GERRIT GERRITS, ACADIA UNIVERSITY A Comparison of ' Handbook of the Christian Knight with Thomas a Kempis' and Gerard Zerbolt's The Spiritual Ascentsl

Erasmus' Handbook of the Christian Knight has respective authors. The oldest of the three often been compared to Thomas a Kempis' works is that by Gerard Zerbolt of Zutphen Imitation of Christ. 2 However, the construc­ (1367 -l398). Zerbolt was one of the first tion, content and tone of the two works members of the Modern Devotion and may is so different in most respects that one is be regarded as one of its founders, especially hard pressed to find many parallels between when it comes to the movement's spiritual­ them, apart from the fact that both writings ity.6 And what was the Modern Devotion? deal with Christian spirituality.3 Exactly why Briefly, it was the movement for spiritual the comparison is made is not altogether renewal, and to a lesser degree ecclesiastical clear, although one assumes that it is partly renewal, that was founded by Gerard Grote because Erasmus' spirituality is seen by around l380. From its beginnings in De­ many as having been heavily influenced by venter and Zwolle it spread throughout the that of the Modern Devotion,4 and Thomas Low Countries and much of Germany, and a Kempis' Imitation of Christ is commonly into Switzerland and northern France. From regarded as the most representative work of an institutional perspective, the Modern De­ Devotionalist spirituality. 5 It will be argued votion consisted of two separate branches: here, however, that rather than compar- the semi-monastic branch known as the ing the Handbook to the Imitation, it is more Brothers and the Sisters of the Common Life, instructive and revealing to compare the for­ and the monastic branch represented by the mer to Gerard Zerbolt's The Spiritual Ascents. Augustinian Canons and Canonesses Regu­ For the parallels between the Handbook and lar of the Congregation of Windesheim. The the Ascensions are much more substantial Modern Devotion is often regarded as the than they are between the Handbook and the last attempt at religiOUS renewal and church Imitation. reform before the Protestant of the 16th century, itself largely the cause of Before we pursue the thesis just presented, the demise of the Modern Devotion. 7 it may be useful to first say a few words in general about the three works in question, As was just observed, Zerbolt, a Brother of especially about the historical context in the Common Life, played a major role in which they were written, and about their shaping the spirituality of the Modern Devo- 2 Canadian Journal of Netherlandic Studies

tion, and he did so through his two manuals Agnes) just north of the city of Zwolle. It for the spiritual or religious life, the more im­ was here that he completed The Imitation of portant of which is The Spiritual Ascents. Both Christ some time in the 1420's. From the very works were more or less required reading for beginning this work enjoyed an immense all members of the Modern Devotion, but The popularity; some one hundred editions had Spiritual Ascents appears to have been more come off the presses by the year 1500, less widely read than the other, The Reformation of than fifty years after the printing press had the Powers of the Soul, judging by the number been invented. By the 1950's, this work had of that have survived of each gone through approximately 3000 editions, work. The Spiritual Ascents in particular also with translations into at least ninety-five enjoyed a considerable popularity beyond languages, and by the year 2000 the total the confines of the Modern Devotion, for we number of editions had doubled, reaching know that it was read by the monk Martin some 6000.lO In a recent monograph on the Luther - and perhaps by Ignatius Loyola, for Scriptural sources of The Imitation of Christ, in 1499 Garcia Ximenes de Cisneros, ab- Kenneth Michael Becker provides a list of bot of the monastery of Montserrat in Spain, some people who read, advocated and were had The Spiritual Ascents printed, and a copy influenced by this work, and it reads like a of this edition may have found its way into Who's Who of the past 500 years. ll Richard Loyola's hands. In fact, Loyola's own Spiritual W Southern, the great British medievalist Exercises and Zerbolt's The Spiritual Ascents who died recently, explained the abiding ap­ belong to the same genre of manuals for the peal of The Imitation of Christ as follows: "This spiritual life. The popularity and impact of is one of the few books which breaks down Zerbolt's work in the 15th and 16th centu­ without any effort the barrier between the ries is partly demonstrated by the fact that medieval and modern worlds. "12 Indeed, The between 1486 and 1579 it was printed some Imitation of Christ has conquered not only the twenty times, both in the original Latin and barriers of time, but religious barriers as well, in translations. Thereafter it largely disap­ for it is read not only by Christians, but also peared from sight. 8 by , Buddhists, Jews and Muslims, as well as by those who profess to hold no That, of course, cannot be said of Thomas religious convictions. a Kempis' Imitation of Christ, to this day still the most widely sought after, and read, Those familiar with the history of The Imita­ work by Christians after the itself. A tion of Christ are, of course, all too familiar native of Kempen, a town in the Duchy of with the authorship question that has raged Gelre (Gelderland),9 Thomas a Kempis was around this work almost from the very begin­ born around 1380. He came to Deventer at ning. At a very early date it was also attrib­ the age of ten to be educated at the famous uted to Jean Gerson (1363-1429), one time Latin school of St. Lebwin's, then joined the Chancellor of the University of Paris. Early Modern Devotion and spent almost his entire in the seventeenth century a third major long life - he died i~ 1471 at the age of 91 candidate for the authorship of the Imitation or 92 - as an Augusbnian Canon Regular at of Christ was brought forward, namely one the monastery of A~nietenberg (Mount Saint Giovanni Gersen (who sounds suspiciously A Comparison of Erasmus' Handbook of the Christian Knight with Thomas a Kempis' 3 Imitation of Christ and Gerard Zerbolt's The Spiritual Ascents.

like Jean Gerson), an Italian abbot, but there his Christian convictions which he summed is no solid evidence that such a person ever up in the phrase philosophia ChristL l7 existed. 13 In the second half of the 19th cen­ tury linguists demonstrated quite conclu­ That was about when The Handbook first sively that the Latin of The Imitation of Christ became popular, and soon it was translated contains enough Dutchisms to make Thomas into a number of vernacular languages. In a Kempis the best candidate for the author­ fact, in Spain the vernacular version became ship of this famous work. 14 Furthermore, the first great publishing success,18 but not all comparisons of the contents of The Imitation Spaniards were enthusiastic about it. Loyola of Christ with that of other Devotionalist writ­ is reported to have said that "the reading of ings have revealed that the spirituality of The that book chilled the spirit of God in him Imitation is of a piece with that of the Modern and gradually extinguished the ardour of Devotion. ls Consequently, Thomas a Kempis' devotion. "19 By contrast, he read daily from authorship of The Imitation of Christ is now The Imitation of Christ and highly recom­ accepted by all, with the exception of a few mended it to others. He may also have read Italians who continue to put forward the Zerbolt's The Spiritual Ascents, and if not, he mysterious Giovanni Gersen as its author. was at least influenced by it indirectly.2o That Loyola's negative reaction to The Handbook In spite of the continued appeal and popu­ was solely a consequence of its contents may larity of The Imitation of Christ, its author is be questioned. It must be viewed, I believe, not as universally known as is Desiderius in light of the fact that Catholics widely Erasmus, the author of The Handbook of the regarded Erasmus as having "laid the egg Christian Knight. In fact, in the early 16th that was hatched by Luther," and because of century Erasmus was perhaps the best known his unwillingness to throw his support un­ commoner in Europe, until Martin Luther equivocally behind Rome against Luther, all stole his thunder. Born sometime between of which led to the works of Erasmus being 1465 and 1470, Erasmus was subjected to censored or banned outright by the Congre­ the influences of the Modern Devotion dur­ gation of the Index. Today, The Handbook is ing most of h.is teens, but the extent to which still one of Erasmus's best known works, but these influences shaped his religious outlook it in no way matches the continued popular­ and beliefs has been the subject of a debate. 16 ity of the Imitation of Christ. This discussion has largely centred on The Handbook of the Christian Knight, arguably After introducing these three works, we are Erasmus' single most important religious ready to compare them. We shall argue that work. It was written in 1501, thus relatively the Handbook has much more in common early in his literary career, but the views with The Spiritual Ascents than it has with the expressed in it are ones that Erasmus contin­ Imitation of Christ, to which it is compared ued to hold throughout the remainder of his more frequently. life. Almost twenty years after he wrote The Handbook, Erasmus, in a letter to Paul Volz, a To begin with, both Zerbolt's and Erasmus' Benedictine abbot, held the work in question works are practical manuals for the spiritual up as a still reliable and accurate statement of life and were specifically written to serve that 4 Canadian Journal of Netherlandic Studies

purpose - to serve as spiritual roadmaps - and they appear to have first been compiled by in that connection it is not irrelevant to point Latin school and university students for their out that Erasmus labelled his work a "hand­ own educational use. Florens Radewijns, a book". There is, however, one important co-founder of the Modern Devotion, is cred­ difference between the two works that ought ited with having adapted the rapiarium to the to be mentioned, namely that Zerbolt wrote religious life, and following him all members specifically for those living in a monastic or of the Modern Devotion were urged to com­ semi-monastic setting, for he subscribed to pile a rapiarium for themselves. 23 The prov­ the belief, still almost universally held in his erbs, aphorisms, sayings and excerpts making day that only those who withdraw from the up the rapiaria were drawn from a variety world can progress spiritually. Erasmus, by of sources such as the Bible, sermons, and contrast, wrote The Handbook specifically for religious literature, but also included edifying a layman, believed to be one Johann Poppen­ and practical observations made by fellow ruyter, at the request of his wifeY Erasmus, members of the Modern Devotion. Indeed, in fact, no longer subscribed to the traditional there are strong indications that the Devo­ view that the monastic life constitutes the tionalists drew on the rapiaria of their com­ surest, and really the only, way to spiritual panions. Most of these compilations appear growth and perfection. And his rejection of to have been fairly simple and unsophisticat­ this traditional view is summed up in the ed and lacking in organization, and practical­ now famous statement in The Handbook: "Mo­ ly all of them have been destroyed and lost. nachatus non est pietas, "22 "Monasticism is not It is now widely assumed that underlying The piety." It is necessary to caution that Erasmus Imitation of Christ is a rapiarium, presumably did not reject monasticism outright. What Thomas a Kempis' own, which he organized he found objectionable was to automatically into chapters and books, and then gave it a equate monasticism with piety and to sug­ poetic form.24 As a practical manual for the gest that there was no true piety to be found spiritual life, the Handbook has quite obvi­ beyond the walls of monasteries and con­ ously more in common with Zerbolt's work, vents. But even though Zerbolt and Erasmus which is likewise a practical manual for the addressed different audiences, their works are spiritual life, than it has with the Imitation of of a similar nature: they mean to instruct the Christ, which is a rapiarium. reader how to progress spiritually. Thomas a Kempis' Imitation of Christ, by contrast, is As manuals for the spiritual life, Zerbolt's and in essence a work of and for meditation and Erasmus' works also reveal some surprising reflection. similarities with regard to the starting point of the spiritual life, its progress, its goal, and As manuals for the spiritual life, the works the methods employed to reach that goal. of Zerbolt and Erasmus represent a literary For both Zerbolt and Erasmus, the primary genre that is totally different from the Imita­ objective of the spiritual life is to restore the tion of Christ, which must be classified with faculties of the soul to that condition which the literary genre k~own as rapiaria. These they enjoyed before the Fall, when they were were collections of fayings, aphorisms, ad­ still focused naturally on the worship of God. ages, and the like, ~d in the Middle Ages Consequently, both begin with an examina- A Comparison of Erasmus'· Handbook of the Christian Knight with Thomas a Kempis' 5 Imitation of Christ and Gerard Zerbolt's The Spiritual Ascents.

tion of the impact of the Fall on the faculties manuals by Zerbolt and Erasmus, the Imita­ of the soul, for unless that is first established, tion of Christ by Thomas a Kempis is fairly the believer will not know which direction loosely structured, exploring the spiritual life his or her spiritual quest must take. 25 In and ascent to God much more freely, broadly, other words, self-examination and the result­ and perhaps more comprehensively, but also ing self-knowledge constitute the starting more amorphously. In spite of its loose struc­ point of the spiritual life for both Zerbolt and ture, one can nonetheless detect a certain Erasmus. Once the requisite self-knowledge progression in that it moves on balance from regarding one's spiritual condition has been the lower levels of the spiritual life to the acquired, one can work towards the goal of higher. However, what really distinguishes restoring one's faculties to their original state The Imitation of Christ from the manuals is its and the purpose for which they were created. tone. For whereas the manuals read rather The spiritual tools used by both authors to like the spiritual roadmaps that they are, and achieve their spiritual objective are, in the that applies to Erasmus' work in particular first place, reading, meditation and prayer: - in fact, Heiko Oberman called it "the dullest lectio, meditatio, and oratia. Reading provides book in the history of piety"28 - the language the mind with material for meditation, and of The Imitation possesses lyrical qualities and meditation leads to prayer. However, an its content ascends, at times, to quasi-mysti­ important difference between Zerbolt and cal heights. Finally, it can also be said that Erasmus in this connection was that Eras­ while the manuals prescribe and outline a mus, unlike Zerbolt, advocated the reading of relatively active ascent to the divine in which certain classical authors alongside Christian the believer plays a major role, The Imitation authors as a means of developing a store of of Christ can, by contrast, almost be labelled knowledge on which one might draw for quietistic in its surrender to the divine. This spiritual meditation. 26 Here Erasmus reveals feature seems to account for the tranquil himself as the Christian humanist, and as the quality that The Imitation exudes, putting representative of a mentality which was, in the reader at peace with God, oneself and essence, foreign to the mentality and spiritu­ the world; and it is this quality that perhaps ality of the Modern Devotion. On the other explains the perennial appeal of The Imitation hand, imitation of Christ plays an important of Christ to people of many and varied back­ role in Zerbolt's spiritual programme and grounds. quest as well as that of Erasmus. For imita­ tion of Christ drives out vice and fosters In summary, the tendency to compare the virtue; in other words, it leads to conformity Handbook of the Christian Knight to The Imita­ with Christ in all things. It was to this pro­ tion of Christ appears to result from the fact gramme for spiritual renewal, one which that of all the Devotionalist writings, The Imi­ reveals many similarities to that of Zerbolt, tation is the best known and regarded as the and one which he set forth most completely epitome, as well as the most representative, in The Handbook, that Erasmus attached the of Devotionalist spirituality. 29 However, when label philosophia Christi. 27 one looks at the entire body of Devotionalist spiritual writings, it can easily be argued that In contrast with the quite rigidly structured Zerbolt's manual is more representative of 6 Canadian Journal of Netherlandic Studies

Devotionalist spiritual writings and spiritual­ The Spirituality of Erasmus of Rotterdam (Nieu­ ity than The Imitation is - but then, it helped wkoop: De Graaf, 1987), p. 49. to shape that spirituality. Consequently, if the objective is to determine to what degree 3 Cf. Erasmus pp. xl-xli (Introduction). Erasmus was indebted to the Devotionalists for his spirituality and his views on the spiri­ 4 See footnote 16 below. tuallife, it makes more sense to compare the Handbook with Zerbolt's work than with the 5 Cf. Comelis Augustijn, Erasmus: His Life, Imitation. And our comparison of the three Works and Influence, translated by].C. Gray­ works in question has shown that Erasmus' son (TorontolBuffalolLondon: University of work has much more in common with that of Toronto Press, 1991), p. 15; R]. Schoeck, Zerbolt than with that of Thomas a Kempis, Erasmus of Europe. The Making of a Humanist, which is not to deny that there are also sub­ 1467 -1500 (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University stantial differences between Erasmus and Press, 1990), p. 51; Bard Thompson, Human­ Zerbolt, such as the former's advocacy of clas­ ists and Reformers. A History of the Renaissance sical authors, for example, and the fact that and Reformation (Grand Rapids, Michigan! Zerbolt was addressing members of religious Cambridge, U.K.: William B. Eerdmans, orders, while Erasmus was not. 1996), p. 335; and M. Huig and D.E Lun­ singh Scheurleer, De Vijftiende Eeuw (Utrecht: Spectrum/Aula, 1995), pp. 149-150. NOTES 6 G.H. Gerrits, Inter Timorem et Spem. A Study

1 Erasmus, The Handbook of the Christian of the Theological Thought of Gerard Zerbolt KnightlEnchiridion militis christiani, translated of Zutphen (1367 -l398) (Leiden: E.]. Brill, by Charles Fantazzi, in: Collected Works of 1986), Conclusion: p. 284-30l. Erasmus, Volume 66: Spiritualia, edited by John O'Malley (TorontolBuffalolLondon: 7 RR Post, The Modern Devotion. Confronta­ University of Toronto Press, 1988), pp. 1-127 tion with Reformation and Humanism (Leiden: (hereinafter Erasmus); Thomas a Kempis, The E.]. Brill, 1968). Imitation of Christ, translated by William C. Creasy (Macon, Georgia: Mercer University 8 On the dissemination of Zerbolt's two Press, 1989); and Gerard Zerbolt of Zutphen, manuals for the spiritual life see Gerrits, pp. The Spiritual Ascents, in: , 27-37. Basic Writings, translated by John van Engen (NewYorkiMahwah: Paulist Press, 1988), pp. 9 At the time, the Duchy of Gelre straddled 245-315. the present-day Dutch-German border. Cf. RR Post, De Moderne Devotie. en

2 Cf. Robert Stupperich, "Das Enchiridion Zijn Stichtingen (Amsterdam: PN. van Kam­ militis Christiani des Erasmus von Rotterdam pen, 1950), p. 148. nach seiner Entstehung, seinem Sinn und Charakter," Archiv ~ur Reformationsgeschichte, 69 (1978), 5-23; and Richard L. De Molen, A Comparison of Erasmus' Handbook of the Christian Knight with Thomas a Kempis' 7 Imitation of Christ and Gerard Zerbolt's The Spiritual Ascents.

10 Kenneth M. Becker, From the Treasure-House 17 For Erasmus' letter to Paul Volz, translated of Scripture: An Analysis of Scriptural Sources by R.A.B. Mynors and D.ES. Thomson, see in De Imitatione Christi (Turnhout: Brepols, Erasmus, pp. 8-23. and d. p. xliii. 2002), p. 3l. 18 Ibid., pp. 3-7; and Augustijn p. 44. 11 Ibid., pp. 31-35. 19 Augustijn, p. 45. 12 R.W Southern, Western Society and the Church in the Middle Ages (Harmondsworth: 20 Becker, p.31; Hyma, pp. 3 and 268-275; Penguin Books, 1970), pp. 353-354. Otger Steggink, "De Moderne Devotie in het Montserrat van Ignatius van Loyola," Ons 13 Jacques Huyben and Pierre Debongnie, Geestelijk Erf, 59 (1985), pp. 383-392; and [Auteur ou les Auteurs de LImitation (Louvain: Gerrits, p. 36. Publications Universitaires de LouvainlBib­ liotheque de la Revue d'Histoire Ecclesias­ 21 Otto Schottenloher, "Erasmus, Johann Pop­ tique, Fascicule 30, 1957); and Albert Ampe, penruyter und die Entstehung des Enchiridion "Imitatio Christi, I: Le livre et l'auteur," in: milWs christiani," Archiv fur Reformationsge­ Dictionnaire ele Spiritualite, Volume 7, columns schichte, 45 (1954), 109-116. Cf. Erasmus, p. 2338-2355. 274, footnote l.

14 O.A. Spitzen, Les Hollanelismes de l'Imitation 22 Erasmus, p. 127. ele Christ, et Trois Anciennes Versions du Livre (Utrecht: J.L. Beijers, 1884). 23 Thom Mertens, "Rapiarium," in: Diction­ naire de Spiritualite, Volume 13, columns 15 Cf. Becker, From the Treasure-House of Scrip­ 114-119. ture: An Analysts of Scriptural Sources in De Imitaticme Christi, pp. 51-94; and Paul van 24 Bernard Spaapen, "Imitatio Christi, II: Doc­ Geest, Thomas a Kempis (1379/80-1471) ,Een trine, 3: Le genre litteraire," Dictionnaire de Stuelie van ZijY! Mens-en Goelsbeeld. Analyse en Spiritualite, Volume 7, columns 2357-2359; Tekstuttgave vein ele Hortulus Rosarum en ele and Nikolaus Staubach, "Diversa raptim un­ Vallis Li.liorum (Kampen: Kok, 1996), pp. dique collecta: Das Rapiarium im geistlichen 13-14. Reformprogramm der Devotio modema," in: Kaspar Elm, editor, Literarischen Formen 16 Albert Hyma, The Youth of Erasmus, Sec­ des Mittelalters: Florilegien, Kompilationen, ond editIon (New York: Russell and Rus- Kollektionen (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, sell, 1968), pp. 81-142; Post, The Moelern 2000), pp. 115-147. Devotion,.pp. 658-673; Roland H. Bainton, Erasmus of Christendom (New York: Charles 25 Gerrits, pp. 231-283; and Erasmus, pp. Scribner's Sons, 1969), pp. 8-26; and De Mo­ 38-55. len, pp. xvi-xvii and 35-36. 26 Erasmus, pp. xliii and 30-38. 8 Canadian Journal of Netherlandic Studies

27 While this term is not found in the Bainton, Roland. Erasmus of Christendom. Enchiridion, Erasmus employs it in his let­ New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1969. ter to Paul Volz, his own exposition of the Enchiridion. Cf. O'Malley, editor, Collected Becker, Kenneth M. From the Treasure-House Works of Erasmus, Volume 66: Spiritualia, of Scripture: An Analysis of SCriptural Sources p. xxii. in De Imitatione Christi. Turnhout: Brepols, 2002.

28 Augustijn, p. 44. 1 DeMolen, Richard L. The Spirituality of Eras­

29 See footnote 5 above. mus of Rotterdam. Nieuwkoop: De Graaf, 1987.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Geest, Paul van. Thomas a Kempis (13 79/80 -1471), Een Studie van Zijn Mens- en Gods­ Sources beeld. Analyse en Tekstuitgave van de Hortulus Rosarum en de Vallis Uliorum. Kok: Kampen, Gerard Zerbolt of Zutphen, The Spiritual 1996. Ascents, in: Devotio Moderna, Basic Writings, translated by John van Engen, pp. 245-315. Gerrits, G.H. Inter Timorem et Spem. A Study New York/Mahwah: Paulist Press, 1988. of the Theological Thought of Gerard Zerbolt of Zutphen, 1367-1398. Leiden: E.]. Brill, 1986. Thomas a Kempis, The Imitation of Christ, translated by William C. Creasy. Macon, Huyben, Jacques, and Pierre Debongnie. Georgia: Mercer University Press, 1989. LAuteur ou les Auteurs de LImitation. Louvain:· Publications Universitaires de LouvainIBiblio­ Desiderius Erasmus, The Handbook of the theque de la Revue d'Histoire Ecclesiastique, Christian KnightiEnchiridion militis christiani, Fascicule 30, 1957. translated by Charles Fantazzi, in: Collected Works of Erasmus, Volume 66: Spiritualia, M. Huig and D.F. Lunsingh Scheurleer. De Vi­ edited by John O'Malley, pp. 1-127. Toronto/ jftiende Eeuw Utrecht: Spectrum/Aula, 1995. BuffalolLondon: University of Toronto Press, 1988. Hyma, Albert. The Christian Renaissance. A History of the "Devotio Moderna". Second edi­ Literature tion. Hamden, Connecticut: Archon Books, 1965. Ampe, Albert. "Imitatio Christi, I: Le livre et l'auteur." In: Dictionnaire de Spiritualite, Vol­ Hyma, Albert. The Youth of Erasmus. Second ume 7, columns 2338-2355. edition. New York: Russell and Russell, 1959.

Augustijn, Cornelis\ Erasmus, His Life, Works Levi, Anthony. Renaissance and Reformation. and Influence. Translated by].C. Grayson. To­ The Intellectual Genesis. New HavenlLondon: rontolBuffalolLond4n: University of Toronto Yale University Press, 2002. Press, 1991. A Comparison of Erasmus' Handbook of the Christian Knight with Thomas a Kempis' 9 Imitation of Christ and Gerard Zerbolts The Spiritual Ascents.

Mertens, Thom. "Rapiarium." In: Dictionnaire Staubach, Nikolaus. "Diversa raptim undique de Spiritualite, Volume l3, columns 114-119. collecta: Das Rapiarium im geistlicher Reform­ programm der Devotio moderna." In: Kasper Oberman, H.A., and Th. A Brady, eds. Itiner­ Elm, editor, Literarische Formen des Mittelal­ arium Italicum. The Profile of the Italian Renais­ ters: Florilegien, Kompilationen, Kollektionen, sance in the Mirror of Its European Transforma­ pp. 115-147. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz tions. Leiden: E.]. Brill, 1975. Verlag, 2000.

Post, RR The Modern Devotion, Confrontation Steggink, Otger. "De Moderne Devotie in het with Reformation and Humanism. Leiden: E.]. Montserrat van Ignatius van Loyola." Ons Brill,1968. Geestelljk Erf, 59 (1985), pp. 383-392.

Rummel, Erika. "Voices of Reform from Hus Stupperich, Robert. "Das Enchiridion militis to Erasmus." In: Thomas A. Brady Jr., Heiko Christiani des Erasmus von Rotterdam nach A. Oberman and James D. Tracy, eds., Hand­ seiner Entstehung, seinem Sinn und Cha­ book of European History, 1400-1600: Late Mid­ rakter." Archiv fur Reformationsgeschichte, 69 dle Ages, Renaissance and Reformation, Volume (1978),5-23. 2: Visions, Programs, Outcomes. LeidenlNew YorkJK61n: E.]. Brill, 1995, pp. 61-9l. Thompson, Bard. Humanists and Reformers. A History of the Renaissance and Reformation. Schoeck, RJ. Erasmus of Europe. The Making (Grand Rapids, Michigan/Cambridge, U.K.: of a Humanist, 1467-1500. Edinburgh: Edin­ William B. Eerdmans, 1996). burgh University Press, 1990. Weiler, Anton G. Desiderius Erasmus. De spiri­ Schottenloher, Otto. "Erasmus, Johann Pop­ tualiteit van een christen-humanist. Nijmegen: penruyter und die Entstehung des Enchiridion Titus Brandsma InstituutNalkhof Pers, 1997. militis christiani," Archiv fur Reformationsge- . schichte, 45 (1954), 109-116.

Southern, RW Western Society and the Church in the Middle Ages (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1970)

Spaapen, Bernard. "Imitatio Christi, II: Doc­ trine, 3: Le genre litteraire," Dictionnaire de Spiritualite, Volume 7, columns 2357-2359

Spitzen, O.A. Les Hol1andismes de l'Imitation de jesus Christ, et Trois Anciennes Versions du Livre. Utrecht:].L. Beijers, 1884.