National Park Service U.S. Department of Interior

Alaska Regional Office Alaska Park Science Anchorage, Alaska Connections to Natural and Cultural Resource Studies in Alaska’s National Parks

June 2009 Noatak National Gates of the Arctic Table of Contents Preserve National Park and Cape Krusenstern Preserve US and Russian Collaboration in Park Science National Monument in the Arctic______4 Kobuk Valley National Park Yukon-Charley Rivers Bering Land Bridge K A And The Wildlife Therein______6 S National Preserve National Preserve L A Tent Ring Archaeology in Gates of the Arctic A National Park and Preserve______10 Norton Sound Denali National Park and Preserve Permafrost/Active Layer Monitoring Program: Wrangell-St. Elias Involving Remote Villages in Permafrost Drilling for National Park and Preserve Operational and Scientific Applications in Alaska______16 Lake Clark National Park Klondike Gold Rush and Preserve National Historical Park The Cooperative Park Studies Unit: Dynamic University-Based Research in the Parks______20 Glacier Bay Katmai Kenai Fjords National Park Zorro Bradley Interview______24 National Park National Park and Preserve and Preserve Fred Dean Interview______28 Sitka National Gulf of Alaska Historical Park Bristol Bay Alternative and Sustainable Energy Sources ISSN 1545-4967 June 2009 for Alaska’s National Parks______32 Aniakchak National Monument The Colors of the Aurora______36 and Preserve Alaska Park Science http://www.nps.gov/akso/AKParkScience/index.htm Science News______42 Project Lead: Robert Winfree, Regional Science Advisor, email: [email protected] Editor: Monica Shah This project is made possible through funding from Alaska Park Science Journal Board: Peter Armato, Director and Research Coordinator, the National Park Foundation. Additional funding is Ocean Alaska Science and Learning Center provided by the National Park Service and other Ted Birkedal, Team Leader for Cultural Resources Don Callaway, Cultural Anthropologist contributors. Joy Geiselman, Deputy Chief, Biological Science Office USGS Alaska Science Center Russ Kucinski, Team Leader for Natural Resources Alaska Park Science is published twice a year. Recent Rachel Mason, Cultural Anthropologist issues of Alaska Park Science are available for sale John Morris, Education Coordinator Lisa Oakley, Alaska Geographic Association by Alaska Geographic (www.alaskageographic.org). John Quinley, Assistant Regional Director for Communications Sara Wesser, Inventory and Monitoring Coordinator, Alaska Region Charitable donations to help support this Robert Winfree, Chair of Journal Board journal may be sent to: Alaska Geographic Association, Printed on recycled paper with soy based ink 810 East Ninth Avenue, Anchorage, AK 99501 Published twice a year in June and December by Alaska Geographic, a nonprofit partner of the Alaska Region of the National Park Service, ATTN: Alaska Park Science. supporting educational programs through publishing and operation of visitor center bookstores. Disclaimer: Information published in Alaska Park Science has been subjected to general review by the National Park Service Alaska Cover photo: Aurora over Klondike Gold Rush National Historical Park Region. Publication in Alaska Park Science does not signify that and Skagway, Alaska. the contents reflect the views of the National Park Service, nor does mention of trade names or commercial products constitute Photograph courtesy of Michael Klensch National Park Service endorsement or recommendation. About the Authors

Tim Hudson is Associate Regional Director for Operations, Alaska Regional Office, NPS.

Dirk Lummerzheim, Ph.D., is a Research Professor at the Geophysical Institute, University of Alaska Fairbanks.

Frank Norris is a historian for the National Trails System Office, NPS.

Sanford P. Rabinowitch is a subsistence manager at the Alaska Regional Office, NPS.

Becky Saleeby is an archeologist at the Alaska Regional Office, NPS.

James F. Stratton is Regional Director for the National Parks Conservation Association.

Andrew Tremayne is a graduate student at the University of Wyoming.

Robert Winfree is the Alaska Regional Science Advisor for NPS.

Kenji Yoshikawa, Ph.D., is an Associate Research Professor, Water and Environmental Research Center, Institute of Northern Engineering, University of Alaska Fairbanks.

And The Wildlife Therein

Photograph courtesy of G. Gusse Article on page 6. 3 4 Alaska Park Science, Volume 8, Issue 1

US and Russian Collaboration in Park Science in the Arctic

By Robert Winfree as one, the Beringia Days International social sciences and related topics that Conferences have been held since 1996 to are especially relevant to the Gates of the Science and resource conservation are recognize and celebrate the contemporary Arctic, Noatak, Cape Krusenstern, Kobuk rarely simple undertakings in wild Alaska, and historic value of the region’s shared Valley, and the Beringian Heritage and it does not get any easier in Siberia. ecological and cultural heritage. Berin- International Park Program. Numerous The joys and challenges of working to gia Days and the biennial Alaska Park Sci- and diverse cultural program elements, understand and preserve natural and cul- ence Symposia provide important venues including scholarly presentations and tural heritage on both sides of the Bering for cross-cultural sharing of information dances by Native performers from Straight were “hot” topics when scientists, among scientists and scholars in multiple Fairbanks, Alaska, and Provedenia, Russia, scholars, educators from the United States disciplines, educators, students, resource facilitated recognition of cultural tradi- and Russia came together in Fairbanks, managers, and the interested public. tions, subsistence lifestyles, and ecological Alaska, in October 2008. Their venue was Participants have consistently rated knowledge. Several workshops and field the first combined meeting of the Alaska the informal opportunities for collegial trips also coincided with the symposium. Park Science Symposium and the Berin- networking, inter-disciplinary, and cross- Watch for a selection of summary gia Days International Conference. This cultural communication as among the papers from the symposium in the Decem- highly successful bilingual Park Science most important program elements. ber 2009 issue of the Alaska Park Science in the Arctic event was the third in what is The theme of the fall 2008 Internation- journal. Future conferences on the natural planned as a biennial series of National al Polar Year symposium was the Natural and cultural heritage of Alaska and Russia’s Park Service scientific symposia. Each and Cultural Heritage of Greater Beringia, Far East are also intended. Discussions of the symposia in this series has focused a vast geographic area stretching from the are underway for the next Beringia Days on specific geographic areas that encom- Lena River in Siberia to the Mackenzie International Conference to be held in pass national parks and their associated River in Canada, and from the North Pole Anadyr, Chukotka (Russia) in 2009, while programs in Alaska. The Alaska Park to the Aleutian Islands. Some 200 scien- Alaska Park Science Symposium planners Science Symposium series attracts people tists, resource managers, decision makers, are focusing on coastal parks and protected Figure 1. Dance groups from Provideniya, with diverse knowledge and interests in educators, students, and local residents areas in Southwest Alaska in 2010. Russia and Alaska gave performances of traditional Native dances during the scientific and scholarly topics relevant to from both Alaska and Russia participated More information about the 2008 Park October 2008 Park Science in the Arctic these areas. in the event. Their 100 oral and poster Science in the Arctic event can be found at Symposium. While 2008 marked the first time that presentations covered a broad range http://nps.arcus.org.

NPS photograph by Greta Burkhart these two NPS conferences came together of physical, biological, cultural, and 5 66 Alaska Park Science, Volume 8, Issue 1

And The Wildlife Therein

By Sanford P. Rabinowitch and James F. allowing sport hunting in the 19 million hunting in national preserves, leading the Stratton acres of national preserves. state and federal governments to manage Managing for wildlife harvest in this separate hunts for the same wildlife. Thus Over the past several years (2004-2008) country’s national parks is not the norm. the new era of “dual management” began. the National Parks Conservation Associa- One of the key management-related The Federal Subsistence Board consists of tion (NPCA) has funded several student provisions of the NPS Organic Act of six voting members (of which NPS is one) interns working on projects to improve 1916 is to “…conserve the scenery and the who set regulations for subsistence hunting the quality of information available for natural and historic objects and the wild and trapping on federal lands, including managing wildlife in Alaska parks. The life therein…” and that usually means all of Alaska NPS lands. In crafting these National Park Service (NPS) partnered no hunting. But in Alaska, where 96,000 federal subsistence hunting regulations, with NPCA by providing office space, hunting licenses were issued in 2008, the NPS realized it needed better basic computers, and project guidance which managing hunting is an everyday task for information on how many animals, ultimately led to two independently the NPS. Alaska’s physically large and including moose and bear, were annually produced NPCA reports: Who’s Counting ecologically diverse parks, monuments, harvested from each park, and how and Minding the Gap. This is the story of and preserves contain about a dozen recently population counts or productivity that partnership. mammals that are hunted or trapped counts of those moose or bear had been for sport and subsistence throughout accomplished. Wildlife Management in Alaska much of the year. From 1980 to 1990 this Resolving these data gaps is National Parks management responsibility was largely necessary to ensure that, while hunting is When Congress passed the Alaska accomplished through regulations provided for, specific ANILCA direction National Interest Lands Conservation instituted by the State of Alaska under is also followed – wildlife is managed to Act (ANILCA) in 1980, it provided both the auspices of a 1982 Memorandum of sustain “natural and healthy” populations in subsistence and sport hunting oppor- Understanding (MOU) between the NPS national parks and monuments, and to tunities on federal land, including those and the Alaska Department of Fish & sustain “healthy” populations in national managed by the NPS. In large part Game. preserves (ANILCA 815(1)). Balancing use this was done to preserve traditional Although the MOU is still in effect, the and conservation is nothing new to the Figure 1. Moose are an important ways of life that had evolved in Alaska. State fell out of compliance with federal NPS, in fact, it is the defining management subsistence species for Alaska residents. Congress emphasized this point by subsistence law in 1990, causing the fed- challenge1. Harvests on national park and preserve including subsistence hunting in the eral government to reassert jurisdiction In managing both sport and subsistence lands are managed by the NPS and the Alaska Department of Fish and Game. purpose statements that established over subsistence hunting and trapping hunting, park managers look to the health Photograph courtesy of G. Gusse many park and monument units, and by on its lands. The state still manages sport of the hunted populations when review-

7 And The Wildlife Therein NPS photograph by Mason Reid ing any regulation change such as harvest their home communities. The NPS was limits, season length, age and sex keen on the state’s Harvest Reporting restrictions, etc. Sustainably managing Database, so when Moderow learned to the relative health of bear, moose, or cari- navigate the data labyrinth, he produced bou populations is driven by population a user-friendly, searchable database com- science and harvest data that are, in prised of 25 years of harvest records, by turn, dependant on the NPS budget (and species, and by park area. budgets of cooperating agencies) to The Community Harvest Surveys, accomplish the work. As NPCA looked which rely on personal interviews with specifically into the data and science avail- rural residents, are more expensive and able for making determinations about labor-intensive, so they are conducted various species, it learned what some NPS periodically. The State of Alaska pioneered managers had known for years – tight this technique and most, if not all, of these budgets were impacting the amount of surveys have been done by the ADF&G science and retrievable harvest data avail- or in cooperation with that agency. It is able to guide sound wildlife management widely believed that this method is much decisions. As this discussion progressed, more accurate for determining rural Alas- the needs very rapidly came into focus and ka harvests. As of August 2006, 81 rural a four-year partnership between the NPS communities had been identified in or near and NPCA ensued. This partnership seeks parks. Most surveys for these communities to improve the usefulness of and support are quite old. for both harvest data and the opportu- NPCA published this year-long study nity for additional science to assist the and analysis of both Community Harvest NPS in managing wildlife according to its Data and the Harvest Reporting Data- statutory standard, maintaining wildlife base in an August 2006 report titled Who’s populations unimpaired for the enjoyment Counting? How Insufficient Support for of future generations. Science is Hindering National Park Wildlife Management in Alaska. To The NPCA/NPS Partnership for improve the quality of available data, Figure 2. Michelle Kissling, a biologist for U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, radio tracks a Kittlitz’s Better Data murrelet in Icy Bay, Wrangell-St. Elias National Park and Preserve. the report’s conclusions recommended Collecting and analyzing harvest data additional funds and/or other measures to for species targeted for sport hunting and what’s missing, summarizing findings quickly learned that there are two sources support Community Harvest Surveys in all subsistence hunting on Alaska national and making recommendations in written for harvest data: the Alaska Department of villages every seven to ten years, and it parklands had long been a desire of the reports. Fish & Game (ADF&G) annual Harvest recommended a new NPS staff position NPS staff, but staff shortages made it next In summer 2005, NPCA recruited Reporting Database, a voluntary submis- that would be responsible for collecting, to impossible. Non-governmental organi- recent Cornell graduate Andy Moderow sion from successful hunters detailing monitoring, coordinating, and under- zations such as NPCA, however, are able to for a year-long internship. As Moderow what was killed, when, and where, and standing wildlife harvest data from both move quickly and nimbly to address these settled into his NPS cubical, he dove periodic Community Harvest Surveys, the Harvest Reporting Database and the kinds of concerns by adjusting budget headfirst into the voluminous database which gathered similar information from Community Harvest Surveys. priorities, hiring interns to investigate containing 25 years of harvest data. He one-on-one interviews with hunters in Who’s Counting? also recommended

8 Alaska Park Science, Volume 8, Issue 1 USFWS photograph by Tina Moran NPS photograph by Pat Own that the NPS obtain a better understand- surveys, so Mjos’s first task was to ing of how many animals are living in determine what kind of surveys were its parks, preserves, and monuments in being done in Alaska, and reflect that in a the first place. It suggested an analysis to questionnaire which made it easy for busy measure the gap between current wildlife NPS biologists to briefly set aside their population studies and what biologists and existing work and provide the needed managers feel is the minimum necessary to data. make good management decisions. NPS biologists stepped up to the This “gap analysis” emerged from the task, and the data started coming in from continued partnership between NPCA around the state detailing both historical and NPS in the spring of 2007 when efforts and the current status of wildlife another qualified intern was hired. Leif science. Mjos followed up the question- Mjos had just completed his under- naires with a series of one-on-one inter- Figure 3. Kyle Joly, of NPS, and Donald Neal, Figure 4. Paul Frame, a volunteer park graduate work at Prescott College and views asking each park’s wildlife biologists a high school student, collar a caribou in biologist, tests a GPS radio collar on a Kobuk Valley National Park. grizzly bear in Denali National Park and was primed and ready to begin the gap to recommend the minimal amount of Preserve. analysis. research needed for the park to make wild- Just like Moderow, Mjos had work life harvest management decisions. From space, a computer, and a telephone at the the questionnaires and interviews was with “development of more robust wildlife Notes NPS office, an arrangement that allowed born Minding The Gap: Is Wildlife Research data” as one of the plan’s priorities. 1. Sport hunting is permitted by a him to receive guidance as he worked Sufficiently Funded in Alaska’s National Additionally, the hope is that the federal regulation that says “Hunting and with staff from the NPS and U.S Geologi- Parks?, published by NPCA in August NPS will improve upon what NPCA has trapping are allowed in national preserves cal Survey to design a questionnaire about 2008.2 reported by continuing to collect in accordance with applicable Federal or the history of wildlife science in each While Who’s Counting? made information on the current status of non-conflicting state law and regulations.” Alaska park unit where harvest of wildlife specific recommendations for better wildlife research, keeping the harvest (36 CFR 13.40 (d)). is allowed. Kenai Fjords National Park, understanding and interpretation of database updated, and continuing to ask 2. The report recognizes its data limita- Sitka National Historical Park, and available harvest data, Minding The which science initiatives park managers tions and recognizes there are differences Klondike Gold Rush National Histori- Gap revealed the need to improve basic and biologists would like to see included to between what was reported during Mjos’s cal Park were not surveyed because no wildlife research by identifying the gap close the research gap. It is NPCA’s desire internship in 2007 and where things stand hunting occurs there. Aniakchak was not between historical research levels and the to spur informed discussion about what is today, such as the escalating cost of aviation included because of its relatively small size suggested minimal research levels for needed and to make the case for additional fuel to fly wildlife surveys. Because NPCA and remote location. All other Alaska units selected species over time. The second funding. And with the Centennial of the was not able to talk to every biologist or were included. report shied away from suggesting NPS just a few years away in 2016, NPCA chief of natural resources, the report also Due to the large number of species and specific research priorities, which are is hopeful that these discussions will result recognizes the high probability that not all the enormity of the potential material to best left to park managers, as they involve in some creative new funding proposals, data were captured. be researched, the focus was narrowed to resource allocation and triage among all including a targeted Centennial Challenge large hunted mammals: black bear, brown the competing demands for funds. The project to increase wildlife research in bear, caribou, moose, musk ox, sheep, primary recommendation of both reports Alaska. and wolf. Even this was not as easy as it is for additional support and funding, Who’s Counting? and Minding the Gap sounds. Wildlife biologists working for which is included in the latest version of can be found at www.npca.org/alaska/ the government are involved in dozens of the NPS Alaska Regional Strategic Plan wildlife/

9 1010 Alaska Park Science, Volume 8, Issue 1

Tent Ring Archaeology in Gates of the Arctic National Park and Preserve

By Andrew Tremayne the Nunamiut Eskimos, known as the Small Tool tradition, and historic Gwich’in “Inland Eskimo”, give us most of our and Nunamiut peoples (Campbell 1962). A Introduction sources for comparative purposes in Gates critical need for surviving in the arctic is A tent ring is generally described by of the Arctic National Park and Preserve. adequate shelter. Did the previous groups archaeologists as a circular pattern of Ethnographers and historians of the late who inhabited Gates of the Arctic leave tent stones marking the spot where a tent or tipi nineteenth and early twentieth century rings behind and if so, what characteristics once stood (Figure 4). These stones were recorded Eskimo methods for do they have that would distinguish them placed on the edges of the tent wall flaps constructing a domed tent, known as from those of the most recent group? to keep the structure in place, much the an itchalik. These tents were made by same way tent stakes are used with modern draping caribou skins over a frame of Research Methods and Goals tents. At first glance tent rings appear much lashed willow poles (Figure 1-2) (Campbell To attack this problem I created a the same across the landscape. Indeed, I’ve 1998, Lee and Reinhardt 2003). Research- database to systematically record heard comments such as “if you’ve seen ers recorded the locations of the camps, defined attributes of every tent ring one, you’ve seen them all”, and “tent rings and the time of year for tent use. Although referenced in and around Gates of the are boring”. Why then should we study Nunamiut people built sod-walled houses, Arctic. I used the National Park Service such an apparently simple construction? known as ivrulits for more permanent ASMIS archaeological database to locate What can tent rings tell us about the people winter dwellings, they still used the caribou all the known archaeological sites that who left them behind? This project reveals skin tents in winter when camp relocation reported the presence of a tent ring. I the answer is quite a lot. became necessary (Figure 1) (Ingstad 1954). then searched out the original references, Knowing how and why tent rings were field notes, site reports, published and Ethnographic Analogy formed led us to pose this most basic unpublished articles, master’s theses, Archaeologists can not travel through question: are all the tent rings in Gates and dissertations to fill in this tent ring time. A great deal of what we understand of the Arctic attributed to Nunamiut database. From these records I found 284 about the past comes from reasonable com- occupations? We know that people known tent rings referenced, with varying parisons made with historical records and have occupied the Brooks Range for levels of description. Some reports simply Figure 1. A Nunamiut itchalik caribou skin ethnographic accounts. Written records over 12,000 years. Archaeologists have stated there was a tent ring present, while tent winter camp. of cultural practices, food gathering outlined a broad culture history that others were more detailed, documenting U.S. Geological Survey photograph by E.F Leffingwell, Plate 8-B, USGS Professional Paper 109. strategies, clothing production, shelter includes prehistoric groups known as size, shape, and the number of stones used. construction and settlement patterns of Paleoindians, Northern Archaic, Arctic Often cultural affiliation was assigned, and

11 Tent Ring Archaeology in Gates of the Arctic National Park and Preserve U.S. Geological Survey photograph by E.F Leffingwell, Plate 7-C, USGS Professional Paper 109. as charcoal, from which we could obtain a this I needed better chronological control radiocarbon date. over my data; I needed to know the age of the tent rings. From our charcoal and bone Results samples, and from samples previously Of the 334 tent rings in my database, I collected, I was able to acquire 22 absolute personally recorded 101 of them. I found dates associated with tent rings (Figure 8). a great many differences evident in the Along with this information, I used known record. I first used ARCMap Geographical ethnographic accounts of sites occupied Information System to plot the locations by Nunamiut Eskimos, and diagnostic and attributes of the sites with tent rings. artifacts attributed to other well- From this I was able to note that tent rings defined pre-historic groups. A diagnostic are much easier to find above tree line, and artifact is a type of artifact that exhibits that some sites have many more tent rings characteristics only associated with a than other sites. While most sites only have specific group. With better time mark- one tent ring, indicating a small hunting ers now at my disposal, I divided the tent party, some areas such as Agiak Lake have rings into groups based on age and cultural Figure 2. A willow frame of a Nunamiut itchalik caribou skin tent. over 80 tent rings represented (Wilson and identification. Obviously, not all tent rings Slobodina 2007). have diagnostic artifacts or associated I used the database to systematically remains that can be dated, but of the ones not surprisingly, most were attributed to left the tools and charcoal behind. The compare each tent ring. After a series that did, some clear patterns emerged. Nunamiut Eskimos. I compiled a list of predominant interpretations in the litera- of comparative attempts I finally stum- attributes which could be used for ture suggested uncertainty about artifact bled upon the most useful measure of Tent Ring Types Found in Gates of comparison. Though not comprehensive, associations with most of the tent rings. difference. A quick glance at the different the Arctic the table in Figure 3 offers a list of the most With these questions in mind, the Gates shapes, sizes and stone counts clued me The youngest tent rings found in useful attributes for systematically quanti- of the Arctic archaeology crew set out for into the wide variety of styles that exist here Gates of the Arctic can be attributed to fying differences and similarities between two months of field work in the park. We (Figure 5). I compared the basic measure- historic canvas wall tent use (Figure 5a). tent rings. surveyed hundreds of miles by hiking to ments of the structures with the artifacts Gubser (1965) reports that canvas replaced A perusal of the attributes assem- places that looked good to camp or spot and radiocarbon dates. Some immedi- caribou skins for Nunamiut tents in the bled showed that many of the tent rings for game. We surveyed along the Nigu ate patterns emerged. If associated with early 1900s, and by the 1950s commercial varied widely in size, shape, and number River, Killik River and Easter Creek, and artifacts, tent rings were either associ- tents stretched over spruce log frames of stones used, and even with artifacts all around Agiak Lake. This work allowed ated with stone tools or debris from pro- were in common use. These stone features they were found associated. One tent me to revisit 51 of the known tent rings ducing stone tools, or were found with often have dimensions similar in size to wall ring reported from Anuktuvuk Pass was to re-record them for this study. In the historic artifacts. By comparing stone tents, 3 x 4 meters. At least 34 tent rings in associated with charcoal dating to process, our team discovered and system- count, a significant correlation between the dataset can be assigned to this type. nearly 7,000 years old (Campbell 1962). atically recorded another 50 previously increased stone count and the presence of The Nunamiut itchalik left behind Archaeologists, however, have learned undocumented tent rings. The main goal stone tools, and between fewer stones and rather different rings, such as the one that it can be misleading to take evidence of our field work was to accurately record historic artifacts could be seen. presented in Figure 4. They tend on at face value. For example, a recent tent tent ring dimensions, to determine if arti- Although this classified historic tent average to be round or oval in shape, about ring could have been constructed on fact associations were valid, and to collect rings and pre-historic tent rings, I wanted 3.3 meters in diameter, and construct- top of a more ancient occupation that bone or associated organic material, such to take the analysis further. To accomplish ed of 20 stones or less, on average. The

12 Alaska Park Science, Volume 8, Issue 1

Nunamiut itchalik is the most common tent ring found in Gates of the Arctic; at Attributes Variables Potential Problems least 99 have been positively identified. A third type of tent ring can be Shape Round, Oval, Rectangular, Square, U-shaped, Subjective attributed to Gwich’in Athabascan Indistinct construction. According to ethnographic Size Measure North-South axis, East-West axis to outside Do not always know where recorded measurements were accounts, the Gwich’in moved into parts wall of feature, average diameter can be determined taken from of Gates of the Arctic in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries before being Stone Count Count the stones Higher number of stones used the higher the error in count displaced by rival Nunamiut people (Hall Stone Type Cobbles, Boulders, Slabs Don’t know size ranges used by past investigators 1969). Although historically Athabascan territory is east of Gates of the Arctic and Door Yes, No Sometimes subjective south of the Brooks Range, 16 tent rings are Hearth Inside, Outside, Undetermined, No Some tent rings have evidence of fire attributed to Athabascans. These tent rings (i.e. charcoal) but no obvious hearth feature tend to be larger in size than Nunamiut tent Artifacts Lithics, Historic Artifacts, Diagnostic Association is not always clear; rings and made of more stones. They also artifacts multiple occupations tend to have a formal lined hearth present in the interior (Figure 7). Ethnographic Determine if the site is known and recorded ethno- Recent occupations could obscure older tent rings According to Eskimo informants, “the Information graphically Kutchin were called uyagamiut (inhabit- Radiocarbon Dates Determine if dates are associated with Association ants of rocks) by the Eskimos because they the tent ring built stone houses” (Hall 1969). Nothing Figure 3. This is a list of the attributes used in this study including the variables and problems associated with them. resembling this comment has been found NPS photograph by Andrew Tremayne and certainly attributed to Athabascans, but within the park at least one site has the most unusual tent ring of all (Figure 9). This tent ring is likely not of Gwich’in construction but rather is thought to be an example of a Nunamiut karigi. A karigi is a traditional Eskimo men’s house. A fifth type of tent ring was that of the Arctic Small Tool tradition, dating between 2,000-4,000 years ago. At this time only 8 tent rings of this type have been located. They appear quite similar to the Nunamiut itchalik in size, shape and stone count (in Figure 5 compare b and e), but associated diagnostic tools and radiocarbon dates Figure 4. A typical Nunamiut type tent ring, attest to their greater antiquity (Figure 6). the remains of an itchalik caribou skin tent, Another even more ancient type located in the Killik River Valley.

13 Tent Ring Archaeology in Gates of the Arctic National Park and Preserve NPS photograph by Andrew Tremayne

Figure 5. A sample of tent ring types found in the Gates of the Arctic National Park: a. Historic Figure 6. An Arctic Small Tool tradition tent ring found buried near Etivlik Lake. wall tent; b. Nunamiut Itchalik; c. Nunamiut winter tent; d. Northern Archaic; e. Arctic Small tool tradition; f. unknown. NPS photograph A. Wilson can be attributed to people of the occupied this region over the past 12,000 Acknowledgements Northern Archaic tradition (Figure 5d). years. By looking at this seemingly Thanks to the National Park Service, These tent rings, 61 of which are thought to unimportant feature in closer detail I The Geist Fund and the University of be present in the Brooks Range, tend to be have learned that tent rings hold a great Alaska for funding this project. Thanks to round or oval, very large and comprised of deal of information about the people who Jeff Rasic, Dan Odess and the field crew, on average 50 or more stones. constructed them. We can address issues Aaron Wilson, Natalia Slobodina, Jay of group size, sedentism, and also work to Flaming and Cassie Flynn. Conclusion understand differences and changes that This study illustrates an important occurred with the various groups who point about archaeology in Gates of the lived here in the past.

Arctic; mainly that there is much we still Figure 7. A 340-year-old square tent ring do not know about the cultures who with an interior hearth.

14 Alaska Park Science, Volume 8, Issue 1 NPS photograph by Pete Christian

Figure 8. Graph showing the relative ages of ethnographic and radiocarbon dated tent Figure 9. An example of a presumed Nunamiut karigi located in the Itkillik Valley. rings and some possible cultural groupings used in my study. (BP: before present; ASTt: Arctic Small Tool tradition).

REFERENCES

Campbell, John. M. 1962. Hall, Edward S. 1969. Cultural succession at Anaktuvuk Pass, arctic Alaska. In Prehistoric Cultural Relations Speculations on the Late Prehistory of the Kutchin Athabaskans. Ethnohistory Between The Arctic And Temperate Zones Of North America, edited by J.M. Campbell, 16:317-333. pp. 39-44, vol. 11. Arctic Institute of North America. Montreal. Ingstad, Helga. 2006 [1954]. Campbell, John M. 1998. Nunamiut: Among Alaska’s Inland Eskimos. Commemorative edition. The Countryman North Alaska Chronicle: Notes from the End of Time. Museum of New Mexico Press. Press. Woodstock, Vermont. Santa Fe. Lee, Molly, and Gregory A. Reinhardt. 2003. Gubser, Nicholas J. 1965. Eskimo Architecture. University of Alaska Press. Fairbanks, Alaska. The Nunamiut Eskimos: Hunters of Caribou. Yale University Press. New Haven and London. Wilson, Aaron, and Natalia Slobodina. 2007. Two Northern Archaic Tent Ring Settlements at Agiak Lake, Central Brooks Range, Alaska. Alaska Journal of Anthropology 5(1): 43-60.

15 Figure 1. National parks and permafrost monitoring sites. Yellow dots indicate Permafrost/Active Layer Monitoring Program borehole locations. Red lines show snowmobile trip routes for borehole installation and community outreach. NPS units are shown in blue. 16 Alaska Park Science, Volume 8, Issue 1

Permafrost/Active Layer Monitoring Program: Involving Remote Villages in Permafrost Drilling for Operational and Scientific Applications in Alaska

By Kenji Yoshikawa and subsistence activities. Changes in classroom lesson unit, Permafrost/Active permafrost conditions also affect local Layer in Alaska, which will be included in Overview ecosystems and hydrological regimes, a movie series titled “Tunnel Man.” The Permafrost/Active Layer Moni- and can influence the severity of natural toring Program is an ongoing project disasters. In addition to extending our The Science which builds on work begun in 2005 to knowledge of the arctic environment, the Permafrost regions occupy about establish long-term permafrost and active program involves school-age students in one-quarter of Earth’s land surface. layer monitoring sites adjacent to schools hopes of inspiring a new generation of Permafrost is one of the most impor- in Alaska and in the circumpolar perma- scientists to continue this study. tant components of the arctic terrestrial frost region. Monitoring stations in Alaska The data gathered from these stations system, and this physical element of the are located in communities near national are shared with other schools and made landscape is one of the most sensitive to parks and their headquarters, such as available to the public through our web climatic change. Therefore, observing Kotzebue, Nome, Fairbanks, Eagle, Circle, site (http://www.uaf.edu/permafrost). The the interactions between permafrost and Northway, Glennallen, Healy, Cantwell, data contribute to several widely used other components of the arctic system Figure 2. (Left) Traveling by snowmobile to Anvik during Iditarod race, about 900 Anaktuvuk Pass, Noatak, Shishmaref, science databases, including the perma- (climate, hydrology, biogeochemistry, miles in spring 2007, hauling gear and Ambler, Kiana, and Igiugig. Currently, nent archive at the National Snow and vegetation), especially during a period of equipment for the research. there are 120 schools in Alaska involved in Ice Data Center in Boulder, Colorado. In possible climatic warming, is among the Photograph courtesy of K. Yoshikawa the project including also Denali National addition to working with local borehole most important aspects of arctic research. Park and Preserve. The project has both a data, teachers can compare their data The changing properties of permafrost scientific and outreach component. The with that from other participating schools play an important role in driving the Photograph courtesy of K. Yoshikawa monitoring sites collect temperature data at the website. Through this project, ecosystem balance, as well as affecting on permafrost and the length and depth of students in remote communities learn carbon and water cycles (Oechel et al. the active layer (the layer above the perma- more about science in a way that is 2000). Additionally, man-made structures frost that thaws during summer and freezes meaningful to their daily lives. In built on or near ice-rich permafrost can again during winter). addition, they experience research suffer severe damage from thaw-induced Most of the monitoring sites are participation within a larger scientific ground settling, which will accelerate if located in remote communities, where community, expanding their worldview. mean annual temperatures continue to the majority of residents depend on a This project involves more than 10,000 rise (Osterkamp et al. 2000, Romanovsky subsistence lifestyle. Changes in climate, students and 500 teachers across Alaska. and Osterkamp 2001). length of seasons, and permafrost condi- As part of this project, specialists in Within the sensitive permafrost re- Figure 3. Ice exposed at Marshall on the Yukon River, March 2007. tions directly impact natural resources outreach education are developing a gion, the discontinuous permafrost zone 17 Permafrost/Active Layer Monitoring Program

Permafrost education by offering students a chance the average temperature for each depth, temperature to work with and learn from experienced and estimate active layer thickness. Country Region trends Reference permafrost scientists; provides classroom At this point, students focus on the Trans-Alaska pipeline route +0.6 to +1.5°C Romanovsky and Osterkamp lessons on permafrost and the active layer, following questions: “What is going on in (20 m), 1983–2000 2001 an important part of Alaskan geoscience; our village?” and “What is most likely USA and distributes by DVD and Internet an to happen in the future in our village?” Barrow Permafrost Observatory +1°C Our ongoing research (15 m), 1950–2001 entertaining educational movie series (Figures 6-7). called “Tunnel Man.” Educational activi- (4) A model predicting changes in East Siberia (1.6–3.2 m), +0.03°C/year Our ongoing research 1960–1992 ties include the following: local permafrost is developed and used (1) To help students understand by students in the classroom. Students Russia North of West Siberia +0.3 to +0.7°C Pavlov 1994 permafrost and its impact on the share data, comparing their data with (10 m), 1980–1990 environment, permafrost monitoring sites that from different areas all over the European North of Russia, +1.6 to +2.8°C Pavlov 1994 are established and boreholes are drilled. world. Our hope is that by this point continuous permafrost zone Scientists introduce the project and students will understand many of the (6 m), 1973–1992 guide student discussion, focusing on the issues related to permafrost and Northern Mackenzie basin +0.1°C/year GSC data question, “Why do we need to monitor how it affects the world around (28 m), 1990–2000 permafrost?” them. Teachers supplement the Canada Central Mackenzie basin +0.03°C/year GSC data (2) To demonstrate scientific method- curriculum with an entertaining and (15 m), 1985–2000 ology, design, and fieldwork, frost tubes instructional movie, “Tunnel Man.” are installed, data loggers are set up, and (5) For the upper grades and national Alert (15 m), 1995–2000 +0.15°C/year Geological Survey of Canada (GSC) data scientists calibrate temperature sensors park visitors, more advanced classroom with assistance from students. Students lectures and demonstrations are available, Figure 4. Recent trends in permafrost temperatures measured at different locations (Romanovsky et al. 2002). and teachers explore the following ques- which offer opportunities for a more com- tions with scientists’ guidance: “What kind plex understanding of the interactions is the most likely to respond to climatic monitoring sites. of sensors and instruments are we using?” between permafrost and climate change. warming. Most national parks in Alaska For maintenance purposes and and “How do these instruments work for One example of the effects of natural are located in this zone. Throughout the educational outreach, the majority of our us?” We provide teachers with a set of phenomena is the impact of forest (or circumpolar North, the boreal forest monitoring sites are located at or near classroom lessons (Figures 5). tundra) fires on permafrost. Fire has a widely overlaps the area of discontinuous schools or national park headquarters (3) About a year later, during the strong impact on permafrost degradation; permafrost (Péwé 1975). Thermal condi- (Figure 1). This allows easier accessibility to scientists’ return visit, a second set of fires burn away the insulation layer, which tions of discontinuous permafrost are equipment, provides educational oppor- lessons is developed in partnership changes the thermal condition of the quite unstable, as the ground is close to tunities by involving students and teachers with the teachers and is used to explore permafrost. Students measure and thawing, with temperatures often hover- in research, and facilitates data collection. the temperature data. After one year of simulate the impact that wildfires of ing at 30°F (-1°C) or warmer. data collection, students use the data to varying severity can have on permafrost. The table in Figure 4 is an overview Classroom Activities and Lessons investigate permafrost and frozen ground, of the principal permafrost monitor- The classroom activities developed for climate change impact on permafrost Summary ing programs in the circumpolar North, the Permafrost/Active Layer Monitoring stability, and methods of monitoring The intellectual merit of this re- with major findings and results summa- Program are differentiated by age group. changes in permafrost. Teachers down- search is that it will advance knowledge rized. Most notable is the evidence of a The program offers teachers unique load the data and use an Excel spread- of our climatic system and the thermal warming trend, even with few permafrost opportunities to integrate research and sheet to plot monthly profiles, calculate state of permafrost as a complex pro-

18 Permafrost/Active Layer Monitoring Program Alaska Park Science, Volume 8, Issue 1 Photograph courtesy of K. Yoshikawa cess that is spatially and temporally quite variable. The arctic climatic system has an important influence on global climate. Monitoring the thermal state of per- mafrost by measuring borehole temperatures is one of the methods that can be used to understand climatic trends. The degradation of permafrost is triggered by the length of the active layer freezing period; that is, sea- sonal lengths are an important factor. Implicit in many climatic change reports is the desire to develop a Figure 5. Students watch borehole installation (left) and experience sustainable scientific infrastructure to adress needs, communicating with the data logger via laptop computer (right).

among which is the establishment and maintenance of Photograph courtesy of K. Yoshikawa long-term observational networks. The Permafrost/ Active Layer Monitoring Program provides opportuni- ties for field experience and educational participation at levels ranging from elementary school to high school. It will help to provide high-resolution spatial distribution of the thermal state of permafrost, especially in Alaska, and will improve the general knowledge of Earth’s climatic pattern. It also offers an Figure 6. Students measure active layer depth (left) and look at opportunity for students to take part in understanding physical details of frozen soil composition (right). climatic systems. This project highlights the interaction between permafrost, the active layer, Figure 7. Demonstrating for students the seasonal variations of ground temperature using obtained data. hydrology, and the arctic climate system, and provides a strong educational outreach program involving remote communities.

REFERENCES

Oechel, W.C., G.L. Vourlitis, S.J. Hastings, R.C. Zulueta, L.D. Hinzman, and D.L. Kane. Péwé, T.L. 1975. 2000. Quaternary Geology of Alaska. US Geological Survey Professional Paper 835.

Acclimation of ecosystem CO2 exchange in the Alaskan Arctic in response to decadal climate warming. Nature 406: 978-981. Romanovsky, V.E., and T.E. Osterkamp. 2001. Permafrost: Changes and impacts. In: Permafrost Response on Economic Osterkamp, T.E., L. Viereck, Y. Shur, M.T. Jorgenson, C. Racine, A. Doyle, and R.D. Boone. Development, Environmental Security and Natural Resources, edited by R. Paepe and 2000. V. Melnikov. Kluwer Academic Publishers. Pages 297-315. Observations of thermokarst and its impact on boreal forests in Alaska, USA. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research 32: 303-315. Romanovsky, V., M. Burgess, S. Smith, K. Yoshikawa, and J. Brown. 2002. Permafrost temperature records: Indicators of climate change. EOS, AGU Transactions Pavlov, A.V. 1994. 83(50): 589-594. Current changes of climate and permafrost in the Arctic and Sub-Arctic of Russia. Permafrost and Periglacial Processes 5: 101-110.

19 20 Alaska Park Science, Volume 8, Issue 1

The Cooperative Park Studies Unit: Dynamic University-Based Research in the Parks

By Frank Norris and Becky Saleeby greater detail, a major instrument for year later, President Wilson had proclaimed gaining new knowledge about Alaska’s Katmai National Monument in order to On December 18, 1971, President existing and potential parklands was the protect the area surrounding the massive Richard Nixon signed the Alaska Native Cooperative Park Studies Unit (CPSU), volcanic explosion that had wreaked such Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) into law. which was established at the University havoc in June 1912. And in 1925, President This act contained a specific clause, known of Alaska Fairbanks (UAF) in the spring Coolidge had set aside a large area of as “d-2,” that commenced a chaotic, nine- of 1972. This research unit consisted of tidewater glaciers and surrounding coun- year-long “land rush” of unprecedented the Biology and Resource Management tryside, forming Glacier Bay National proportions. What ensued was a frantic Program, headed by Dr. Frederick Dean, Monument. The establishment of each period of study, evaluation, and advocacy and the Anthropology and Historic Preser- of these areas had been sponsored by that would forever transform Alaska land vation Program, headed by longtime NPS influential national organizations, and ownership patterns. The National Park anthropologist Zorro Bradley. in most cases these groups sponsored Service was at the vortex of much of this significant studies. But information about chaos, because a variety of advocacy Research up until 1972 the broad array of natural and cultural groups (plus many in the organization In December 1971, however, all that was resources in the various parks and monu- itself) recognized that millions of acres of in the future. At that time, the NPS had just ments, as originally designated, was federally-owned Alaska land had the four units in Alaska: Sitka National Monu- sorely lacking. And given the fact that the potential to be part of national park ment in southeastern Alaska, Glacier Bay acreage of these units was substantially units – and, indeed, tens of millions of National Monument also in the southeast, expanded over the years (Mt. McKinley had acres would, in December 1980, become Mt. McKinley National Park between expanded twice, and Katmai three times), absorbed into various national parks, Anchorage and Fairbanks, and Katmai the lack of basic knowledge further monuments, and preserves. National Monument at the base of the exacerbated the NPS’s inability to manage Soon after Nixon signed ANCSA, NPS Alaska Peninsula. the agency’s resources. leaders concerned about Alaska drew up Except for Sitka, the reasons for Given its perennial fiscal strait-jacket, a list of potential park areas and began the establishing each of Alaska’s park units the NPS did what it could during these process of gathering resource information had been purely scientific. In 1917, early days to gather information about Figure 1. CPSU anthropologist David Libbey about those areas. At first, they had little Congress had passed the bill establishing natural and cultural resources. Mt. in front of Old John’s cabin at Old John information upon which to draw, and Mt. McKinley National Park in order to McKinley, because it was a national park, Lake, near Arctic Village in 1979. Photograph courtesy of David Libbey more help was needed. As the protect the area’s remarkable sheep, cari- had garnered the lion’s share of attention. accompanying interviews illustrate in bou, and other megafauna populations. A During the 1920s and early 1930s, the park

21 The Cooperative Park Studies Unit: Dynamic University-Based Research in the Parks Photograph courtesy of David Libbey summer. Therefore, no ongoing agency scientists discovered that the site of the research took place. At Katmai, the monu- June 1912 eruption was Novarupta, not ment received an extended 1930 visit from Mount Katmai; another key contribution biologist Robert F. Griggs, who observed was Victor Cahalane’s biological survey. plant succession patterns on the margins Beginning in 1960 and for more than a of the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes and decade thereafter, Katmai was the scene appraised the area’s brown bear habi- of studies for both natural and cultural tat. Griggs recommended that Katmai’s resources. They included seismic and boundaries be expanded, primarily to volcanic investigations by personnel from ensure high quality bear habitat. The the University of Alaska’s Geophysical Interior Department agreed and drew up Institute; bears in the Brooks Camp area by a presidential proclamation that more than Fred Dean of the University of Alaska; and doubled Katmai’s acreage. In April 1931, archeological reports of the Brooks River President Herbert Hoover signed it into and Shelikof Strait areas of the monument law. by Don Dumond (1965, 1971) and his crews At Glacier Bay National Monument, from the University of Oregon. Figure 2. Two women and sod house – CPSU anthropology research near confluence of Itkillik the major scientific presence during this and Colville Rivers. period was William O. Field, a Harvard CPSU and post-1972 research glaciologist. Field first visited the bay in In 1972, NPS administrators stepped 1926 and returned every few years for up research in the parks with a dynamic had attracted well-known government observations of the park’s common and another forty years. In 1932, the agency university-based program, the CPSU. The scientists Joseph Wright and George unusual mammals, birds, and plant life, sent wildlife biologist Joseph Dixon to Biology and Resource Management arm Dixon; in addition, researchers from the and some of these observations formed the the monument, and six years later he of the program was established when University of California, University of basis for ongoing reports to Washington. returned with the NPS’s chief forester, there were few NPS scientists in Alaska. Wyoming, and other venues made Cultural resource investigations were John D. Coffman. Both visits were aimed at It operated out of Fred Dean’s office on summer-long research trips. And almost entirely ignored during the park’s collecting bear habitat data. After the 1938 the UAF campus and was staffed mostly beginning in the late 1930s, the park had early years, but in 1960 a chance discovery trip, a proclamation to expand the monu- by graduate students and other faculty the good fortune to obtain the services by a geological field crew brought forth the ment was forwarded to Interior Secretary members. Although Dean had a wide of biologist Adolph Murie, to work on first archeological work, by University of Harold Ickes, and in April 1939, President interest in plants, insects, fish, and the vexing wolf-sheep controversy. Murie Alaska experts, along the Teklanika River Franklin Roosevelt signed the measure birds, he eventually shifted more toward enjoyed the park and its wildlife so much (Norris 2005). into law. mammals, particularly bears. Dean’s bear that he remained at the park, off and on, Alaska’s two large national monu- During the early 1950s, NPS research began in Denali, when it was until the late 1960s to study bears, birds, ments, by contrast, were subject to far less officials organized the Katmai Project, an still Mt. McKinley National Park, and he small mammals, and vegetation. scientific scrutiny. This was primarily interdisciplinary study effort funded and Adolph Murie clashed over Dean’s The University of Alaska’s Fred Dean, because both Glacier Bay and Katmai, primarily by the Defense Department. suggestion to use transmitters to track working through the Alaska Cooperative being largely inaccessible by most Scientists from universities as well as these animals’ movements. Over the years, Wildlife Research Unit, began studies in common-carrier transportation, were public agencies fanned out across the he co-authored several CPSU publica- the park in 1957. Park rangers and park monuments in name only. Until 1950, they monument and produced a series of tions on a project to compile exhaustive naturalists also played a valuable had no budget, which also meant that papers related to a wide variety of bibliographies of the literature on black research role through their day-to-day they were not staffed, either in winter or scientific fields. Among their findings, and brown bears, in the hope that this data

22 Alaska Park Science, Volume 8, Issue 1

would prove useful for the management of Affairs) and 12 Native regional corpora- Cook praised the CPSU for being “highly bears in the parks. tions (Williss 2005). Bradley cast a wide productive and … turning out quality REFERENCES Most of the CPSU research of net in recruiting staff for the formidable research products.” Bruce Ream, who Dean and his colleagues was tied to amount of work to be accomplished, became project leader for the Anthropol- Cook, John E. 1982. resource concerns of several park units, including field documentation of sites, ogy and Historic Preservation unit after Letter to Dr. John Bligh, Director, including the need to better understand interviews, archival research, and the Zorro Bradley retired in 1981, has said, Division of Life Science, UAF. On file at hunting and harvesting in the Wrangell- preparation of National Register of “CPSU was a wonderful concept because NPS, Alaska Regional Office, Anchorage. St. Elias region. Besides the focus on Historic Places nominations for many of of its flexibility. It was ultimately benefi- Dumond, Don E. 1965. the interactions between humans and the sites. cial for the parks.” The legacy of the CPSU Archaeological Survey in Katmai National individual species, such as wolves, caribou, Bradley was adamant about getting the has been passed to natural and cultural Monument, Alaska. Final Report to the Dall sheep, harbor seals, and humpback results of CPSU fieldwork and research in resources staff now in the Alaska Regional National Park Service (Contract 14-10- whales, there was also a push for broad print. He established a series of Occasional Office and in parks units across the state, 0434-1492). Department of Anthropology, biological surveys of the soils, flora and Papers of the Anthropology and Historic as well as to the Bureau of Indian Affairs University of Oregon, Eugene. vegetation, birds, terrestrial mammals, and Preservation CPSU, published between who continues to administer the ANCSA Dumond, Don E. 1971. aquatic systems in two proposed national 1976 and 1983. Among the 37 publica- section 14(h)(1) program (Pratt 2004). A Summary of Archaeology in the Katmai monuments: Bering Land Bridge and tions on this list are some which pertain During a decade of fieldwork, CPSU Region Southwestern Alaska. University Kobuk Valley. Resulting reports were not to nationally significant cultural resources biologists, anthropologists, archeolo- of Oregon Anthropological Papers No. 2. widely distributed except within the parks (National Historic Landmarks) within gists, and historians covered little-known Department of Anthropology, University and the NPS Alaska Regional Office, but park boundaries, such as Melody Webb territory and investigated a breadth of of Oregon, Eugene. are still available at University of Alaska Grauman’s paper on the Kennecott Mines; topics that still serve as baseline for Libbey, David. 1984. (UAA and UAF) libraries. Robert Spude’s paper on the Chilkoot research and have enduring relevance to CPSU – Its Birth, Death, and Distribu- The Anthropology and Historic Trail; and Alice J. Lynch’s publication Alaskans today. tion. Alaska Anthropological Association Preservation Program arm of the CPSU about Qizhjeh (Kijik), the large Dena’ina Newsletter 9(2): 5-10. operated separately from the natural settlement in Lake Clark National Park Acknowledgements Norris, Frank. 2005. resources program, and had a different and Preserve. Also included are regional Assistance in locating CPSU A History of Science in Alaska’s National scope of duties. As discussed in Zorro overviews, such as an eight-volume set photos was generously provided by Robert Parks. Alaska Park Science 4(2): 6-12. Bradley’s interview, his team was origi- about the early days on Norton Sound Drozda, David Libbey, Karl Gurcke, Pratt, Kenneth L. 2004. nally charged with identifying cultural and Bering Strait by Kathryn Koutsky. Ken Schoenberg, and A.J. Lynch. The Observations on Researching and resources to be included in the new Archeological site reports and subsis- assistance of former CPSU researchers Managing Alaska Native Oral History: park areas. However in 1974, Bradley tence studies are other publications in the Bruce Ream and Ken Pratt is also gratefully A Case Study. Alaska Journal of Anthro- managed to secure funding to help Native Occasional Papers series. Perhaps the most acknowledged. pology 2(1-2): 138-153.

Regional Corporations, established under widely distributed of them was Tracks See complete list of CPSU reports at Ream, Bruce. 2008. ANCSA, to survey and inventory in the Wildland, a detailed portrayal of www.nps.gov/akso/documents/AKcpsubiblio. Notes from interview by NPS staff. abandoned villages and camps, Koyukon and Nunamiut subsistence. pdf Anchorage, Alaska. archeological sites, and cemeteries In 1982, NPS Alaska Regional that they were allowed to claim under Director, John A. Cook, wrote to inform Williss, G. Frank. 2005. Section 14(h)(1) of ANCSA (Libbey 1984). researchers at UAF that due to budget- Do Things Right the First Time: The National Park Service and the Alaska Implementation of these duties involved ary constrictions, there would be no National Interest Lands Conservation Act three federal agencies (NPS, Bureau of more funding for the CPSU in the next of 1980. Second edition. National Park Land Management, and Bureau of Indian fiscal year. In his letter (Cook 1982), Service. Denver, Colorado.

23 Zorro Bradley Interview

Conducted by Frank Norris archeologist in its anthropology Department. Can you Florida State University for underwater archeology. We supply one?” Shortly afterward, I was on my way to also had the Midwest Archeological Center associated with In early 2005, historian Frank Norris asked Mr. Alaska. the University of Nebraska, and the University of Arizona Bradley a series of questions about his career as it related helped operate a Ruins Stabilization Unit and associated to the Anthropology and Historic Preservation (AHP) When did you arrive in Fairbanks, and did you begin archeological activities. Program at the University of Alaska Fairbanks’ Coopera- to organize the CPSU right away? For the life of me, I can’t remember where the name tive Park Studies Unit. The questions and answers below I arrived on campus in the spring on 1972 and “CPSU” came from. Somehow, I think it was Director have been edited for clarity and brevity. immediately got the CPSU Archeological and Historic Hartzog. Preservation (AHP) program going. I brought my family What brought you to Fairbanks and the university up later. Getting the program underway wasn’t much of Was everyone that was funded by a CPSU contract a campus? a chore since I had arranged for the transfer of sufficient University of Alaska student, or were there students I began my NPS career as a seasonal ranger archeolo- funds to ensure some field work and to make sure that the from other schools (or from outside of academe) as gist at Canyon de Chelly in 1948, and in 1953 I accepted other Federal land managing agencies knew there was an well? a permanent position at Tuzigoot [both in Arizona]. office in Alaska to handle their archeological problems. The Department of Anthropology/Archeology at the Beginning in 1963, I worked in Washington, D.C., as the (At this time other agencies did not have their own staff UAF couldn’t supply the necessary personnel to carry agency’s Assistant Chief Archeologist and Chief of Park archeologists and relied on the NPS.) Part of the agreement out the programs so I recruited far and wide. Historians Archeology under John M. Corbett. But as time went on, I worked out with the university, and which was approved Robert Spude and Melody Webb, for example, were NPS I tried to get transferred back to the field, and in 1972, I by the regional office in Seattle, included the arrangement employees; Melody, in fact, was my new hire. was finally transferred to Alaska as head of the Coopera- that I would serve as an adjunct professor and would teach There was no problem recruiting faculty and/or tive Parks Study Unit at the University of Alaska. Several classes on cultural resources management at their request students to work on projects. Word was passed out circumstances came to a head to hasten that transfer. First as payment for office and laboratory space they would to anthro departments all over the country, and I was of all, it was recognized that with the discovery of oil on provide. But before long, my teaching load was limited to inundated with applications. I had grad students and the North Slope that there were going to be lots of changes field techniques for site survey and excavation as we went seniors from Arizona State, Colorado State, Washington, in the state, so in 1970, several teams were sent to Alaska into our summer activities, so 95% of my time was related Oregon, UCLA, New Mexico, North Carolina, Evergreen to check out cultural resources that the service might be to the NPS. College and other institutions, and of course UAF. More interested in. One of those teams consisted of me and two At first, I had to share an office in the Anthropology than 120 people participated in the AHP program over historians, Merrill Mattes and Reed Jarvis. After spending Department until the new Gruening Building was the years, almost all of whom went on to professional most of the summer in Alaska I fell in love with the country completed. I then got not only office space for my crew, positions in either state or federal offices. But not all of my and asked Assistant Director Ted Swem for the chance to but lab space as well. field researchers were out of academia. Bob Uhl, living a return. subsistence lifestyle in the Noatak area with his Eskimo More specifically, I came to Alaska because of the When you arrived at the University of Alaska, were wife Carrie, took on two research projects in the Cape actions of NPS’s director at the time, George Hartzog. there CPSUs at any other schools? Krusenstern/Noatak area. And both Ray Bane, a At some meeting in Washington, Hartzog ran into Vide The CPSU at the UAF was a new creation as far Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) school teacher in the Bartlett, the widow of Alaska Senator “Bob” Bartlett. Vide as the name goes… There were no other CPSUs. village of Hughes, and Nita Sheldon, a Native Alaskan served on the University of Alaska’s Board of Regents However, the NPS Division of Archeology did have several from Shungnak, helped with the Kobuk subsistence study. and she handed him a torn piece of paper on which she associations with various universities such as the had written in pencil, “The University of Alaska needs an Southeast Archeological Center which I had set up at

24 Alaska Park Science, Volume 8, Issue 1 NPS photograph by Becky Saleeby How were the CPSUs funded? Were there line-item NPS budget items that were directed to UAF (and to other universities that had CPSUs)? I don’t know about the other, later CPSUs, but I was recipient of line item funding that I arranged before leaving the Washington office. There was little or no over- view of my function by outsiders; both Washington and the regional office left all arrangements to me.

What were the initial studies undertaken as part of the Anthropology and Historic Program? Some of the first work in the program was part of the team I led, called Team 5, that looked into the cultural resources that could be included in potential new park areas. Our team consisted of a crew of four archeolo- gists (Bob Nichols, Fred Bohannon, Gilbert Wenger, and Charles Voll) and one biologist (Bruce Moorehead); we worked with the other four teams supplying them with Figure 1. Gathering in honor of Zorro Bradley with former CPSU researchers in November 2008. Seated: Zorro Bradley. needed information. I also worked at Cape Krusenstern to Standing from left to right: Richard Caulfield, William Schneider, Richard Nelson, Sverre Pederson, David Libbey, Grant get all the major archeological sites identified so we could Spearman, and David Anderson. get them in the proposed new park. I also had excava- tions going on, through UAF contracts, at Dakah De’nin’s How long did the UAF CPSU last, and when was it most Given the funding levels you received, how were Village on the Copper River, to ascertain its value for active? projects selected? inclusion in Wrangell-St Elias; work also took place at The CPSU lasted from 1972 thru 1983. I retired in 1981, For the most part I selected the projects and secured Point Hope, and with Don Dumond from the University of but the unit was ably run by Bruce Ream for more than a the funding. The only exception was the 14(h) program. Oregon salvaging a site in Katmai. Later we were asked to year after that on monies that had been stockpiled in the For 14(h) there was a line item in the park service budget do a lot of work under the so-called 14(h) program, which UAF bank. I don’t remember the year of greatest funding for, I think, about $800,000, approximately three-quarters identified historic and cemetery sites significant to Alaska but it must have been in the late 1970s, when my budget of which was available for use in the field. Congress had Native peoples. One of the first major contract studies was reached almost $3 million, and I had some twenty-three to originally put 14(h) in the budget of BIA, but when they with Brown University for the subsistence study along the twenty-five individuals in the field. learned that there was no professional anthropological or upper Kobuk River; this study, Kuuvanmiit: Traditional I hasten to add that not all funding of CPSU projects historical staff in BIA, they quickly put the program in our Eskimo Life in the Latter Twentieth Century, was headed by came from federal funds. On one occasion at least I got a laps. Dr. Richard Nelson and was published in 1977. Other his- National Geographic Society grant for early man studies in torical, archeological, and subsistence studies came later. Bering Land Bridge and at the Dry Creek Site beside Denali. Were most of the studies that were funded by the CPSU This work was carried out by Roger Powers from the UAF an important part of a graduate student’s academic Anthropology Department. The fact that Connie Wirth (an program? ex-NPS Director) served on the NGS board didn’t hurt. In a 1980 report I co-authored with Fred Dean for

25 Zorro Bradley Interview Photograph courtesy of David Libbey

Figure 2. CPSU anthropologist Bill Schneider and informants on Meade River 1979.

26 Alaska Park Science, Volume 8, Issue 1 Photograph courtesy of David Libbey the university, we stated that there were 7 master’s degrees that came out of the CPSU program, and 12 other individuals were working toward degrees at that time. I can’t remember how many of these students were in my program or in Fred Dean’s, but my best recollection is that few if any of the AHP students performed their studies as part of higher degree work. However, all archeology students had to have at least one season of field work, under a professional, before they graduated with a BS degree.

It appears that there were some 35 to 40 published studies that were completed by the CPSU’s Anthropology and History Preservation program. Figure 3. Setting up camp on Meade River during field work in the Barrow-Atqasuk Area. Were there any other end products from this program? Yes, there were dozens of other studies that were the inclusion of the areas in the park system. It was more information. One change was a slow down in requests for never published or distributed for one reason or like introducing members of Congress and the Interior help by other federal agencies, because at long last they another. For instance, under 14(h), we produced over Department personnel to what we had in Alaska. They were getting their own professional archeological and 8,000 reports of historic sites and cemeteries that Native were documents primarily of scientific interest. historical staffs. corporations could select as part of their land holdings. Besides written materials there were also dozens of tape Considering all the fieldwork involved, was safety ever Why was the CPSU at UAF terminated? recordings of Native myths, religious stories and other an issue? The end of CPSU was brought about primarily by ethnological materials. I should also mention that we put In eleven years of field work in often rugged conditions, John Cook, the NPS’s Alaska Regional Director. John, as a out a monthly, widely-distributed newsletter called “Z’s the most serious injury we suffered was a badly sprained former assistant director, had close ties to the program. So Briefs” reporting on research activities and results. A cou- ankle and several heavy bruises. This was despite a float it was a big surprise one day when I learned that John had ple of years ago I received a letter from the UAF stating plane that flipped while landing in a lake in the Bering Land rejected receipt of the 14(h) funds and instead directed that they had at long last catalogued all the materials from Bridge area and a chopper that went down in the Seward them back to the BIA, even though the agency didn’t have CPSU and that they took up 28 linear feet of shelf space in Peninsula with several people on board. There were several the professional staff to carry out the program. The loss the Alaska and Polar Regions section of the library. close encounters with bears. But there was only one fact- of this funding was not the end of the UAF CPSU per se, to-face challenge. In Southeast Alaska, one crew member but after this action, I decided to take my retirement after Given the enormous public lands issues going in climbed a tree to get away from a black bear; the bear came some 35 years of federal employment. And after I did so, Alaska during the 1970s, did some of the studies you up behind him, but the worker ran it off by firing a flare in he canceled all funding for the UAF operation and instead produced have a political purpose? Were they read by its face. Some people also got dumped out of a boat, but directed these funds over to the regional office where a Congressional staffers, by NPS leaders in Washington, they only got wet. Division of Cultural Resources was being formed. and others who were fighting for, and trying to justify, the various proposed park boundaries? Or were they Did the direction of the CPSU change after ANILCA was primarily of scientific/academic interest? signed? The NPS used the documents to show the diversity Actually there was very little change in CPSU To see all 38 reports pubished by the Anthropology and Historic Preservation Unit, go to www.nps.gov/akso/docu- of cultural resources in the proposed park areas, but they funding after December 1980, when ANILCA became law. ments/AKcpsubiblio.pdf were not used in the real political sense of pushing for There was still a basic need for archeological and historical

27 Fred Dean Interview

Note: Dr. Frederick Dean was a career wildlife [being] done on them. Ade Murie had done some the nature of the [Cooperative] Park Studies Unit. biologist at the University of Alaska in Fairbanks. really great work as background stuff, but his approach He conducted wildlife research at Mount McKinley was, I think, a very necessary ground work. But it didn’t When you showed up at Mount McKinley for your National Park during the late 1950s and at Katmai go the next step in terms of quantitative data and anal- initial summer of study, was Adolph Murie there? National Monument during the 1960s. He also ysis. So I was hoping that I could build on what he’d No. He came in ’59. And I actually shared a cabin headed the Cooperative Park Studies Unit’s Biology and started. I talked to people at the park at the time [about with him at Igloo for part of [that] summer. He was one Resource Management Program between 1972 and it], and they said, “Fine. Come.” And they made cabin of [my] idols, right from the word go, when I first ran 1983, and in that capacity he spearheaded a variety of space available. I shared a cabin at Igloo with Harry into his work. studies of both existing and proposed national park Merriam, a seasonal ranger. The previous winter, I units. Jane Bryant and Frank Norris interviewed him at had put in a proposal to the Arctic Institute of North Did you two have a fairly collaborative relationship? his Fairbanks home on April 14, 2005. America, and I got probably five or six thousand dollars Yes and no. In ’59, he actually began talking a little from them. That went pretty much into family living bit about maybe [doing] a joint publication and that What brought you to Alaska? and fuel for the car, and the cost of getting the car down sort of thing, on the bears, because by then he was I was born in Boston and spent most of my early there, which [involved] putting it on the train and so focusing pretty much on bears. [But] at some point the life in Connecticut, Vermont and upstate New York, forth. But the fact that the park was willing to have me whole thing kind of cooled off. I had proposed that we in the Adirondacks. I did my Bachelors and Masters do the work and to make the cabin space available was do some tagging of bears in the park [and] use a sub- at the University of Maine in Orono; I finished up the great. I stayed at Igloo for [awhile] and then went over dermal transmitter that wouldn’t show. And [we would masters in ’52 and [then] went over to [the] College of to the ranger cabin at Toklat. And [his wife] Sue was out be able to] get that information without intruding Forestry at Syracuse [for the Ph.D.]. I worked on musk- at Camp Denali that summer with two of the kids. more than necessarily on the whole wilderness notion rats; in the Adirondacks [there were] lots of muskrats. I of things. [Ade, however,] just was absolutely against finished up class work and field work in ’54. Then At this time, you were working with the Alaska it, and wrote some fairly long letters about it. He just along came an opening, and subsequently an offer, Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit. What was this didn’t think that there was a need to do it with respect from the University of Alaska Fairbanks as an assistant unit? to what he saw being lost in terms of the wilderness professor. It was one of a whole series of units that had started character of the area. up in the late ‘30s. [Jay N.] “Ding” Darling [the head What were you teaching at UAF at the time? of the U.S. Biological Survey from 1934 to 1936] got the Let’s talk about CPSUs for a while. How did the CPSU Wildlife. I was the only person teaching under- program up and running. These units are basically as in Alaska get started, and how did you get involved graduate wildlife courses at that point. Back then the a result of a memorandum of understanding between with it? university was on [an] eight month salary, and you were the Fish and Wildlife Service, the University, and I don’t remember exactly, but I think it was on your own in the summer. And the eight months [various] state fish and game departments. And the something that Jim Larson [the NPS’s regional chief salary was not that great. University usually provides some salary. In this case scientist] proposed, or that he and I, in discussing here [in Alaska], it’s been salary for support staff and work I’d been doing at Denali [sic], at some point he In June of 1957, you arrived at the park, and you began [for] space. [The] Fish and Wildlife Service details one mentioned that there was a CPSU program, and that it a long term study of the distribution, abundance, and of their biologists to run the operation. And [at Maine] seemed like a good idea to try and get going up here. habits of the Toklat grizzly. Did you consult with the I had experienced the real benefit of being connected Larson, for a while, was working out of Seattle. But, I NPS on this? [with this] program. Later on, I used a lot of the back- thought that he’d been in Anchorage for a while too. At the time there was very little formal work ground with respect to [the] wildlife unit in developing I think Jim was probably the one that got the thing

28 Alaska Park Science, Volume 8, Issue 1 UAF Archives, Alaska and Polar Regions Collections working up here. I think that … UW [University of had been so successful. I [helped] convince people up Washington, along with] ourselves, and Hawaii were here that it would benefit the parks if they had that among the very first in the country. opportunity to access the unit with requests for work. My experience with the wildlife unit structure, I It was a two way thing; sometimes we had park people think, had a fairly strong influence in the way it was come and say “would you do this?” and other times we set up, with a memorandum of understanding, and would come up with a proposal and sell it. [The CPSU the contribution from the university and from [the] projects were] not related to immediate management Park Service. [The] Park Service paid half of my problems in the park, but certainly related to under- salary on a twelve month basis. The other half of my standing the Park System. But I think we made a pretty time was [spent in] a combination of departmental conscious effort to try to keep almost everything tied to administration and teaching. But the whole situation [NPS] concerns and needs. And when we wanted to get left me with a lot less teaching responsibility than I had the cabin built out at the East Fork [of the Toklat River, had, and in some ways [the arrangement] benefited the park] was very definitely supportive of that. Figure 1. CPSU biology field work both the teaching and the CPSU and research side of things. And that was some of the most productive time Who was your primary NPS contact – was it Jim I ever had, because I not only had that salary, but I had Larson or the Alaska-based biologist John Dennis? on the Chukchi-Imuruk program, and a few others that the administrative help. Given some good assistants, I think of Jim Larson as having a lot more interaction were CPSU employees that were not formally faculty you can get a lot done. And if you get a grad student, administratively than John. But neither one of them was members of the department. for instance, [like] Debbie Heebner [who was] doing in Fairbanks a lot; maybe two or three times a winter. her vegetation work, [then] she and the unit’s adminis- Most of my interaction would have been [with] people When a typical CPSU study was completed, how many trative assistant [were able to] spend two weeks almost at the park level, and most of that was clearly at Denali. copies would be made and [where] would they go? full time doing nothing but proof her data. And I had At Glacier Bay, I got involved a little bit when they were Generally there was not a big stack of publications the administrative assistant generally do most of the doing some science planning for the area, and I went made. [For] most of that stuff, it went to the park areas data entry for things like the big bear bibliographies. down [to Gustavus] to sit in on a couple of meetings. [and] the [NPS] Regional Office. I think [that for] things On the bibliographies, Diane Tracy collected the basic They already had a pretty good science program going like the annual reports, I [probably] sent those to all of information and gave it to the assistant. So it was a before we got involved. I think the other [Glacier Bay] the park areas in the state. But on things like the bear pretty productive time as far as I was concerned. work was either marine or geological. bibliography, we made a lot of copies of that, and [for] that whale report, there were quite a few copies made. So, how did the CPSU work? Did the Park Service Physically, did the CPSU program operate out of the We did try to have a supply for at least limited distribu- approach you about having these various projects done Irving Building [at UAF]? tion after that. because it didn’t have its own people on the ground in Yeah, it was operated out of my office and one room I understand you worked with the Jurasz’s on Alaska? in front of it. [Chuckle] But our gradate students, and a controversial whale study. [Chuck and Virginia That’s a part of it. [The NPS] didn’t have the staff the faculty members that were working with the unit, Jurasz, from Juneau, completed a 1977 CPSU study of scientists that they do now. There was some level of were all either faculty members of the department, or which assessed the impact of cruise ships on whale credibility given to having a third party do some of the associated with it, or in the case of students, they were behavior in Glacier Bay National Monument.] stuff. And there was the [previously-established] model all graduate students within the department. We did The park people had some uneasy feelings about of the fish and wildlife units [at UAF, for example] that hire some people [such as] Herb Melchior, who worked that whale job. And the Jurasz’s admitted that they did

29 Fred Dean Interview UAF Archives, Alaska and Polar Regions Collections Photograph courtesy of A.J. Lynch collected in a systematic, randomized fashion. And those more recent studies haven’t come close to [Tracy’s], I don’t think.

Regarding funding, the Park Service must have liked the work that the CPSU did during the 1970s, because each year your budget went up, from $150,000 at first to, at one point up to $550,000. I know that some of the projects, particularly the Chukchi-Imuruk [now Bering Land Bridge] one, got fairly expensive. Particularly as [we] got involved [in] ANILCA issues, there was quite a lot of work there that Figure 2. CPSU biology field work in northern Alaska Figure 4. Archeologists Wayne Howell and Michael Elder added up. document a site near Arctic Village, 1983. Photograph courtesy of A.J. Lynch not know how to plan their work ahead of time or how Many of the reports that were completed through your to analyze it. [So] I got asked to come in [and] “please Biology and Resource Management Program dealt do what you can to tighten it up.” They did demon- with the existing parks and monuments. But [for] strate some statistically significant differences with and several of them—the Chukchi-Imuruk vegetation without disturbance [to the whales]. But what they study, a sport hunting study out in the Wrangells, [and] had was not a randomized sample. And I think some perhaps two or three others—dealt with areas that people dismissed the whole thing a lot more than it were being proposed for new parks. Were these studies should have been dismissed. There was some real stuff of purely scientific interest? Or do you think they were there, [and] I think [that their findings were] inconve- designed with a political purpose in mind – to help, on a nient for some people. scientific basis, determine where boundaries might be? And that same sort of thing has been a problem, I No, I think that they were requested by the Service think, for some of the Denali stuff. Chief Ranger Gary as good background information for the proposed Brown asked us to do some work when [the park] first areas. And, particularly the work in [the] Wrangells started up the bus system, and Diane Tracy responded. was strictly to do with the hunting in the area and the [This study, completed in 1977, was called “Reactions immediate portions of that area that were being used of Wildlife to Human Activity Along Mount McKinley by sheep and [other megafauna]. National Park Road.”] We had, I think, a good [research] design; it was randomized, riding the bus, making Would this study help to determine which parts of the observations [at] different times of day, different days new proposed park should be open to sport hunting of the week, the whole thing. It would have been nice and which parts shouldn’t? if she’d had much larger samples. But she had enough Yeah, and also where to draw the boundaries in on the caribou to demonstrate statistically significant order to include the land that that population needs on differences in behavior with differences [such as] a year round basis. distance from the road. [But] there have been a couple of studies since then [where there was] basically Were there particular people that went out of their way Figure 3. CPSU archeologist, A.J. Lynch, softening tendon for collecting information from drivers that is not to lobby for greater funds? use in replication of a prehistoric spear. 30 Alaska Park Science, Volume 8, Issue 1 Photograph courtesy of A.J. Lynch Well, I think that the situation went through a change. Dennis and Larson both, I think, really supported the program very strongly. I know Gary Brown really supported the program from Denali. And the superintendents at the parks; for quite a long time, I had a really good relationship with them. [I could] walk in and say hi whenever I came through, and chat about things, and they seemed to really support it. [But] at some point, after a number of changes of park people, the relationship that I had with [the parks] began to sort of dissolve. I think the biggest change came after Al Lovaas got involved. [Al was the first Regional Chief Scientist in the NPS’s Alaska Regional Office, which began in late 1980.] He was supportive up to a point, but he told me fairly early on that he’d had some bad experiences with [the] CPSU in the Midwest; I think he was in [the] Oma- ha [regional office]. It was kind of interesting in a way, and frustrating at times, because I felt that the people at Denali and some of the people at Glacier Bay seemed to really understand what we were trying to do and to appre- ciate what we were doing. But, I often had a feeling, especially in the later years, that the people in Anchorage did not really see much gain from having the unit there. For example, I went on sabbatical and Figure 5. CPSU archeologists document a collapsed cabin near Arctic Village, 1983. set up a program where I was talking with people in Norway, Sweden, and Finland about the way that At the same time, a couple of other factors were of interest in the CPSU was going down. [So] the big they were handling Suomi [Lapp] people inside their involved I believe. One of them, during the [early factors were the Reagan policy and the development of national parks, [establishing] what were the conflicts 1980s], the Interior Department advisors wanted to the science group within the Service in Anchorage. [and] how did they handle them. When I came back, control Alaska from D.C. And this was something I I went down to Anchorage and presented a semi- was told over and over again, that that they were really nar and suggested [that] the main point of it all was trying to keep a tight hand on things. Top-down and To see all reports published by the Biology and Resource Management Program, go to www.nps.gov/akso/docu- that here is the time to start getting people together with control of the information that shows up. Right ments/AKcpsubiblio.pdf and talk[ing] about some of these problems that are about the same time as that, there was apparently an going to come up about the use of legal wilderness areas agency change in philosophy, and they began building with respect to subsistence and changing technology in science programs in the regional offices. It was clear particular. And, you know, people were pretty darned that [Al] was very interested in building up the science unresponsive to this. I think it was not very popular to staff in Anchorage. When that group of people began to suggest any regulation of activity by Alaska Natives. increase and take on more responsibility, the amount

31 A B

32 C D Alaska Park Science, Volume 8, Issue 1

Figure 1 (left). (A) Shishmaref fuel and communication; (B) raw fish oil and Alternative and Sustainable Energy Sources biodiesel oil made from a fish oil feed stock; (C) wind farm near Kotzebue; (D) battery bank for the hybrid power system at for Alaska’s National Parks Eielson Visitor Center. (A) NPS photograph by R. Winfree By Tim Hudson storage, and distribution systems. There 14% is used for transportation and the rest is (B) Alaska Energy Authority photograph (C) NPS photograph by R. Winfree (D) NPS photograph are no electrical connections to grids almost evenly split between heating (45%) Development and infrastructure are outside of Alaska, and the grids that and electrical production (41%) (ISER). spread over a wide variety of landscapes do exist in Alaska are not connected to There is typically some propane use in the in Alaska, often in a very discontinuous each other. There are a series of small villages, but it is usually used for cooking manner, and energy use and transporta- electrical grid systems serving parts of and comes in small tanks rather than in tion are very much in that mode. Under- Southeast Alaska and one larger grid that combined tank systems.

NPS photograph standing the challenges of alternative and follows the road system from Fairbanks The national parks of Alaska are sustainable energy in Alaska’s national to Homer, (www.seconference.org/inter. situated throughout the state, but only B parks requires an understanding of how html). The only natural gas grid of any four connect to one of the grids. Sitka energy is produced, utilized, and trans- significance centers around Anchorage National Historic Park is the only one with ported in Alaska. While we often say that in Southcentral Alaska, and uses mostly “commercial” power available to the “we are different” in Alaska, the energy locally produced gas from wells in Cook entire park, although it is available in most infrastructure is much different than in Inlet and the Kenai Peninsula. The other of Klondike National Historic Park. The states outside of Alaska – a situation that natural gas grid serves only Fairbanks and headquarters at Denali National Park gives us our greatest challenge and our currently uses natural gas that is produced and Preserve and Kenai Fjords National greatest advantages in finding, developing, and trucked from Southcentral Alaska. Park are on the electrical grid, but major Figure 2. Solar and wind system at the and utilizing alternative and sustainable There is no significant natural gas grid infrastructure and uses are off of the Toklat rest area in Denali National Park and energy in our national parks. Alaska’s in Southeast Alaska. The rest of the state grid. Some park areas, including some Preserve. largest energy uses are for electrical depends on local power generation, fuel headquarter areas located outside of

NPS photograph by R. Winfree power generation, heat, and transportation, storage, and distribution. Over 200 villages the park, are connected to the electrical such as on and off-road vehicles, planes, and towns produce their own power and systems of the villages and towns which and snow machines (Szymoniak 2008, heat, mostly from diesel fuel for which a produce their own power. In other areas, USDOT). large infrastructure of storage tanks has however, the National Park Service may been set up in the villages (see Figure 1A) be the sole provider of electricity. The Development, supply and distribu- (Szymoniak 2008). The magnitude of this parks or parts of parks that exist on a grid tion of energy in Alaska is such that the diesel fuel used for the pro- typically have lower costs per unit of The development, supply, and duction of electricity and heat in Alaska at energy (e.g., Kwh, BTU), but the source distribution of energy in Alaska, with the least equals all of the diesel fuel used in all of the power needs to be evaluated as notable exception of facilities along the of the road vehicles in the state (ISER, US- to how sustainable it may be. The park Figure 3. A fuel delivery to the village of limited road system, are almost entirely DOT). In the rural areas of the state, where areas on village electrical systems typi- Anuktuvuk by airplane. a series of independent electricity, fuel most of the national parks are located, only cally have higher unit costs (AEA 2008), 33 D Alternative and Sustainable Energy Sources for Alaska’s National Parks NPS photograph combined with propane generators. This has resulted in reduced generator run times, reduced energy usage, reduced air and noise pollution, and reduced maintenance service intervals (Figure 2). Some areas that ran generators 24 hours a day are down to two to six hours a day by using batteries to store energy (Denali National Park and Preserve Facility Manager, personal communication.), often in conjunction with an alternative energy Figure 3. Eielson Visitor Center solar panels. source. The initial application of this was at the old Eielson Visitor Center in Denali but the source of the power is more easily upon the circumstances of how power, knowledge to take it further. As in all new in the late 1990s, with a hybrid diesel and evaluated. The parks that produce their heat, and fuel storage is accomplished endeavors, there are calculated risks of solar system. Since that time, hybrid own power typically have the highest locally. The solution, then, has to be success and setbacks that must be taken as systems have been installed in Denali at energy costs, but also have the opportunity largely on the local level and can take many a learning experience. We have had both in Wonder Lake (propane and solar) and to change or modify their energy source forms. There is no single solution or “silver recent years in Alaska, but are still planning at the new Eielson Visitor Center, where and usage by themselves. bullet” that is going to solve every for the future. a replacement system generates hydro- The lack of permanent infrastruc- problem. There can be an overall strategy of Increasing use of alternative and electrical power using the same water as ture also manifests itself in the large costs education and demonstration projects, sustainable energy may not end our use the domestic water system, supplemented of energy storage, usually in the form of as well as solutions that make economic of fossil fuels right away, but instead with a propane generator. A battery hy- diesel storage tanks. Most off-road and ecological sense, but they have to be working towards reduction in the short brid system was installed at Exit Glacier communities have to store large amounts tempered with the local facts and reality. term, and elimination in the long run. Many in Kenai Fjords National Park in conjunc- of energy because the transportation of We also know that we have the enviable alternative energy sources do not function tion with a propane generator that has the energy is weather-limited to very short position of being able to work with issues reliably 24 hours a day or in all months reduced the run time by about 70%. times of the year. That is particularly true in different ways and different partners to of the year (e.g., solar and wind) but are Installation of a solar and battery with the villages above 60 degrees north try and come up with these transferable available some of the time (Figure 1D). hybrid system is in progress at Wrangell- latitude where sea ice prevents barges solutions. This is the challenge that we There are also renewable alternatives that St. Elias National Park and Preserve from making deliveries during the winter face. can reduce the amount of energy used in the Kennecott area, which will (Figure 3). Some villages have to fly in all The Alaska Region’s focus on (biodiesel). We have taken on three provide quiet power to that National of their fuel. A few have some access to ice reducing our carbon footprint will be long-term efforts, along with a number Historic Landmark. A similar installation roads for the transportation of fuel, but successful only if we tackle the specific of related projects, to try and reduce and is planned for Brooks Camp at Katmai their need for storage is similar, since they energy issues that affect each park and eliminate use of fossil fuels. National Park and Preserve, which will cannot be resupplied by trucks during the determine where we can make the most also replace much of the diesel heating summer. Again, our parks face these same progress in reducing energy and showing Hybrid Power Systems fuel with propane. There is a solar diesel issues. that these efforts, often in technology, can The Alaska Region replaced many of hybrid system working at the Coal Creek What to do about increasing the be transferable to other parks and commu- our diesel generators with hybrid systems area of Yukon-Charley Rivers National alternative and sustainable energy systems, nities in Alaska. We have started to do this which consist of different combinations Preserve, and plans to replace diesels with as outlined above, is heavily dependent in some areas and are building upon that of solar, hydro, and wind power, often hybrids at Lake Clark and Glacier Bay.

34 Alaska Park Science, Volume 8, Issue 1

A wind turbine is also being installed at for placement in remote areas (Energy near the production of the fish oil. This is the electrical power in Skagway comes Anaktuvuk Pass in Gates of the Arctic Alternatives). a long-term project that is transferable to from a renewable hydro system that has National Park and Preserve that will feed the remote parts of the state as it uses been in place for about 100 years. Other power into the village power grid. Biodiesel local products. Ideally, it could be areas are looking at electric vehicles that The National Park Service has used for all of the energy in a place can be powered up at night or low use Fuel Cell partnered with the Alaska Energy like Brooks Camp, where spill times when power is wasted because the A partnership between the Na- Authority and the Arctic Developmental potential is reduced or where energy is grid cannot go down. This will take some tional Park Service, the Alaska Energy and Testing Laboratory at the University produced in villages adjacent to the park. agreements with the power company to Authority, the Arctic Developmental and of Alaska Fairbanks, to demonstrate the provide interruptible power so that the Testing Laboratory at the University use of biodiesel produced from a local Wind and Hydropower vehicles will only charge when that power of Alaska Fairbanks, and the Denali by-product of a major industry in Alaska, There are considerable wind resources would otherwise be wasted. The region is Commission installed and enabled the fish oil (Figure 1B). The biodiesel was made available in Alaska, and we have begun also looking at run of the river and tidal operations of a 5 Kilowatt Solid Oxide from fish oil from the pollock fishery near to look at using those in an efficient and projects that can be done without affecting Fuel Cell at the Exit Glacier area of the Alaska Peninsula and used in vehicles aesthetic manner, such as with the the environment – either in partnerships Kenai Fjords National Park. This fuel cell and a diesel generator at the Toklat area of village of Anaktuvuk and small tur- with villages or as demonstration projects. is the only one in the country that runs Denali National Park and Preserve in bines in Denali, as well as utilizing village There are many possibilities for without benefit of on-line monitoring and place of diesel fuel. The generator ran power produced by wind turbines in alternative and sustainable energy powers actual electrical loads rather than much of the summer of 2006 on 100% fish Kotzebue (Figure 1C). The small hydro sources in Alaska, but it will continue to just contributing to the electrical oil biodiesel and some vehicles ran on project at the Eielson Visitor Center take a concerted effort on the part of the grid. This is an off-grid installation a 30% blend of fish oil biodiesel and that combines the use of potable water Region and the parks to fit each individual that utilizes hydrogen reformed from diesel fuel. The generator ran success- and energy production without dams situation. As can be seen, we have started propane to operate. The fuel cell is situ- fully on 100% biodiesel fuel at the first or impairing a stream underscores the down that path. We need to continue, ated right in the Nature Center at Exit Gla- part of the summer, but it soon became innovative thinking that must oc- realizing that not everything will work; cier to demonstrate hydrogen technology apparent that the fish oil feed stock was cur to match the area with the need. however, success can only occur by potential to the public in an actual degrading fairly rapidly and was starting Wrangell-St. Elias has been study- trying. operating condition. It has provided to coat some of the parts of the genera- ing a stream at Kennecott so that a electric power to the Exit Glacier area tor with a hard film that caused parts of historic hydro system can be rebuilt that for five summers. The heat from fuel the generator to fail. We have since been will help power the area in conjunction REFERENCES cell operations also heats the Nature working with the other partners to with fire protection. This project also has Alaska Energy Authority (AEA). 2008. Center, demonstrating the co-generation stabilize the fuel, so that we can continue its the potential to produce hydrogen by Alaska Energy Plan. State of Alaska. abilities of this technology. This project has use. There are millions of gallons of fish oil electrolyzing water from the excess Energy Alternatives. been a success in showing people what a potentially available and a biodiesel fuel energy produced by the hydro system. Unpublished data. Palmer, Alaska. fuel cell looks like, and how it can quietly market could reduce the dumping of This could be utilized to run vehicles and produce both electricity and heat. We have fish parts into the oceans, improve the potentially make the Kennecott area free Szymoniak, Nick. 2008. Direct Fuel Use in Rural Alaska. Insti- modified and adjusted the operating economics of producing fish oil and other of hydrocarbon energy for electricity, tute of Social and Economic Research parameters of the fuel cell each year and fisheries byproducts, and reduce the cost heat, and vehicles. Klondike Gold Rush (ISER). University of Alaska, Anchorage. contributed information about a fuel of diesel fuel in the remote parts of Alaska. National Historic Park is utilizing cell operating in actual field conditions. The ultimate use of this fuel would be at a some electric vehicles for their main- U.S. Department of Transportation, However, we do not feel that hydrogen reduced percentage, replacing 5% - 20% tenance needs. This is a particularly Research and Innovative Technology fuel cell technology is yet reliable enough of the diesel fuel in the parks and villages effective use of energy at Klondike since Administration, Federal Highway Administration. 35 36 Alaska Park Science, Volume 8, Issue 1

The Colors of the Aurora

By Dirk Lummerzheim for his duties as a ruler. reflected by ice crystals in the air, the glow The term aurora borealis originated of glacier ice near the pole, or a light Abstract in the 1600s, when Galileo combined the emanating from the edge of Earth. In the The aurora has fascinated observers word “aurora,” the Latin word for “dawn,” eighteenth century, scientists discovered at high latitudes for centuries, but only with the term “boreal,” the Greek word a connection between the aurora and recently have we begun to understand the for “north.” Aurora also appears in the disturbances in Earth’s magnetic field processes that cause it. This article discuss- southern hemisphere, where it is called and associated aurora with sunspots. es the mechanisms that are responsible for the “aurora australis.” Since there is very But it took until the end of the twentieth the colors of the aurora. Observations of little populated landmass at high southern century before a satisfactory explanation of color balance in aurora can provide us with latitudes, there are no known historical and the aurora, its colors, and the mechanisms information about the physical processes mythological references to the southern behind it emerged. in the near Earth space that cause aurora. aurora. Although the native people from High-resolution spectral observations let New Zealand must have seen aurora on The Processes that Cause Aurora us understand how the upper atmosphere occasion, Captain Cook is considered the The light of the aurora is generated by is affected by aurora. discoverer of the aurora australis; he saw it atoms and molecules of the air when they in 1773 on his voyage around the southern are struck with energetic particles from A Brief History of Understanding tip of South America. space. These energetic particles come from the Aurora At mid-latitudes, people rarely see the the volume of space just above the aurora, Descriptions of aurora, or the northern lights. Aurora is visible at mid- and are accelerated by plasma physics northern lights, go as far back as latitudes during the largest magnet- processes that are still under investi- written history. 2,300 years ago, Aristotle ic storms, but it is dominated by red gation. But we do have a fairly good saw curtains of light in the sky and called colors. In ancient times when the understanding of the general processes the phenomena “chasmata” to indicate that aurora appeared overhead, people often and the flow of energy that feeds these the cause was cracks in the sky, allowing associated the aurora with good or bad processes. We can model the aurora and in light from beyond the heavenly sphere. omens and sometimes considered it a are now gaining the understanding to In his book Majestic Lights, Eather (1980) manifestation of activities of heavenly forecast its appearance (Lummerzheim presents several quotes from the Bible that spirits or gods. The peoples who lived at 2007). most likely refer to aurora. high latitude and who had a regular display Charged particles, like those that cause The first recorded use of the words of the aurora held similar beliefs. the aurora, can generally only travel along “northern lights” to describe the aurora In the Middle Ages, scientists came the direction of the magnetic field. This Figure 1. Multi-colored aurora over Klondike Gold Rush National Historical Park near was in 1230, in a book titled The King’s up with other guesses as to what was shapes the aurora into curtain and ray- White Pass in Southeast Alaska. Mirror. The author wrote the book to pre- behind the northern lights: they suggested like structures (Figure 2). Following the Photograph courtesy of Michael Klensch pare Norwegian King Magnus Lagabøte that the light of the aurora was sunlight magnetic field up from the aurora, we

37 The Colors of the Aurora Photograph courtesy of D. Lummerzheim Photograph courtesy of Michael Klensch get to the auroral acceleration region, about 620-6,200 miles (1,000-10,000 km) above the earth. The smaller scale structures like rays, small curls, and thin curtains shown in Figure 3 represent structures in the acceleration processes. This region is connected to the outer magnetosphere by electric currents. Large- scale structures, like multiple parallel arcs Figure 2. Green curtains and rays above (Figures 4-5) and spirals that fill almost the Brooks Range and Gates of the Arctic National Park. the entire sky (Figure 6) show the spatial pattern of these currents. The magneto-

Photograph courtesy of Poul Jensen sphere is the region of space around Earth that is controlled by Earth’s magnetic field. Its diameter is about 30 Earth radii, and out- side of the magnetosphere is the solar wind. The magnetosphere forms an obstacle for the solar wind, which has to flow around it. This interaction of the solar wind with the magnetosphere provides the energy that eventually accelerates the auroral electrons Figure 3. Small-scale structure in aurora in the inner magnetosphere. Strong solar shows as thin curtains and small rays and activity causes strong variations in the solar curls over Fairbanks, Alaska. This structure wind; byproducts of this space weather are is related to the auroral acceleration process directly above the atmosphere. therefore geomagnetic storms and aurora.

Photograph courtesy of Carl Johnson Light Emission in Aurora When energetic electrons strike an atom or molecule, they slow down and transfer some of their energy to that atom or molecule. The molecules can store this energy only for a very short time, and then radiate the energy away as light. Some molecules get dissociated into atoms in this process, and some molecules and Figure 4. Large-scale structure in aurora atoms get ionized. At the altitude where shows as large folds and parallel curtains aurora occurs, above about 62 miles (100 over Gates of the Arctic National Park and Preserve. This structure reflects the pro- km), the air is thin enough that oxygen can cesses in the magnetosphere where large exist in atomic form, while the air that we currents transport energy into the auroral Figure 5. Several parallel curtains above Rock Creek in Denali National Park and Preserve. breathe contains only molecular oxygen. region. Note comet Hale-Bopp in the lower right hand corner. 38 Alaska Park Science, Volume 8, Issue 1 Photograph courtesy of Poul Jensen During the day, the ultraviolet sunlight 0.7-second lifetime allows radiation. This auroral brightness depends on the rate of splits the molecular oxygen into atoms, determines the bottom edge of the green incoming auroral electrons. In analogy to while at night the aurora continues this emission in aurora. electric currents we can say that the color process. However, the auroral electrons some- tells us the voltage, the brightness tells us When an atom or molecule emits times have enough energy to give them the the current. light as a photon, to rid itself of its excess punch to penetrate deeper than that into During very large magnetic storms energy, that photon has a wavelength the atmosphere. When that happens, only the aurora is visible from mid and low that is characteristic for that atom. We emissions with a much shorter lifetime latitudes. It is common to have very bright perceive wavelength as color. Laboratory are possible. The most abundant gas is red auroral displays during such large experiments can reproduce these light- molecular nitrogen, and it radiates storms. Notable were the magnetic storms Figure 6. A large spiral that fills a large por- tion of the sky in this extreme wide-angle emitting processes by forcing a current promptly in deep blue and red colors. on Halloween and late November in 2003, photo from Ester Dome near Fairbanks, through an evacuated glass tube that Mixing these together gives purple. The when red aurora was seen above the Medi- Alaska.

contains a small amount of a selected gas. bottom edge of a green auroral curtain terranean, Florida, and the entire U.S. The Photograph courtesy of Poul Jensen The study of these light-emitting processes gets this purple color when auroral elec- outstanding brightness and dominance of led to the understanding of atoms early in trons are accelerated to very high energy high altitude red oxygen emissions indi- the twentieth century, and to the discovery (Figures 7-8). cate that during such storms the magne- of quantum mechanics. Because each type On occasion the aurora gets a deep red tosphere has very large currents flowing, of atom or molecule emits colors unique color. This comes from higher altitudes, while the auroral acceleration only pro- to it, we can use the colors of the aurora to around 120-180 miles (200-300 km). It is duces low energy electrons. determine the atmospheric composition at again the oxygen atom that is responsible In addition to looking at the color the auroral altitude. for this color. The oxygen atom has an balance and brightness, we can measure The time that a molecule or atom can excited state for this red line emission the wavelength of individual emission lines Figure 7. Intense aurora develops a purple store the energy that it gained in a colli- with a mean lifetime of 100 seconds, and in the aurora with very high accuracy. This border below the green curtains in this fish sion is very short, typically between 1/1000 only at very high altitudes are collisions allows us to determine the Doppler shift eye view of almost the entire sky above and less than 1/1,000,000 of a second. infrequent enough to allow this radiation of emission lines. The Doppler effect for Fairbanks, Alaska. Note the Big Dipper near the zenith. Atomic oxygen is one notable exception, to be emitted (Figure 9). Since the long life- light emission causes a shortening of the and the excited state that causes the most time of the oxygen red line also allows the wavelength of the emission if the emitting Photograph courtesy of Poul Jensen common auroral emission, the green line, aurora to move before it radiates, the de- atom or molecule is moving toward the has a lifetime of 0.7 seconds. When an tailed structure in auroral curtains is also observer, and a lengthening of the wave- excited atom takes that long to radiate washed out in these emissions (Figure 10). length if it is moving away. A shorter wave- away the internally stored energy, other length means a color closer to the blue processes, chemical reactions or collisions, Relating the Color to Physical end of the spectrum; longer wavelength compete with the radiation process for Processes means a shift to red. In aurora, these shifts that energy. The denser the air is, the more The energy of auroral electrons are miniscule, but can be observed with frequent are the collisions between the determines how deep into the atmosphere high spectral resolution instruments, in atoms and molecules. Below the altitude these particles penetrate. Since auroral particular Fabry-Perot interferometers Figure 8. High-energy auroral electrons of about 59 miles (95 km), collisions are so emissions are characteristic of the altitude (FPI). Because the red and green line above Fairbanks, Alaska penetrate deep enough to cause the purple lower border of frequent that the green oxygen line has no where they originate, we can use the color emissions from atomic oxygen are so long the green curtains. High-energy aurora also chance to be emitted. All the energy that is balance of the aurora to determine the lived, they are good candidates for FPI produces highly structured and very thin put into the oxygen atom is lost before the energy of the auroral electrons. The observations. The long lifetime ensures curtains that move fast. Short exposure times are necessary to resolve these structures. 39 The Colors of the Aurora Photograph courtesy of Michael Klensch Photograph courtesy of Michael Klensch

Figure 10. The diffuse looking red aurora above Klondike Gold Rush National Historical Park near White Pass comes from long-lived oxygen atoms at high altitudes. The structure of the curtain below is lost in the red aurora because the excited atoms can move with the wind before emitting light. Image from Conde et al. 2008

Figure 9. Red aurora above the Sawtooth Mountains near Klondike Gold Rush National Historical Park and Skagway, Alaska Figure 11. The wind vectors at 150 miles (240 km) altitude drawn over a composite all-sky image of the green and red oxygen emission. Through its interaction with the atmosphere, the aurora modifies the wind direction and speed in the upper atmosphere. 40 Alaska Park Science, Volume 8, Issue 1 Photograph courtesy of Michael Klensch Photograph courtesy of Jan Curtis us much about the physical processes that cause aurora and the effects that aurora has on the upper atmosphere. The color balance tells us the altitude of aurora. We can relate that to the processes that accelerate auroral electrons in the near earth space, and we can see the evolution of electric currents that flow in the magnetosphere. High-resolution spectroscopy lets us see the wind in the upper atmosphere and how it is changed by the aurora. High altitude blue aurora tells us that ions that are generated in the aurora are pulled out of the atmosphere into space. And the colors themselves tell us the composition of the atmospheric gas at the altitude of the aurora. Figure 12. Aurora over Klondike Gold Rush National Historical Park as seen from Yukon, Canada. Acknowledgements that the atoms are drifting with the wind, The top end of the auroral curtains Figure 13. This photo is taken shortly after I would like to thank Mark Conde sunset, when the sun illuminates the upper and their velocity is not affected by the and rays sometimes show a deep blue for suggestions and comments, and the part of the aurora. Ions that are produced collision with the auroral electron that color. This is indicative of still another light people who have provided the photo- by the aurora at these altitudes scatter the caused the excitation in the first place. The emission process. The auroral electrons blue part of the sunlight, causing the upper graphs of the aurora for this article: Poul edge of the aurora to look blue. small shift in wavelength can thus be used not only produce light emitting excited Jensen at the Geophysical Institute at to measure the ambient wind at the alti- atoms and molecules, they also ionize the University of Alaska Fairbanks; Mi- tude of the aurora. some molecules. These ions can then be chael Klensch from Skagway, Alaska; Carl These FPI wind observations only give pulled upward by electric fields in the REFERENCES Johnson from Anchorage, Alaska; and the component of the wind velocity along aurora and reach altitudes high enough that Jan Curtis from Oregon. More aurora Conde, M.G., C. Anderson, and C. Ander- the line of sight, the component toward under some conditions they will be photos by these photographers can be son. 2008. or away from the observing station. By exposed to sunlight. This sunlight then found at their websites: New results from the Poker Flat all-sky using model constraints or by placing scatters off these ions. There exists a blue imaging Fabry-Perot spectrometer. three such instruments in separate loca- emission of the molecular nitrogen ion that www.gfy.ku.dk/~flyvholm (P. Jensen) CEDAR workshop, Zermatt, UT. tions we can reconstruct the actual wind is particularly strong in scattering sunlight, www.muk.uni-hannover.de/~theusner/ Eather, R.H. 1980. vector by measuring three components of it. which is why we see a blue upper end of polarlicht/ (M. Theusner) Majestic Lights: The Aurora in Science, Figure 11 shows a composite of the auroral the auroral curtains (Figure 13). www.alpenglowphoto.net (M. Klensch) History, and the Arts. American Geo- brightness with the deduced wind climate.gi.alaska.edu/Curtis/aurora/ physical Union. Washington DC. vectors at 150 miles (240 km) altitude Putting it all Together aurora.html (J. Curtis) Lummerzheim, D. 2007. superimposed. This example (Conde et al. The observations of the colors of Modeling and forecasting aurora. 2008) shows that the wind is affected by the the aurora, either in a broader sense by www.carljohnsonphoto.com (C. Johnson) Computing in Science and Engineering aurora as the direction and speed changes looking at the overall color balance, or by 9(5):53-61. right at the position of the auroral curtain. detailed spectroscopic methods, can teach 41 Science News

Cape Krusenstern we are gathering new paleoenvironmen- was introduced to the region from North- to share best practices and enhance the Human-Environmental tal data and archeological information east Asia. Blue glass trade beads found opportunities for collaboration between on human settlement and subsistence during site testing are evidence of parks. During the workshop, three criti- Dynamics Project patterns. Our focus is on potentially more recent cultural interaction. These cal issues were targeted that comprise An interdisciplinary crew of scien- significant periods of environmental beads likely traveled to the region with many serious challenges facing these two tists and students will be returning to change, such as the Little Ice Age. Key Russian explorers or traders, or through the regions. The three themes are 1) Taking Cape Krusenstern National Monument to this research is the use of high resolu- extensive native trade networks that actions that address mitigation and in June 2009 to continue archeological tion Global Positioning Systems units to crossed the Bering Strait and beyond. adaptation to the many impacts and and paleoenvironmental research at the precisely and quickly record spatial data Results of radiocarbon dating and ar- implications of changing climate, 2) Cape Krusenstern beach ridge complex. and to integrate paleoenvironmental and tifact analysis from 2008 are forthcom- taking actions that increase and enhance This project was initiated by the NPS in archeological data collected as part of this ing and fieldwork will continue through stewardship of the oceans and the 2006 and continued by the University of first systematic survey of the beach ridge 2010. More information can be found at: diverse marine resources that depend on Washington and Antioch University of complex. http://students.washington.edu/shelbya/ healthy seas, and 3) forming actions that New England in 2008. In order to gain a In 2008 a crew of six archeologists CAKR_Project.shtml strengthen and encourage an endur- better understanding of how the dynam- mapped and tested hundreds of both ing connection between our youth and By Shelby Anderson ic interactions between humans and the previously known and new archeological the parks, their resources, and their environment has shaped 4,000 plus years features, including some sites that date to significance to our combined heritage. 180 of human occupation at Krusenstern, less well understood periods of human Alaska and the participants, including 20 students from Photograph courtesy of Shleby Anderson settlement at Krusenstern. Highlights Pacific West Regions the California State University at Chico, include the discovery of an intact hearth Collaborate on spent three days developing collaborative likely dating to the earliest occupation of approaches for projects currently under- the beach ridges and linear-marked pot- Three Themes way or being planned in the two regions. tery from several sites across the complex. Interpretive professionals and partners Best practices and examples resulting This pottery is probably between 3,600 from the Alaska and Pacific West Regions from their work include the design and and 2,500 years old and dates to a period of are forging strong alliances to meet the development of a web-based portal for change in Northwest Alaska, when people vision of the NPS Centennial. As a means climate change research, the development increasingly focused on marine resources, to focus their combined efforts, a joint of a basic training film dealing with climate and new technology, including pottery, workshop was held in Vancouver, WA, change in parks, and adopting the “Class 42 Alaska Park Science, Volume 8, Issue 1

of 2016” at multiple parks where students short tour activity in Denali. as $10,000 for teacher scholarships and National Forests. More information about will have grade-specific curriculum-based All revenue from Experience De- $40,000 for youth education programs in the MSLC and its programs can be found activities provided each year from now nali supports the MSLC facility and its Denali. on their website (www.murieslc.org). until they graduate in 2016. Completion of mission. Not only contributing to general In 2009, Alaska Geographic will By David Tomeo these and similar projects will advance the overhead, the program annually funds offer 30 multi-day seminars and teacher NPS Centennial and lay a foundation for approximately $20,000 in research fellow- trainings in Denali, Kenai Fjords, and sustainable and successful operations at ships, $10,000 in science education grants Yukon-Charley Rivers national park Podcasts in Denali in the eight partner park units, as well units, and in Chugach and Tongass parks in Alaska and the Pacific West. National Park and Murie Science and Preserve Alaska Geographic photograph The Murie Science and Learning Center Science features prominently in three Learning Center of the first video offerings posted to the is part of a nationwide effort to en- The Murie Science and Learning Cen- Denali National Park and Preserve website hance science in national parks and to ter’s (MSLC) mission of supporting ( www.nps.gov/dena): research and education efforts continues share research more effectively with “Discovery” allows Anthony R. to improve and expand with the help the public. Ultimately, it is hoped that Fiorillo, a paleontologist and curator of of partner organizations. In 2006, with this effort supports science-informed Earth Sciences at the Museum of Nature Alaska Geographic and Princess Tours, decision making and most importantly, and Science in Dallas, Texas, to answer the MSLC developed the Experience preservation of areas set aside for their some of the most common questions Denali educational program as an alterna- significance to the Nation. The Murie about the presence of dinosaurs in the tive to the current park tours and to help region more than 65 million years ago. Science and Learning Center consists of alleviate pressure on the park road. This “Access” describes how park officials employees and partners from several four-hour hands-on program introduces are relying upon science to help develop a organizations, with the National Park visitors to the Denali region and highlights new management strategy for transporting current research in the park. In 2008, Service and Alaska Geographic serving people in the park. Experience Denali received an 88% as core partners, that extend across “Stewardship” chronicles efforts by approval rating from Princess Tours a total of eight national park service scientists to monitor the effects of climate guests, one of the highest ratings for a sites. change and determine how park manage- 43 Science News

ment may need to change in the future of Nature (IUCN), and is listed by the worms. No ice worms were found, but that years, as a consequence of global climate based on current trends. Canadian government as Endangered in itself is valuable information. change. Any ice worms that once occu- To date, the park has used online for coastal populations or as a species of Says Dr. Daniel Shain of the Biology pied these glaciers have experienced local videos to reach viewers before, after, Special Concern for boreal populations. Department at Rutgers University, “We extinctions, and probably ice worms are or instead of an on-site visit. In the fu- During fieldwork for a nonvascular made a strong effort to collect reliable no longer present in Denali. ture, front-country visitors may be plant inventory project in August 2007, a information [about where ice worms “We have nonetheless tried to able to access offerings through their few populations of E. pedicellatum were were likely to be found] before we communicate our interest in ice worms cell phones or at wireless download observed in Denali National Park and departed. Our best sources were Roger to the outdoor/climbing community,” and kiosks located at visitor contact stations. Preserve on the south side of the Alaska Robinson from the NPS, and a few of his Shain hopes, “perhaps someone will stum- Range. Subsequently, several additional climbing friends. All independently ble across a surviving population at some By Jay Elhard individuals were also observed in nearby reported observing ice worms in regions future date and inform us of their discov- Denali State Park. This represents an im- proximal to `Little Switzerland`, and thus ery”. Photograph courtesy of Peter Nelson portant and intriguing discovery because our expedition was deployed to that More information about Dr. Shain’s these populations represent the first region.” iceworm research is available in Volume detections of E. pedicellatum within the The expedition, which included 3, Issue 1 of Alaska Park Science at: http:// United States and western North America Roman Dial of Alaska Pacific University, www.nps.gov/akso/AKParkScience/Ke- and mark a major range extension for one collectively climbed and descended about naiFjordsIssue/ICE%20WORMS.pdf

of the most rare and endangered lichens 15,000 ft (5,000 m) without observing any Photograph courtesy of Brad Perry in the world. In addition to this extremely ice worms. They focused their efforts on rare arboreal lichen, we have discovered specific glaciers mentioned by Robinson scores of species new to the park as well and others, but these glaciers had retreat- as several likely new to Alaska during the ed dramatically since the time when the course of this project – stay tuned for more ice worms had been previously observed exciting news as the large numbers of there (about 20 years ago). specimens are identified and cataloged. From his experience monitoring ice Globally endangered More detailed information on this worms in relation to other retreating important and exciting find can be found glaciers in Alaska, Shain postulates that rare lichen discovered in in the journal Evansia (Volume 26, No. 1). the ice worms are unable to sustain Denali National Park and viable populations with rapid melting. By James Walton, Peter Nelson, and If they are not washed out during the Preserve Carl Roland melting, they likely freeze during the Erioderma pedicellatum (Hue) P.M. winter because they are forced to higher Jørg is a globally rare, foliose cyanolichen Ice Worms Possibly ground. He explains, “Ice worms are para- that grows on the trunks and limbs of Locally Extinct as doxically very sensitive to cold climate Research in Northern boreal trees. This species was previously regimes, requiring the thermal stabil- known only from very limited areas in Glaciers Melt in Alaska Parks ity of relatively low elevation, temperate What does an archeological survey in Scandinavia and southeastern Canada. Range glaciers.” the Brooks Range (Gates of the Arctic), a Due to rapid population declines across In the late spring of 2008, a party of It seems that the few glaciers in the study of Dall Sheep genetics and parasites its range, E. pedicellatum is currently researcher-adventurers trekked more Alaska Range capable of supporting (Wrangell-St. Elias), a reconstruction of classified as Critically Endangered by the than 120 miles across 15 glaciers in Denali glacier ice worms have melted in recent the paleoenvironments near Sable Moun- International Union for Conservation National Park and Preserve in search of ice 44 Alaska Park Science, Volume 8, Issue 1

tain at the time of dinosaurs (Denali), and ed. However, it is anticipated that these investigations of the changes in vegeta- fellowship programs will continue. tion at tree line (Noatak, Denali) have in Information about the funding opportuni- common? These scientific investigations ties can be found at: http://www.nps.gov/ and more (a total of 11 projects) were all dena/naturescience/discodena.htm. partly funded in 2008 via research fellow- By Lucy Tyrrell ships awarded through the Murie Science and Learning Center (MSLC). In 2008, five Discover Denali Research Fellow- Drillsite Reconnaissance ships were made possible by the Denali and Snow Chemistry Education Center, for research in or near Survey in Denali Denali National Park and Preserve. And six Murie Science and Learning Research National Park and Center Fellowships were made possible by Preserve Alaska Geographic, and provided to scien- During May 2008, a collaborative team tists working in Denali or any of the other of seven scientists (two from the Uni- seven northern Alaskan parks. versity of New Hampshire, three from The MSLC has facilitated funding the University of Maine, one from Dart- Figure 1. Study site at 9,500’ south of Kahiltna Pass with location of GPR survey lines and snowpit core. for 21 projects since the inception of its mouth College, and one from Data North research fellowships in 2006. The Discov- Consulting) conducted a field pro- er Denali Research Fellowship Program is gram in Denali consisting of reconnais- in its fourth year, and the Murie Science sance flights over most of the Alaska and Learning Center Fellowship Program Range and the northern reaches of the is in its second year of offering awards to Talkeetna Range, installation of an scientists working in any of the eight automatic weather station at Kahiltna northern parks. Base Camp (7,800 ft), the collection Fellowship awards are typically $3,000 of snowpit samples and firn cores for to $5,000. Research fellows provide to the glaciochemical analysis, and ground MSLC and the respective parks photos of profiling radar surveys at two sites: the project in progress and a final report, Kahiltna Pass (9,500 ft) (Figure 1) and including a brief synopsis. An important Mount Russell Plateau/Upper Yenta component of the research fellowship is Glacier (8,400 ft). the requirement for the scientist to deliver Annual layers in the snowpack at both an educational outreach product (e.g., a sites have been identified based on the presentation, poster, fact sheet, or article location of ice layers and seasonal for Alaska Park Science) that helps share fluctuations in stable isotope ratios. Our the research process and research findings analysis indicates that the 23.12 m long with others. record from Kahiltna Pass extends back By the time this is printed, the research to the summer of 2003, while the Mount Figure 2. Three-dimensional GPR profile from Kahiltna Pass showing complex flow to the SE, but horizontal layering near the Line 3/8 intersection where a drill site is preliminarily fellows for 2009 will have been select- Russell Plateau 18.33 m record extends back proposed.

45 Science News

to the summer of 2006. From this prelimi- Plateau reveal elevated concentrations tant geographic addition to multiproxy No artifacts were found associated with nary analysis, we have identified annual of Cd, Pb, Bi, As, Cu and Zn relative to reconstructions of climate, and place the the hearth, which sits on old beach depos- snow accumulation and annual percent crustal reference element concentrations recent warming in the region in a broader its, but plentiful wood charcoal provided a melt for both records. The Kahiltna Pass (e.g. Al, Fe). These toxic metal(oid)s have context of climate variability and change radiocarbon date. Another prehistoric melt percent record is strongly correlated crustal enrichment factors ranging from over the past 500 years. camp is located in the sediments above (r >0.9) with the number of warm summer 30-612, indicating that greater than 90% the hearth and is marked by a small flake By Cameron Wake, Karl Kreutz, and days at Talkeetna, Cantwell, and Fairbanks. of each represents anthropogenic pollu- scatter and associated wood charcoal Erich Osterberg This suggests that we will be able to de- tion. We do not see any evidence for local that has been radiocarbon dated to 2,600

velop a robust record of summer warmth contamination of the Kahiltna Pass site by NPS photograph years ago. Archeologists plan to continue back in time from stratigraphic analysis of mountaineers, as trace metal concentra- investigations here to better under- a series of cores from this site. tions and enrichment factors from the two stand the cultural and natural history of Ground penetrating radar (GPR) pro- sites are nearly identical over the last year the area. Note the prominent white te- files were collected at Kahiltna Pass and (snowpit data). This is significant because phra (volcanic ash) below the buried Russell Plateau to assess the subsurface Kahiltna Pass is close to the main route for vegetation mat in the stratigraphic profile, flow regime and determine glacier thick- climbers on Denali, whereas Russell Plateau upper right corner of photograph. ness for optimal drill site selection. These is rarely visited. Thus, we are confident that By Jeanne Schaaf high-resolution profiles reveal conver- trace metal records from Kahiltna Pass will gent ice flow in the south-east region of represent regional atmospheric concentra- Sue Masica is the New Kahiltna Pass, but conformable horizontal tions rather than local contamination. 4,000 year-old Hearth layering suitable for ice core drilling in the Our eventual goal is to develop a high Regional Director for near Historic Cabin north-west region near the intersection of resolution, multi-parameter record of National Park Service in lines 3 and 8 (Figure 2). Dipping bedrock climatic and environmental change for Archeologists from Lake Clark Nation- was observed at a depth of 250 m on the central Alaska via the recovery and detailed al Park and Preserve were surprised to find Alaska. edge of one GPR profile #4 (not shown). analysis of two parallel ice cores recov- a small 4,000 year-old hearth adjacent to “My loss is Alaska’s gain,” said Extrapolating the bedrock slope beneath ered from the central region of the Alaska the historic Woodward cabin in Harden- Director Mary Bomar. “In addition to the suitable drill site indicates that ~350 m Range. This new record would enhance our burg Bay. The cabin is slated for restoration being passionate about national parks, of ice is present. understanding of climate variability and including foundation replacement, and Sue is a rare individual who can handle Trace element analyses of snow pit environmental change in central Alaska the archeological investigations occurred numerous issues at once, advocate for samples from Kahiltna Pass and Russell and the North Pacific, provide an impor- prior to allowing any ground disturbance. visitors, work with partners, and find 46 Alaska Park Science, Volume 8, Issue 1

solutions because she truly understands infrastructure programs for construc- million. Masica replaces Marcia Blaszak, recently completed an Intergovernmental how the federal government works.” As tion, deferred maintenance, asset man- Alaska Regional Director since 2003, who Personnel Act assignment between the the NPS chief of staff since 2006, Masi- agement, land acquisition, roadways, and recently retired. State of Alaska Division of Forestry, the ca served as senior advisor to Director planning. In recognition of her leader- U.S. Forest Service and the Department Bomar and other park service execu- ship in these areas, Masica received the of the Interior. She has served as the tives. She coordinated key strategic and Presidential Rank of Meritorious Ex- Forest Service’s director for state and operational issues, participated in all ecutive in 2004. Masica also served as the private programs in Alaska. She served as significant policy, budget, and personnel Associate Director for Administration, the district ranger on the Kenai Peninsula decisions, and oversaw the day-to-day in charge of the NPS budget, training, portion of the Chugach National Forest operations of the Director’s office. personnel, contracting, and other support for 2 1/2 years, the area superintendent for Previously, Masica served as the NPS functions. the Sawtooth National Recreation Area in Associate Director for Park Planning, Prior to joining the NPS, Masica Idaho for 4 1/2 years, and as the ecologist Facilities, and Lands. In this capacity, worked 10 years on the staff of the U.S. for the Bridger-Teton National Forest in she was responsible for the formulation, Senate Committee on Appropriations, as Wyoming for 5 years. justification, and execution of NPS staff director of the Subcommittee on the “Deb brings very strong management Department of the Interior and Related skills, a passion for resource protection, Agencies. Masica began her federal career and Alaska experience to our team,” said as a Presidential Management Intern with deputy regional director Vic Knox. She the Department of the Interior. Debora Cooper is the began her NPS work in late October 2008. Masica earned a master of public NPS-Alaska Regional She began her career after completing affairs degree from the University of Tex- Office’s new Associate an M.S. from the University of Idaho in as (Lyndon B. Johnson School of Public Regional Director for wildlife and range management and a B.S. Affairs) and a bachelor of arts in political Resources and from the University of California at Davis science from Austin College. in wildland science. One of seven regions in the Subsistence national park system, the Alaska Region Cooper comes to the NPS from encompasses 16 park units, 54.7 million a 21-year career with the U.S. Forest acres, 1,000 employees during the sum- Service, most recently as the USFS Alaska mer, and an annual budget of nearly $100 Region group leader for fire and fuels. She 47 Alaska Park Science

National Park Service Alaska Regional Office 240 West 5th Avenue Anchorage, Alaska 99501 http://www.nps.gov/akso/AKParkScience/index.htm NPS photograph