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By: Majid Fayazbakhsh Depar Tmen T of En Vironmen Tal Resources

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By: Majid Fayazbakhsh Depar Tmen T of En Vironmen Tal Resources En vi roninen ta I Impac ts Of Airports (A study of airport development and its impact on the social, environmental, and economic well-being of the community) By: Majid Fayazbakhsh Depar tmen t of En vironmen tal Resources University Of Salford Salford - UK Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy November 1996 '.- CrALFORD SALFOD M5 4WT U.K. This thesis is dedicated to all my family Contents List Of Figures vi 11 List Of Tables xi Acknowledgements xiv Glossary Of Terms xvi I Preface xix Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 General Background 1 1.2 Demand For Air Travel 2 1.3 The Impacts Of An Airport On The 4 Environment 1 • 3.1 Urbanisation Effects 7 1 • 3.1.1 Impact On Other Related Land Uses 9 1.3.2 Community Severance 12 1.3.3 Land Take 14 1 • 3.4 Visual Intrusion 15 1.3.5 Vibration 16 1.3.6 Construction Nuisance 16 1.3.7 The Problem Of Noise 17 1.3.8 Atmospheric Pollution 17 1.3.9 The Economic Impact 18 1.3.10 The Use Of Energy And Materials And 21 Environmental Contamination 1 • 3.11 Aircraft Development 22 1.3.12 Accidents 23 1.3.13 Impacts On The Natural Environment 23 111 2.7.1.B.b Neurophysiological Effects 62 2.7.1.B.c Stress And Mental Disturbance Effects 62 2.7.2 Effects On Behaviour And Activities 63 2.7.2.A Sleep Annoyance 63 2.7.2.B Speaking And Communication 66 2.7.2.0 Working Performance 68 2 7.2.D Awareness Of Useful Sounds 70 2.8 The Importance Of The Road Traffic 70 2.9 Effects Of Aircraft Noise 73 2.9.1 The Health Effects 73 2.9.2 The Social Effects 77 2.9.3 The Economic Effects 81 2.10 Response To Aircraft Noise 86 2.11 Aircraft Noise Reduction 93 2.11.1 Proper Planning 93 2.11.2 Aircraft And Engine Modification 94 2.11.3 Runway Factors 96 a) Preferential Runways 96 b) Runway Orientation 97 c) Runway Modification 97 2.11.4 Minimum Noise Routing (frINR) 97 2.11.5 Reducing Noise During Operation 99 A) Takeoff 99 B) Landing 101 C) Ground Runup And Runway Operations 105 2.11.6 Night-time Curfews 106 2.11.7 Sound Insulation And Land Purchase 109 2.11.8 Noise Monitoring 111 2.11.9 Government Legislation (Noise Certification) 112 iv 2.12 Conclusions 112 References 114 Chapter 3 Atmospheric Pollution 3.1 Introduction 121 3.2 Sources Of Air Pollution From Airports 121 3,3 Air Pollution From Aircraft 125 3.4 Effects Of Air Pollution From Aircraft 129 3.4.1 Local Effects Around Airports 130 3.4.1.1 Carbon Dioxide 131 3.4.1.2 Nitrogen Oxides 132 3.4.1.3 Carbon Monoxide 135 3.4.1.4 Smoke Or Soot 139 3.4.1.5 Unburnt Fuel Or Hydrocarbons 140 3.4.1.6 Sulphur Dioxide 141 3.4.1.7 Water 142 3.4.1.8 Lead Compounds 143 3.4.1.9 Other Particulate Matter 144 3.4.2 Global Effects 145 3.4.3 Health Effects 150 3.4.4 Climatic Effects 153 3.4.5 Effects On Vegetation 154 3.4.6 Economic Effects 155 3.5 Air Pollution Reduction 157 3.6 Emissions From BA Fleet - A Case Study 161 3.6.1 Emissions In The Air 161 3.6.2 Emissions On The Ground 163 3.6.3 Fuel Jettisoning 163 V 3.7 Worldwide Emissions From The 165 Aviation Industry 3.8 Conclusions 165 References 169 Chapter 4 The Economic Impact 4.1 Introduction 1 75 4.2 Employment 1 76 4.2.1 Types Of Employment 177 4.2.2 Effects Of Employment 182 4.2.3 The Multiplier Effect 185 4.2.4 Airport Employment Worldwide 188 4.3 Housing Markets And Land Values 190 4.4 Tourism 192 4.5 Growth Of Civil Aviation 196 4.6 Aviation And National Economies 209 4.6.1 International Air Freight 211 4.6.2 Benefits From Aircraft Manufacturing 214 Industry 4.7 Financial Benefits To Airports 217 4.7.1 Amsterdam - Schiphol 222 4.7.2 London Heathrow, Gatwick, And Stanstead 223 4.7.3 Helsinki - Van taa 223 4.7.4 Miami International 224 4.7.5 Liverpool - Speke 227 4.8 Financial Benefits To Airlines 229 4.9 Economic Impact Of Chicago O'Hare 231 vi International Airport - A Case Study 4.9.1 Recent And Future Impacts 231 4.9.2 Impacts On Industry 233 4.9.3 Benefits From The O'Hare Development 236 Programme 4.9.4 Regional Development And Growth 237 4.9.5 O'Hare's Employment Distribution 239 4.9.6 Summary 240 4.10 Economic Impact Of Manchester 246 International Airport - A Case Study 4.10.1 Employment Potential 246 4.10.2 Other Benefits 249 4.11 Conclusions 256 References 258 Chapter 5 The Use Of Energy And Materials, And The Environmental Contamination Impact (Water Pollution) 5.1 Introduction 263 5.2 Waste From Airports 264 5.3 Energy Consumption 265 5.3.1 Consumption In The Air 265 5.3.2 Consumption On The Ground 267 5.4 The Use Of Materials 271 5.4.1 CFCs (Chloro fluorocarbons) 271 5.4.2 Hal ons 275 5.4.3 De-icing Fluids And Chemicals 277 vii 5.4.4 Other Environmentally Sensitive Materials 282 5.5 Environmental Contamination 285 (Water Pollution) 5.5.1 Sanitary Wastes 286 5.5.2 Storm Water And Related Effluent 286 5.5.3 Aircraft Cleaning, Fuelling, And 288 Operation Wastes 5.5.4 Aircraft Overhaul, Maintenance And 288 Industrial Wastes 5.5.5 Water Pollution Reduction 289 5.6 Conclusions 290 References 293 Chapter 6 Environmental Impact Assessment Of Airports 6.1 Introduction 294 6.2 What Is EL4 294 6.3 The EIA Techniques 297 6.3,1 The Checklist Method 298 6.3.2 The Matrix Method 299 6.4 Assessment Of The Main Impacts 301 6.5 Conci usi ons 319 6.6 Recommendations 323 References 326 Selected Bibliography 328 vi i i List Of Figures Figure 1.1: Total Passengers Carried On World 3 Scheduled Airlines Figure 1.2: Total Freight Carried On World 5 Scheduled Airlines Figure 2.1: A Scale Of Noise And Sound 41 Figure 22: Aircraft Noise Certification Limits 43 Figure 2.3: Location Of Noise Level Measuring 43 Points By FAR And ICAO Figure 2.4: Typical Degrees Of Annoyance And 49 The NNI Figure 2.5: Data Required For NEF Procedure 54 Figure 2.6a: Population Affected By Aircraft 79 Noise - Heathrow Figure 2.6b: Population Affected By Aircraft 79 Noise - Gatwick Figure 2. 7: The Response To Aircraft Noise 89 From Heathrow And Gatwick Areas Figure 2.8a: Degree Of Annoyance From Noise 91 Observed In Social Surveys Figure 2.8b: Distribution Of Degree Of Annoyance 91 Due To Aircraft Noise Exposure Figure 2.9: Noise Impact During Takeoff 102 Figure 4.1: Airport Employment Before And 180 During Construction Figure 4.2: Airport Employment After Construction 181 Figure 4.3: Profit And Losses Of The Scheduled 230 ix Airlines Of The World Figure 4.4: chicago O'Hare Economic Impact 241 Figure 4.5: Chicago O'Hare Economic Impact 241 Figure 4.6: Number Of Permanent Jobs 242 Figure 4. 7: Aviation Related Employment 242 Figure 4.8: Category Definitions Of Aviation 243 Related Employment Figure 4.9: Air Travellers Expenditure 244 Figure 4.10: Total Regional Economic Impact Of 244 Chicago O'Hare International Airport Figure 4.11: Analysis Of Income At Manchester 255 International Airport Figure 4.12: Analysis Of Expenditure At Manchester 255 International Airport Figure 5.1: British Airways Total Fleet Fuel 266 Consumption Figure 5.2: British Airways Electricity Consumption 269 At Heathrow And Gatwick Figure 5.3: British Airways Gas Consumption At 269 Heathrow And Gatwick Figure 5.4: British Airways Oil Consumption At 270 Heathrow And Gatwick Figure 5,5: British Airways Total Ground Energy 270 Consumed At Heathrow And Gatwick Figure 5.6: British Airways CFC 11, 12 Use 273 Figure 5.7: British Airways CFC 113 Use As 273 Sol vent Figure 5.8: British Airways Trichioroethane 0'7,1 x 1,1,1 Use Figure 5.9: British Airways Other Chlorocarbon Use 274 Figure 5.10: British Airways Halon 1211 Use And 278 Purchase Figure 5.11: British Airways Halon 1301 Use 278 Figure 5.12: British Airways De-icing Fluid 283 Purchased Figure 5.13: British Airways De-icing Fluid 283 Purchased For Use At UK Airports Note: Figures that have NO source are produced by the Author. xi List Of Tables Table 2.1: Noise Levels Of Some Typical Sounds 40 Table 2.2: The Effect Of Aircraft Noise On House 83 Prices Near Heathrow And Gatwick Al rpo r t s Table 3.1: Average Daily Emissions Of Motor 122 Vehicles, Power Plants, And Jet Aircraft In The L.A. County Table 3.2: "Estimated" Rate Of Pollutants Emitted 126 From Aircraft Table 3.3: "Estimated" Global Emissions From 129 Aircraft Table 3.4: Effects Of COHb In The Blood For 138 Different Levels Of CO In The Air Table 3.5: Composition Of Vehicle Exhaust Gases 142 Table 3.6: British Airways Emissions From 162 Worldwide Flying Operations Table 3.7: Caledonian Airways Emissions From 162 Worldwide Flying Operations Table 3.8: British Airways Ground Transport At 164 Heathrow Airport (Fuel, Energy, And Emissions) Table 3.9: BA's Overall Fuel Jettisoning Incidents 166 Table 3.10: "Estimated" Worldwide Emissions From The 167 Aviation Industry Table 4.1: Airport Employment Around The World 188 Table 4.2: Traffic At Some Major International 204 Airports Table 4.3a: Airports Having World's Highest Commercial 205 xii Traffic Volume (Total Passengers) Table 4.3b: Airports Having World's Highest Commercial 206 Traffic Volume (International Passengers) Table 4.4a: Airports Having World's Highest Commercial 207 Traffic Volume (Total Aircraft Movements) Table 4.4b: Airports Having World's Highest Commercial 208 Traffic Volume (International Aircraft Movements) Table 4.5a: Airports Having World's Highest Commercial 215 Traffic Volume (Total Freight) Table 4.5b: Airports Having World's Highest Commercial 216 Traffic Volume (International Freight) Table 4.6: Aircraft Orders And Deliveries 218 (Commercial Air Carriers) Table 4.7: IATA International Airport Charges For 221 Selected Airports Table 4.8: World Scheduled Airlines User Charges 221 And Station Expenses Table 49: Helsinki-Vantaa International Airport 225 Financial Report Table
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