14. The evolution of technology has brought forth photoreal- istic paintings that exceed what was thought possible with [14] Prown, Jules David and Rose, Barbara (1977), American paintings; these newer paintings by the photorealists are Painting: From the Colonial Period to the Present. New sometimes referred to as "Hyperrealism.”*[6] With new York:Rizzoli. ISBN 0847800490 technology in cameras and digital equipment, artists are able to be far more precision-oriented. [15] Meiselgallery.com Photorealism's influence and popularity continues to [16] Meisel (1989), p. 12. grow, with new books such as Juxtapoz's 2014 book enti- [17] Meisel (1980), p. 13. tled Hyperreal detailing current trends within the artistic genre. [18] Meisel (1980), p. 14.

[19] Meisel (1980), p. 15.

[20] Meisel (1980)

10.1.2 List of photorealists [21] Wallace, Nora. (October 15, 2015) “Photorealism - Technical Mastery and Eﬀortless Style” On My Wall 10.1. PHOTOREALISM 195

[22] Meisel and Chase (2002), p. 8. Bibliography

[23] Meisel (2002) • Auping, Michael; Bishop, Janet; Ray, Charles; and [24] Phillips, Stephen Bennett and Spoutz, Eric Ian Hornak Weinberg, Jonathan (2005), Robert Bechtle: A Ret- (2012), “Ian Hornak Transparent Barricades,”exhibi- rospective. Berkeley, California: University of Cali- tion catalogue, Washington D.C.: Board of Governors of fornia Press. ISBN 978-0-520-24543-3. the Federal Reserve System, Fine Art Program. p. 28. • Chalumeau, Jean-Luc (2007), Peinture et Photogra- [25] Adan, Joan and Spoutz, Eric Ian Hornak (May 2012), phie: Pop art, figuration narrative, hyperréalisme, “Transparent Barricades: Ian Hornak, A Retrospective,” nouveaux pop. Paris: Editions du Chêne. ISBN exhibition catalogue, Glendale, California: Forest Lawn Museum. pp. 1–3. 978-2-84277-731-9. • [26] Weber, Bruce (February 2, 2009)“Howard Kanovitz, Pi- Chase, Linda (1988), Ralph Goings: Es- oneer of Photorealism Dies” The New York Times say/Interview. New York: Abrams. ISBN 978-0-8109-1030-0. [27] Meisel (1993) • Chase, Linda (ed.) (2001), Photorealism: The Liff [28] Parker, Harry S. Parker III (2004), The Child-Works by Collection. Naples, Florida: Naples Museum of Art. Gottfried Helnwein, San Francisco: Fine Arts Museums ISBN 978-0-9705158-1-0. of San Francisco • Geldzahler, Henry and Meisel, Louis K. (1991), [29] Taylor, John Russell (April 2008), Exactitude: Hyperreal- Charles Bell: The Complete Works, 1970-1990. New ist Art Today (gallery catalogue) York: Abrams. ISBN 978-0-8109-3114-5. [30] Rose, Joshua (November 2008), “Beyond Perception” • American Art Collector Magazine, pp. 154–158. Lindey, Christine (1980), Superrealist Painting and Sculpture, New York: William Morrow and Com- [31] Thompson, Graham (2007), American Culture in the pany. ISBN 0688036864 1980s (Twentieth Century American Culture) Edinburgh Press • Meisel, Louis K. (1989), Photorealism. New York: Abradale/Abrams. ISBN 978-0-8109-8092-1. [32] (Dutch)“Closer - Het Megarealisme van Tjalf Sparnaay” Museum De Fundatie • Meisel, Louis K. (1993), Photorealism Since 1980. New York: Abrams. ISBN 978-0-8109-3720-8. [33] Kulteremann, Udo (1976), New Realism, New York: New York Graphic Society • Meisel, Louis K. and Chase, Linda. (2002), Pho- [34] Lindey (1980) torealism at the Millennium. New York: Abrams. ISBN 978-0-8109-3483-2. [35] Pill, Steve (December 2007),“Photorealism”, Artists and Illustrators Magazine London. Issue number 255. • Meisel, Louis K. and Perreault, John (1986), Richard Estes: The Complete Paintings, 1966-1985. [36] Gibson, Eric (1999), Outward Bound: Contemporary New York:Abrams. ISBN 978-0-8109-0881-9. American Art. Lunenburg, Vermont: Stinehour Press Publishers. • Paraskos, Michael (2013), Scarborough Realists Now. London: Orage Press. ISBN 978-0-95658- [37] Herbert F. Johnson Museum of Art (2004), Cars and 024-5. Ketchup, Photorealist Images of the American Landscape. Ithaca, New York:Cornell University • Paraskos, Michael (2010), Clive Head. London: [38] Erikson, Matthew (July 25, 2004) “Slight of Eye: New Lund Humphries. ISBN 978-1-84822-062-1. Britain Museum features Trompe L’oeil paintings, a • Wilmerding, John (2006), Richard Estes. New genre based on trickery”. Hartford Courant York: Rizzoli. ISBN 978-0-8478-2807-4. [39] New Photorealists, Louis K. Meisel Gallery, New York 2004. 10.1.5 External links [40] “Doug Bloodworth”. • The dictionary definition of photo-realism at Wik- [41] Head, Clive (2004)“Post-Photoreal Painting”in Brunelli, Anthony; Head, Clive; Menie, Bertrand Meniel; and tionary Spence, Raphaella (2004), The Prague Project Bingham- ton, New York: Roberson Museum and Science Center

[42] Newton, Matthew (March 2008)“Los Angeles-bred Pho- torealist Robert Standish manipulates reality with the strokes of his brush”. JUXTAPOZ. pp. 112–122. Chapter 11

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196 11.1. TEXT 197

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Brazzit, Erindal, UofTJonii, Zalunardo8, DavidLeighEllis, Dough34, 3298230932782302, Abbeylaughlin, Julietdeltalima, CV9933, Prinsgezinde, Kaspar- Bot, Mjones4545, ChopSticksChan, Gulumeemee, Rohan608, Femaleentrepreneur and Anonymous: 330 • Pattern recognition (psychology) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pattern_recognition_(psychology)?oldid=755046888 Contribu- tors: Kku, Utcursch, Bender235, Pearle, Woohookitty, Mandarax, Pigman, SmackBot, Delfeye, KevM, Richard001, Erechtheus, Czj, Pho- 198 CHAPTER 11. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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Carter, Dthomsen8, Dr.S.A.Knight, Sa petite bourgeoise, Addbot, Fishfriend~enwiki, DOI bot, Vishnava, Looie496, Download, BepBot, Debresser, Lightbot, ForesticPig, Krano, Jarble, Thi, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Washburnmav, Finereach, AnomieBOT, AdjustShift, Chuckies- dad, Static7181, Citation bot, Maxis ftw, Tekks, Xqbot, Yaybbq, Mononomic, Trivelt, Omnipaedista, Locobot, Lbcao, Aaron Kauppi, Some standardized rigour, FrescoBot, Paine Ellsworth, Vagrand, Machine Elf 1735, Citation bot 1, Papapoo16, Cnwilliams, Trappist the monk, Wotnow, Amwaude~enwiki, Greg987, TjBot, Buibjarmar, Queeste, DASHBot, EmausBot, Neodarwinist, Hpvpp, Butterfly ea, Wikipelli, Mussermaster, Dcirovic, Doncorto, PBS-AWB, Cvata, Dan1924, SilviaLalBeharie, SporkBot, L Kensington, Donner60, Scien- tific29, Mlang.Finn, Pragmaknowledge, Cgt, ClueBot NG, Justlettersandnumbers, Goose friend, Widr, Whc251, DrChrissy, Shanemash, Hwfkerg, Helpful Pixie Bot, Bibcode Bot, Nashhinton, Smith felix, BG19bot, Fenichelar, Smlombardi, Compfreak7, CitationCleanerBot, Wildcat707, Glacialfox, Syd.uni.press, Sirayub, Db4wp, Rachie0404, Leesville70, Nichol23, Vlad Konst Anisimov, Arthur Staats, Jmj356, Dexbot, Bc239, TwoTwoHello, Josephk, Me, Myself, and I are Here, Pgcap, Psychaccount1234, Jutsc, Kylewagner2, Biogeographist, NHCLS, Drrewright, OhioTechie, Seppi333, Abaistudents, Js314514, Mandruss, Treyminer959193, Hv.ranju, Aubreybardo, Art Staats, Wikicalebwiki, Lizia7, Param Mudgal, Sirayub1, Zebrafish-Expert, Aetgar, Monkbot, Blamethemessenger, Yvee1, A.Minkowiski, Christi- naPeters, Gnodzilla, D.S. Cordoba-Bahle, Narky Blert, Coruscant Archives, GeneralizationsAreBad, Madisonkelly11, Chenby.wp, CAP- TAIN RAJU, Motroen, Allthefoxes, Ruxandra Radulescu, Jake.hider, InterdisciplinaryPhoenix, Cteal88, Roberto Veloso and Anonymous: 487 • Visual anthropology Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_anthropology?oldid=749277580 Contributors: Jahsonic, Mcfly85, Bearcat, Dina, DocWatson42, Orangemike, Dsmdgold, RJHall, A2Kafir, Grutness, Birdmessenger, Rjwilmsi, Welsh, Robert Leopold, SmackBot, Classicfilms, Dblobaum, ProveIt, Bluebot, Bigtimeoperator, Furste, Dan.omaley, Ronaz, Ohconfucius, Rigadoun, Mr Stephen, Ricardogreene, Nirtk, Emettler, JAnDbot, Dsp13, The Transhumanist, Douglas R. White, Theroadislong, Media anthro, Girl2k, Bidum, DadaNeem, Docued, Tertulius, William2233, Kimswerd, Mattincostume, Eklkrl, Turtlegoo, Proper tea is theft, Arnieds, Sfan00 IMG, Metafactory, Adamjzy1, Mild Bill Hiccup, Alexbot, Zomno, SoxBot, Newsroom hierarchies, XLinkBot, Addbot, Tassedethe, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Yobot, Themfromspace, Dumpydan, JackieBot, ArthurBot, GrouchoBot, Lycaon83, FrescoBot, Levalley, Steve Quinn, Mif- flintown, Caramelmarx, Paulbgarrett, Hajatvrc, J.A.Hoskins, John of Reading, GZ-Bot, ChristineHorn, Anthro2010, Katepourshariati, Os- waldo alvizar bañuelos, Gatobeyond, Helpful Pixie Bot, Irving2000, BG19bot, Visanthro, Melindahinkson, Binks99, Khazar2, Makikobold, Tipasaweb, Schrauwers, Bluejazz33, OswaldoAlvizar, Janet Hoskins, Leeds-hurwitz, P.Khosronejad, Ritugk, Granada Centre, KasparBot, Asdfg32, RobertRaad and Anonymous: 65 • The arts Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_arts?oldid=763909258 Contributors: ClaudineChionh, Deb, Ahoerstemeier, Sir Paul, Dcoetzee, Hyacinth, Itai, Wetman, Jerzy, Gurry, The Phoenix, Merovingian, Pingveno, Ancheta Wis, Benji Franklyn, Kenny sh, Bkonrad, Michael Devore, Edcolins, SonicAD, Gadfium, Auximines, SoWhy, Bodnotbod, Neutrality, Klemen Kocjancic, D6, Ham II, Johncapis- trano, Discospinster, Dbachmann, Rubicon, El C, Mwanner, EurekaLott, Gyll, John Vandenberg, Che090572, Maurreen, Nsaa, David- weman, Alansohn, Mduvekot, Lectonar, Snowolf, Wtmitchell, Clubmarx, Evil Monkey, Sketchee, Versageek, Redvers, Bookandcoffee, Galaxiaad, Brookie, Daranz, Feezo, Velho, Woohookitty, Miss Madeline, Pictureuploader, Mandarax, Graham87, Sparkit, BD2412, Kb- dank71, Crzrussian, Mayumashu, Jake Wartenberg, Sdornan, Bruce1ee, Tomtheman5, Taulapapa, Old Moonraker, Pathawi, CalJW, Jon- 11.1. TEXT 199

nyR, Latka, Godlord2, Nihiltres, Nivix, Windharp, DVdm, Bgwhite, Whoisjohngalt, Sceptre, Stephenb, CambridgeBayWeather, Nawl- inWiki, Wiki alf, SigPig, Pgehr, Jpbowen, Alex43223, DeadEyeArrow, 1717, Robertbyrne, Zzuuzz, Nachoman-au, Tyrenius, John Broughton, Nick-D, Tom Morris, Krótki, Luk, SmackBot, David Kernow, McGeddon, Pgk, Jagged 85, Nina-no, Gilliam, Teemu08, Klein- zach, Fplay, Sadads, TheLeopard, Octahedron80, Ctbolt, Baa, Shalom Yechiel, Iammisc, Crboyer, Artistpres, Cybercobra, Nakon, Under- bar dk, Lpgeffen, Nexus Seven, Lcarscad, Kukini, Alþykkr, The undertow, SingCal, ArglebargleIV, Arnoutf, Kuru, Summerwind, Yarrik, Mgiganteus1, Number36, NongBot~enwiki, IronGargoyle, Narture, Loadmaster, Beetstra, Ehheh, RichardF, Hu12, BranStark, Iridescent, Shoeofdeath, Amakuru, Shoreranger, Courcelles, FairuseBot, MightyWarrior, SkyWalker, Nczempin, Jonwood1, AndrewHowse, Cyde- bot, Balrog30, Gogo Dodo, Corpx, Daniel 123, Chasingsol, Eu.stefan, Millar27, Bookgrrl, TooL, Mombas, 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EnekoGotzon, Jpasz, Snotbot, 09mmc009, SawyerG855, Ryanp846, Catrivero, SzMithrandir, Curb Chain, Titodutta, BG19bot, Pearl1919, Northamer- ica1000, Gmcbjames, Mark Arsten, Unusual7even, Pendright, Rhinopias, BattyBot, David.moreno72, HCT Morose, Acadēmica Orientālis, Laberkiste, Rabiaahmad1, Tommmmaaaa, Xonicolexo6, Mybumishot, Harsh 2580, Ttd9000, Unisype, Lugia2453, Sriharsh1234, Bhu- palBist, James1886, Hillbillyholiday, Damccauley, Ueutyi, Aimeefern8, Pooja111pednekar, Mmmier, CrenzIntex, Acquiremarket, Prae- monitus, Hoppeduppeanut, Alex rodriguez suarez, DavidLeighEllis, Homezoozebra, Ugog Nizdast, Manmathews, Finnusertop, Ginsuloft, Gloriousglib, Veena78, Gokul.gk7, Milesmcc, Kadyzheng, Nanasasa123, Myballsdroppedearly, Corinna.kirsch, WikiWisePowder, Why should I have a User Name?, Ritoxavi, Сяра, Supertutbodylan, Mitul Jethava, Infinitecyclus, TranquilHope, Theodorus20, Maplestrip, Yogurto, Isambard Kingdom, DAHillis, Squiver, Gnenlibres, Zliang522, Rjuser12345, 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TEXT 205

fender of torch, Virginexplorer, Tbhotch, RjwilmsiBot, Walkinxyz, Salvio giuliano, Tesseract2, Dricardo, EmausBot, Gfoley4, Artimati- cus8, Primefac, Faolin42, RenamedUser01302013, KHamsun, Dcirovic, Presuppirates, Soni Ruchi, Thecheesykid, Akhil 0950, AvicBot, -Yizhaqbe ,ایرانی ,John Cline, PBS-AWB, Cumputers, Daonguyen95, Shuipzv3, Nicolas Eynaud, Git2010, Akyuun, Xsahilx, Aidarzver nAvraham, Andymcl92, Donner60, Wikiloop, Danlevy100, Architectchao, Fattycakess, Xerographica, ChuispastonBot, RockMagnetist, DASHBotAV, Petrb, ClueBot NG, W.Kaleem, Jeandédé, Cwilcox1976, Frietjes, Cntras, Muon, Thepigdog, Widr, Anupmehra, Dougmc- donell, HMSSolent, AsherPicklebutt, WNYY98, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Daniel Zsenits, Adam.bell567, PhnomPencil, MusikAni- mal, Porthpatho78, Thumani Mabwe, IraChesterfield, H0339637, Travesto, Infinite Loop-Maker, CitationCleanerBot, Eman2129, Toccata quarta, Wilste, Zujua, Mr malibuxxx, Ajc2033, Loriendrew, ProfChuckK, Littleboy58, David.moreno72, Jorgelopest, Tariq ahmad khan ja- hani, Benhgcool, Hangerstudios, Tow, Platopete, Mr. Guye, Webclient101, Subnet0001, Remfan1988, SPECIFICO, Elakia, ShekharSPatil, Epicgenius, Pieisgod, JPaestpreornJeolhlna, Nosliw15, Ddgond, Tentinator, Jumpulse, Kessler19, Knowledgeable Records, Panacciosbi- atch, Ugog Nizdast, Mrm7171, I.am.a.qwerty, Aubreybardo, Drchriswilliams, Chrisycharming1, Editor252525, Zacimka8, JaconaFrere, Dr. JJenkins, Smurphy2, SilentMember13, Jelle Gouw, Patient Zero, AKS.9955, HiYahhFriend, Clubjustin, KBH96, Radueno, Zppix, Enelen, DanBalance, BabyChastie, Xandawesome, Joseph2302, KasparBot, Crizelmarabe, Dragonbreath908, AWiseRoutineR, TheParrhe- siastRises, CLCStudent, DatGuy, Tlendriss, Loscheian, LittlePigg, BadEditorSwag, TehBadEditer69, Nckn2299, Jgensch, Wikionearth, Jaseel Jaasi, Fouetté rond de jambe en tournant, Fmadd, TAIFUCKENLOPEZ, Podoguru, KingofKnowledge21, Bear-rings, Danny.Lowie, Jmcgnh, Moamenbasemjanabi, Iicd, Shady Le Lady, Eugene450, ILikeTURTLS12121 and Anonymous: 734 • Perception Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perception?oldid=761360110 Contributors: The Anome, Ap, Edward, Patrick, Michael Hardy, Vaughan, Dori, Ahoerstemeier, Den fjättrade ankan~enwiki, Glenn, Rossami, Samw, TonyClarke, Qwert, Hike395, Dysprosia, Will, David Shay, Buridan, J D, Renato Caniatti~enwiki, Twang, Seglea, Sam Spade, Christopherwoods, Alan De Smet, Filemon, Morimom, Ancheta Wis, Giftlite, Tremolo, Mintleaf~enwiki, PilotPrecise, Lussmu~enwiki, Endlessnameless, Pascal666, Gadfium, Farside~enwiki, Geni, Antandrus, Beland, Karol Langner, Mormegil, Discospinster, Mrevan, Vsmith, Bender235, Kaisershatner, Brian0918, Edward Z. 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TEXT 207

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• Renaissance Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance?oldid=763667586 Contributors: MichaelTinkler, Mav, The Anome, Hig- bvuyb, Andre Engels, JeLuF, Christian List, Atorpen, Diatarn_iv, William Avery, SimonP, Ben-Zin~enwiki, Zoe, Heron, Formulax~enwiki, DW, Sfdan, Olivier, Someone else, Ubiquity, Infrogmation, Paul Barlow, Alan Peakall, Lexor, Jahsonic, Jketola, Bobby D. Bryant, Ixfd64, Bcrowell, Sannse, Ahoerstemeier, Snoyes, CatherineMunro, Den fjättrade ankan~enwiki, Kingturtle, Darkwind, Julesd, Glenn, Andres, Cherkash, Lee M, GRAHAMUK, Norwikian, Stephenw32768, Alex S, Adam Bishop, Dcoetzee, Reddi, David Latapie, Jwrosen- zweig, The Anomebot, Wik, DJ Clayworth, CBDunkerson, Peregrine981, Tpbradbury, Hyacinth, Samsara, Bevo, Pietro, Shizhao, Top- banana, Raul654, Rbellin, Wetman, Michael Rawdon, Mjmcb1, Robbot, Alexbatko, Sander123, Goethean, Naddy, Postdlf, Sverdrup, Academic Challenger, Flauto Dolce, Rursus, Jfire, Meelar, Radomil, Hadal, Wikibot, Benc, Mushroom, Cek, Guy Peters, Stirling New- berry, Giftlite, DocWatson42, Christopher Parham, Sj, Hargettp, Luis Dantas, Tom harrison, Lupin, Peruvianllama, Everyking, No Guru, Gamaliel, Timlee, Alensha, Tom-, Naufana, Kpalion, Zoney, Siroxo, Solipsist, Boothinator, Deus Ex, Avaragado, Wmahan, Gadfium, Confuzion, Pgan002, J. 'mach' wust, Gdr, Sonjaaa, Antandrus, BozMo, Rienzo, Piotrus, Mamizou, Jossi, MacGyverMagic, RetiredUser2, NetgutuDD, Tothebarricades.tk, PFHLai, Sam Hocevar, Neutrality, Urhixidur, Marcus2, Pepperthemaster, Joyous!, Robin klein, Green- Reaper, Fanghong~enwiki, Adashiel, Lacrimosus, Grstain, Mike Rosoft, Rfl, Haiduc, Ham II, Indosauros, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, 11.1. TEXT 209

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11.2 Images

• File:'David'_by_Michelangelo_JBU16.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/%27David%27_by_ Michelangelo_JBU16.JPG License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jörg Bittner Unna • File:1543,AndreasVesalius'{}Fabrica,BaseOfTheBrain.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/1543% 2CAndreasVesalius%27Fabrica%2CBaseOfTheBrain.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Originally from en.wikipedia; description page is (was) here Original artist: User Ancheta Wis on en.wikipedia • File:1710-15_de_Matteis_Triumph_of_the_Immaculate_anagoria.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ 2/27/1710-15_de_Matteis_Triumph_of_the_Immaculate_anagoria.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, anagoria Origi- nal artist: Paolo de Matteis • File:7002.Euterpe(Muse_der_Lyrik_und_des_Flötenspiels)Musenrondell-Sanssouci_Steffen_Heilfort.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/7002.Euterpe%28Muse_der_Lyrik_und_des_Fl%C3%B6tenspiels% 29Musenrondell-Sanssouci_Steffen_Heilfort.JPG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Steﬀen Heil- fort • File:Ac.parthenon5.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Ac.parthenon5.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? 11.2. IMAGES 211

• File:Aeneas'{}_Flight_from_Troy_by_Federico_Barocci.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/ Aeneas%27_Flight_from_Troy_by_Federico_Barocci.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Web Gallery of Art, Uploaded to en.wikipedia 03:45 28 Jul 2004 by en:User:Wetman. Original artist: Federico Barocci • File:Ahava.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/Ahava.jpg License: GFDL Contributors: Talmoryair Orig- 1928עברית: רוברט אידניאנה, נולד ב- :inal artist • File:Alexander_VI_-_Pinturicchio_detail.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Alexander_VI_-_ Pinturicchio_detail.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Pinturicchio • File:Ambox_important.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, based off of Image:Ambox scales.svg Original artist: Dsmurat (talk · contribs) • File:Anatomy_of_the_Human_Ear_en.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/Anatomy_of_the_ Human_Ear_en.svg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Perception Space—The Final Frontier, A PLoS Biology Vol. 3, No. 4, e137 doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0030137 (Fig. 1A/Large version), vectorised by Inductiveload Original artist: Chittka L, Brockmann • File:Andreas_Achenbach_-_Clearing_Up—Coast_of_Sicily_-_Walters_37116.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/c/c5/Andreas_Achenbach_-_Clearing_Up%E2%80%94Coast_of_Sicily_-_Walters_37116.jpg License: Public domain Con- tributors: Walters Art Museum: Home page Info about artwork Original artist: Andreas Achenbach • File:Astronotus_ocellatus_-_closeup_(aka).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/Astronotus_ ocellatus_-_closeup_%28aka%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: André Karwath aka Aka • File:Ayuntamiento,_Poznan,_Polonia,_2014-09-18,_DD_67-72_HDR.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/6/62/Ayuntamiento%2C_Poznan%2C_Polonia%2C_2014-09-18%2C_DD_67-72_HDR.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Diego Delso • File:Baglione.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/Baglione.jpg License: Public domain Contrib- utors: Web Gallery of Art: Image Info about artwork Original artist: Giovanni Baglione • File:Ballroom_dance_exhibition.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Ballroom_dance_exhibition.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Blausen_0388_EyeAnatomy_01.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/Blausen_0388_ EyeAnatomy_01.png License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: BruceBlaus. When using this image in external sources it can be cited as: • File:Blausen_0389_EyeAnatomy_02.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/30/Blausen_0389_ EyeAnatomy_02.png License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: BruceBlaus. When using this image in external sources it can be cited as: • File:Bloodshot.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/Bloodshot.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Psychonaught • File:Bodegón_de_recipientes_(Zurbarán).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/Bodeg%C3%B3n_de_ recipientes_%28Zurbar%C3%A1n%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.museodelprado.es/uploads/tx_gbobras/ P02803.jpg Original artist: Francisco de Zurbarán • File:Calliope.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/Calliope.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This file has been extracted from another file: Simon Vouet - The Muses Urania and Calliope.JPG Original artist: Simon Vouet • File:Car_of_history.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/Car_of_history.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Catullus-at-Lesbia'{}s-large.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Catullus-at-Lesbia%27s-large. jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.alma-tadema.org/Catullus-at-Lesbia%27s-large.html Original artist: Lawrence Alma-Tadema • File:Chateau_de_chambord.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Chateau_de_chambord.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Éléosud • File:Chen_Hongshou,_leaf_album_painting.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/Chen_Hongshou% 2C_leaf_album_painting.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://depts.washington.edu/chinaciv/home/3garplnt.htm#plnts, Zhongguo meishu quanji, Huihua bian 8: Mingdai huihua, xia (Beijing: Wenwu chubanshe, 1988), pl. 170, p. 191. Original artist: Chen Hongshou 212 CHAPTER 11. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Claude_Lorrain_Apollo_Muses.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/Claude_Lorrain_Apollo_ Muses.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Web Gallery of Art: Image Info about artwork Original artist: Claude Lorrain (1604/1605–1682) • File:Clio,_von_Hugo_Kaufmann.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Clio%2C_von_Hugo_ Kaufmann.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: de:Westermanns Monatshefte 1904 S. 65 Original artist: Hugo Kaufmann • File:Clovio_magi.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/Clovio_magi.jpg License: Public domain Contrib- utors: http://www.themorgan.org/collections/collections.asp?id=110 Original artist: Giulio Clovio • File:Coloured-transition-metal-solutions.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/ Coloured-transition-metal-solutions.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author provided. Benjah-bmm27 assumed (based on copyright claims). • File:Columpio_Veracruz_059.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Columpio_Veracruz_059.jpg Li- cense: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi- nal artist: ? • File:Complex_reflectance.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Complex_reflectance.svg License: Pub- lic domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Phidauex • File:Copper_phthalocyanine.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Copper_phthalocyanine.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Leyo • File:Da_Vinci_Vitruve_Luc_Viatour.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/Da_Vinci_Vitruve_Luc_ Viatour.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Leonardo Da Vinci - Photo from www.lucnix.be. 2007-09-08 (photograph). Photograpy: Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci • File:Depth_cues_1.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9a/Depth_cues_1.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contribu- tors: Photo taken in Swarthmore PA Previously published: not previously published Original artist: Brazzit • File:Diagram_of_human_eye_without_labels.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Diagram_of_ human_eye_without_labels.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jmarchn • File:DickseeRomeoandJuliet.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/DickseeRomeoandJuliet.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.odysseetheater.com/romeojulia/romeojulia.htm Original artist: Frank Dicksee • File:Edit-clear.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The Tango! Desktop Project. Original artist: The people from the Tango! project. And according to the meta-data in the ﬁle, speciﬁcally:“Andreas Nilsson, and Jakub Steiner (although minimally).” • File:Elewacja_wschodnia.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/Elewacja_wschodnia.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 pl Contributors: Own work Original artist: Mrksmlk • File:Emotions_-_3.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/Emotions_-_3.png License: CC0 Contributors: http://batonrougecounseling.net/managing-emotions/ Original artist: Toddatkins • File:Encaustic-Angel-.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Encaustic-Angel-.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: www.fantasy-encaustic-art.de Original artist: Martina Loos Martina Loos Fineart • File:Erato.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Erato.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: Simon Vouet (1590-1649) • File:Ernestine_Schumann-Heink_as_Waltraute.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/Ernestine_ Schumann-Heink_as_Waltraute.png License: Public domain Contributors: Metropolitan Opera Original artist: Metropolitan Opera • File:Estasi_di_Santa_Teresa.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Estasi_di_Santa_Teresa.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Flickr Original artist: [1] • File:Eustache_Le_Sueur_-_The_Muses_-_Clio,_Euterpe_and_Thalia_-_WGA12611.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/ wikipedia/commons/3/32/Eustache_Le_Sueur_-_The_Muses_-_Clio%2C_Euterpe_and_Thalia_-_WGA12611.jpg License: Pub- lic domain Contributors: Web Gallery of Art: Image Info about artwork Original artist: Eustache Le Sueur 11.2. IMAGES 213

• File:Expression_of_the_Emotions_Figure_15.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/Expression_of_ the_Emotions_Figure_15.png License: Public domain Contributors: Scanned from 1965 version with foreword by Konrad Lorenz published by University of Chicago Press Original artist: Mr. T. W. Wood (“I am also greatly indebted to Mr. T. W. Wood for the extreme pains which he has taken in drawing from life the expressions of various animals.”- p. 26) • File:Eye_Line_of_sight.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Eye_Line_of_sight.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: LEONARDO DA VINCI (1955). Das Lebensbild eines Genies, Emil Vollmer Verlag, Wiesbaden Berlin. Dokumen- tation der DA VINCI Ausstellung in Mailand 1938, cited in: Hans-Werner Hunziker, Im Auge des Lesers, Zurich 2006 Original artist: Leonardo da Vinci • File:Eye_orbit_anatomy_anterior2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Eye_orbit_anatomy_ anterior2.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Patrick J. Lynch, medical illustrator Original artist: Patrick J. Lynch, medical illustrator • File:Eye_orbit_anterior.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Eye_orbit_anterior.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Patrick J. Lynch, medical illustrator Original artist: Patrick J. Lynch, medical illustrator • File:File-Los_portadores_de_la_antorcha.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/Los_portadores_de_ la_antorcha.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Carlos Delgado • File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-by- sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Formella_18,_apelle_o_la_pittura,_nino_pisano,_1334-1336_dettaglio_01.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/ wikipedia/commons/9/91/Formella_18%2C_apelle_o_la_pittura%2C_nino_pisano%2C_1334-1336_dettaglio_01.JPG License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Own work (my camera) Original artist: sailko • File:Francesco_del_Cossa_001.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Francesco_del_Cossa_001.jpg Li- cense: Public domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Dis- tributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Francesco del Cossa • File:Francis_Bacon_2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/2d/Francis_Bacon_2.jpg License: PD-US Contributors: “Masters of Achievement” Original artist: ? • File:Francois_Dubois_001.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/Francois_Dubois_001.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: François Dubois • File:FundusPhotoAntha.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/FundusPhotoAntha.jpg License: CC BY- SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: TheGoose aPrisoner • File:Galilee.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Galilee.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: French WP (Utilisateur:Kelson via http://iafosun.ifsi.rm.cnr.it/~{}iafolla/home/homegrsp.html) Original artist: Ottavio Leoni • File:Georges_Seurat_066.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/Georges_Seurat_066.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Metropolitan Museum of Art Original artist: Georges Seurat • File:German_-_Brooch_of_an_African_-_Walters_57887_-_Back.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ 1/1c/German_-_Brooch_of_an_African_-_Walters_57887_-_Back.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Walters Art Mu- seum: Home page Info about artwork Original artist: Anonymous (Germany) • File:Gestalt_closure.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/30/Gestalt_closure.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Gestalt_proximity.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/Gestalt_proximity.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Gestalt_similarity.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/Gestalt_similarity.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Girlwithapearlearringpainting.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/ Girlwithapearlearringpainting.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Glennray_Tutor_1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/13/Glennray_Tutor_1.jpg License: Fair use Contribu- tors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Gothaer_Liebespaar.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Gothaer_Liebespaar.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Originally from de.wikipedia; description page is (was) here Original artist: Master of the Housebook (ﬂ. between 1475 and 1500) • File:Grand_Cascade_in_Peterhof_01.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/Grand_Cascade_in_ Peterhof_01.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Florstein (WikiPhotoSpace) • File:GraoVasco1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/GraoVasco1.jpg License: Public domain Contrib- utors: Transferred from pt.wikipedia to Commons by Econt.; 2006-04-06 (original upload date); Original uploader was Fulviusbsas at pt.wikipedia Original artist: Vasco Fernandes 214 CHAPTER 11. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Gray892.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Gray892.png License: Public domain Contributors: Henry Gray (1918) Anatomy of the Human Body (See “Book”section below) Original artist: Henry Vandyke Carter • File:Haendel.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/Haendel.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Up- loaded to nl.wikipedia 21 apr 2004 01:13 by nl:Gebruiker:Robbot. Original artist: Balthasar Denner • File:Hans_Rottenhammer_-_Allegory_of_the_Arts_-_WGA20147.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/8/83/Hans_Rottenhammer_-_Allegory_of_the_Arts_-_WGA20147.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Web Gallery of Art: Image Info about artwork Original artist: Hans Rottenhammer • File:Hauptaltar_der_St._John’s_Co-Cathedral.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Hauptaltar_der_ St._John%E2%80%99s_Co-Cathedral.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: A,Ocram • File:Heart_icon_red_hollow.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/Heart_icon_red_hollow.svg License: CC0 Contributors: • Heart_left-highlight_jon_01.svg Original artist: Heart_left-highlight_jon_01.svg: Jon Phillips • File:Holbein-erasmus.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/30/Holbein-erasmus.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Web Gallery of Art Original artist: Hans Holbein the Younger (1497/1498–1543) • File:Honoré_Daumier_008.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/Honor%C3%A9_Daumier_008.jpg Li- cense: Public domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Dis- tributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Honoré Daumier • File:Human_eye_with_blood_vessels.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/Human_eye_with_blood_ vessels.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: ROTFLOLEB • File:Imagination-Warner-Highsmith.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/ Imagination-Warner-Highsmith.jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division, LC-DIG-highsm-03137 (original digital ﬁle), uncompressed archival TIFF version (95 MB), cropped and converted to JPEG with the GIMP 2.4.5, image quality 88. Original artist: Artist is Olin Levi Warner (1844–1896). Photographed in 2007 by Carol Highsmith (1946–), who explicitly placed the photograph in the public domain. • File:Indian_pigments.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fb/Indian_pigments.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/11853009@N07/1382064216/ Original artist: Dan Brady • File:Invariance.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/Invariance.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Original uploader was Lehar S. at en.wikipedia • File:Italy_1494_AD.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2b/Italy_1494_AD.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Jan_van_Eyck_001.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Jan_van_Eyck_001.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DIRECT- MEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Jan van Eyck (circa 1390–1441) • File:Johann_Sebastian_Bach.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Johann_Sebastian_Bach.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.jsbach.net/bass/elements/bach-hausmann.jpg Original artist: Elias Gottlob Haussmann • File:Johannes_Vermeer_-_De_melkmeid.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/Johannes_Vermeer_-_ De_melkmeid.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Rijksmuseum Original artist: Johannes Vermeer • File:John'{}s_Diner_by_John_Baeder.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/John%27s_Diner_by_ John_Baeder.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: E-mail to [email protected] by John Baeder Original artist: John Baeder • File:John_Martin_-_Manfred_on_the_Jungfrau_(1837).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/90/John_ Martin_-_Manfred_on_the_Jungfrau_%281837%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Originally uploaded to en.wikipedia by en:User:Anonymous Dissident on 03:06, 28 July 2007 as en:Image:Martin.jpg. The image came from [1], which is from the Birmingham Museums & Art Gallery Information Centre's webpage. The original link is dead. See [2] and [3] Original artist: John Martin • File:JosefaObidos4.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2a/JosefaObidos4.jpg License: Public domain Con- tributors: http://www.ci.uc.pt/artes/6spp/josefa_de_obidos.html Original artist: Josefa de Óbidos • File:Jungle_Arc.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/Jungle_Arc.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contribu- tors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Global Microscope (Ray L. Burggraf) • File:Kama_Rati.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/Kama_Rati.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contribu- tors: DSC04788 Original artist: Philip Larson from McLean, VA, US • File:Karp_Zolotaryov_Theotokos_Late_17th_century.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Karp_ Zolotaryov_Theotokos_Late_17th_century.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: И. Л. Бусева-Давыдова. Культура и искусство в эпоху перемен. - М., Индрик, 2008, ISBN 978-5-85759-439-1 Original artist: en:Karp Zolotaryov (ﬂ. last quarter of the 17th century) 11.2. IMAGES 215

• File:Knowledge-Reid-Highsmith.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/Knowledge-Reid-Highsmith. jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division, LC-DIG-highsm-02214 (original digital ﬁle), uncompressed archival TIFF version (108 MB), cropped and converted to JPEG with the GIMP 2.2.13, image quality 88. Original artist: Artist is Robert Lewis Reid (1862–1929). Photographed 2007 by Carol Highsmith (1946–), who explicitly placed the photograph in the public domain. • File:Landscapes_of_the_Four_Seasons.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/Landscapes_of_the_ Four_Seasons.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Mōri Museum Original artist: Sesshū Tōyō • File:Lascaux_04.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Lascaux_04.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contrib- utors: self-made, edited by user:sailko Original artist: Peter80 • File:Lateral_orbit_anatomy_2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/Lateral_orbit_anatomy_2.jpg Li- cense: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Patrick J. Lynch, medical illustrator Original artist: Patrick J. Lynch, medical illustrator • File:Lateral_orbit_nerves.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/90/Lateral_orbit_nerves.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Patrick J. Lynch, medical illustrator Original artist: Patrick J. Lynch, medical illustrator • File:Law_of_Symmetry.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/1c/Law_of_Symmetry.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: I made it in a word document and saved it as a Jpg Original artist: Hsokolow • File:Le_Sueur,_Eustache_-_Melpomène,_Érato_et_Polymnie_-_1652_-_1655.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/a/ad/Le_Sueur%2C_Eustache_-_Melpom%C3%A8ne%2C_%C3%89rato_et_Polymnie_-_1652_-_1655.jpg License: Pub- lic domain Contributors: Web Gallery of Art: Image Info about artwork Original artist: Eustache Le Sueur • File:Lock-green.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg License: CC0 Contributors: en:File: Free-to-read_lock_75.svg Original artist: User:Trappist the monk • File:LopedeVega.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/LopedeVega.jpg License: Public domain Contrib- utors: [3] Original artist: Attributed to Eugenio Caxés • File:Lorenzo_de'_Medici-ritratto.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2b/Lorenzo_de%27_ Medici-ritratto.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Unknown Original artist: Girolamo Macchietti • File:Loudspeaker.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg License: Public domain Contrib- utors: New version of Image:Loudspeaker.png, by AzaToth and compressed by Hautala Original artist: Nethac DIU, waves corrected by Zoid • File:Louis15-1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Louis15-1.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.axonais.com/saintquentin/musee_lecuyer/graphs/louisXV.jpg Original artist: Maurice Quentin de La Tour • File:Love-zh.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Love-zh.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: The original uploader was Sonic3KMaster at English Wikipedia Later versions were uploaded by Kjoonlee at en.wikipedia. • File:Lövheim_cube_of_emotion.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6e/L%C3%B6vheim_cube_of_ emotion.svg License: GFDL Contributors: Original artist: Fred the Oyster

• File:MRI_of_human_eye.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/MRI_of_human_eye.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by Roberta F. using CommonsHelper. Original artist: The original uploader was Genesis12 at English Wikipedia • File:Mairead_cropped.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/Mairead_cropped.png License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: https://www.flickr.com/photos/45202571@N00/60833726/ Original artist: Paul Savage • File:Meister_von_Mileseva_001.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Meister_von_Mileseva_001.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Meister von Mileseva • File:Michelangelo'{}s_David_2015.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Michelangelo%27s_David_ 2015.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Livioandronico2013 • File:Michelangelo'{}s_grave4.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/Michelangelo%27s_grave4.jpg Li- cense: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Original author: Wknight94, Cleanup adjustments: Jaakobou. • File:Michelangelo_Merisi,_called_Caravaggio_-_The_Crowning_with_Thorns_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/Michelangelo_Merisi%2C_called_Caravaggio_-_The_Crowning_with_ Thorns_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: yAGZLO5MaPVjfQ at Google Cultural Institute maximum zoom level Original artist: Caravaggio 216 CHAPTER 11. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Miracle_of_the_Slave_by_Tintoretto_-_Accademia_-_Venice_2016.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/a/a4/Miracle_of_the_Slave_by_Tintoretto_-_Accademia_-_Venice_2016.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Tintoretto • File:Mirror-Induced-Behavior-in-the-Magpie-(Pica-pica)-Evidence-of-Self-Recognition-pbio.0060202.sv001.ogv Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Mirror-Induced-Behavior-in-the-Magpie-%28Pica-pica% 29-Evidence-of-Self-Recognition-pbio.0060202.sv001.ogv License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Video S1 from Prior H, Schwarz A, Güntürkün O. "Mirror-Induced Behavior in the Magpie (Pica pica): Evidence of Self-Recognition". PLOS Biology. DOI:10.1371/journal.pbio.0060202. PMID 18715117. PMC: 2517622. 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Original artist: Alan De Smet at English Wikipedia • File:Musa4-thalia-vs.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Musa4-thalia-vs.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.latein-pagina.de/ovid/ovid_m5.htm Original artist: Virgil Solis • File:Musa6-terpsichore-vs.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/Musa6-terpsichore-vs.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.latein-pagina.de/ovid/ovid_m5.htm Original artist: Virgil Solis • File:Musas01.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/7/7e/Musas01.jpg License: PD Contributors: ? 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Original artist: ? • File:Nicolas_P._Rougier'{}s_rendering_of_the_human_brain.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/ Nicolas_P._Rougier%27s_rendering_of_the_human_brain.png License: GPL Contributors: http://www.loria.fr/~{}rougier Original artist: Nicolas Rougier • File:Nuvola_apps_kpdf2.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Nuvola_apps_kpdf2.png License: LGPL Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by IngerAlHaosului using CommonsHelper. Original artist: The original uploader was Equazcion at English Wikipedia • File:Nuvola_apps_package_graphics.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/Nuvola_apps_package_ graphics.png License: LGPL Contributors: http://icon-king.com Original artist: David Vignoni / ICON KING • File:Office-book.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Office-book.svg License: Public domain Contribu- tors: This and myself. Original artist: Chris Down/Tango project • File:Ohatu_and_tokubei.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Ohatu_and_tokubei.jpg License: CC-BY- SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Optical_Illustion-Ambiguous_Patterns.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/Optical_ Illustion-Ambiguous_Patterns.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Converted from orignal png Original artist: Alex Turner • File:Pacioli.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2a/Pacioli.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Lauw- ers, Luc & Willekens, Marleen: Five Hundred Years of Bookkeeping: A Portrait of Luca Pacioli (Tijdschrift voor Economie en Management, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, 1994, vol. XXXIX issue 3 p. 289–304) pdf Original artist: Attributed to Jacopo de' Barbari (1460/1470– before 1516) • File:Palais_à_facettes.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/Palais_%C3%A0_facettes.jpg License: CC- BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? 11.2. IMAGES 217

• File:Paul_Cézanne_160.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Paul_C%C3%A9zanne_160.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Paul Cézanne • File:People_icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/People_icon.svg License: CC0 Contributors: Open- Clipart Original artist: OpenClipart • File:Pico1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/Pico1.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Palazzo- Medici.it, Uﬃzi, Gioviana Collection. 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Original artist: The original uploader was Slehar at English Wikipedia • File:Reza_Abbasi_-_Two_Lovers_(1630).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Reza_Abbasi_-_Two_ Lovers_%281630%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] [2] Original artist: Reza Abbasi • File:Salutati.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Salutati.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http: //efemerides2.webcindario.com/febrero/febrero3/salutati.jpg Original artist: Apollonio di Giovanni • File:Sandro_Botticelli_-_Idealized_Portrait_of_a_Lady_(Portrait_of_Simonetta_Vespucci_as_Nymph)_-_Google_Art_ Project.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/Sandro_Botticelli_-_Idealized_Portrait_of_a_ Lady_%28Portrait_of_Simonetta_Vespucci_as_Nymph%29_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: GwFKQCuQs0yvFA at Google Cultural Institute, zoom level maximum Original artist: Sandro Botticelli • File:Sant'Andrea.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/Sant%27Andrea.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contrib- utors: Flickr Original artist: Anthony M. from Rome, Italy • File:Santa_Maria_della_Vittoria_-_4.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Santa_Maria_della_ Vittoria_-_4.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: ? 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• File:Shakespeare.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a2/Shakespeare.jpg License: Public domain Contrib- utors: Official gallery link Original artist: It may be by a painter called John Taylor who was an important member of the Painter-Stainers' Company.*[#cite_note-NPG-1 [1]] • File:SharkOrSubmarine4024617900.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/ SharkOrSubmarine4024617900.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Shark or Submarine? 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