Robert Darnton, “What Is the History of Books?”

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

Robert Darnton, “What Is the History of Books?” What is the History of Books? The Harvard community has made this article openly available. Please share how this access benefits you. Your story matters Citation Darnton, Robert. 1982. What is the history of books? Daedalus 111(3): 65-83. Published Version http://www.jstor.org/stable/20024803 Citable link http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:3403038 Terms of Use This article was downloaded from Harvard University’s DASH repository, and is made available under the terms and conditions applicable to Other Posted Material, as set forth at http:// nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:dash.current.terms-of- use#LAA ROBERT DARNTON What Is the History of Books? "Histoire du livre" in France, "Geschichte des Buchwesens" in Germany, "history of books" or "of the book" in English-speaking countries?its name varies from to as an new place place, but everywhere it is being recognized important even discipline. It might be called the social and cultural history of communica were not a to tion by print, if that such mouthful, because its purpose is were understand how ideas transmitted through print and how exposure to the printed word affected the thought and behavior of mankind during the last five hundred years. Some book historians pursue their subject deep into the period on before the invention of movable type. Some students of printing concentrate newspapers, broadsides, and other forms besides the book. The field can be most concerns extended and expanded inmany ways; but for the part, it books an area so since the time of Gutenberg, of research that has developed rapidly seems to a during the last few years, that it likely win place alongside fields like art canon the history of science and the history of in the of scholarly disciplines. Whatever the history of books may become in the future, its past shows how a can on a field of knowledge take distinct scholarly identity. It arose from the on convergence of several disciplines a common set of problems, all of them to having do with the process of communication. Initially, the problems took concrete the form of questions in unrelated branches of scholarship: What were Shakespeare's original texts? What caused the French Revolution? What is the connection between culture and social stratification? In pursuing those ques a tions, scholars found themselves crossing paths in no-man's-land located at the a intersection of half-dozen fields of study. They decided to constitute a field of own to their and invite in historians, literary scholars, sociologists, librarians, to as a and anyone else who wanted understand the book force in history. The own history of books began to acquire its journals, research centers, confer as as ences, and lecture circuits. It accumulated tribal elders well Young Turks. And although it has not yet developed passwords or secret handshakes or its own can one population of Ph.D.'s, its adherents recognize another by the glint to a common one in their eyes. They belong cause, of the few sectors in the a a human sciences where there is mood of expansion and flurry of fresh ideas. not To be sure, the history of the history of books did begin yesterday. It to not stretches back the scholarship of the Renaissance, if beyond; and it began earnest in during the nineteenth century, when the study of books as material to objects led the rise of analytical bibliography in England. But the current 65 66 ROBERT DARNTON a work represents departure from the established strains of scholarship, which may be traced to their nineteenth century origins through back issues of The or Library and B?rsenblatt f?r den Deutschen Buchhandel theses in the Ecole des Chartes. The new strain developed during the 1960s in France, where it took root in institutions like the Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes and spread through publications like LApparition du livre (1958), by Lucien Febvre and Henri-Jean Martin, and Livre et soci?t? dans la France du XVII le si?cle (two volumes a Vie 1965 and 1970) by group connected with the section of the Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes. The new book historians brought the subject within the range of themes on studied by the "Annales school" of socioeconomic history. Instead of dwelling to uncover of book fine points of bibliography, they tried the general pattern over production and consumption long stretches of time. They compiled contents statistics from requests for privil?ges (a kind of copyright), analyzed the currents of private libraries, and traced ideological through neglected genres like fine no the biblioth?que bleue (primitive paperbacks). Rare books and editions had on most sort interest for them; they concentrated instead the ordinary of books, to because they wanted discover the literary experience of ordinary readers. They put familiar phenomena like the Counter Reformation and the an Enlightenment in unfamiliar light by showing how much traditional culture in fare of the entire outweighed the avant-garde the literary society. Although come a set the they did not up with firm of conclusions, they demonstrated new new and new importance of asking questions, using methods, tapping sources.1 Their example spread throughout Europe and the United States, reinforcing as in indigenous traditions, such reception studies Germany and printing to a common history in Britain. Drawn together by their commitment new historians to enterprise, and animated by enthusiasm for ideas, book began new meet, first in caf?s, then in conferences. They created journals?Publishing History, Bibliography Newsletter, Nouvelles du livre ancien, Revue fran?aise d'histoire zur du livre (new series), Buchhandelsgeschichte, and Wolfenb?tte 1erNotizen Buchge new in the schichte. They founded centers?the Institut d'Etude du Livre Paris, Arbeitskreis f?r Geschichte des Buchwesens inWolfenb?ttel, the Center for the Book in the Library of Congress. Special colloquia?in Geneva, Paris, Boston, a Worcester, Wolfenb?ttel, and Athens, to name only few that took place in the late 1970s?disseminated their research on an international scale. In the brief a span of two decades, the history of books had become rich and varied field of study. now a a So rich did it prove, in fact, that it looks less like field than tropical can across At rain forest. The explorer hardly make his way it. every step he a of and becomes entangled in luxuriant undergrowth journal articles, disoriented by the crisscrossing of disciplines?analytical bibliography pointing and in this direction, the sociology of knowledge in that, while history, English, out territories. He is beset claims to comparative literature stake overlapping by new newness?"la nouvelle bibliographie mat?rielle," "the literary history"?and bewildered by competing methodologies, which would have him collating reams of editions, compiling statistics, decoding copyright law, wading through at a reconstructed common and manuscript, heaving the bar of press, WHAT IS THE HISTORY OF BOOKS? 67 psychoanalyzing the mental processes of readers. The history of books has so with one can no see become crowded ancillary disciplines, that longer its contours. can general How the book historian neglect the history of libraries, of publishing, of paper, type, and reading? But how can he master their technologies, especially when they appear in imposing foreign formulations, like Geschichte der Appellstruktur and Bibliom?trie bibliologique? It is enough to make one want to retire to a rare book room and count watermarks. To some run to see get distance from interdisciplinarity riot, and the subject as a it be useful to a whole, might propose general model for analyzing the way come books into being and spread through society. To be sure, conditions have so varied much from place to place and from time to time since the invention of movable that be to type, it would vain expect the biography of every book to conform to the same But pattern. printed books generally pass through roughly the same life cycle. It could be described as a communications circuit that runs from the author to the publisher (if the bookseller does not assume that role), the the the printer, shipper, bookseller, and the reader. The reader completes the circuit, because he influences the author both before and after the act of Authors are composition. readers themselves. By reading and associating with other readers and form notions of a writers, they genre and style and general sense of the which literary enterprise, affects their texts, whether they are sonnets or composing Shakespearean directions for assembling radio kits. A writer in to may respond his writing criticisms of his previous work or reactions that his text will anticipate elicit. He addresses implicit readers and hears from reviewers. runs explicit So the circuit full cycle. It transmits them en as to messages, transforming route, they pass from thought writing to characters and back to concerns printed thought again. Book history each phase of as a this process and the process whole, in all its variations over space and time and in all its relations with other systems, economic, social, political, and cultural, in the surrounding environment. That is a large undertaking. To keep their task within manageable proportions, book historians generally cut into one segment of the communications circuit and it to a analyze according the procedures of single for means discipline?printing, example, which they study by of analytical But the do not take on bibliography. parts their full significance unless they are related to the whole, and some holistic view of the book as a means of communication seems if book is to necessary history avoid being fragmented into esoteric cut off from arcane specializations, each other by techniques and mutual The misunderstanding.
Recommended publications
  • Incunabula and Sixteenth Century Imprints
    Incunabula and Sixteenth Century Imprints FREDERICK R. GOFF THEWISE preacher in the Book of Ecclesiastes in- formed his listeners that “Of the making of many books there is no end.” If this was true in early Biblical times, one can only imagine what this learned gentleman’s appalled reaction would be to the pro- digious and continuous outpouring from the contemporary press. No one will ever be able to estimate the number of books that have been produced since those anonymous pressmen, working for Gutenberg, commenced to pull sheets from the presses he had constructed for his first printing office. It is possible, however, to estimate in rough fash- ion the number of books, pamphlets, and broadsides that issued dur- ing the period of incunabular printing that, with some questionable exceptions, ended with the commencement of the year 1501. There is valid evidence to support an estimate of upwards of 40,000 editions that were printed on the earliest European presses at work during the first fifty years after the invention of printing with movable metal types. If, as we have reason to believe, the average number of copies produced in a fifteenth-century edition was 500, these early printers were responsible for placing in circulation approximately 20,000,000 books, pamphlets, and broadsides. There are no accurate statistics to determine how many of this original estimate survive today, but it is a matter of record that ac- cording to the statistical survey made during the compilation of the Third Census of Zncunabula in American Libraries, compiled and edited by this writer, and published by the Bibliographical Society of America in 1964 (New York), 47,188 copies of 12,599 editions were recorded in American ownership, How many other copies of incunabula have survived is a matter of interesting speculation.
    [Show full text]
  • Books, Prints, and Travel: Reading in the Gaps of the Orientalist Archive
    BOOKS, PRINTS, AND TRAVEL: READING IN THE GAPS OF THE ORIENTALIST ARCHIVE ELISABETH A. FRASER Writing to Madame de Re´camier during an arduous voyage to the Levant in 1817 and 1818, the beleaguered Comte Auguste de Forbin pleaded passionately for letters from her to alleviate the horrors of his journey: a difficult passage at sea, the death of a hired travelling companion, heat and plague. ‘I need them, I have been cruelly tested. Never was a voyage more unfortunate,’ he wrote. Subse- quent letters describe his ‘terrible fear’ of the plague in Constantinople (‘death is everywhere’), and the ‘devouring heat’ of Egypt.1 And yet Forbin later made light of the journey’s difficulties in his published account, the Voyage dans le Levant (1819), a sentiment reinforced by Franc¸ois-Rene´ de Chateaubriand in his review: ‘The Comte de Forbin’s publication will finally prove that today one can do quickly and easily what in the past demanded much time and effort.’2 Similarly, the Comte Marie-Gabriel de Choiseul-Gouffier’s magnificent Voyage pittoresque de la Gre`ce (1782–1822), one of Forbin’s primary models, gives no hint of the woes that dogged its production: revolution, legal battles, work lost in transport, dishonest printers, artists making off with commissioned drawings, and so on. To follow Choiseul-Gouffier’s trail through the archives is to wade in rancour, regret and litigiousness to a degree unsuspected by the reader of his serenely beautiful Voyage pittoresque.3 In a departure from earlier writing on colonialism, scholars today expect to find this kind of contradiction in the accounts of European travellers about in the world.
    [Show full text]
  • Collectorz.Com Book Collector Help Manual
    Collectorz.com Book Collector Help Manual © 2008 Bitz & Pixelz BV 2 Collectorz.com Book Collector Help Manual Table of Contents Foreword 0 Part I Introduction 5 Part II Find answers in the manual 6 Part III Getting started 10 1 Getting Started................................................................................................................................... - Your first 10 clicks 11 2 Getting Started................................................................................................................................... - Adding your first book 13 3 Getting Started................................................................................................................................... - Quick Guide 14 4 Getting Started................................................................................................................................... - Useful and powerful tips 17 Part IV Buying Book Collector 19 Part V Support 22 Part VI Common Tasks 22 1 Adding Books................................................................................................................................... Automatically - Using the queue 24 2 Editing books................................................................................................................................... 25 3 Browsing your................................................................................................................................... database 29 4 Finding a book..................................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • PAPERS DELIVERED at SHARP CONFERENCES to DATE (Alphabetically by Author; Includes Meeting Year)
    PAPERS DELIVERED AT SHARP CONFERENCES TO DATE (alphabetically by author; includes meeting year) Abel, Jonathan. Cutting, molding, covering: media-sensitive suppression in Japan. 2009 Abel, Trudi Johanna. The end of a genre: postal regulations and the dime novel's demise. 1994 ___________________. When the devil came to Washington: Congress, cheap literature, and the struggle to control reading. 1995 Abreu, Márcia Azevedo. Connected by fiction: the presence of the European novel In Brazil. 2013 Absillis, Kevin. Angele Manteau and the Indonesian connection: a remarkable story of Flemish book trade (1958-1962). 2006 ___________. The biggest scam in Flemish literature? On the question of linguistic gatekeeping In literary publishing. 2009 ___________. Pascale Casanova's The World Republic of Letters and the analysis of centre-periphery relations In literary book publishing. 2008 ___________. The printing press and utopia: why imaginary geographies really matter to book history. 2013 Acheson, Katherine O. The Renaissance author in his text. 1994 Acerra, Eleonora. See Louichon, Brigitte (2015) Acres, William. Objet de vertu: Euler's image and the circulation of genius in print, 1740-60. 2011 ____________. A "religious" model for history: John Strype's Reformation, 1660-1735. 2014 ____________, and David Bellhouse. Illustrating Innovation: mathematical books and their frontispieces, 1650-1750. 2009 Aebel, Ian J. Illustrating America: John Ogilby and the geographies of empire in Restoration England. 2013 Agten, Els. Vernacular Bible translation in the Netherlands in the seventeenth century: the debates between Roman Catholic faction and the Jansenists. 2014 Ahokas, Minna. Book history meets history of concepts: approaches to the books of the Enlightenment in eighteenth-century Finland.
    [Show full text]
  • Techniques of Satire the Case of Saltykov-Scedrin
    Techniques of Satire The Case of Saltykov-Scedrin by Emil A. Draitser Mnut ou de ( iruvtvr Ikrlill N('w'y'ork I()(),I Contents Preface ix Note on citations xiv Foreword xv Chapter one Targets of satire 1 1. Provincial sketches (1856-1857) 3 2. Innocent. tales (1857-1863), Satires in prose (1859-1862) 5 3. Pompadours and pompadouresses (1863-1874) 7 4. History of a town (1869-1870) 9 5. Gentlemen of Tashkent (1869-1872) 11 6. The diary of a provincial in St. Petersburg (1872) 12 7. Loyal speeches (1872-1876) 14 8. The Goloolyoos (1875-1880) 15 9. The sanctuary of Mortrepos (1878-1879), The year around (1879), Abroad (1880-1881) 18 10. In the environment of moderation and accuracy (1874-1880), Contemporary idyll (1877-1883) 20 11. Letters to my auntie (1881-1882), Motley letters (1884-1886), Fairy tales (1869-1886), Stories of Posexon'e (1885), Trifles of life (1887), The old time in Posexon'e (1887-1889) 22 Chapter two The problem of the comic 25 1. Saltykov's fate in literary criticism 25 2. The confusion of the concepts "humor" and "satire" 29 3. The double nature of laughter 32 4. Defining the concepts "humor", "satire", "wit" and "the comic" 38 5. Methodology and tasks of this study 41 xii Techniques of satire Chapter three Satirical characterization: Non-metaphoric denigration 45 1. Infantilization 48 2. "Stupefication" 51 2.1. Disruptions in the logic of thought and speech 53 2.2. Disruptions in the logic of behavior 58 3. Physiologization 64 3.1. Physical appearance, attractive and unat- tractive 64 3.2.
    [Show full text]
  • Fellows Cases/Statements
    The Once and Future Book Buchanan Library Fellows ~ Fall 2017 Incunables: The Original First Editions Some of the oldest books on earth, incunables are books printed before the year 1501. Taken from the Latin word, incunabulum or “in the cradle,” these are the first books actually printed in movable type. The incunabular aGe focused on many thinGs, one of which was the past. Many incunables were written about classic literature and theoloGy. In this case, one sees an epic Latin poem about Roman history and a commentary on the Book of Isaiah. This case spotliGhts some of the oldest books we have here in the Vanderbilt Libraries. Located in the Special Collections section in the Central Library, I wanted to focus on a type of book called an incunabulum, or incunables for plural- which are books written before the year 1501 AD. One of the pieces was published in 1492 and features a printer’s device called the colophon which is the identifyinG mark of a particular publisher. The second book in the exhibit is an incunabulum published in 1495, and features vellum (animal skin) tabs, like you miGht see in some dictionaries and other reference books. It also features a full-paGe woodcut of Jesus Christ and the Tree of Jesse, which oriGinates to the Book of Isaiah in the Bible. Binding: Bound to the Past, Looking to the Future Each and every book tell its reader a story. Most books rely upon the words written inside to take them on a journey, but what does the outside of the book reveal about the adventure? The unique role that a book’s bindinG plays in its holistic story is examined and explored in this case.
    [Show full text]
  • Book Spring 2006.Qxd
    Anthony Grafton History’s postmodern fates Downloaded from http://direct.mit.edu/daed/article-pdf/135/2/54/1829123/daed.2006.135.2.54.pdf by guest on 26 September 2021 As the twenty-½rst century begins, his- in the mid-1980s to almost one thousand tory occupies a unique, but not an envi- now. But the vision of a rise in the num- able, position among the humanistic dis- ber of tenure-track jobs that William ciplines in the United States. Every time Bowen and others evoked, and that lured Clio examines her reflection in the mag- many young men and women into grad- ic mirror of public opinion, more voices uate school in the 1990s, has never mate- ring out, shouting that she is the ugliest rialized in history. The market, accord- Muse of all. High school students rate ingly, seems out of joint–almost as bad- history their most boring subject. Un- ly so as in the years around 1970, when dergraduates have fled the ½eld with production of Ph.D.s ½rst reached one the enthusiasm of rats leaving a sinking thousand or more per year just as univer- ship. Thirty years ago, some 5 percent sities and colleges went into economic of all undergraduates majored in histo- crisis. Many unemployed holders of doc- ry. Nowadays, around 2 percent do so. torates in history hold their teachers and Numbers of new Ph.D.s have risen, from universities responsible for years of op- a low of just under ½ve hundred per year pression, misery, and wasted effort that cannot be usefully reapplied in other careers.1 Anthony Grafton, a Fellow of the American Acad- Those who succeed in obtaining ten- emy since 2002, is Henry Putnam University Pro- ure-track positions, moreover, may still fessor of History at Princeton University and ½nd themselves walking a stony path.
    [Show full text]
  • The Kindness of Strangers
    THE KINDNESS OF STRANGERS 9780465064748-HCtext1P.indd 1 12/16/19 8:06 AM 9780465064748-HCtext1P.indd 2 12/16/19 8:06 AM THE KINDNESS OF STRANGERS HOW A SELFISH APE INVENTED A NEW MORAL CODE MICHAEL MCCULLOUGH New York 9780465064748-HCtext1P.indd 3 12/16/19 8:06 AM Copyright © 2020 by Michael McCullough Cover design by TK Cover image © TK Cover copyright © 2020 Hachette Book Group, Inc. Hachette Book Group supports the right to free expression and the value of copyright. The purpose of copyright is to encourage writers and artists to produce the creative works that enrich our culture. The scanning, uploading, and distribution of this book without permission is a theft of the author’s intellectual property. If you would like permission to use material from the book (other than for review purposes), please contact permissions@hbgusa.com. Thank you for your support of the author’s rights. Basic Books Hachette Book Group 1290 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10104 www.basicbooks.com Printed in the United States of America First Edition: May 2020 Published by Basic Books, an imprint of Perseus Books, LLC, a subsidiary of Hachette Book Group, Inc. The Basic Books name and logo is a trademark of the Hachette Book Group. The Hachette Speakers Bureau provides a wide range of authors for speaking events. To find out more, go to www.hachettespeakersbureau.com or call (866) 376-6591. The publisher is not responsible for websites (or their content) that are not owned by the publisher. Print book interior design by Amy Quinn Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data has been applied for.
    [Show full text]
  • The Lovely Serendipitous Experience of the Bookshop’: a Study of UK Bookselling Practices (1997-2014)
    ‘The Lovely Serendipitous Experience of the Bookshop’: A Study of UK Bookselling Practices (1997-2014). Scene from Black Books, ‘Elephants and Hens’, Series 3, Episode 2 Chantal Harding, S1399926 Book and Digital Media Studies Masters Thesis, University of Leiden Fleur Praal, MA & Prof. Dr. Adriaan van der Weel 28 July 2014 Word Count: 19,300 Table of Contents Introduction .................................................................................................................................................................... 3 Chapter One: There is Value in the Model ......................................................................................................... 10 Chapter Two: Change and the Bookshop .......................................................................................................... 17 Chapter Three: From Standardised to Customised ....................................................................................... 28 Chapter Four: The Community and Convergence .......................................................................................... 44 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................................................... 51 Bibliography: ............................................................................................................................................................... 54 Archival and Primary Sources: .......................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • The Book. the Center for the Book Viewpoint Series No. 1. INSTITUTION Library of Congress, Washington, D.C
    DOCUMENT RESUME ED 260 430 CS 209 218 AUTHOR Tuchman, Barbara W. TITLE The Book. The Center for the Book Viewpoint Series No. 1. INSTITUTION Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. REPORT NO ISBN-0-8444-0322-9 PUB DATE 80 NOTE 28p.; Lecture. sponsored by the Center for the Book in the Library of Congress and the Authors League of America (Washington, DC., October 17, 1979). PUB TYPE Information AnaXyseS (070)-- Viewpoints (120) -- Speeches /Conference Papers (150) EDRS PRICE 141701/PCO2 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS *Books; History; Humanities; Information Dissemination; *Literary History; *Literature; Novels; Popular Culture; *Publications; *Publishing Industry; World Literature ABSTRACT The first publication in the Viewpoint Series of the Center for the Book, this booklet contains the first lecture commemorating Luise Sillcox. The booklet includesa preface by John Y. Cole, Executive Director of the Center for the Book, andan introduction by John Hersey, President of the AuthorsLeague of America. The lecture presented in the booklet, given byBarbara Tuchman, focuses on the history of the book from its beginningson clay tablets and papyrus written by scribes and priests; follows its development up to the present time; mentions some of the greatest books written in the Western world, as well as some of its greatest authors; and discusses early libraries, the pleasure gained from reading books, popular books and authors from different historical periods, the changing public taste, books with great political influence, paperback books, and the advent of television. (EL) *********************************************************************** Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original document. *********************************************************************** THE,00K! 7.; O A LECTURE SPONSORED BY THE CENTER FORTHE BOOK IN THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS AND THE AUTHORS LEAGUE OF AMERICA PRESENTED AT THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS OCTOBER 17, 1979 by Barbara W Tuchman with an introduction by John Hersey U.S.
    [Show full text]
  • Lost Incunable Editions: Closing in on an Estimate
    chapter 3 Lost Incunable Editions: Closing in on an Estimate Jonathan Green and Frank McIntyre Imagine, if you will, that you are a lepidopterist stationed in the butterfly-rich environment of a tropical Malaysian island. You hope to determine the number of butterfly species that live on the island, and so you resolve to survey an acre- sized patch of it for a month and record the number of individuals of each spe- cies that you find. At the end of the month, you find that a few species of butterfly are represented by a large number of specimens, while many species are repre- sented by only one or a few specimens. These results lead you to suspect that there remain many species of butterfly on the island that your survey has missed, but how many? And how many more species can you expect to discover with additional months of observation? As your opportunity to spend additional months on a tropical island depends on your presenting a convincing argument to your funding agency, these questions are of some urgency for you. This is a brief statement of what is known as the unseen species problem, which has been an area of intense study both within and well outside of the field of ecology for several decades. The example above concerning Malaysian butterflies is drawn from a pathbreaking article published in 1943 by Ronald Fisher, one of the founders of modern biology and statistics, who proposed statistical methods for estimating the number of unseen butterfly species.1 Since then, the development and implementation of these methods has con- tinued, so that several current statistical software packages can provide both an estimate of the number of missing species and determine the confidence interval of that estimation, that is, the range within which one is reasonably certain the actual number lies.2 In an ideal situation, the number of observed butterfly species will rise with each additional month of observation, but the estimate of total species will change only modestly as the confidence interval 1 R.A.
    [Show full text]
  • Brief History of English and American Literature
    Brief History of English and American Literature Henry A. Beers Brief History of English and American Literature Table of Contents Brief History of English and American Literature..........................................................................................1 Henry A. Beers.........................................................................................................................................3 INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................................................6 PREFACE................................................................................................................................................9 CHAPTER I. FROM THE CONQUEST TO CHAUCER....................................................................11 CHAPTER II. FROM CHAUCER TO SPENSER................................................................................22 CHAPTER III. THE AGE OF SHAKSPERE.......................................................................................34 CHAPTER IV. THE AGE OF MILTON..............................................................................................50 CHAPTER V. FROM THE RESTORATION TO THE DEATH OF POPE........................................63 CHAPTER VI. FROM THE DEATH OF POPE TO THE FRENCH REVOLUTION........................73 CHAPTER VII. FROM THE FRENCH REVOLUTION TO THE DEATH OF SCOTT....................83 CHAPTER VIII. FROM THE DEATH OF SCOTT TO THE PRESENT TIME.................................98 CHAPTER
    [Show full text]