Taxon Plan for Eastern brown kiwi (Apteryx australis mantelli, Eastern)
Strategic plan for the recovery of Eastern brown kiwi for the period 2014 – 2019 and beyond, including key actions required for their recovery.
Lead author: Rhys Burns
East Coast Bay of Plenty Conservancy Rotorua
Version Date: April 2014
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Preface
The 2008-2018 Kiwi Recovery Plan (Holzapfel et al. 2008) provides strategic direction, at a national level, to ensure the long term viability of all kiwi taxa1. The Kiwi Recovery Group is responsible for the implementation and review of this national plan.
Because the Kiwi Recovery Plan provides general national strategic level advice for many taxa over many regions, it can not practicably spell out management for each individual taxon to the level of detail required to guide work-plans and thus implement successful recovery. This is the role of taxon plans.
Taxon plans translate the relevant goals, objectives and actions of the Kiwi Recovery Plan into a local context for individual taxa at a level of detail sufficient to guide operational plans. They are ‘best advice’ for all stakeholders regarding goals, objectives and actions, priorities and opportunities, for the management of individual taxa. As such, taxon plans are key documents for the implementation of the Kiwi Recovery Plan.
Although taxon plans are more operationally-focused than the Kiwi Recovery Plan, they do not provide the level of detail of a workplan. Nor do taxon plans provide details of best practice information which is instead provided at a national level by the Kiwi Best Practice Manual (Robertson, et al. 2003).
The accountability for each taxon plan rests with a lead Region, in consultation and guidance with the Kiwi Recovery Group. In some cases the implementation and review of taxon plans will be supported by a ‘taxon group’, including, key stakeholders and participants in the recovery of that taxon.
Taxon plans have been developed in collaboration with key stakeholders for the taxon, including iwi, landowners, community-led kiwi projects and other conservancies involved in its recovery. Individual taxon plans have been peer- reviewed by the Kiwi Recovery Group to ensure that they fulfil their role as integral parts of the Kiwi Recovery Plan.
Taxon plans have a 10 year term (staggered by 1 year from the recovery plan). They receive a progress review annually.
1 Species – a formally described (i.e. published in the scientific literature), base unit of taxonomic rank usually applied to groups of organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile off spring. Five species of kiwi are described; North Island brown kiwi, rowi, tokoeka, great spotted and little spotted kiwi. Taxa – Inclusive of any level of taxonomic rank. In this context it includes the five described species and four genetically distinct provenances of kiwi currently recognised but not formally described, within each of the species NI brown (Northland, Coromandel, Eastern and Western) and tokoeka (Haast, Northern and Southern Fiordland and Stewart Island). Taxon – Singular, referring to single taxa.
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Table of Contents
Preface 2
1. Introduction 7
2. Plan term and review date 10
3. Context 10
3.1 TAXONOMY...... 10 3.2 BIOLOGY AND ECOLOGY ...... 12 3.3 PAST AND PRESENT DISTRIBUTION AND POPULATION TRENDS...... 15 3.4 THREAT STATUS ...... 22 3.5 AGENTS OF DECLINE AND CURRENT THREATS ...... 22 3.6 PAST AND CURRENT MANAGEMENT ...... 22 3.7 CULTURAL IMPORTANCE ...... 24 3.8 PUBLIC AWARENESS, KEY STAKEHOLDERS AND ASSOCIATES ...... 25 3.9 RECOVERY PRINCIPALS AND PREFERRED OPTION FOR RECOVERY ...... 25
4. Goals 27
4.1 LONG TERM RECOVERY GOAL ...... 27 4.2 GOALS FOR THE TERM OF THIS TAXON PLAN ...... 27
5. Implementation 28
5.1 MANAGEMENT ...... 28 5.1.1 TOPIC 1: TAXON PLANNING ...... 29 5.1.2 TOPIC 2: KIWI SANCTUARY ...... 31 5.1.3 TOPIC 3: ISLAND STRATEGY ...... 32 5.1.4 TOPIC 4: BEST PRACTICE ...... 35 5.1.5 TOPIC 5: TAXON PLAN REVIEW SCHEDULE ...... 37 5.1.6 TOPIC 6: ISLAND BIOSECURITY ...... 37 5.1.7 TOPIC 7: SMALL MANAGED POPULATIONS ...... 39 5.1.8 TOPIC 8: LARGE SECURE POPULATIONS ...... 40 5.1.9 TOPIC 9: DECLINING POPULATIONS ...... 42 5.1.10 TOPIC 10: CARRYING CAPACITY WITH LITTLE SPOTTED KIWI ...... 44 5.1.11 TOPIC 11: INBREEDING DEPRESSION ...... 45 5.1.12 TOPIC 12: DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE ...... 47 5.1.13 TOPIC 13: GENETIC DIVERSITY ...... 49 5.1.14 TOPIC 14: DATA MANAGEMENT ...... 51 5.1.15 TOPIC 15: CAPTIVE COORDINATION ...... 53 5.1.16 TOPIC 16: CAPTIVE HUSBANDRY ...... 55 TM 5.1.17 TOPIC 17: BNZ OPERATION NEST EGG ...... 56 5.1.18 TOPIC 18: GENETICS AND META-POPULATION MANAGEMENT ...... 58 5.1.19 TOPIC 19: PRIORITY KIWI MANAGEMENT SITES ...... 60 5.1.20 TOPIC 20: FENCED SITES ...... 61 5.1.21 TOPIC 21: KIWI CRÈCHES ...... 63 5.1.22 TOPIC 22: KOHANGA KIWI SITES ...... 63 5.1.23 TOPIC 23: SMALL UNMANAGED KIWI POPULATIONS ...... 64 5.1.24 TOPIC 24: RE-ESTABLISHMENT OF LOCALLY EXTINCT KIWI POPULATIONS ...... 66 5.1.25 TOPIC 25: DOG MANAGEMENT ...... 67 5.1.26 TOPIC 26: FUNDING KIWI CONSERVATION...... 68
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5.1.27 TOPIC 27: KIWI AS CONSERVATION FLAGSHIPS ...... 70 5.1.28 TOPIC 28: SYNERGIES WITH OTHER CONSERVATION PROJECTS ...... 71 5.1.29 TOPIC 29: INTER-AGENCY CO-ORDINATION ...... 72 5.2.1 TOPIC 33 : ADVOCACY ...... 78 5.2.2 TOPIC 34: TANGATA WHENUA ...... 80 5.2.3 TOPIC 35: COMMUNITY-LED INITIATIVES ...... 83 5.2.4 TOPIC 36: SPONSORSHIP ...... 86 5.2.5 TOPIC 37: STATUTORY PLANNING ...... 87 5.2.6 TOPIC 38: DEVELOPMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL STANDARDS ...... 91 5.2.7 TOPIC 39: TOURISM ...... 92 5.2.8 TOPIC 40: VOLUNTEERS ...... 93 5.3 RESEARCH, MONITORING AND INNOVATION ...... 95 5.3.1 TOPIC 41: RESEARCH PLANNING ...... 95 5.3.2 TOPIC 42: GENETICS AND TAXONOMY ...... 96 5.3.3 TOPIC 43: KIWI ECOLOGY AND POPULATION MODELLING ...... 98 5.3.4 TOPIC 44: PEST RESEARCH ...... 100 5.3.5 TOPIC 45: MONITORING ...... 102 5.3.6 TOPIC 46: BNZ ONE AND CAPTIVE-RAISED KIWI ...... 104 5.3.7 TOPIC 47: MODELLING PEST DISTRIBUTIONS AND IMPACTS ...... 105 5.3.8 TOPIC 48: VULNERABILITY OF KIWI POPULATIONS TO DOGS ...... 106 5.3.9 TOPIC 49: TECHNOLOGY ...... 108 5.3.10 TOPIC 50: SITE SUITABILITY FOR KIWI ...... 109 5.3.11 TOPIC 51: CARRYING CAPACITY ...... 110 5.3.12 TOPIC 52: EMERGING THREAT RESEARCH ...... 111 5.3.13 TOPIC 53: RISK ASSESSMENT OF LOCAL EXTINCTION EVENTS ...... 112 5.3.14 TOPIC 54: LIVING WITH KIWI – RURAL AND URBAN ISSUES ...... 112 5.3.15 TOPIC 55: SYNERGIES WITH OTHER FLIGHTLESS AND GROUND NESTING BIRDS ...... 113
6. References 116
7. Personal Communications 121
8. Appendices 122
APPENDIX 1 ...... 123 TIMELINE AND PRIORITIES FOR RECOVERY ACTIONS FOR EASTERN BROWN KIWI (APTERYX MANTELLI)...... 123 APPENDIX 2 ...... 139 DETAILS OF CURRENT EASTERN BROWN KIWI MANAGEMENT SITES (AS AT JUNE 2013) ...... 139 APPENDIX 3 ...... 140 MAJOR VOLCANIC EVENTS IN TAUPO VOLCANIC ZONE ...... 140 APPENDIX 4...... 142 CURRENT CONTACTS (2013) FOR EASTERN BROWN KIWI TAXON PROJECTS ...... 142
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Summary
This plan refers to the management of Eastern brown kiwi, one of four recognised North Island brown kiwi taxa. This is the first plan to guide the conservation of this taxon in its entirety, and aims to outline and broadly prioritise the actions required for the recovery of this taxon. While primarily providing a framework and context for recovery planning, this plan also examines the current conservation status of Eastern brown kiwi, the management and monitoring techniques currently undertaken, possibilities for both minimising total population decline and increasing population densities at managed sites, as well as for restoring the taxon over its known historical range. This taxon plan also aims to be consistent and supportive of both the Kiwi Recovery Plan and the newly developed Kiwi Captive Management Plan, as Eastern brown kiwi are now the only taxon selected for ongoing captive management.
With approximately 6,000 individuals remaining, the Eastern brown kiwi taxon accounts for approximately one quarter of the estimated 25,000 North Island brown kiwi. These 6,000 Eastern brown kiwi now appear to be largely distributed within three discrete populations on the mainland: Western Bay of Plenty; Eastern Bay of Plenty/Te Urewera/northern Hawke’s Bay; and central Hawke’s Bay. In addition, there are small scattered populations in small remnant forests, particularly in the Wairoa District, and additional small populations now reside on three islands (Tuhua, Moutohora and Mokoia). Eastern brown kiwi conservation management currently occurs on both public and private land, with an increasing role and responsibility for kiwi protection being undertaken by community and iwi groups. A large proportion of the distribution and population of Eastern brown kiwi are found on remote areas of Public Conservation Land (PCL). This widespread distribution presents challenges for both DOC and the community in order to maintain and enhance the total population and current distribution of Eastern brown kiwi in the long-term.
The aim of this taxon plan is ‘To restore, and wherever possible, enhance the abundance, distribution and genetic diversity’ of the taxon, which is consistent with the long-term goal of the current Kiwi Recovery Plan (2008-2018). The nationally focussed Kiwi Recovery Plan contains 41 objectives with 92 action points that are considered necessary to achieve this aim. By comparison, this Eastern Brown Kiwi Taxon Plan contains 79 objectives and 202 action points. However, as is to be expected, many of the objectives and actions for this taxon are at a much reduced scale compared to those in the national plan. The goals for both plans are under three major themes: Management; Community Relations and Engagement; and Research, Monitoring and Innovation. Each action point is prioritised, contained within a timeline and delivery responsibilities are allocated.
Kiwi recovery over the range of Eastern brown kiwi is largely driven by both community and DOC projects. The location of each project is usually a result of historic decisions or the desire of individuals to protect kiwi in areas of local interest. As such, the overall approach to Eastern brown kiwi management could be regarded as largely piecemeal, with limited co-ordination or prioritisation between projects - though there are exceptions to this, particularly in the Hawke’s Bay with the ‘Save our Kiwi Hawke’s Bay’ concept (Ward-Smith, 2005).
Kiwi management projects can vary markedly in a variety of natural or management characteristics that can then influence the nature of the management that can be
DOCDM-1256468 - Eastern NIBK Taxon Plan DRAFT 1 Low res figures 5 Last printed 27/11/2014 4:49:00 p.m. undertaken. Some parameters have a limited number of distinct options available; others have management options available along a continuum of choices, while other characteristics reflect the inherent nature of the site itself. Some of these parameters are outlined in Table 1, and are indicative of the complexity of managing the entire Eastern brown kiwi taxon.
Kiwi Management Project Parameters Options From To Area of suitable kiwi habitat Small Very large Kiwi density Low High Trapping for introduced predators No trapping Only trapping Poisoning introduced animals None Only control method BNZONETM None All Land tenure Not protected Fully protected and permitted entry only Islands available for the population None Entire population ‘Kohanga kiwi’ sites Small Large Creches (Predator-proof fenced sites for kiwi Small Large juveniles) Predator densities No predators present Very high predator densities Habitat surrounding managed area Unsuitable kiwi habitat Highly suitable kiwi habitat Pest control regime E.g. continuously, seasonally, or intermittently Pest diversity None Many Suitable kiwi habitat Islands/Coastal Mountain forest/grassland beech/tussock Natural competitors/predators None Few (e.g. weka) Table 1. The variability of some of the various parameters that can be attributed to current Eastern brown kiwi projects, hinting at the complexity of management of this taxon.
Therefore there are often a range of management issues between sites, and consequently a range of management options that may be optimal for different sites.
There are currently approximately 44,000 ha of Eastern brown kiwi habitat under active management at 19 sites, supporting more than 300 breeding pairs of kiwi. By 2018 it is intended that a minimum of 500 breeding pairs across 11 different management sites will have comprehensive threat management in place, a further 10 sites will be under active management, and there will be some broad-scale co- ordination between most projects. In addition, there will be an assessment of both currently managed and unmanaged sites to determine long-term management priorities, and co-ordination with the captive management industry of Eastern brown kiwi will also result in additional value to some projects.
The recovery and protection of Eastern brown kiwi relies on the interest, understanding, engagement and collaboration of many sectors of the community. Numerous tangata whenua, community and landowner-led kiwi conservation projects
DOCDM-1256468 - Eastern NIBK Taxon Plan DRAFT 1 Low res figures 6 Last printed 27/11/2014 4:49:00 p.m. have been successfully established, and these need to be nurtured to help realise their full potential. The long-term sustainability of these projects requires the ongoing energy and enthusiasm of the groups and individuals involved, and ongoing resourcing to sustain management efforts.
The recovery of kiwi has greatly benefited from long-term research and technological developments, and will continue to be dependent on increased understanding of kiwi biology and ecology, and the development of increasingly cost-effective management tools. It is essential that the management of Eastern brown kiwi projects maintain a keen awareness of these developments in the future.
Stoat predation on young kiwi and dog predation on adults (often in isolated locations) are now the largest issues for Eastern brown kiwi. However, ferret predation, ongoing habitat clearance and genetic isolation by habitat fragmentation may also be significant issues at some sites. Developing strategies to cope with each of these scenarios as they may apply at each different location is an important focus of this taxon plan.
A key feature of this taxon plan is the proposed establishment of the Eastern Brown Kiwi Group. The role of the Group will be to facilitate the co-ordination and implementation of the actions of this taxon plan and provide information and support to community kiwi projects and practitioners. This will ensure that all agencies, groups and individuals involved in Eastern brown kiwi recovery have access and support to technical and best practice information, and have an avenue for networking. The group will also act as a catch-all for those actions that cannot be ascribed to any particular group. However, the establishment of this group is dependent upon agreement by the stakeholders of this taxon.
The term of this plan ranges from 2014 to 2019 and it will be subject to an annual progress review.
1. Introduction
Kiwi are among the most distinctive, recognised and cherished animals in New Zealand, despite the fact that few New Zealanders have seen or even heard a kiwi in their natural habitat. Their unique characteristics have made kiwi a taonga (treasure) of high significance for tangata whenua. Once numbering in their millions and spread throughout Aotearoa New Zealand, the abundance and distribution of kiwi has been dramatically reduced (Butler & McLennan, 1991; Holzapfel et al., 2008) as a result of human-induced habitat loss and the introduction of mammalian predators (McLennan et al., 1996).
Kiwi are the only members of the Family Apterygidae, which is endemic to New Zealand. More generally, kiwi are most closely related to other ratite birds. Kiwi have been isolated from other ratites for many millions of years, but perhaps surprisingly appear to be more closely related to the Australian cassowary and emu rather than the other endemic ratites to New Zealand, the extinct moa (Goldberg et al., 2008; Worthy & Scofield, 2012).
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Kiwi are a unique species with some extraordinary features for avian fauna. These include nostrils at the end of a long slender bill, tiny wings with no practical function and no external tail. The kiwi egg is one of the largest known (in relation to body size) of any birds, with the yolk nearly two-thirds of the volume. With their typically non-avian physiological features, including a relatively low body temperature, the presence of marrow in leg bones, coarse hair-like feathers, facial bristles and their strong reliance on smell and hearing, kiwi have been likened to be more mammalian than avian, and have even been described as an ‘honorary mammal’ (Calder, 1978).
There are currently five recognized species of kiwi (Burbidge et al., 2003; Tennyson et al., 2003), with the North Island brown kiwi comprised of four genetically and geographically distinct taxa – Northland, Coromandel, Eastern and Western (Shepherd and Lambert, 2008; Holzapfel et al., 2008). This document focuses entirely on the protection and recovery of Eastern brown kiwi.
The initiation of large-scale in situ conservation of Eastern brown kiwi can be traced to 1992 when a Landcare Research/Manaaki Whenua study commenced at Lake Waikaremoana, Te Urewera National Park, to study the underlying reasons for the decline of kiwi populations. The most dramatic and largest impact of this study was the realisation that only 5% of kiwi chicks survive to adulthood, and the primary reason for this is predation of approximately 50% of all chicks and juveniles by stoats (McLennan et al., 1996; McLennan et al., 2004). As a result, due to a severe lack of recruitment of young kiwi into the adult breeding population, mainland kiwi populations may be declining by 5.8% per year (McLennan et al., 1996) – which is the equivalent of halving every decade – as older birds die and are not replaced.
This work led to a surge in kiwi-focussed projects throughout the country, buoyed by the information that management could be targeted to reduce stoat densities to low levels that would then allow kiwi chicks to survive to adulthood. Parallel development of Bank of New Zealand Operation Nest Egg (BNZ ONETM) in association with captive facilities was aimed at producing kiwi chicks without the need for extensive predator control. Rainbow Springs in Rotorua was prominent in dramatically increasing the success rate of this method from low initial hatching rates to current rates of over 95% in some captive institutes.
‘Mainland Island’ projects, particularly those in northern Te Urewera and Boundary Stream were prominent in further developing and testing kiwi management tools for Eastern brown kiwi from the mid-1990’s, before the development of ‘Kiwi Sanctuaries’ in 2001. Five kiwi sanctuaries were initiated for as many different taxa, but of the four North Island brown kiwi taxa, Eastern brown kiwi was the only one not to have a kiwi sanctuary initiated.
There are now 19 Eastern brown kiwi projects covering approximately 44,000 ha, containing approximately 300 kiwi pairs. With a total population of about 3000 pairs over approximately 1,000,000 ha, this management represents approximately 10% of the Eastern brown kiwi population and 4.4% of the area occupied by this taxon. Despite these efforts, both the total Eastern brown kiwi population and geographic range is continuing to decline.
In addition, the fragmented nature of the Eastern brown kiwi population means there is some way to go before this taxon can be considered secure. A collaborative
DOCDM-1256468 - Eastern NIBK Taxon Plan DRAFT 1 Low res figures 8 Last printed 27/11/2014 4:49:00 p.m. approach allowing iwi, community and Departmental-funded projects may be a key factor needed to maximise the gains they have individually made so far.
This is the first plan dedicated to the entire Eastern brown kiwi taxon. It supercedes other plans written for a more local context such as Hawke’s Bay (Ward-Smith et al., 2005), Bay of Plenty (Owen, 2006) and Whakatane (Llewellyn, 2005). It outlines goals for the next six years until 2019 and the actions required to reach these goals. While all actions listed are considered necessary for the long-term security of Eastern brown kiwi, it is unlikely all will be achieved n the timeframe of this plan. However, any actions not achieved can be re-considered when this plan expires, and may help form the basis for the next Eastern brown kiwi taxon plan. This plan has been developed in consultation with iwi, key stakeholders and the general public, mainly by a series of meetings held by the author (Appendix 5).
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2. Plan term and review date
This plan is for the period of six years, to be re-written fully in 2019, but with provision to be reviewed annually if deemed necessary.
3. Context
This is the first taxon plan for Eastern brown kiwi, so this section will be reviewed and updated in future Taxon Plans as the understanding of Eastern brown kiwi recovery improves.
This section gives a general background of the Eastern brown kiwi taxon.
3.1 Taxonomy
The Eastern Brown Kiwi taxon is currently recognised as one of four sub-species of the North Island Brown Kiwi Apteryx mantelli (Shepherd & Lambert, 2008; Holzapfel et al., 2008). North Island brown kiwi diverged from Okarito rowi (Apteryx australis) approximately 6.2 million years ago (Burbidge et al., 2003). This species eventually invaded the North Island during episodic glacial events that caused the sea level to lower substantially, forming a land bridge between the two islands, and may have began to diverge approximately 200,000 years ago (Baker et al., 1995). Caution should be taken with over-interpreting this data however, as this field of research is rapidly changing with better technology. Baker et al. (1995) used different techniques to Burbidge, and best estimates for divergence of rowi and North Island brown kiwi have now changed from Baker’s initial estimate of 500,000 years ago, to a current estimate of 6.2 million years ago. Future investigation into North Island brown kiwi speciation may yet refine these results further. These speciation events are most likely to have been stimulated by kiwi populations being isolated in genetic refugia by orogenesis (mountain building) coupled with volcanism, and climate change – including multiple glaciation events and sea level fluctuations (Wallis & Trewick, 2009).
Currently it is estimated that the divergence of Eastern and Western brown kiwi occurred approximately 300,000 years ago, and approximately 100,000 years ago with Northland and Coromandel taxa (Hugh Robertson, pers. comm., data from unpublished report by Maryann Burbidge and Allan Baker, University of Toronto, Canada). One of the main drivers for the genetic isolation of Eastern brown kiwi has been postulated to be volcanism (Shepherd et al., 2007). The Eastern brown kiwi taxon encompasses significant parts of the Taupo Volcanic Zone (TVZ), which appears to separate both the Eastern from Western brown kiwi (Fig. 1). The TVZ has produced the largest volume of rhyolitic magmatism globally over the past 1.6 million years (Wilson et al., 1995), releasing 14,000km3 of material (Houghton et al., 1995) producing tephra layers hundreds of metres thick. Periodic very large eruptions (e.g. 35 000, 26 000 and 2 000 years ago) at multiple caldera, would have resulted in large areas of the Eastern brown kiwi population and habitat being totally destroyed, buried in many metres of mud, ash and pumice. This periodic devastation would have
DOCDM-1256468 - Eastern NIBK Taxon Plan DRAFT 1 Low res figures 10 Last printed 27/11/2014 4:49:00 p.m. resulted in vast expanses periodically devoid of kiwi, isolating previously connected kiwi populations, potentially providing a strong speciation mechanism. A brief history of recent volcanic eruptions in the Taupo Volcanic Zone is presented later (Appendix 3).
Fig.1. The current known distribution of Eastern brown kiwi showing the Taupo Volcanic Zone.
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As it is one of the largest taxa remaining, both in terms of population and distribution (Holzapfel et al., 2008), there is still a high level of genetic variation remaining within the taxon, despite the large declines over the past 130 years (Shepherd & Lambert, 2008). However, genetic understanding of this taxon is far from complete. Little work has occurred on intra-taxon genetic variation to ascertain if any significant level of geographic variation exists. In addition, other factors such as defining where the absolute boundaries of the taxon occurs, or the presence of hybrid zones with other taxa have not been addressed.
3.2 Biology and ecology
Biology As the name implies, Eastern brown kiwi are mainly a drab brown colour, but their outer feathers also have tints of black and differing shades of brown. Brown feather shades can vary slightly from dull brown to a more reddish-brown colour, and occasional white feathers may be present in some individuals, the presence of which is rare in the north of its range but more common in the Kaweka range (T. Ward- Smith, pers. comm.; and pers. obs.). Overall, their coat gives them a shaggy appearance, with the feather colouring aiding their camouflage ability. North Island brown kiwi have several taxonomic traits separate from other kiwi taxa, such as ‘stiff’ feather tips and long facial bristles (Baker et al., 1995).
As opposed to many birds which have specialised wing and tail feathers, kiwi body feathers are relatively uniform with less specialisation. Each feather provides two main functions – a rough outer exterior providing protection from external environmental assaults, particularly rain and snow – and a downy insulating interior trapping air next to the skin to provide warmth. Their unfeathered legs and feet are covered in distinct, usually dark brown, scales.
The heads of Eastern brown kiwi have many long black whiskers projecting around the face, and the small eyes are brown with round black pupils. Nostrils are at the end of the bill, and ear openings are hidden beneath feathers on each side of the upper skull. The bill is long, slender, and pale. Recently the bill of Eastern brown kiwi (and other taxa) have been found to contain ‘sensory pits’ which allows the bird to detect vibration of prey such as earthworms underground (Cunningham et al., 2007). The bill is used nearly exclusively for feeding, calling and preening; it appears to be little used for fighting, or inflicting any injury, although kiwi can ‘bill snap’ and growl when annoyed or captured.
Like all kiwi, Eastern brown kiwi have small vestigial wings; in adult Eastern brown kiwi the humerus bone grows to only about 50mm in length, and have a ‘wing claw’ – a small nail protruding from the end of each wing. The few wing feathers are slightly modified from the typical body feather in that they have a significantly longer and thicker calamus (feather shaft). There is no visible external tail, although like the wing feathers, there are some small, slightly modified feathers present around the pygostyle (pers obs.).
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Feathers can grow up to approximately 10cm long, and can be replaced throughout the year, although there is an increase in the density of pin feathers (early stage of feather replacement) generally in autumn. As kiwi do not fly, this ‘moult’ stage appears to have little if any impact on the bird’s biology or behaviour. One curious aspect of kiwi feathers is the ease with which they can be lost when fighting or attacked by a predator. This is likely a trait that has evolved to enable the kiwi to escape avian predators leaving them with only talons and beaks full of feathers. However, this strategy is likely to be ineffective against mammalian predators with highly developed auditory and olfactory abilities.
Like all other kiwi, Eastern brown kiwi have a high degree of sexual dimorphism with females being typically 10-20% larger than their male counterparts (Table 2). Adult Eastern brown kiwi are approximately 45-55cm in height with adult males weights ranging from approximately 1.7 kg to 2.7kg and female adults from 1.9kg to 2.9kg (pers. obs.; H. Robertson, pers. comm.). Bill lengths for males are typically 85-95mm, and adult females are typically 95-125mm. Eastern Brown Kiwi are similar in size to Western and Coromandel brown kiwi, but smaller than Northland brown kiwi (H. Robertson, pers. comm.; Colbourne & Kleinpaste, 1986). Weights vary during the year for both adult sexes (Table 2 – North Island brown kiwi), depending on the stage of egg development, nesting, or the number of nests attempted per year. There is a considerable overlap in weight between sexes, so this is not in itself a reliable diagnostic tool to determine the sex of adult Eastern brown kiwi.
Table 2. Morphological measurements of adult Eastern brown kiwi (at sites subject to no or limited translocations), and comparisons with other kiwi taxa (range with median in bold). Taxon Original Adult Male Adult Female Reference Site Bill (mm) Weight (g) Bill (mm) Weight (g) Little Spotted Kapiti Island 68.0 ± 2.13 1135 ± 118.8 85.1 ± 4.00 1351 ± 163.6 Marchant & Kiwi (n=44) Range: (n=51) Range: (n=24) Range: (n=41) Range: Higgins, 1990 63.5-71.5 880-1356 75.1-93.8 1000-1400 Gravid: 1710 ± 143.7 (n=13) Range: 1430- 1950 Great Spotted Bill: 96.0 ± 5.79 2610 (n=12) 125.8 ± 8.59 3270 (n=7) Bill: Marchant Kiwi throughout (n=7) Range: (n=13) Range: & Higgins, range; 87.3-99.9 105-131 1990; Weight: Weight: J.A Gouland McLennan Downs Tokoeka Stewart Island 103.2 ± 4.16 Feb: 143.2 ± 7.37 Feb: R.M. Colbourne (n=9) Range: 2720 ± 242.6 (n=10) Range: 3115 ± 266.7 in Marchant & 94.4-108.2 (n=9) Range: 134.0-155.3 (n=10) Range: Higgins, 1990 2300-3060 2700-3500
Rowi Okarito 94.8 ± 4.3 1924 ± 157 125.5 ± 5.9 2650 ± 316 Tennyson et al., (n=48) (n=49) (n=51) (n=51) 2003 Range: 83.5- Range: 1575- Range: 109.9- Range: 1950- 104.2 2250 140.3 3570 NI Brown Kiwi n/a 98.2 ± 6.24 2080 (n=13) 129.9 ± 10.45 2490 (n=21) Reid, 1971 mean (n=11) Range: Range: 1820- (n=15) Range: Range: 2090- 84.8-107.7 2590 115-149 3270
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Like other kiwi, Eastern brown kiwi have powerful legs and toes, with robust sharp claws. These are used for both effective digging of underground burrows, fighting with other kiwi, and defence from predators. Eastern brown kiwi are also very fast and surprisingly agile, even in rough terrain with thick vegetation. They can run at approximately 15-20km/h (pers. obs.), and can change direction rapidly and can tuck their heads in to assume a roughly spherical shape and roll down slopes when trying to avoid predators. They do not appear to be able to jump vertically to any great degree – certainly less than 1 metre (C. Richardson, pers. comm.)
The breeding behaviour of Eastern brown kiwi is similar to other North Island brown kiwi, with the male alone incubating up to two eggs per clutch, which are typically laid 2-3 weeks apart. Like all kiwi, the eggs are very large in comparison to the female’s body weight. The physical and energetic constraints of developing two such large eggs simultaneously are likely to be the main reasons there is such a marked delay between laying the different eggs of the same clutch. Two clutches per year are typical, but some pairs have been known to continuously breed year-round for a period of 30 months (J. McLennan, pers. comm.). Eggs are incubated for 75-85 days (Sales, 2005) with chicks hatching usually only 10 days apart. Males usually incubate every day, but occasionally they may not return to the nest for one day (pers. obs.), and resume incubation the following day. This appears not to harm embryonic development of the eggs, although this may possibly only occur late in incubation. Kiwi chicks hatch fully feathered and have a large internal egg yolk. Chicks remain in the nest for their first few days but subsequently venture out of the nest for brief foraging expeditions, which gradually increase in length. After approximately 2-3 weeks, they leave the nest permanently. Therefore, both chicks may be present in the nest for approximately only one week with the male.
Second clutches can be laid and incubation can commence at any time after the second egg of the first clutch hatches. This can vary from only a few days to several weeks or even months. Some pairs only produce one clutch per season, and others periodically do not breed at all in some seasons, for unknown reasons. Eastern brown kiwi are thought to live for perhaps 50 years and are likely to be able to breed for much of this time. Hence an Eastern brown kiwi may have an absolute lifetime reproductive maximum capacity of 200 eggs. Typically, approximately half of these eggs will fail to hatch in natural settings, largely due to bacterial infections of the egg (McLennan, 1997).
Eastern brown kiwi are sensitive to nest disturbance – any activity around the nest entrance, even during daylight hours – may lead to abandonment of the nest. The act of placing anything within the nest burrow when the male is present is likely to lead to abandonment, and capturing the incubating male on a nest (e.g. to attach a transmitter) will almost certainly result in nest abandonment. Indeed, repetitive handling of male kiwi – particularly during the breeding season – may cause them to become increasingly sensitive to even very low levels of human activity near a nest, increasing the likelihood of nest abandonment over time (pers. obs). Breeding Eastern brown kiwi males can also develop a large, featherless ‘brood patch’ on their lower belly during egg incubation, to increase the transfer of their metabolic warmth to the egg (Colbourne, 2002).
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Juvenile Eastern brown kiwi are left to forage by themselves immediately after hatching, though the adult male may stay with them for a few weeks in the nest burrow. After that, they are solitary animals, and forage within or adjacent to their parents’ territory. After approximately 10-12 months of age, when weighing about 1300g, these kiwi begin their major dispersal phase. Detailed information on the nature of this phase is limited, but some current monitoring information indicates a net dispersal distance of between 2-6km may be typical (pers. obs; P. Willems, pers. comm). Any sex-biased dispersal has not yet been clearly demonstrated.
Ecology Adult Eastern brown kiwi are strictly nocturnal and when not nesting change sleeping sites every day, which can range from established underground dens, the inside of decaying logs, to dense above ground vegetation. Adults are predominantly solitary animals, but can meet up with their mate during foraging hours. Typically, the male calls in the few minutes after leaving the den or nest site, which is usually within the first two hours of darkness. Eastern brown kiwi pairs den together on approximately 8% of days (McLennan et al., 1987), predominantly in the May-June period when first mating occurs.
On the mainland, Eastern brown kiwi typically have territories held by a monogamous pair of approximately 40ha (McLennan et al., 1987.). It is unknown how small these territories could decline to, though there is some suggestion (Basse et al., 1999) that kiwi may have had territories of only 2-5ha (i.e. 40-100 adults km-2) prior to the arrival and widespread establishment of mustelids, dogs and cats in New Zealand forests. Indeed, Ponui Island in the Hauraki Gulf contains a hybrid mix of North Island brown kiwi, and their population density is estimated at approximately 100 adults km-2 (I. Castro, pers. comm.)
Eastern brown kiwi feed on a wide range of foods, but they typically have an invertebrate diet, in particular native annelids (Sale, 2005). Other prominent foods include seeds of a variety of plants, hence in high densities they may have once been an important dispersal agent for many plants. Kiwi are also known to be meat eaters, and in captivity are usually fed a high protein diet containing minced ox heart. They are also known to eat larger prey such as koura /freshwater crayfish (H. Robertson, pers. comm.).
Kiwi have a distinctive excreta that has a musty ammonia-like aroma. Their distinctive look and smell can often betray the presence of kiwi in areas where they are not known to occur. Other field sign includes probe holes (though these may often be confused with large worm or other insect holes), occasional shed feathers and foot prints, particularly in soft mud.
3.3 Past and present distribution and population trends Before human arrival, Eastern brown kiwi were likely to have been found over approximately 42,000 km2 of the eastern North Island (Fig. 2). At an estimated maximum density of 100 adults km-2 (Basse et al., 1999), this may have totalled up to some 4 million individual adults. Since human arrival, both the distribution (Fig.3) and total population (Holzapfel et al., 2008) of this taxon has declined dramatically,
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Eastern brown kiwi were one of three kiwi species known to inhabit the eastern North Island prior to human arrival: little-spotted kiwi (Apteryx owenii) were ubiquitous (Heather & Robertson, 1996); and rowi (Apteryx rowi) were present at least as far north as Lake Poukawa in Hawke’s Bay (Shepherd & Lambert, 2008; Fig.2). These species are likely to have competed with Eastern brown kiwi for resources, perhaps shaping their distribution and abundance. With the human introduction of predatory mammals these two species of kiwi have become locally extinct, perhaps due to a greater susceptibility to predation or lower fecundity rates. Rowi may have been extinct, and little spotted kiwi were likely near extinction in the North Island by the time of European arrival, well before the arrival of mustelids (Jolly and Colbourne, 1991; Butler & McLennan, 1991).
In addition to competition, the presence of avian predators are likely to have influenced the distribution, abundance and behaviour of Eastern brown kiwi. Contemporary predatory avian species include the North Island weka (Gallirallus australis), which are known to consume kiwi eggs and possibly young chicks (Jolly, 1989); and ruru/morepork (Ninox novaeseelandiae), which may predate young chicks or juveniles. It is doubtful whether the mainly diurnal New Zealand falcon/karearea (Falco novaeseelandiae) or harrier/kahu (Circus approximans) have ever had any significant impact on Eastern brown kiwi. Before human arrival, other predatory avian species may have included the extinct North Island adzebill (Aptornis
Fig.2. Estimated original and current distribution of Eastern brown kiwi
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otidiformis), laughing owl/whēkau (Sceloglaux albifacies) and possibly Forbes’ harrier (Circus teauteensis); however only whēkau was known to be nocturnal. The iconic Haast’s eagle (Harpogornis moorei) was only known to inhabit the South Island (Tennyson & Martinson, 2006).
Abiotic factors would also have influenced the original Eastern brown kiwi distribution. In particular volcanism emanating from within the Taupo Volcanic Zone (Fig. 3) would have produced episodic periods of great disturbance (Wilmshurst & McGlone, 1996), eliminating kiwi from vast tracts for at least several generations. In
DOCDM-1256468 - Eastern NIBK Taxon Plan DRAFT 1 Low res figures 17 Last printed 27/11/2014 4:49:00 p.m. addition, previous ice ages are likely to have limited the distribution of Eastern brown kiwi towards more coastal refugia, further separating them from other North Island brown kiwi taxa. The impact of ice ages could have been off-set to some extent by falling sea levels (up to 120m below current sea level), which would presumably have significantly expanded the available habitat for Eastern brown kiwi, particularly in the western Bay of Plenty where the sea level receded to the edge of the continental shelf up to 50km offshore.
Fig. 3. Examples of two recent large volcanic events within the range of Eastern brown kiwi (adapted from Wilson 1995, Gravley 2004, Manville 2009, Nairn 2010 and Froggatt 2010).
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Other possible isolating mechanisms (Fig. 4) include the presence of large wetlands and large rivers (e.g. the Hauraki Plains), and extensive linear high cliff systems (e.g. Rangitikei river), which would effectively form an impenetrable barrier to kiwi. Until approximately 1750 years ago (Manville et al., 2007), the Waikato River used to flow over the Hauraki Plains before emptying into the Firth of Thames. This combination of high river volumes and extensive wetlands may have may have limited kiwi dispersal west of the Kaimai Ranges.
The Taupo Volcanic Zone and associated volcanic caldera (Fig. 3) also cuts a swathe through the estimated pre-human Eastern brown kiwi distribution. This geological feature may have also limited the gene flow between Eastern brown kiwi to the north and south of this feature, so it is curious that this feature is not currently regarded as a significant isolating mechanism between Coromandel and Eastern brown kiwi taxa. There appears to be no obvious isolating mechanism between the understood distributions of the Coromandel and Eastern brown kiwi taxa; the author is unaware if the only remaining Eastern brown kiwi population north of the Taupo Volcanic Zone (at Opuiaki) has actually been specifically genetically tested to ensure it is of Eastern brown kiwi taxa. There is a chance this population is even a hybrid of the two taxa.
Occasional volcanism would have obliterated large swathes of Eastern brown kiwi habitat, by direct eruption, pyroclastic flows, hot and lethal gases, and smothering by significant ash fall. Eastern brown kiwi will have been substantially affected by many of these eruptions, and presumably would have been confined to one or more refugia populations - and perhaps could have only survived at a significant distance from the event, such as the Raukumara ranges. However, these events, while being locally and regionally catastrophic, are highly sporadic, and are interspersed by many hundreds or even thousands of years of either no or limited volcanic disturbance (Appendix 3). Scrub and forest (i.e. kiwi habitat) is believed to return relatively quickly after such events - only a few hundred years (Wilmshurst & McGlone, 1996). If Eastern brown kiwi can also return after such relatively short timeframes, over the 100,000-300,000 year timeframe Eastern brown kiwi are believed to have been isolated from other brown kiwi taxa, it may have been unlikely to be a significant factor in limiting gene flow between isolated populations. Therefore if volcanism is regarded as the main isolating factor separating Eastern from Western brown kiwi, it is curious that the large and prevalent volcanic events erupting from the Okataina and neighbouring caldera over the past 300,000 years are not also regarded as having a similar effect.
The southern limit of the Eastern brown kiwi may have been limited by the presence of rowi (Fig. 4), a similarly-sized (Table 1) and therefore directly competing species of kiwi, before their North Island extinction following human occupation (Shepherd & Lambert, 2008; Shepherd et al., 2012).
Behavioural factors are also likely to have contributed to shaping the original range of Eastern brown kiwi, in particular the dispersal behaviour of juvenile kiwi. There is some speculation that kiwi dispersal is behaviourally limited near the periphery of a kiwi population. This apparent “fear of silence” describes the behaviour in which young dispersing kiwi appear to be reluctant to disperse into adjacent areas containing suitable habitat, but which is empty of kiwi, and hence no kiwi will be heard calling from this direction (H. Robertson, pers. comm.). If verified, this behaviour would be expected to maintain the isolation of kiwi populations following release from
DOCDM-1256468 - Eastern NIBK Taxon Plan DRAFT 1 Low res figures 19 Last printed 27/11/2014 4:49:00 p.m. conditions causing refugia (e.g. ice ages or volcanic activity) and help explain the presence of the four North Island taxa.
Fig.4. Factors that may have contributed to the historic distribution of Eastern brown kiwi.
The Maori introduction of kuri (dog, Canis familiaris) and kiore (Polynesian rat, Rattus exulans) in the 13th century, are likely to have directly preyed upon and
DOCDM-1256468 - Eastern NIBK Taxon Plan DRAFT 1 Low res figures 20 Last printed 27/11/2014 4:49:00 p.m. competed for the food of Eastern brown kiwi, respectively. Kuri predation may also be one factor that contributed to the very low density of little spotted kiwi in the North Island by the mid-1800’s, some decades before mustelids were liberated. The introduction of the more carnivorous Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus) in 1769 may have led to initially very high densities of these rats, and may have even resulted in some predation of very young kiwi chicks. The later arrival of ship rats in mid-1800’s (Innes, 2005) largely out-competed Norway rats in forested areas, which ironically may have resulted in less rodent predation of young kiwi chicks. Recently, Norway and ship rats appear to have little impact upon North Island brown kiwi (Latham, 2006).
Cats (Felis catus) also established early in European settlement (Gillies & Fitzgerald, 2005) and will also have contributed to kiwi declines. However, cats struggle to survive in cold, wet conditions with dense vegetation, so have largely failed to populate large remote backcountry areas in any great density, which today remain the stronghold for Eastern brown kiwi.
The introduction of ferrets (from 1879; Clapperton & Byrom, 2005), stoats (from 1884; King & Murphy, 2005) and weasels (from 1885; King, 2005) to combat vast rabbit populations that had built up on productive pastoral lands is likely to have been the single largest cause of Eastern brown kiwi decline (McLennan et al., 1996; Basse et al., 1999). Particularly stoats (Mustela erminea), but also weasels (Mustela nivalis) and now ubiquitous within the forests containing Eastern brown kiwi. The larger ferrets (Mustela furo) is predominantly found on pastoral grasslands, particularly in drier sites with high rabbit densities, but are occasionally reported to have penetrated far into mature native forests. Ferrets are particularly destructive as they can kill adult kiwi, which the other two mustelid species cannot.
Vegetation clearance by Maori will have reduced the abundance of Eastern brown kiwi from some areas, particularly the dry Heretaunga plains of Hawke’s Bay, over a period of centuries. However, it was not until the vastly more intensive and sustained land clearance following European settlement, which began in earnest from about 1840, that Eastern brown kiwi population and distribution would have begun to significantly decline due to habitat clearance.
Despite the large range contraction of Eastern brown kiwi, there have in fact also been small increases in their distribution – conservation management has included introducing small numbers of birds to Mokoia, Moutohora and Tuhua islands.
Previous management mistakes have also been made, with Northland brown kiwi introduced into Guavas forest in southern Hawke’s Bay in the 1980’s (Butler & McLennan, 1991).
With no conservation management, mainland populations of Eastern brown kiwi will ultimately decline to extinction, largely due to the recruitment rate of juvenile kiwi to adulthood being below adult mortality levels (McLennan et al., 1996). At current rates of population decline, about 6% per annum, most Eastern brown kiwi populations on the mainland could be functionally extinct by mid 21st century in the absence of any management (Basse et al., 1999).
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3.4 Threat status
Miskelly et al. (2008) rated all North Island brown kiwi collectively as Nationally Vulnerable, with a Criteria of D(1/1), (meaning 5000-20,000 mature individuals, with a predicted 30-70% population decline over 3 generations), with qualifiers CD (Conservation Dependant), PD (Partial Decline), and RF (Recruitment Failure). As at the time of writing, this ranking still applies, both to North Island brown kiwi, and is likely to apply to the Eastern brown kiwi taxon alone also.
3.5 Agents of decline and current threats
There are a number of demonstrated causes of kiwi population decline – almost all as a result of human influence. These include: Stoats – predation of young Dogs – predation of kiwi of all ages Ferrets – predation of kiwi of all ages Cats – predation of young and sub-adult kiwi Possum trapping using ground-set traps Habitat modification and loss including fire (although Eastern brown kiwi have colonised some pine forests) Small population size (some sites) Population fragmentation Pest animal control using toxins (e.g. cyanide) Volcanism (natural episodic events)
Other possible but largely unproven agents of decline include: Weasels - possible predation on very young kiwi chicks Possums Pigs Hedgehogs
3.6 Past and current management
Active management of Eastern brown kiwi first commenced as part of a Landcare Research study at Puketukutuku peninsula at Lake Waikaremoana, Te Urewera National Park in 1992. This study within the 800ha area was one of the first to quantify the cause of kiwi chick mortality, and discovered that only approximately 5% of kiwi chicks survived to 1000g (a stoat resilient threshold) in non-treatment (i.e. non-trapped) areas (McLennan et al., 1996). These studies were instrumental in proving the leading cause of kiwi decline was recruitment failure of kiwi chicks and juveniles to adulthood, largely due to severe predation rates by stoats.
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This site has continued with ongoing management since this initial study, making it one of the longest continuous management sites for kiwi in New Zealand. Proving stoats were the main agent of kiwi decline was a defining moment for kiwi conservation in New Zealand, and provided the confidence needed for other sites to begin kiwi management projects targeting stoat control. Other early Eastern brown kiwi management sites included Northern Te Urewera (1996) and Whirinaki (1998).
Progress in developing successful methods of kiwi egg incubation was initially led by Wellington Zoo, then further refined by Auckland Zoo in the mid-1990’s. Upscaling and continued improvement – largely led by Rainbow Springs (now Kiwi Encounter) – enabled Bank of New Zealand Operation Nest Egg (BNZONETM) to be used with confidence as a successful management tool. This progress enabled sites that didn’t have the resources to undertake expensive pest control, to only monitor male kiwi, and harvest their eggs from nests. In combination, this resulted in a proliferation of kiwi projects of differing scopes, including the establishment of fenced predator-proof kiwi crèche sites.
By 2004, seven Eastern brown kiwi projects were operational, incorporating approximately 120 pairs of kiwi over approximately 10,000 ha (Table 3).
Site District Agency Managed No. kiwi pairs Area (ha) 2004 Max. Prs Potential
Ohope BOP Community 300 6-10 20 Whinray East Community 400 4 20 Coast
NTUERP BOP DOC 5000 50 250 Whirinaki BOP DOC 2000 20 100 Waikaremoana Hawke’s Community 1000 25 50 Bay Boundary Stream Hawke’s DOC 1000 2 50 Bay Eastern Kaweka Hawke’s Community 500 10 25 Bay
Max. TOTAL 10,200 122 515 Table 3. Sites of Eastern brown kiwi management in 2004 (modified from McLennan, 2004). Maximum potential estimated from 1 pair per 20 ha of habitat containing a low density of predators.
Current sites of management are shown in Fig. 5, and a list of parameters for these sites is provided in Appendix 2.
Further significant progress in kiwi management has occurred with the enhancement of transmitter technology (e.g. Egg timers, Chick timers) and monitoring (Ear in the Sky), all developed by Wildtech Ltd., while monitoring the Kaweka kiwi population.
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Fig 5. Current management sites (as at 2013) for Eastern brown kiwi.
3.7 Cultural importance
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Kiwi in general were well respected by tangata whenua; their common occurrence in many Maori names attests to their status, distribution and abundance. Mythologically, kiwi are described as the Children of Tane (the God of Forests), and they provided the demi-god Maui with fire.
The distribution of the Eastern brown kiwi taxon coincides with a considerable number of iwi. While each iwi has their own relationship with kiwi, many iwi consider kiwi a taonga (treasure) with a very important cultural status. Woven kiwi- feathered cloaks (korowai, kakahu or kahu kiwi) are a highly treasured possession nationally, some of which date back to the early 19th century. Recent DNA analysis has shown that almost all of these historic cloaks are composed of North Island brown kiwi feathers, with over half originating from Eastern brown kiwi (Hartnup et al., 2011). The use of kiwi feathers for repairing old, or constructing new korowai, is a highly valued resource.
Sadly, the rohe of some iwi no longer contains natural Eastern brown kiwi populations, or they have been reduced to small, fragmented populations that are non- viable without management. Maintaining current kiwi populations, or restoring recently extirpated populations within their rohe, are likely to be considered a high priority by many iwi.
3.8 Public awareness, Key stakeholders and associates The general public perception of Eastern brown kiwi is similar to the general perception of kiwi nationally (i.e. rare, threatened with extinction, largely inaccessible) but with some local exceptions. These exceptions can occur where there is a strongly publicised, visible and successful local kiwi project. In these cases, the perception is generally more informed and positive about the long-term prospects for kiwi.
Key stakeholders and associates include The Kiwi Trust (Kiwis for Kiwi), DOC, local private sponsors (e.g. Tasti Foods, Lowe Corporation), Bay of Plenty Regional Council, Hawke’s Bay Regional Council, Rainbow Springs, ECOED and iwi.
There is a good level of co-operation between projects, particularly in Hawke’s Bay, but there is room for even more co-operation, as some sites have little or no co- operation. Rainbow Springs has close association with nearly all BNZONE sites within the Eastern brown kiwi taxon, and indeed many Western brown kiwi sites also.
Eastern brown kiwi has been selected as the only taxon to be held in captivity in the long-term. This represents a major advocacy opportunity for this taxon throughout the country, as eventually approximately all 110 kiwi in captivity will be of this taxon only.
3.9 Recovery principals and preferred option for recovery The selection of goals, objectives and actions in this plan have been directed by the following underlying recovery principles and preferred option of recovery contained in the Kiwi Recovery Plan.
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Prevention of extinction of any species of kiwi as the highest priority. Intraspecific genetic variation and distribution to be maintained or enhanced as much as is feasible within the core areas of distribution of each taxon Where possible, kiwi to be managed within their natural (prehistorical or historical) range or, if outside the range, with the overall aim of restoring them to such sites. Mixed-provenance populations form an integral part of recovery planning outside the core areas of distributions for each taxon Kiwi recovery to, wherever possible, focus on gaining maximum benefits to the wider ecosystem
The preferred option for recovery is to sustainably manage kiwi in their natural range by reducing their exposure to predators.
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4. Goals
4.1 Long term recovery goal
Long-term goal of the national recovery plan
To restore and, wherever possible, enhance the abundance, distribution and genetic diversity of all kiwi taxa.
Long-term goal of the Eastern brown kiwi taxon plan
That wherever possible and appropriate, restore or enhance both the abundance and distribution of the Eastern brown kiwi taxon while also maintaining its genetic diversity.
4.2 Goals for the term of this taxon plan
4.2.1 Management
Goal 1.1: To halt the decline in the total number of Eastern brown kiwi.
Goal 1.2: To minimise the loss of distribution and genetic diversity of wild Eastern brown kiwi populations.
4.2.2 Community
Goal 2.1: To increase and sustain community-led projects in Eastern brown kiwi recovery for populations throughout its range and involving a broad range of communities found within the boundaries of this taxon.
Goal 2.2: To increase the total sponsorship funding for Eastern brown kiwi recovery (from 2008).
4.2.3 Research
Goal 3.1: To clarify Eastern brown kiwi taxonomy and provide robust information guiding management of the taxon’s genetic diversity.
Goal 3.2: To undertake robust population modelling for Eastern brown kiwi.
Goal 3.3: To undertake or support research into tools for sustainable landscape-scale pest management and monitoring of Eastern brown kiwi.
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5. Implementation
The following section outlines the objectives and actions that are necessary to implement in order to achieve the above Goals (Section 4). A background and a summary of issues for a number of topics are arranged under the three themes of: Management; Community Relations and Engagement; and Research, Monitoring and Innovation.
The taxon plan actions are provided to meet the objectives and actions of the national Kiwi Recovery Plan as well as any additional objectives identified.
Taxon plan actions are numbered, have been prioritised and are time-lined. A summary table of actions is provided as Appendix 1.
Prioritisation has been assigned according to the following criteria:
Essential: Needs to be carried out within the timeframe and/or at the frequency specified to achieve the goals for kiwi recovery over the term of this plan. Highest risk for kiwi recovery if not carried out within the timeframe and/or at the frequency specified;
High: Necessary to achieve long-term goals. To be progressed and ideally completed within the term of the plan, with moderate risk if not carried out within the timeframe and/or at the frequency specified;
Medium: Necessary to achieve long-term goals. To be progressed within the term of the plan, but least risk if not completed within the term of the plan or within the timeframe and/or at the frequency specified.
No actions are ‘extras’; a medium priority does not mean that there are no reasons to do it. Priorities are given to assist with choice if required.
5.1 Management
Background statement:
Management of Eastern brown kiwi is at the core of recovery planning for this species. Advances made both within this taxon and nationally over the past decade have proven that kiwi populations can be effectively managed and populations increased, at sites ranging from semi-urban to remote backcountry.
Currently, management of Eastern brown kiwi is largely uncoordinated, with the national Kiwi Recovery Group having an overall strategic role for all taxa. Whether a formal Eastern brown kiwi group is required for co-ordinating the recovery of this Taxon is one management issue this initial Plan will address.
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5.1.1 Topic 1: Taxon planning The Eastern brown kiwi taxon is large and complex, with the kiwi population spread over a wide geographic area. Multiple iwi, community groups, and agencies are currently involved in management, with the potential for many more in future. Co-ordination of all activities both locally, regionally and nationally is likely necessary to achieve more efficient and effective kiwi management throughout the range of the taxon for the long-term benefit of the taxon.
Issues
Issue 1.1: The establishment of an Eastern Brown Kiwi Taxon Group or other entity may be required. The structure, mandate, leadership, accountability, funding and reporting of any such group should be decided by all partners/stakeholders.
Issue 1.2: Progress with implementation of the Eastern Brown Kiwi Taxon Plan needs to be monitored against current objectives, and the Plan itself assessed and adjusted against changing circumstances to remain effective.
Issue 1.3: Key networks of stakeholders (e.g. tangata whenua, community groups, captive holding institutions, research institutions, councils, sponsors, DOC) are able to influence Eastern brown kiwi taxon planning documents.
Issue 1.4: The Kiwi Recovery Group is still seen as the first port of call for technical, procedural and strategic advice, while any Eastern Brown Kiwi Taxon Group would be focused on the management of issues more specific to the Eastern brown kiwi taxon.
Issue 1.5: The Eastern Brown Kiwi Taxon Plan needs to be consistent with the Kiwi Recovery Plan.
Issue 1.6: Development of more formal reporting structures from kiwi projects to the Eastern Brown Kiwi Taxon Group, from the Taxon Group to the Kiwi Recovery Group, and vice versa.
Objectives and Actions
Recovery Plan Objectives
1.1: To ensure that the current recovery plan remains effective, and has its progress assessed and its direction regularly reviewed 1.2: To ensure that the Kiwi Recovery Group successfully directs and oversees kiwi recovery at an appropriate scale 1.3: To ensure that stakeholders have access to resources and high quality advice
Taxon Plan Objectives
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Objective 1.1: To ensure the current Eastern Brown Kiwi Taxon Plan is consistent with and does not contradict the national objectives outlined in the Kiwi Recovery Plan. Objective 1.2: To develop a process in which Eastern brown kiwi taxon stakeholders decide if a Taxon ‘Governance Group’ should be convened (such as the already operational Northland Kiwi Forum Working Group). Objective 1.3: To decide how such a Governance Group will function (structure, mandate, objectives, funding, accountability and reporting). Objective 1.4: The Eastern brown kiwi Taxon Plan will be consistent with the goals, objectives and actions of the Kiwi Recovery Plan.
Recovery Plan Actions specified to meet objectives
Action Action # Accountability Priority (recovery plan) Prepare a progress report annually against recovery plan objectives, 1.1 Recovery Group Essential and communicate across DOC and to other stakeholders
Undertake a full review of the recovery progress in 2013, at half- 1.2 Recovery Group Essential way point of the current plan
Review membership of the Kiwi Recovery Group every 2 years 1.3 Recovery Group Medium (from 2008), to ensure it reflects key relationships and networks of kiwi management at all times
Communicate the purpose of the Kiwi Recovery Group in a 1.4 Recovery Group Medium consistent manner to DOC staff and all other stakeholders throughout the term of the plan
Review resources available for advice on all levels of kiwi recovery 1.5 Recovery Group High planning and fill key gaps as identified throughout the term of the and BNZ Save plan the Kiwi Trust
Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objectives
# Action Timeframe Priority Accountability 1.1 Undertake a process to determine if an Eastern brown 2013 Essential Recovery Group; Lead kiwi taxon ‘Governance Group’ is required in order to Director Conservation achieve the goals, outcomes and actions of this Taxon Services & Director Plan Conservation Partnerships (Central North Island) 1.2 Depending on outcome of Action 1.1, develop Eastern 2013 Essential All stakeholders Brown Kiwi Taxon Group or other Eastern brown kiwi management structure 1.3 Prepare a progress report annually against Taxon Plan Annually Essential Stakeholders or Taxon objectives and communicate to stakeholders (Sept) Group 1.4 Develop formal lines of communication with the Kiwi 2016 High Kiwi Recovery Group; Recovery Group regarding reporting, strategic input in onwards Taxon Group the Kiwi Recovery Planning Process to any issues either specific to this taxon or applicable to other kiwi taxa also 1.5 The Eastern Brown Kiwi Taxon Plan will be consistent 2013 Essential Eastern brown kiwi with the goals, objectives, and actions of the Kiwi onwards taxon plan author; Kiwi Recovery Plan Recovery Group
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5.1.2 Topic 2: Kiwi Sanctuary The Eastern Kiwi Taxon does not have a Kiwi Sanctuary, and is the only taxon of the four North Island brown kiwi taxa to not have this management representation. Kiwi Sanctuaries appear to have their own communication network, including a close role with DOC’s Science and Technical group. Therefore, there is a risk that developments in kiwi management may not flow through to Eastern brown kiwi managers in a timely manner, compared to other taxa containing a Kiwi Sanctuary. Eastern brown kiwi projects may also be able to make a valuable contribution to current or proposed research projects.
Issues
Issue 2.1: All Eastern brown kiwi management projects and kiwi practitioners operate outside the five current Kiwi Sanctuaries; such projects and personnel should be able to link effectively both to and from the Kiwi Sanctuary network
Issue 2.2: Kiwi sanctuaries are sites of learning through management and research, yet many projects within the Eastern brown kiwi taxon are well positioned to usefully contribute with complementary or additional aspects of kiwi-orientated research.
Issue 2.3: A ‘Kiwi Sanctuary’ label may imply these projects are of higher status or importance than other projects; they may either attract more funding, or have their funding status preserved over other (particularly DOC) projects. With no such Sanctuary, Eastern brown kiwi taxon projects may be at higher risk of being unable to retain funding.
Objectives and Actions
Recovery Plan Objective Objective 3.1: To ensure that kiwi sanctuaries continue to be an integral part of kiwi recovery, as sites of successful management and for learning
Taxon Plan Objectives
Objective 2.1: To ensure there is consistent and timely communication and reporting between Kiwi Sanctuaries and the Eastern Brown Kiwi Taxon Group Objective 2.2: To enable Eastern brown kiwi projects to undertake collaborative, supporting and additional research to that undertaken by support Kiwi Sanctuaries, where applicable Objective 2.3: To determine if the Eastern brown kiwi taxon requires a formal Kiwi Sanctuary
Recovery Plan Action specified to meet objective
Action Action # Accountability Priority (recovery plan) Based on the findings of the review, prepare a new strategic 3.3 Recovery Essential plan for kiwi sanctuaries, including their funding structure Group/ General and the potential for additional sanctuaries, by 2009 Manager Research &
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Development Group
Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objectives
# Action Timeframe Priority Accountability 2.1 Develop a formal communication link between Kiwi 2013 High Kiwi Recovery Group; Sanctuary projects and Eastern brown kiwi taxon onwards Kiwi Sanctuaries; projects EBKTaxon Group 2.2 Develop a research strategy for Eastern brown kiwi, 2013 Medium Kiwi Recovery Group; highlighting sites that can be used to augment Kiwi onwards Kiwi Sanctuaries; EBK Sanctuary research Taxon Group 2.3 Determine whether a Kiwi Sanctuary could be provided 2013 Medium Kiwi Recovery Group; for within the Eastern brown kiwi taxon Kiwi Sanctuaries; EBK Taxon Group
5.1.3 Topic 3: Island Strategy Islands can be a valuable resource for threatened species management. However, as there are usually only a limited number of suitable islands for any given species, they should be managed to provide crucial refugia for as many threatened but ecologically suitable species as possible. Many islands are privately or multiply Maori-owned, and the desires and aspirations of landowners is essential when considering long-term species management options. Islands each have their own unique ecosystems that have been determined by historical or geological processes, recent history of pest invasion, past management, distance from the mainland, island size, location in degrees latitude etc. that may mean introducing a particular new species is incompatible with retaining these features in the long-term. The Department of Conservation has an Island Strategy (DOC, 2010) that this Taxon Plan should be consistent with. Islands within the current and historical distribution of Eastern brown kiwi that may have potential to be used for their management are listed below (Table 4).
Name Size Distance Type of Currently Owner Comments (ha) to island contains Mainland kiwi (km) (yes/no)
Tuhua (Mayor) 1300 26 Offshore Yes Iwi Fully vegetated
Moutohora 167 7 Inshore Yes Iwi/DOC High seabird (Whale) densities
Whakaari (White) 339 48 Offshore No Private Continuous volcanism; little vegetation
Motiti 710 9 Inshore No Iwi/private Farmed; horticulture; dogs
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Mokoia (Lake 135 2.2 Lake (285m Yes Iwi Fully Rotorua) asl) vegetated
Patiti (Lake 12 0.26 Lake No Iwi Rotomahana) (337m asl)
Rahui (Lake 26 0.13 Lake (892m No DOC Fully Waikareiti) asl) vegetated
Te Kahaatuwai 20 0.25 Lake (892m No DOC Fully (Lake Waikareiti) asl) vegetated
Motuhoa 108 0.95 Harbour No Private Farmed; (Tauranga horticulture Harbour)
Rangiwahea 353 2.3 Harbour No Private Farmed; (Tauranga forestry; low- Harbour) tide access from Matakana (stoats)
Matakana 6100 0.45 Harbour No Private Farmed; (Tauranga horticulture; Harbour) forestry; dogs; stoats
Ohakana (Ohiwa 46 0.2 Harbour No Private Populated; Harbour) horticulture
Uretara (Ohiwa 76 0.1 Harbour No DOC Low-tide Harbour) access
Whangaokena 13 1.8 Inshore No Iwi/DOC Possible crèche; very steep
Pourewa 40 0.1 Inshore No Iwi Vegetated
Portland 153 1.3 Inshore No Iwi 0.7km channel to mainland at low tide
Bare (Motu o 12 1.5 Inshore No Iwi Little Kura) vegetation; very steep Table 4. Islands that could be considered for use in the management of Eastern brown kiwi.
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Issues
Issue 3.1: There are only a few islands found within the Eastern brown kiwi taxon area suitable for kiwi; they are a limited resource, subject to multiple uses and thus may be subject to conflicts between various management options.
Issue 3.2: Islands may be suitable for only a single or for multiple aspects of kiwi management (e.g. some islands may only be suitable as kiwi crèche sites).
Issue 3.3: Islands used for kiwi management may currently be focused on benefiting local kiwi populations only; consideration of the whole taxon may be applicable.
Issue 3.4: Nearly all islands within the Eastern brown kiwi taxon are currently privately owned, multiply Maori-owned, or subject to Treaty of Waitangi claims. It is important to ensure that these island’s owners are fully informed on current kiwi management issues and aware of the role each island kiwi population could have in long-term taxon planning.
Issue 3.5: Monitoring indicates that some island kiwi populations may have longer time to first breeding, lower breeding success rates, and higher mortality rates than mainland kiwi populations.
Issue 3.6: Islands are often subject to greater potential fire risk than mainland sites.
Issue 3.7: Due to the small size and carrying capacity of most islands found within the rohe Eastern brown kiwi, Tuhua may be the only Eastern brown kiwi management site that has the potential to be self-sustaining.
Objectives and Actions
Recovery Plan Objective
Objective 4.1: To optimise use of islands for kiwi recovery
Taxon Plan Objectives
Objective 3.1: To develop an island strategy for Eastern brown kiwi that is consistent with DOC’s Island Strategy Document (DOC, 2010) and the current status of kiwi on offshore islands (Colbourne, 2005) Objective 3.2: To optimise the use of available islands for Eastern brown kiwi recovery Objective 3.3: To consult, inform and maintain enduring relationships with island owners’ that contain Eastern brown kiwi Objective 3.4: To understand the benefits or limitations (ecological, cultural, social and financial) islands pose for Eastern brown kiwi, and communicate these to stakeholders
Recovery Plan Action specified to meet objective
Action Action # Accountability Priority
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(recovery plan) Develop an island strategy for kiwi recovery by 2009, which 4.1 Recovery Essential is consistent with DOC’s national island strategy (in draft at Group/ time of writing) and the national recovery plan Research and Development Group
Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objectives
# Action Timeframe Priority Accountability 3.1 Develop an island strategy for Eastern brown kiwi that 2013 Essential Eastern brown kiwi also assesses all possible EBK islands, efficient use of Taxon Group; Project islands for kiwi management, and islands suitable for Managers kiwi crèche sites 3.2 Support research to understand why some island 2013 High Eastern brown kiwi populations of Eastern brown kiwi appear to be having onwards Taxon Group; Science low rates of reproduction (Note: same as Action 50.1, & Technical; Project section 5.3.10) Managers 3.3 Work collaboratively with island landowners to 2013 Essential Project Mangers maximally benefit the Eastern brown kiwi taxon, while onwards maintaining culturally acceptable kiwi management 3.4 Develop contingency plans for islands containing 2013 High Project Managers Eastern brown kiwi in case of fire, in association with onwards pest incursion contingency plans (Note: same as Action 6.2, section 5.1.6 ) 3.5 Support the continued ecological improvement of 2013 High Project Managers islands containing Eastern brown kiwi (e.g. eradication onwards of wasps from Tuhua, translocation of threatened species to islands) 3.6 Support the progression of the Tuhua Eastern brown 2018 High Tuhua Project Manager kiwi population towards a true self-sustaining (management free) state
5.1.4 Topic 4: Best practice Kiwi recovery on the mainland, islands and captivity has undergone large and ongoing change over the previous 10-15 years in managed areas. It is feasible that similar changes may occur over the next decade, so Eastern brown kiwi taxon practitioners need to constantly be updated as to the latest developments in kiwi management and the opportunities that may arise. The funding for kiwi conservation is limited compared to the size of the task required, so it is important resources are used efficiently and effectively.
Issues
Issue 4.1: Some current or potential future Eastern brown kiwi groups or individuals may require a more formal training process than currently exists to ensure they are consistently practicing best practice kiwi management
Issue 4.2: There is currently not active collaboration between all projects to assure all Eastern brown kiwi projects are maintaining best practice kiwi management
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Objectives and Actions
Recovery Plan Objective Objective 5.1: To ensure that kiwi management is undertaken to a consistent and high standard
Taxon Plan Objective
Objective 4.1: To ensure that Eastern brown kiwi management is undertaken to a consistent and high standard by all projects
Recovery Plan Actions specified to meet objective
Action Action # Accountability Priority (recovery plan) Undertake an update of the kiwi best practice manual by 5.1 Recovery High 2010 and then update annually Group
Develop and assess variations to current best practice on a 5.2 Recovery Medium case-by-case basis and communicate these to stakeholders Group throughout the term of the plan
Provide regular technical best practice workshops (e.g. kiwi 5.3 Recovery High handling, transponder, egg handling) throughout the term of Group/ the plan BNZ Save the Kiwi Trust
Maintain and annually update a database of qualified and 5.4 Recovery Medium experienced persons (internal and external) working to best Group practice standards from 2009
Ensure best practice is referred to and monitored through 5.5 Area High local permit systems throughout the term of the plan managers/ conservators
Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objective
# Action Timeframe Priority Accountability 4.1 Contribute to regular updates of the Kiwi Best Practice 2013 High Project Managers Manual by liaising with the Kiwi Recovery Group onwards
4.2 Provide regular technical best practice workshops for all 2013 High Recovery Group; The Eastern brown kiwi practitioners (e.g. kiwi handling, onwards Kiwi Trust; Eastern brown transponder, transmitter, egg handling, trapping issues) kiwi Taxon Group; Project Managers 4.3 Ensure all Eastern brown kiwi practitioners are invited 2013 High Eastern brown kiwi to a biannual Eastern brown kiwi taxon hui biennially Taxon Group
4.4 Ensure Eastern brown kiwi practitioners are invited to 2014 High Conservation Services attend the biannual North Island kiwi hui biennially Managers; Project Managers 4.5 Develop a revolving review process of all Eastern 2013 High Conservation Services brown kiwi projects to ensure Best Practice onwards Managers; Project requirements are being met, maintained, and where Managers; Eastern applicable, developed brown kiwi Taxon Group
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5.1.5 Topic 5: Taxon Plan Review Schedule Kiwi management will continue to undergo changes as current projects develop, new technology allows greater efficiencies to be made and projects undertake greater collaboration in a taxon-wide approach to Eastern brown kiwi management. This Taxon Plan needs to be periodically updated to take account of the many changes that may occur in future, to ensure it remains relevant throughout the term of the plan.
Issues
Issue 5.1: A review of the Eastern Brown Kiwi Taxon Plan should occur approximately half-way through implementation
Issue 5.2: Priorities may need to change to reflect other developments in knowledge, threat status and technology
Objectives and Actions
Recovery Plan Objective Objective 6.1: To ensure that key supporting plans for kiwi recovery contain up-to-date and relevant information
Taxon Plan Objectives
Objective 5.1: Review the plan half-way through implementation Objective 5.2: Reprioritise any objectives and/or actions where appropriate, and record where these changes occur
Recovery Plan Action specified to meet objective
Action Action # Accountability Priority (recovery plan) Develop in 2008 and operate annually a review schedule for 6.1 Recovery Medium key supporting documents for kiwi recovery Group
Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objectives
# Action Timeframe Priority Accountability 5.1 Review Eastern Brown Kiwi Taxon Plan 2016 High Recovery Group; Stakeholders; Project Managers; Eastern brown kiwi Taxon Group 5.2 Reprioritise Objectives and Actions, and record where 2016 High Eastern brown kiwi these changes occur Taxon Group
5.1.6 Topic 6: Island Biosecurity
Eastern brown kiwi have been placed on several different islands for management purposes. Currently all islands used for Eastern brown kiwi
DOCDM-1256468 - Eastern NIBK Taxon Plan DRAFT 1 Low res figures 37 Last printed 27/11/2014 4:49:00 p.m. management are free of pest mammals. Maintaining this status, particularly from mustelids, is essential. Some Eastern brown kiwi islands have had multiple pest incursions since being declared pest-free. Undertaking another eradication following an incursion may in some cases be considered far too expensive, resulting in lowered habitat quality for kiwi on these islands. Therefore stringent biosecurity measures need to be continually implemented on all islands containing kiwi.
Issues
Issue 6.1: An incursion of mustelids, dogs or cats onto an island could quickly cause significant damage to the resident kiwi population.
Issue 6.2: Incursions by rodents will devalue the ecological integrity of pest- free islands and ultimately may have some longer term impact upon the kiwi population present on the island.
Issue 6.3: Undertaking additional pest eradications following pest incursions on islands that are currently pest-free may be regarded as too expensive in future.
Objectives and Actions
Recovery Plan Objective Objective 7.1: To maintain the current status of threats to kiwi on islands with kiwi populations
Taxon Plan Objective
Objective 6.1: To maintain islands containing Eastern brown kiwi in their current mammalian pest-free status
Recovery Plan Actions specified to meet objective
Action Action # Accountability Priority (recovery plan) Develop, maintain and implement island biosecurity plans 7.1 Area Essential and protocols for islands with kiwi throughout the term of the managers/ plan conservators
Develop contingency plans for kiwi populations on islands as 7.2 Area Essential part of taxon plans by 2009 managers/ conservators
Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objective
# Action Timeframe Priority Accountability 6.1 Develop, maintain and implement island biosecurity 2013 Essential Conservation Services plans for each island containing Eastern brown kiwi onwards Managers 6.2 Develop contingency plans for each island containing 2013 Essential Conservation Services Eastern brown kiwi in case of pest incursion, in onwards Managers association with fire contingency plans (Note: same as Action 3.4, section 5.1.3) 6.3 Undertake an assessment of feasibility and likely costs 2013 High Project Managers
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for eradication of a variety of pest species on islands containing Eastern brown kiwi
5.1.7 Topic 7: Small Managed Populations Small isolated populations of nearly any species can become vulnerable to long-term deleterious effects. For kiwi, small populations that have been reduced at any stage to an effective population of less than 20 individuals (i.e. the total number of individuals that have successfully produced offspring) are particularly vulnerable. These can include deleterious founder effects and inbreeding depression. In addition, without the appropriate management of populations during a recovery phase that is sensitive to and aware of these issues, these effects can be magnified if a limited number of pairs in a small population contribute a large proportion of offspring to the breeding population. This can cause significant long-term genetic issues that perhaps a slower but broader based increase in the total population could largely avoid. For related topics, see Topic 23 (Small, Unmanaged Kiwi Populations) and Topic 24 (Re-establishment of Locally Extinct Kiwi Populations).
Issues
Issue 7.1: Small populations have features that make them more vulnerable to long-term genetic effects than larger populations.
Issue 7.2: Managers of many small populations often try to increase the kiwi population as quickly as possible, and may not have expertise in minimising long-term genetic effects of small populations, e.g. genetic drift, inbreeding depression.
Issue 7.3: Each small population has a different suite of issues unique to their site, including the rate of historical population decline and recent management history.
Issue 7.4: Management using BNZ Operation Nest Egg can potentially magnify the deleterious effects of small populations by continually harvesting offspring from only a few pairs of kiwi.
Issue 7.5: Small populations are likely to require the use of translocations of more distantly related genetic individuals from other sites to increase genetic diversity for the long-term health of the kiwi population, requiring a high level of co-operation and collaboration among groups.
Issue 7.6: Management approaches are required that optimise the use of kiwi for the long-term benefit of small kiwi populations while balancing the requirements of any source populations.
Objectives and Actions
Recovery Plan Objective(s)
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Not relevant for Eastern brown kiwi
Taxon Plan Objectives
Objective 7.1: To manage all small ‘bottlenecked’ Eastern brown kiwi populations in a manner that minimises the impact of long-term genetic effects common amongst small populations (i.e. less than 20 effective individuals) Objective 7.2: To use kiwi genetic resources from all sources efficiently and effectively and in an appropriate manner
Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objective(s)
# Action Timeframe Priority Accountability 7.1 Undertake an analysis of the history of all managed 2014 High Project Managers; EBK EBK populations to determine which projects or areas Taxon Group are likely to have undergone recent bottleneck effects with <20 individuals remaining at any one time 7.2 Undertake an analysis of all projects that have ever had 2014 High Project Managers; EBK small kiwi populations to determine the contribution all Taxon Group known original individuals and pairs have made to the current population (family tree) 7.3 Develop a best practice guide and methods for 2014 High Recovery Group; management of small populations, in consultation with SCIENCE & captive industry and small population genetic experts. CAPABILITY GROUP; See Actions 42.8 and 46.6 also. EBK Taxon group
7.4 Determine site-specific operational management 2014 High Project managers; Taxon options for all projects that have undergone small group population bottlenecks and are in danger of long-term deleterious genetic effects 7.5 Identify unmanaged sites with small relict populations of 2013 High Taxon group Eastern brown kiwi, and determine the best use of this genetic resource for the long-term benefit of the Eastern brown kiwi taxon.
5.1.8 Topic 8: Large Secure Populations The total number of Eastern brown kiwi is still declining (Holzapfel et al., 2008) despite the large management effort currently being undertaken. To achieve Goal 1.1 (halting decline), a large number of Eastern brown kiwi pairs need to be protected from key agents of decline. This will ensure the taxon is firstly secure from extinction, allowing scope for recovery of the population over time. Additionally, to achieve Goal 1.2 (minimise loss of distribution and genetic diversity), these sites need to be distributed throughout the range of this taxon. Generally, the larger a population the more resilient it is to stochastic effects, with an increased robustness to survive a series of extreme events. Therefore large well managed populations of over 200 individuals may be regarded as secure from extinction in the medium term, and these large populations will need to form the underlying long-term strength and robustness of the Eastern brown kiwi taxon.
The minimum size for each taxon has been calculated as 500 effective individuals, i.e. several thousand individuals in total (Reed et al. 2003). However, a smaller total population size of 500 breeding pairs has been
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Current management sites with the corresponding number of known Eastern brown kiwi are outlined in Appendix 2.
Issues
Issue 8.1: All sites that could potentially be managed to retain a large viable Eastern brown kiwi population need to be assessed for suitability.
Issue 8.2: All kiwi management sites need to be cost-effective. Each additional managed population increases the total cost of kiwi management; with limited funding, inefficient sites may decrease the long-term financial viability of maintaining all sites.
Issue 8.3: The majority of managed populations should ideally be able to interact with other populations and are not genetically isolated, i.e. the taxon is managed as a meta-population (see Topic 18 ‘Genetics and Meta- population Management’).
Issue 8.4: Current management regimes may not be cost-effective in the long-term at all large population sites, e.g. BNZONETM may decline in relative cost-effectiveness compared to trapping as a population builds.
Issue 8.5: There may be a minimum population size, below which future kiwi projects should not be initiated, as the cost per new kiwi produced may be considerably more expensive than areas with current medium to high population densities.
Issue 8.6: Some currently managed areas are recovering from a very low population base, and may take many years to recover to a moderate density and size; it may be more cost-effective to prioritise the management of kiwi populations that currently have medium to high densities.
Issue 8.7: Most large kiwi populations are generally in isolated areas of unmodified forest (e.g. Kaweka, Te Urewera, Waioeka, Urutawa), which are more expensive to manage due to the cost and time of travel to the site, and then generally limited road access to move around the site, requiring considerable walking by personnel.
Objectives and Actions
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Recovery Plan Objective Objective 9.1: To secure a minimum of 500 pairs of brown kiwi (all taxa), great spotted kiwi and Fiordland tokoeka from the relevant agents of decline. Note: It is assumed that the current effort for these taxa will not decline, i.e. the majority of projects will continue or increase their efforts throughout the term of the plan.
Taxon Plan Objective(s)
Objective 8.1: To secure a minimum of 500 pairs of Eastern brown kiwi from the relevant agents of decline. Objective 8.2: Establish one additional managed site capable of securing an additional 200 pairs of Eastern brown kiwi
Recovery Plan Actions specified to meet objective(s)
Action Action # Accountability Priority (recovery plan) Control relevant pests (stoats, ferrets, dogs and cats) at all 9.1 Conservators High managed sites with populations above 200 pairs, and 30% of sites with populations between 50 and 200 pairs where management is based on BNZ Operation Nest Egg only (brown kiwi, great spotted kiwi and tokoeka) by 2018
Maximise effectiveness and efficiency of predator control at 9.2 Conservators High currently managed sites for Coromandel and eastern brown kiwi through review of existing management and/or increase in effort by 2010 and then throughout the term of the plan
Establish one additional managed site capable of securing an 9.5 Conservators High additional 200 pairs of eastern brown kiwi by 2010 East Coast/Hawke’s Bay, Bay of Plenty
Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objective(s)
# Action Timeframe Priority Accountability 8.1 Control relevant pests in situ (stoats, ferrets, dogs, 2018 High Project Managers cats) at all managed sites with populations above 100 pairs, and 30% of managed sites with populations between 50-100 pairs 8.2 Maximise effectiveness and efficiency of predator 2013 High Project Managers; EBK control at all currently managed sites with large onwards Taxon Group populations of Eastern brown kiwi through review of existing management and/or increase in effort 8.3 Establish one additional managed site capable of 2014 High Director Conservation securing an additional 200 pairs of Eastern brown kiwi onwards Services; Project Managers; Sponsors; EBK Taxon Group
5.1.9 Topic 9: Declining Populations Like most mainland kiwi taxa, the total number of kiwi within the Eastern brown kiwi taxon is declining. To achieve Goal 1.1 (Section 4.2), the total population decline needs to be halted. The most challenging aspect of this will be halting the decline of currently non-managed populations.
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Pulsed landscape-scale pest control (i.e. 1080 aerial operations) are currently a sparsely used tool in large areas of this taxon. This is mainly due to bovine tuberculosis only being present at the southern edge of the Bay of Plenty region (and absent from Gisborne/East Coast), so does not attract TB Free NZ operations, and also due to aerial 1080 being a contentious issue that is often opposed by tangata whenua and stakeholder groups. Department of Conservation national funding for aerial 1080 has historically been targeted at higher ranked areas in other parts of the conservation estate.
Issues
Issue 9.1: The total population of Eastern brown kiwi is declining.
Issue 9.2: Some managed populations and all unmanaged Eastern brown kiwi populations are declining.
Objectives and Actions
Recovery Plan Objective Objective 10.1: To manage a sufficient proportion of the population of brown kiwi (all taxa), great spotted kiwi and Fiordland tokoeka to ensure that the net rate of loss for each taxon over the whole population is zero
Taxon Plan Objective
Objective 9.1: To manage and monitor a sufficient proportion of the population of Eastern brown kiwi to ensure that the net population growth rate over the whole population is not less than 0% per annum
Recovery Plan Actions specified to meet objective
Action Action # Accountability Priority (recovery plan) Apply landscape-scale pest control at sufficient intervals at 10.1 Conservators High the sites with greatest potential gain, i.e. largest number of currently unmanaged kiwi (brown kiwi, great spotted kiwi and Fiordland tokoeka)
Establish new and enhance existing projects including those 10.2 Conservators High utilising BNZ Operation Nest Egg, to increase local population abundance to the point where the population can be used as kohanga kiwi, a source for other sites (brown kiwi, great spotted kiwi and Fiordland tokoeka)
Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objective(s)
# Action Timeframe Priority Accountability 9.1 Apply landscape-scale pest control at sufficient intensity 2018 High Director Conservation or intervals at the sites with the greatest potential gain Services; Project i.e. sites containing the largest number of currently Managers unmanaged kiwi – see Appendix 2
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9.2 Establish or enhance new or existing projects, including 2018 High Director Conservation those utilising BNZONE, to increase local population Services; EBK Taxon abundance to the point where the population can be Group used as a ‘Kohanga Kiwi’ site (Topic 22) – see Appendix 2
5.1.10 Topic 10: Carrying Capacity with Little Spotted Kiwi Little spotted kiwi (LSK; Apteryx owenii) were sympatric with Eastern brown kiwi until the mid-to-late 19th century, when they became extinct on the North Island’s mainland. Interaction with LSK was perhaps a factor in determining other aspects of Eastern brown kiwi behaviour and carrying capacity. Re- establishment of these natural interactions at some sites, on both pest-free islands and mainland sites, would be both a difficult management challenge and an interesting experiment in monitoring any changes in Eastern brown kiwi behaviour or carrying capacity.
Issues
Issue 10.1: LSK and Eastern brown kiwi were naturally sympatric before human arrival, likely evolved together as competitors, and may have had a different influence on ecosystems than is currently observed with a single relatively low density species.
Issue 10.2: LSK are susceptible to stoat, ferret, cat and dog predation at all life stages.
Issue 10.3: The impact of competition on Eastern brown kiwi by LSK (and vice versa) is largely unknown.
Objectives and Actions
Recovery Plan Objective Objective 11.1: To increase the number of little spotted kiwi populations, including on the mainland, to accommodate a further 450 birds
Taxon Plan Objective
Objective 10.1: To have at least one managed site in which a viable Little Spotted Kiwi population is interacting with a viable Eastern brown kiwi population
Recovery Plan Action specified to meet objective
Action Action # Accountability Priority (recovery plan) Identify by 2010 four new sites (at least two of these on the 11.1 Recovery High mainland) for the establishment of new populations of little Group/ spotted kiwi with a combined carrying capacity of 450 birds, conservators and initiate translocations by 2013
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Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objective
# Action Timeframe Priority Accountability 10.1 Identify any sites containing Eastern brown kiwi that 2014 Medium Kiwi Recovery Group; would be suitable for the re-establishment of a viable EBK Taxon Group LSK population 10.2 Undertake research to identify any impact LSK have 2018 Medium SCIENCE & on Eastern brown kiwi behaviour and carrying capacity CAPABILITY GROUP; (Note: same as Action 51.3, section 5.3.11) Project Managers; EBK Taxon Group
5.1.11 Topic 11: Inbreeding Depression Small populations that become isolated for a considerable period of time can become genetically depauperate through the loss of genetic heterozygosity (Allendorf & Luikart, 2007) – the natural genetic variation that occurs in large populations containing many very distantly related individuals. This process is regarded as being particularly relevant with populations of 20 or fewer individuals and occurs by the increased probability that any individual in a small population will breed with a close relative. This reduces the total genetic diversity present in the next generation. The more generations that are affected by such inbreeding, the more the population tends towards genetic homogeneity, or ‘sameness’. All individuals are thought to carry so-called ‘lethal’ genes - genes that when fully expressed can have significant adverse effects upon the ‘fitness’ (survival rate or ability to adapt to a change in environmental conditions) of individuals. When a small population can only breed with close relatives who also carry the same lethal gene, the expression of these normally recessive genes will become increasingly prevalent, and can lead to a myriad of serious issues such as a decrease in individual viability, reproductive failure, and phenotypic mutation. If widespread, such a population is said to be in a state of inbreeding depression, and if breeding continues without the influx of genetic material devoid of this particular lethal gene, the population may enter an ‘extinction vortex’ (Allendorf & Luikart, 2007), with each generation increasingly inbred and eventually unable to produce viable off-spring.
Issues
Issue 11.1: Small populations of Eastern brown kiwi have experienced a recent genetic bottleneck event and may have lost considerable genetic diversity.
Issue 11.2: Some small managed populations of Eastern brown kiwi may have had a few individuals contribute many offspring and so genetically are disproportionately over-represented in the total population.
Issue 11.3: Sub-adult kiwi have a tendency to disperse several kilometers from their natal area or release point; they are expensive and difficult to track for the several years until they breed, so that any breeding with close relatives may not be immediately obvious.
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Issue 11.4: The female partners of many transmittered male kiwi are unknown and have never had genetic samples (i.e. feathers) taken; their genetic relationship to their male partners is largely unknown.
Issue 11.5: The management of inbreeding depression by translocation of unrelated Eastern brown kiwi may need to be tempered by an appropriate rate of genetic exchange or ‘gene flow’ from an appropriate source population.
Issue 11.6: Measuring the genetic diversity of individuals and populations is expensive, and it is likely to be difficult to gain access to expertise to measure and analyse all kiwi populations on an ongoing basis.
Issue 11.7: It may be difficult to determine if a sampled population with low genetic diversity is in any real danger of undergoing inbreeding depression.
Issue 11.8: Inbreeding depression can appear quickly in a small population, and take many generations of careful management to overcome.
Issue 11.9: It may be difficult for some individuals involved in Eastern brown kiwi projects to understand the need for robust genetic management of small populations, with many groups measuring their success solely on the total kiwi population, rather than the total effective population size of genetically unrelated individuals.
Objectives and Actions
Recovery Plan Objective Objective 12.1: To ensure that new populations of little spotted kiwi are as genetically diverse as possible, whilst maintaining the genetic diversity of the current Kapiti Island population at its current status
Taxon Plan Objective
Objective 11.1: To ensure all currently managed Eastern brown kiwi populations have an appropriate level of genetic diversity at all times and are at minimal risk of developing inbreeding depression
Recovery Plan Actions specified to meet objective
Action Action # Accountability Priority (recovery plan) Research genetic diversity within and between current 12.1 Research and High populations of little spotted kiwi and evidence of bottleneck Development Group effects by 2009 (Note: refer also to Action 25.3, section 5.3.2)
If research confirms that Long Island little spotted kiwi 12.2 Research and Essential population is sufficiently different from Kapiti Island Development population, initiate translocation(s) to maximise Long Island Group, Conservators genotype in new populations by 2010 Wellington, Nelson/Marlborough
Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objective
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# Action Timeframe Priority Accountability 11.1 Develop procedures for identifying if an Eastern 2013 High Project Managers; Kiwi brown kiwi population is at risk of, or undergoing, Recovery Group; Science inbreeding depression & Capability Group; EBK Taxon Group 11.2 Develop a Best Practice template for management 2013 High Science & Capability of small Eastern brown kiwi populations, including Group; EBK Taxon Group those steps required to prevent, minimise and mitigate any inbreeding depression 11.3 Develop genetic management plans for all Eastern 2013 High Project Managers; Science brown kiwi projects likely to be subject to small & Capability Group; EBK population effects, particularly those in which the Taxon Group total minimum population at any time is likely to have been less than 20 individuals 11.4 Measure the genetic diversity within and between 2014 Essential Project Managers; Science current managed and unmanaged populations of & Capability Group; EBK Eastern brown kiwi for evidence of recent genetic Taxon Group bottleneck effects (see Topic 42) 11.5 Ensure projects with small kiwi populations take the 2013 Essential Project Managers; EBK time, and use external expertise if appropriate, to onwards Taxon Group clearly articulate to members and the interested public why any potentially controversial management actions are appropriate for the genetic management of the small populations found in these projects
5.1.12 Topic 12: Distribution and abundance To achieve the goals of this Plan, and contribute towards the goals of the Kiwi Recovery Plan (Holzapfel et al, 2008), fundamental knowledge of the status of Eastern brown kiwi is required. Primarily, a more comprehensive knowledge of the simple distribution and abundance of this taxon is required. Remeasurement of this status over time will be able to discern population trends of the whole taxon.
Issues
Issue 12.1: The density and total number of Eastern brown kiwi is not accurately known, and the rate of decline of the whole taxon is unknown.
Issue 12.2: The historic and current distribution of Eastern brown kiwi is not fully known, and any rate of contraction or expansion is difficult to monitor accurately.
Issue 12.3: The presence and geographic limits of any naturally occurring ‘hybrid zones’ between Western or Coromandel brown kiwi taxa is unknown.
Issue 12.4: It is expensive and methodically difficult to determine the total number, density and abundance of Eastern brown kiwi, particularly in remote areas, with a reasonable degree of accuracy.
Objectives and Actions
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Recovery Plan Objectives Objective 13.1: To manage kiwi over as large a part of their historical range as possible Objective 13.2: To maintain genetic integrity within species at the appropriate scale Objective 13.3: To integrate mixed-provenance populations into the national recovery framework for kiwi, using them as source populations for translocations and designating ‘mixed-provenance zones’, i.e. areas between existing taxon boundaries where mixing between two taxa could have occurred naturally
Taxon Plan Objectives Objective 12.1: To have an accurate account of the distribution and relative abundance of Eastern Brown Kiwi Objective 12.2: To manage Eastern Brown Kiwi over as large a part of their historical range as possible Objective 12.3: To understand the significance of any ‘mixed-provenance zones’ between Western and Coromandel kiwi taxa
Recovery Plan Actions specified to meet objectives
Action Action # Accountability Priority (recovery plan) Identify in taxon plans opportunities for the establishment of new 13.1 Taxon plan lead High populations within the historic range of the taxon in 2009 conservators
Optimise low-level, landscape-scale management undertaken for 13.2 Area managers/ High non-kiwi-specific goals to benefit kiwi over their current conservators distribution by 2012 and then throughout the term of the plan
Manage currently recognised taxa within species as separate 13.3 Area managers/ High conservation management units, except in recognised mixed- conservators provenance zones, throughout the term of the plan
Manage populations within recognised taxa as much as feasible to 13.4 Area managers/ Medium maintain fine-scale diversity by minimising translocations between conservators geographic extremes and natural boundaries throughout the term of the plan
Manage mixed-provenance population on Hauturu/Little Barrier 13.5 Auckland Medium Island as part of the western brown kiwi taxon throughout the term Conservator of the plan
Manage mixed-provenance populations at Rimutaka and Pukaha 13.6 Wellington Medium Mount Bruce as part of the mixed-provenance zone between the Conservator western and eastern brown kiwi taxa throughout the term of the plan
Prepare a full list of mixed-provenance populations, their history 13.7 Recovery Group Medium and options for continued management (including inclusion in relevant taxon plan(s) and their potential as source or receiving populations for translocations) by 2010
Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objectives
# Action Timeframe Priority Accountability 12.1 Undertake kiwi listening surveys to ascertain the limits 2013 High Conservation Services of the current Eastern brown kiwi distribution onwards Managers; 12.2 Collect feather, faeces or blood samples near the 2013 High Conservation Services outer limits of the known Eastern brown kiwi onwards Managers; Project distribution, to determine if there is any hybrid zone Managers with Western or Coromandel kiwi (also see Topic 42)
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12.3 Collate all known surveys or observations for kiwi to 2013 Essential Conservation Services have a single depository of information on Eastern onwards Managers; Project brown kiwi abundance and distribution Managers, EBK Taxon Group 12.4 Design a survey schedule to improve the 2013 High EBK Taxon Group; understanding of the distribution and abundance of onwards Conservation Services Eastern brown kiwi Managers 12.5 Manage mixed-provenance populations at Rimutaka 2013 Medium Rimutaka & Pukaha and Pukaha Mount Bruce as part of the mixed- onwards Project Managers; provenance zone between the Western and Eastern Western brown kiwi brown kiwi taxa Taxon Group; EBK Taxon Group
5.1.13 Topic 13: Genetic Diversity The current total genetic diversity of the Eastern brown kiwi taxon is to be preserved as much as possible, consistent with Goal 1.2 (Section 4.2). To achieve such a goal, this genetic diversity needs to be measured. Understanding the genetic diversity of existing small isolated populations and their susceptibility to inbreeding depression (Topic 11) is particularly relevant.
Due to the relatively limited dispersal potential of Eastern brown kiwi compared to most flight-adapted avifauna, there may also be historically derived and important intra-taxonomic genetic gradients structured within the Eastern brown kiwi taxon. The presence of any such structure needs to be researched (see Topic 42) and understood before any large management- induced changes in gene flow within the taxon occurs; as once many translocations have been undertaken their effect on any genetic gradients are likely to be largely irreversible.
Issues
Issue 13.1: The historic and current range of allelic and genetic diversity within the entire Eastern brown kiwi taxon is not fully known.
Issue 13.2: The genetic diversity of recently fragmented, isolated and small Eastern brown kiwi populations is largely unknown (see Issue 23.3 also)
Issue 13.3: Due to its large and generally linear (or even Y-shaped) range and variable habitat, coupled with the possibility of limited gene flow in a Continuous Distribution Model (Allendorf & Luikart, 2007), there may be some historically meaningful genetic structure present over the geographic range of Eastern brown kiwi.
Issue 13.4: The importance of any genetic structuring, and any management restrictions this may entail, needs to be assessed within the context of the long-term sustainability of the taxon as a whole.
Issue 13.5: Management of speciation-inducing isolation events (i.e. the deliberate partial or total isolation of some Eastern brown kiwi populations
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Issue 13.6: The concept of possible geographic genetic gradients within the Eastern brown kiwi taxon is controversial and may be a low priority consideration relative to the medium-term security of populations and the taxon as a whole. As such, it may be difficult to attract funding to address this issue.
Issue 13.7: There is little direct evidence for the genetic gradient concept at present; however the advanced genetic technology required to determine its presence has only been practically available for a few years.
Issue 13.8: It is reasonable to apply a precautionary principle with translocations of Eastern brown kiwi, as high rates of unnatural gene flow could disrupt any existing genetic gradient and be difficult to subsequently overcome.
Objectives and Actions
Recovery Plan Objective Objective 13.2: To maintain genetic integrity within species at the appropriate scale
Taxon Plan Objectives
Objective 13.1: To determine the current genetic diversity of Eastern brown kiwi populations Objective 13.2: To maintain the current level of genetic diversity present in the Eastern brown kiwi taxon Objective 13.3: To determine any meaningful intra-taxon genetic diversity present within Eastern brown kiwi Objective 13.4: To allow any naturally occurring long-term isolating speciation events to act upon the Eastern brown kiwi taxon
Recovery Plan Actions specified to meet objective
Action Action # Accountability Priority (recovery plan) Manage currently recognised taxa within species as separate 13.3 Area High conservation management units, except in recognised mixed- managers/ provenance zones, throughout the term of the plan Conservators
Manage populations within recognised taxa as much as feasible to 13.4 Area Medium maintain fine-scale diversity by minimising translocations between managers/ geographic extremes and natural boundaries throughout the term of Conservators the plan
Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objectives
# Action Timeframe Priority Accountability 13.1 Support research into determining whether nuclear 2013 Essential Recovery Group; DNA microsatellites can provide sufficient onwards Science & Capability understanding of the Eastern brown kiwi genetic Group; EBK Taxon variation (see Topic 42) Group 13.2 Support research into determining if any meaningful 2013 Essential Recovery Group;
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intra-taxon genetic gradients (clines) exist through the onwards Science & Capability range of Eastern brown kiwi (see Topic 18 and Topic Group; EBK Taxon 42). This is the same as Action 18.1. Group 13.3 Manage populations within the Eastern brown kiwi 2013 Essential Project Managers; EBK taxon to maintain fine-scale diversity by minimising onwards Taxon Group translocations between geographic extremes and likely natural boundaries to approximate more natural rates of gene flow between populations
5.1.14 Topic 14: Data Management Most kiwi projects collect large amounts of data on a variety of topics, particularly kiwi morphological data, growth rates, kiwi territory size, kiwi dispersal, kiwi call rates and pest trapping results. The significance of this data may not always be appreciated at the time of collection by all projects, but collectively all Eastern brown kiwi projects have a vast wealth of useful data. Without careful management, this can easily be lost. The collection, storage and maintenance of data is crucial for many reasons, and gives opportunities to use the data in a variety of ways – many of which may not be obvious currently.
Issues
Issue 14.1: Each kiwi project collects data independently, has a different, diverse and in some cases (computer programs) incompatible systems of collecting, storing and analysing data; with varying ability to manage these different aspects.
Issue 14.2: There is a risk of data being irretrievably lost. A secure, confidential and retrievable repository of Eastern brown kiwi management data is required.
Issue 14.3: It is difficult to undertake accurate analysis of the entire Eastern brown kiwi taxon when data is not held in single repository.
Issue 14.4: Some groups may require considerable support to bring data, skills and equipment up to a standard that is consistent with other projects.
Issue 14.5: Data collection, storage and retrieval standards in all Eastern Brown kiwi taxon projects should be consistent with those of other kiwi taxa.
Issue 14.6: Some projects may not be kiwi-focused, so the standard of data collection may be deliberately less in some sites
Issue 14.7: Some projects may deliberately choose a low cost-low intensity option, with a correspondingly intentionally lower standard of information collected.
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Issue 14.8: Computer security is required to minimise viruses, worms or other malware infiltrating the data or operating systems of all projects; personnel may need to increase skills in computer use and computer security.
Issue 14.9: Data collection and management can be made more efficient by the use of new technology; keeping up to date with this technology is important to improve efficiencies.
Objectives and Actions
Recovery Plan Objective Objective 14.1: To ensure that data from kiwi recovery projects are managed in a consistent, efficient and effective manner, and are available for key users
Taxon Plan Objective
Objective 14.1: To ensure that data from all Eastern brown kiwi recovery projects are collected and managed in a consistent, efficient and effective manner, and are available for key users
Recovery Plan Actions specified to meet objective
Action Action # Accountability Priority (recovery plan) Develop a database for kiwi sanctuaries as part of the wider 14.1 General High database environment of DOC by 2010 Manager Research and Development
Undertake biennial reviews of data management procedures across 14.2 General Medium all kiwi sanctuaries, starting in 2010 Manager Research and Development
Investigate the incorporation of data from other DOC and 14.3 General Medium community-led kiwi projects into a single database by 2011 Manager Research and Development
Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objective
# Action Timeframe Priority Accountability 14.1 Develop a biennially reviewed and updated Best 2014 High Project Managers; Kiwi Practice document for the collection, security and biennially Recovery Group; EBK long-term storage of Eastern brown kiwi data from all Taxon Group projects and surveys 14.2 Support all Eastern brown kiwi projects to acquire 2013 High EBK Taxon Group; appropriate skills and equipment to follow the Best onwards Project Managers Practice developed in Action 14.1 14.3 Develop a database collating all Eastern brown kiwi 2013 Medium Project Managers; Kiwi data that is nationally consistent with other kiwi taxa onwards Recovery Group; EBK data management standards Taxon Group 14.4 Support the introduction and use of data loggers or 2013 Medium Science & Capability other in-field applications that can be transferred to onwards Group; Project Managers web-based storage and applications that all key users can access as appropriate (Note: same Action as
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49.2, section 5.3.9)
5.1.15 Topic 15: Captive Coordination Eastern brown kiwi has recently been selected as the only taxon to be sustained by the New Zealand captive industry (Barlow, 2011). Captive institutes often have considerable resources devoted to caring for these birds in captivity. The primary goal of the captive population is advocacy followed by having a sustainable population that can provide birds for release into the wild.
Issues
Issue 15.1: The considerable resources involved in captive management nationally could be better aligned with supporting the goals of this Taxon Plan, i.e. ensuring the long-term in situ persistence of Eastern brown kiwi taxon.
Issue 15.2: Many aspects of kiwi physiology and behaviour can best be researched in controlled captive conditions.
Issue 15.3: The Objectives and Actions in this Taxon Plan need to be consistent with the Goals, Objectives and Actions of the Kiwi Captive Management Plan (Barlow, 2011).
Objectives and Actions
Recovery Plan Objective Objective 15.1: To ensure that captive management supports key recovery planning objectives for all kiwi taxa
Captive Management Plan Vision Captive management for kiwi is effective through a single provenance population of Brown Kiwi which is numerically self-sustaining, demographically stable and genetically healthy, maintained in facilities that model excellence in kiwi husbandry.
The programme through which this population is managed is strongly supported and valued by all holders. It delivers key advocacy messages widely and effectively, provides a resource for recovery-directed training and research and fosters the capacity for escalation to a breed for release programme as required.
Captive Management Plan Goals
Captive Management Goal: Transition captive population from Northland, Eastern, Western, and ‘mixed’ provenance Brown Kiwi to a single captive management unit of Eastern provenance Brown Kiwi.
Genetic Goal 1: Retain 90% of wild genetic diversity over 20 years
Genetic Goal 2: Ensure all offspring produced have an inbreeding threshold of below F = 0.125
Demographic Goal 1: Target population size 110 -120 over next 5 years
Demographic Goal 2: Move towards stable age structure
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Recruitment Goal: Acquire 6 new Eastern founders through BNZ Operation Nest EggTM over the next 5 years.
Husbandry & Management Goal 1: All holders meet the minimum standards defined in the Brown Kiwi Husbandry Manual.
Husbandry & Management Goal 2: Department of Conservation (DOC) Conservancy permitting process supports the consistent implementation of minimum husbandry standards.
Husbandry & Management Goal 3: To have sufficient kiwi breeding expertise to be able to support the programme goals.
Participant Support Goal 1: Ensure that the captive management strategy meets both population goals and the display needs of participating institutions.
Participant Support Goal 2: Maintain a shared understanding and support of the programme’s goals.
Participant Support Goal 3: Establish a network of expertise to support new or inexperienced captive institutions.
Participant Support Goal 4: Ensure that holders are aware of the multiple roles that captive birds can contribute to species recovery.
Advocacy Goal 1: Develop key advocacy messages through the ZAA Education Specialist Advisory Group (SAG) in liaison with the National Mentor for Kiwi Advocacy (a member of the Kiwi Recovery Group).
Advocacy Goal 2: Develop a programme wide evaluation process.
Ex situ Research & Training Goal 1: Ensure that appropriate captive kiwi are made available for relevant research and training initiatives.
Ex situ Research & Training Goal 2: Research on captive kiwi is prioritised through Recovery Group direction.
Conservation Fund Goal: All participants in the programme are encouraged to contribute any institutional based conservation funding initiatives to the BNZ Save the Kiwi Trust.
Taxon Plan Objective
Objective 15.1: To ensure that captive management of Eastern brown kiwi supports key recovery planning Goals and Objectives for this taxon and is consistent with the Vision and Goals of the Kiwi Captive Management Plan.
Recovery Plan Actions specified to meet objective
Action Action # Accountability Priority (recovery plan) Clarify the formal link between the Kiwi Recovery Group and 15.1 Recovery Medium CMaG: ARAZPA as the industry’s official representative Group/ARAZPA body by 2009
Review the role of KCMAC by 2009 15.2 Recovery Medium Group/ARAZPA
Review the captive management plan by 2009 (and 5-yearly 15.3 Recovery Essential thereafter), to ensure linkage with the recovery plan and Group/Research taxon plan objectives, including the identification of capacity & Development requirements (BNZ Operation Nest Egg, public viewing Group/ARAZPA opportunities, crèche sites)
Report on progress towards captive management plan 15.4 Recovery Medium objectives, and provide recommendations annually to the Group/ARAZPA Recovery Group and captive holders throughout the term of the plan
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Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objective
# Action Timeframe Priority Accountability 15.1 Clarify the formal link and reporting structures for 2013 Medium Kiwi Recovery Group; captive kiwi between the Eastern Brown Kiwi Taxon ZAA; EBK Taxon Group Group, Kiwi Recovery Group, ZAA and captive institutes 15.2 Develop a plan consistent with the objectives of the 2014 High Kiwi Recovery Group; Kiwi Captive Management Plan that prioritises sites EBK Taxon Group and issues to enable the captive industry to best contribute to in situ Eastern brown kiwi recovery 15.3 Support research into aspects of kiwi physiology, 2013 Medium Captive institutes; EBK behaviour and captive management where these can onwards Taxon Group; Science & best be researched in controlled captive conditions Capability Group
5.1.16 Topic 16: Captive Husbandry Captive husbandry refers to the long-term care of adult kiwi and the 4-6 months it takes to grow chicks from hatching to 800-1000g in weight as part of the BNZ ONETM process by captive institutes. A best practice manual for brown kiwi husbandry (Fraser & Johnson, 2009) has been developed.
Issues
Issue 16.1: Disease in captive kiwi may be more prevalent than in wild kiwi, with potential to spread this disease through translocation to wild kiwi populations.
Objectives and Actions
Recovery Plan Objective
Objective 16.1: To ensure that best practice for captive husbandry, including minimum standards, is collated, communicated efficiently and implemented
Taxon Plan Objective Objective 16.1: To ensure that best practice for the captive husbandry of Eastern brown kiwi is maintained by all captive institutions and where necessary improved
Recovery Plan Actions specified to meet objective
Action Action # Accountability Priority (recovery plan) Review and update the kiwi captive husbandry manual by 16.1 Captive High 2008 and biennially thereafter coordinator/ ARAZPA
In collaboration with CMAG: ARAZPA, develop standards for 16.2 Recovery High accreditation and monitoring of captive management facilities Group/ kiwi and practitioners, including for BNZ Operation Nest Egg and captive breeding for release programmes, by 2010 coordinator/
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ARAZPA
Include implementation of best practice as described in the 16.3 Area managers/ Medium kiwi captive husbandry manual as part of the permit conservators conditions for captive facilities by 2010 and then throughout the term of the plan
Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objective(s)
# Action Timeframe Priority Accountability 16.1 Support the Kiwi Recovery Group in achieving the 2013 High Captive institutes; EBK Objectives and undertaking the Actions outlined in the onwards Taxon Group; Kiwi Recovery Plan for the captive husbandry of Eastern brown kiwi
5.1.17 Topic 17: BNZ Operation Nest EggTM Bank of New Zealand Operation Nest Egg (BNZ ONETM) is a tool that enables eggs or very young chicks from wild kiwi to be brought into captivity, then hatched and supported for the most vulnerable stage of its life-cycle. The lack of adult recruitment due to the high mortality rate of young kiwi from predation by introduced mustelids is the greatest single contributor to the demise of wild kiwi populations. BNZ ONETM helps to overcome this bottleneck by providing a high standard of care to enable most kiwi eggs to hatch much higher than wild hatching rates.
There are two components to BNZONETM: 1. Incubation sites – eggs are incubated and hatched, then chicks spend 2-3 weeks at these sites until they are above hatch weight; 2. Rearing sites – 2-3 week old juveniles are transferred to predator-free islands, crèche sites, fenced areas or captive husbandry institutes (Fig. 5).
Most juveniles are reared for approximately 6 months, or until they reach 800- 1000g in total body weight, when they are often transferred to an established kiwi project or wild population where they can behave and function as a natural part of an ecosystem and can contribute to the propagation of subsequent kiwi generations.
Eastern brown kiwi are fortunate that there are a number of high quality incubation sites within the area (Fig. 5), but as a consequence of their success, there are limited spaces for eggs at incubation sites. In addition, these sites were developed for the benefit of all kiwi, so eggs are sent from projects from other kiwi taxa. BNZONETM is a short to medium-term solution to declining wild kiwi populations. It is expensive to raise kiwi in this manner (approx $5000 per bird if raised in captivity for 6 months), and the repeated selection of eggs from the same pairs can have long-term consequences, particularly for small populations. (Also see Topic 46).
Issues
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Issue 17.1: Currently 5 of 14 captive institutes are participating in BNZ ONETM.
Issue 17.2: The limited capacity at BNZONETM sites is likely to come under increasing pressure, and may mean other management options may need to be pursued – e.g. pulsing of ONE for each area.
Issue 17.3: Effective communications between all partners involved in the BNZONETM process is required, i.e. kiwi projects, DOC and captive BNZONETM institutes.
Issue 17.4: The locations and size of captive rearing facilities may need to be optimised to align with current and future needs.
Issue 17.5: Any effects arising from hatching and raising multiple kiwi generations in captivity are unknown.
Issue 17.6: The viability of eggs and chicks produced by kiwi may decline as pairs age.
Objectives and Actions
Recovery Plan Objective Objective 17.1: To ensure that the use of BNZONETM is effective and undertaken to sufficient standard
Taxon Plan Objective
Objective 17.1: To ensure that BNZONETM is targeted to support the highest priority Eastern brown kiwi projects that are in most need of its services in any breeding year
Recovery Plan Actions specified to meet objective
Action Action # Accountability Priority (recovery plan) Review protocols for all components of BNZ Operation Nest Egg, 17.1 Recovery Essential including the development of minimum standards as part of best Group/ captive practice, by 2009 and update biennially coordinator/ ARAZPA
Initiate national coordination for the collection and reporting of 17.2 Recovery Group Medium data on the use of BNZ Operation Nest Egg by 2009 captive coordinator/ ARAZPA
Develop guidelines for when and where to use BNZ Operation Nest 17.3 Research & High Egg instead of, or in conjunction with, other tools by 2010 Development Group
Develop a 10-year plan for BNZ Operation Nest Egg, including 17.4 Recovery High number and location of incubation facilities and crèche sites, by Group/ captive 2010 coordinator/ ARAZPA
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Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objective
# Action Timeframe Priority Accountability 17.1 Support Kiwi Recovery Group national coordination of 2013 High Project Managers; EBK BNZONETM reporting standards onwards Taxon group 17.2 Consider options to make best use of the limited 2013 High Project Managers; resources provided by BNZONETM incubation sites for BNZONETM incubation Eastern brown kiwi, and co-ordinate with other taxa sites; Western Brown that use these same sites (e.g. biennial pulsing of Kiwi Taxon Group; EBK projects) Taxon group 17.3 Determine the likely future requirements of BNZONETM 2013 High Project Managers; captive facilities for Eastern brown kiwi, including the BNZONETM incubation required capacity and optimal location of these sites; EBK Taxon group 17.4 Develop models that show the most cost-effective use 2013 High EBK Taxon Group of BNZONETM for Eastern brown kiwi sites, and compare with other management tools 17.5 Develop a database that collates all BNZONETM 2013 High BNZONETM incubation outcomes for Eastern brown kiwi and analyse trends sites; EBK Taxon group that may increase management efficiencies
5.1.18 Topic 18: Genetics and Meta-population Management The management of the entire Eastern brown kiwi taxon needs to be co- ordinated in a manner beneficial for all populations, and the taxon as an overall entity. Two main options exist:
1. Pragmatic Option - manage the taxon as though it is one population with free gene flow between all parts of the taxon, i.e. unrestrained total intermixing of all parts of the taxon; or 2. Precautionary Option – manage the taxon assuming some meaningful genetic structures or gradients are present within the taxon, approximating natural rates of gene flow by translocating kiwi between nearby populations only, i.e. limited geographic inter-mixing.
In the current absence of in-depth genetic knowledge and understanding of the entire Eastern brown kiwi taxon, these options could be referred to as the ‘pragmatic’ and ‘precautionary’ options respectively. The pragmatic option assumes there is little genetic structure within the taxon, and even if there is, it is of little significance. Actions taken under this scenario may be unable to reversed if the precautionary paradigm is later shown to be true, and there is meaningful and important genetic structure within the taxon.
Issues
Issue 18.1: A comparison between the ‘precautionary’ versus ‘pragmatic’ approaches to Eastern brown kiwi taxon-wide meta-population management is needed. There is a financial cost associated with a precautionary approach and the associated meta-population management that goes with it, and any gains should be greater than any cost.
Issue 18.2: The genetic diversity of the many small isolated remnant Eastern brown kiwi populations found throughout its range is essentially unknown.
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This knowledge is required to determine the best allocation of this resource (e.g. use these birds or their progeny to further support new populations that have already commenced management, translocate them to existing populations, or set up new management areas).
Issue 18.3: There is no best practice for sourcing kiwi when establishing entirely new kiwi populations within the Eastern brown kiwi taxon.
Issue 18.4: Clear rules or guidelines are needed for the most appropriate translocation sources for kiwi at each site.
Issue 18.5: Eastern brown kiwi may have local genetic variation due to isolation by distance (Wright, 1943), and in a Continuous Distribution Model (Allendorf & Luikart, 2007), genetic differences or gradients may develop across the taxon over long periods.
Issue 18.6: There is some inconsistent interpretation of what is meant by the Kiwi Recovery Plan Topic 13.4: “fine-scale diversity must be maintained”. Clarification and resolution from the Kiwi Recovery Group on the definition of ‘fine-scale diversity’ and the ability of the Eastern Brown Kiwi Taxon Group to define this is required.
Issue 18.7: The implications of any ‘hybrid zones’ on the management of Eastern brown kiwi is unclear.
Issue 18.8: Management of very small populations are a special case due to low genetic variability; meta-population management may not be applicable to these sites in the medium term (e.g. the use of the ‘boomerang’ kiwi chick method, where for each chick that goes to a new site, another returns to original site).
Issue 18.9: The ex-Bay of Plenty Conservancy had a plan for their kiwi (Owen, 2006) which involved shifting and sharing birds between sites. The relevance of this in the context of the whole taxon needs to be assessed.
Issue 18.10: Genetic bottlenecks need to be ‘unblocked’ quickly to avoid long-term deleterious genetic effects – all sites should have greater than 40 unrelated individual kiwi within a decade.
Issue 18.11: Could outbreeding depression be an issue for Eastern brown kiwi?
Issue 18.12: A practical, effective strategy for managing this taxon in the context of a declining overall population needs to be developed.
Issue 18.13: Determine the likely places kiwi will be translocated to from each kiwi project in the long-term, and decide sources of kiwi based on the two management paradigms.
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Issue 18.14: Meta-population management is more complex and can be difficult for people to understand why such management is important compared to a simpler more pragmatic approach.
Objectives and Actions
Taxon Plan Objective
Objective 18.1: To undertake effective meta-population management of the entire Eastern brown kiwi taxon
Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objective
# Action Timeframe Priority Accountability 18.1 Support research into determining if any meaningful 2013 Essential Science & Capability intra-taxon genetic gradients (clines) exist through the onwards Group; EBK Taxon range of Eastern brown kiwi (see Topic 42). This is the Group same as Action 13.2. 18.2 Develop a plan for the genetic management of the 2015 Essential Science & Capability entire Eastern brown kiwi taxon Group; EBK Taxon Group; Project Managers 18.3 Develop clear guidelines for appropriate translocations 2013 Essential Science & Capability between both managed and unmanaged populations onwards Group; EBK Taxon of Eastern brown kiwi Group; Project Managers 18.4 Develop a plan on future management options for 2013 High Science & Capability small non-viable remnant kiwi populations likely to Group; Kiwi Recovery have rare genetic alleles that can be captured (e.g. group; EBK Taxon new populations started, add to existing populations, Group; Project need to set up new management area) (also see Managers Topic 23) 18.5 Trace the previous translocation history of kiwi in all 2013 High Project Managers; EBK managed sites Taxon Group
5.1.19 Topic 19: Priority Kiwi Management Sites The Eastern Brown Kiwi taxon is distributed over approximately 1,000,000 ha – amongst the largest current distribution of any kiwi taxon. The cost of managing this entire area is prohibitive, so that the highest priority sites could be selected and managed with any contestable or transferable funding. These sites could be selected to maximize the chances of achieving the goals of the Taxon Plan (Section 4.1 and 4.2), at minimal total cost.
Issues
Issue 19.1: Each current management site or potential management site requires a cost-benefit analysis of costs versus likely outcome at each site, so that the most cost-effective sites are demonstrated.
Issue 19.2: Kiwi management sites should be proportionally representative of the current and/or historic distribution of Eastern Brown Kiwi.
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Issue 19.3: It may be more efficient to utilise current management sites and infrastructure to minimise costs before setting up any new sites.
Issue 19.4: The current kiwi distribution (Goal 1.2, Section 4.2) should be maintained.
Issue 19.5: Are we encouraging too many groups/projects making the entire taxon ultimately unsustainable to manage? Perhaps develop a more strategic approach to prioritise which projects are supported.
Issue 19.6: Ranking Eastern brown kiwi projects could result in lower ranked sites struggling to obtain sufficient funding.
Issue 19.7: Translocate kiwi to well-funded projects as they may be the only sustainable projects in the medium to long-term.
Objectives and Actions
Taxon Plan Objective
Objective 19.1: To undertake effective management of kiwi populations at the highest priority sites for Eastern brown kiwi
Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objective
# Action Timeframe Priority Accountability 19.1 Prioritise current and potential management sites by using a 2013 Essential EBK Taxon clear set of criteria (e.g. cost-effectiveness, population security, Group sustainability, iwi cultural valuable sites and representativeness of Eastern brown kiwi distribution) 19.2 Provide community groups with information on priority areas for 2014 High Kiwi RG; EBK management of Eastern brown kiwi (Same Action as 35.3) Taxon Group; Lead Director Conservation Partnerships (Central North Island)
5.1.20 Topic 20: Fenced Sites Fences have proven to be a useful tool for kiwi management over the past decade or more. Fence technology has allowed the creation of small to large areas of habitat to be largely resistant to predator incursion, and, coupled with increased pest control technology, have enabled kiwi to establish viable populations over large areas of mainland habitat.
Fences have a range of uses - from mustelid and cat-proof crèche sites (Section 21), where kiwi are raised from very young ages (usually following BNZONETM egg incubation and hatching) to 800-1000g in weight - to large sites where adults can breed in a low predator environment with a correspondingly high reproductive success rate.
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Fence technology has evolved and matured over the past decade from idealistic aims of total prevention of all pests, to the realization that a low level of predators can be sustained if robust populations of kiwi exist within the fence. Cape Kidnapper’s Preserve is an example of this – the fence has a number of gaps which are managed by conventional pest control – and does not necessarily prevent mice from penetrating the fence.
Other fences have been used that are not designed to prevent pest incursion, but rather to limit kiwi dispersal, e.g. at Puketukutuku peninsula at Lake Waikaremoana. Here ongoing intensive mustelid control has enabled a high rate of kiwi chick survival, and coupled with the fence constraining juvenile dispersal, has resulted in a large population increase at this site. This high density kiwi population to allows more kiwi to benefit from the same mustelid trapping regime for the same cost.
There is also the growing realization that fences are susceptible to damage, predator incursion or even vandalism at all times, and management is required at all times to maintain them. Maintenance of predator-proof fences is substantial, and small holes can open up through a variety of means. The most common cause of damage is treefall, but soil subsidence, stream blockage and slips are all possible. Small cracks or holes can also develop under fences over time, especially during drought conditions. Managing all these contingencies can ultimately be very expensive over the lifetime of the fence which may affect the long-term viability of some projects.
Issues
Issue 20.1: Fences can be expensive to install, eliminate pests from their interior and maintain.
Issue 20.2: The cost-benefit of fences for applicable Eastern brown kiwi projects should be fully costed and compared with other forms of management.
Issue 20.3: There are a variety of fence types that can be used for different purposes at different sites.
Objectives and Actions
Taxon Plan Objective
Objective 20.1: To determine the best mix of fenced sites for kiwi crèches, kohanga kiwi and kiwi projects
Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objective(s)
# Action Timeframe Priority Accountability 20.1 Undertake a cost-benefit analysis of the different types of 2013 High EBK Taxon management fences for Eastern brown kiwi compared to other Group
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management options 20.2 Determine the most cost-effective sites for different fence types 2013 High EBK Taxon for future management of Eastern brown kiwi (Note: see Topic 21 Group and Action 21.1)
5.1.21 Topic 21: Kiwi Crèches Kiwi chicks are very vulnerable to predation by introduced mammals, particularly by stoats, when they weigh less than 1000g (McLennan et al., 1996). Therefore kiwi chicks can be raised in predator-free areas until they reach this weight threshold, and then safely released into sites containing stoats, augmenting resident kiwi populations. Here sub-adult kiwi can continue to grow, behave in a normal manner and undertake their ecological role at these sites.
Issues
Issue 21.1: The use of islands as kiwi crèches can be very cost-effective.
Issue 21.2: The number and site of crèche sites needs to be more strategic than the current approach.
Issue 21.3: A Best Practice guide is needed for kiwi crèche site management.
Issue 21.4: The cost-effectiveness of crèche sites needs to be compared with other management options, such as the captive raising of chicks and in situ predator trapping.
Objective and Actions
Taxon Plan Objective
Objective 21.1: To optimise the sustainable number, location, size and management of Eastern brown kiwi crèches to augment natural kiwi populations
Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objective
# Action Timeframe Priority Accountability 21.1 Determine the current and future requirements of kiwi 2013 High EBK Taxon Group crèches for Eastern brown kiwi and the best sites for these to achieve the goals of this Plan (Note: see Topic 20 and Action 20.2 also) 21.2 Support the development of cost-effective best 2013 Medium Project Managers; EBK practice management for kiwi crèche sites onwards Taxon Group
5.1.22 Topic 22: Kohanga Kiwi Sites ‘Kohanga kiwi’ is a term coined to express the ‘farming’ of kiwi at some sites, where intensive pest control and inhibition of dispersal (fenced areas or naturally isolated sites such as islands) enable kiwi to reach a high density,
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Kohanga kiwi is a process in which a high density of kiwi pairs is achieved in a very low pest environment; their ‘stoat-proof’ sub-adult offspring can then be harvested each year to supplement in situ kiwi populations which have little or no management.
Issues
Issue 22.1: The best sites for Eastern brown kohanga kiwi need to be identified and prioritised.
Issue 22.2: The extent to which identified kohanga kiwi sites can contribute to in situ Eastern brown kiwi populations needs to be modelled and communicated.
Issue 22.3: The implementation of kohanga kiwi projects at high priority sites should be supported.
Objective and Actions
Taxon Plan Objective
Objective 22.1: To develop kohanga kiwi sites that can achieve highly cost-effective kiwi management for Eastern brown kiwi
Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objective
# Action Timeframe Priority Accountability 22.1 Support the development of identified priority kohanga 2013 High EBK Taxon Group kiwi sites for Eastern brown kiwi (see Action 19.1) onwards 22.2 Develop models for optimizing the size, location and 2013 Medium Research & management methods of kohanga kiwi sites Development; EBK Taxon Group
5.1.23 Topic 23: Small unmanaged kiwi populations The distribution of the Eastern brown kiwi taxon has declined markedly in the last 150 years. In addition, the taxon has become fragmented, particularly in the east (Hawke’s Bay and Gisborne district) and also western Bay of Plenty (Fig. 2), where extensive clearing of native forest has substantially reduced available kiwi habitat. In addition, incursion by stoats, ferrets and dogs are likely to have had a significant predatory impact upon kiwi populations in these areas.
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As a result, there are substantial areas that may have nonviable remnant kiwi populations. These kiwi populations are vulnerable to imminent extinction, as typically they are found in small areas of fragmented habitat, have small populations, are isolated from interacting with other kiwi populations, and are more vulnerable to the penetration of their habitat by large predators (dogs, cats and ferrets). Additionally, small populations can be more susceptible to stochastic effects including human possum trapping. These populations may however contain significant genetic variation, containing alleles with low representation in current large-scale Eastern brown kiwi management areas, which are more likely to be sited in larger remote inland areas.
For largely unexplained reasons, Eastern brown kiwi populations at the extremes of its distribution - yet found within large areas of suitable habitat (Ruahine, Kaimanawa, eastern Raukumara and Kaimai ranges) - have low population densities, and without urgent appropriate management appear to be at imminent risk of extinction.
Such small and unmanaged populations may require targeted management regimes in order to halt the decline in the distribution of this taxon and so achieve the aspirations of Goal 1.2 (Section 4.2.1). Also see the related Topic 7 (Small Managed Kiwi Populations).
Issues
Issue 23.1: The management of small isolated Eastern brown kiwi populations or individuals in small areas of habitat is generally more expensive per bird than large populations.
Issue 23.2: In situ management of low density kiwi populations (i.e. small populations in large areas of habitat) is expensive per bird.
Issue 23.3: The genetic diversity of these small populations is largely unknown and may offer unique genetic diversity compared to those populations currently benefiting from kiwi management (see Issue 13.2 also).
Objective and Actions
Taxon Plan Objective
Objective 23.1: To understand and undertake cost-effective management of small, isolated and currently unmanaged Eastern brown kiwi populations containing significant genetic diversity
Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objective
# Action Timeframe Priority Accountability 23.1 Identify small currently unmanaged Eastern brown 2014 High EBK Taxon Group; kiwi populations with the highest risk of extinction Project Managers (after completing Action 53.1) 23.2 Estimate the cost of various management options for 2014 Medium EBK Taxon Group small remnant populations currently present in both small and large areas of remaining forest habitat
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23.3 Determine cost-effective methods for managing small 2014 Medium EBK Taxon Group; Eastern brown kiwi populations in small habitats (e.g. Project Managers ‘mopping up’ remnant kiwi to capture this genetic diversity), and decide what to do with these birds (e.g. start new populations, add to existing populations, need to set up new management area)
5.1.24 Topic 24: Re-establishment of Locally Extinct Kiwi Populations As the distribution of Eastern brown kiwi has contracted markedly over the past 150 years (Fig. 2), many kiwi populations have become locally extinct. Re-establishing these lost populations to maintain the original kiwi distribution requires an ambitious management approach, which may often need to overcome multiple agents of decline, including unexpected stochastic effects.
Only a few attempts have been made to re-establish locally extinct kiwi populations in unfenced sites on the mainland, most notably at Boundary Stream Mainland Island. There were many unexpected issues that arose during this process, and currently, after more than 10 years of effort, the population, while slowly growing, continues to suffer ongoing setbacks and cannot yet be regarded as secure. In addition, severe and extended genetic bottlenecks may threaten the long-term viability of populations that do not expand rapidly after translocations, due to long-term genetic issues that may arise.
Issues
Issue 24.1: The best sites for re-establishing new populations of Eastern brown kiwi need to be established and prioritised.
Issue 24.2: There is currently no best practice management for re- establishing new populations of Eastern brown kiwi.
Issue 24.3: Re-establishing Eastern brown kiwi populations on the mainland is expensive and takes many years.
Issue 24.4: The re-establishment of locally extinct Eastern brown kiwi populations is a lower priority compared to securing and recovering larger existing populations.
Issue 24.5: The genetic make-up of newly established Eastern brown kiwi populations is crucial to its long-term success. Extended bottlenecks following translocation may cause long-term genetic issues with translocated populations.
Issue 24.6: The use of island sites for re-establishing kiwi populations needs to be considered (see also Topic 6, Section 5.1.6).
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Issue 24.7: The long-term role of all sites that are to have kiwi populations re- established for overall Taxon recovery needs to be clearly decided (e.g. will it always be a ‘sink’ and need continual kiwi imports, or will it be a viable population and contribute to other projects?).
Objective and Actions
Taxon Plan Objective
Objective 24.1: To undertake management to re-establish locally extinct Eastern brown kiwi populations at priority sites in order to achieve Goal 1.2.
Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objective
# Action Timeframe Priority Accountability 24.1 Determine sites of past local extinction Eastern brown 2013 Medium EBK Taxon Group kiwi events, i.e. sites where the kiwi distribution is now non-contiguous 24.2 Undertake a cost-benefit analysis of re-establishing 2013 Medium EBK Taxon Group; locally extinct kiwi populations, using projects currently Project Managers undertaking this process 24.3 Develop a Best Practice plan to minimise the costs of 2014 Medium Project Managers; EBK re-establishing locally extinct kiwi populations Taxon Group 24.4 Prioritise sites to re-establish locally extinct Eastern 2015 Medium EBK Taxon Group brown kiwi populations 24.5 Implement Best Practice to re-establish extinct Eastern 2015 Medium Project Managers brown kiwi populations at priority sites onwards
5.1.25 Topic 25: Dog Management The impact of dogs on Eastern brown kiwi populations can be severe. All kiwi are vulnerable to dogs, but the prevalence of pig hunting in particular over large areas of the Eastern brown kiwi distribution, exposes a significant proportion of the kiwi population to significant risk. Pig dogs are of particular concern in the larger more remote backcountry areas of this Taxon, and in some exotic production forestry areas. Dogs in these large forest areas can also be lost during hunting expeditions (particularly in sites only accessible by helicopter), and become feral and in some cases even breed, where they can have a sustained large impact upon resident kiwi populations. Management of this issue is difficult, but kiwi aversion training may help lessen this risk and raise awareness of the issue. Domestic pet dogs in urban and semi-rural areas can also be of significant threat, most likely in smaller forest remnants. Management of these dogs may require a different suite of management options than those for pig hunting dogs. Working dogs in rural areas may also require some management in some forest-pasture margin areas. See also Sections 5.1.32, 5.3.8 and 5.3.14.
Issues
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Issue 25.1: Dogs are a high threat to kiwi. If non-natural adult kiwi deaths could be eliminated, little stoat control may be needed to maintain current large populations.
Issue 25.2: A heightened awareness of the need to have dogs go through kiwi aversion training is required.
Issue 25.3: Central and local government legislation on dog control and kiwi needs to have greater consequences for offending dogs and people.
Issue 25.4: Simpler legislation with higher penalties regarding dogs that cross all reserve and jurisdictional boundaries is needed to improve compliance and reduce dog impacts on kiwi.
Issue 25.5: A multi-agency approach to dog control could be useful and effective – use Ohope as a pilot study.
Issue 25.6: Dog management in urban areas where kiwi are found is difficult due to the sheer numbers of dogs and various attitudes of owners to dog compliance in kiwi areas.
Objective and Actions
Taxon Plan Objective
Objective 25.1: To minimise the impact of dog predation on Eastern brown kiwi populations
Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objective
# Action Timeframe Priority Accountability 25.1 Support the development of effective legislation at local, 2013 High EBK Taxon regional and national forums to obtain a high level of protection onwards Group for kiwi from dogs 25.2 Support the development of kiwi aversion training for all dogs 2013 Essential Project likely to come into contact with Eastern brown kiwi onwards managers 25.3 Support the development of tools in which to manage the threat 2013 Essential Project that urban, working, hunting and feral dogs pose to Eastern onwards Managers; brown kiwi EBK Taxon Group 25.4 Contribute to the national dog kill database as incidents are 2013 Essential Project reported to better understand the extent of the impact of dogs onwards Managers on EBK
5.1.26 Topic 26: Funding Kiwi Conservation Generally, kiwi conservation has high management costs. Costs can be minimised in some special cases by containing management to predator-free islands, but by far the majority of kiwi habitat and management occurs on the mainland where multiple agents of kiwi decline are ubiquitous.
Kiwi projects require a long-term outlook, and require sustained funding in order to maintain outputs, achieve project objectives, and contribute to the
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Issues
Issue 26.1: A catastrophic collapse in funding for all Eastern brown kiwi projects will change the long-term outlook for all projects.
Issue 26.2: The impact of budgetary cuts on any project could compromise the viability of that project.
Issue 26.3: To achieve long-term Goals (Section 4.2), long-term sustainable funding needs to be obtained for Eastern brown kiwi.
Issue 26.4: There may be an optimum structure to fund Eastern brown kiwi projects.
Issue 26.5: It is likely that a balance of DOC, private and community funding will be required to achieve the Goals of this Taxon Plan (Section 4.2)
Issue 26.6: The total resourcing needed to achieve the Goals of this Taxon Plan has not been calculated.
Issue 26.7: A group or person could be employed to obtain funds for Eastern brown kiwi projects.
Issue 26.8: Many projects are heavily reliant on single sponsors e.g. Bank of New Zealand Kiwi Recovery Trust, to maintain their projects. The diversity of sponsors may need to be increased to hedge against competition for resources from other projects, or future closure of that funding stream.
Objective and Actions
Taxon Plan Objective
Objective 26.1: To maintain funding to allow sufficient management at all high priority Eastern brown kiwi sites throughout the life of this Taxon Plan.
Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objective
# Action Timeframe Priority Accountability 26.1 Determine the minimum resource required for all 2013 Essential Project Managers; EBK Eastern brown kiwi projects needed to achieve the Taxon Group Goals of this Taxon Plan 26.2 Outline options that may be used to achieve the 2013 Medium Project Managers; Kiwi Goals of this Taxon Plan, with varying levels of Recovery Group; EBK declining funding Taxon Group 26.3 Develop an understanding between all Eastern brown 2013 High Directors Conservation kiwi projects for them to work collaboratively and co- onwards Services; Directors operatively with each other to support a minimum Conservation
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funding for a few high priority projects, that could be Partnerships; Kiwi supported by other projects if individual funding Recovery group; Project streams for these projects declines Managers; EBK Taxon Group
5.1.27 Topic 27: Kiwi as Conservation Flagships Kiwi are an iconic symbol of New Zealand, and are a recognised taonga species for many iwi. As such, the conservation of any kiwi population is likely to be regarded as a high priority by most New Zealanders. As many other species or ecosystems do not share this same level of special treatment that is afforded kiwi, it could be seen as a responsibility of kiwi projects to try to ensure that as many of these important natural elements of our indigenous flora and fauna can also be protected at sites where kiwi can also be protected. This could include undertaking kiwi management at a low priority site for kiwi, because there are significant other natural values present, and such kiwi management would enable funds to be attracted to the project that would otherwise have little chance of being obtained.
In addition, many kiwi projects may be able to achieve significant benefits for other native species or the ecosystems the kiwi are located in, by undertaking kiwi management or perhaps even additional management actions. As kiwi are inherently a cryptic species, these other benefits (e.g. increased diurnal native bird numbers) may aid in attracting additional support for the project itself by neighbouring landowners.
Issues
Issue 27.1: Intensive kiwi management can have larger benefits for other aspects of the environment/conservation
Issue 27.2: Kiwi are just one component of sustainable environmental management.
Issue 27.3: Other conservation benefits than just for kiwi could result from many kiwi-focussed projects.
Issue 27.4: Management efficiencies in monitoring, operational activities, councils; development opportunities
Issue 27.5: Kiwi chick survival rate is an excellent measure of stoat control. The adult kiwi call rate may also reflect management success over time.
Objective and Actions
Taxon Plan Objective
Objective 27.1: To use the nationally iconic status of kiwi to enable other high priority conservation projects to
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become sustainably established
Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objective
# Action Timeframe Priority Accountability 27.1 Prioritise other conservation values present at current 2013 Medium Project Mangers; Area Eastern brown kiwi management sites Mangers; Science & Capability Group 27.2 Assess the conservation values of other sites within 2013 Medium Science & Capability the current and historic distribution of Eastern brown Group kiwi, and consider whether attracting funding to undertake kiwi management at these sites could help protect these conservation values
5.1.28 Topic 28: Synergies with Other Conservation Projects A variety of conservation projects are undertaken within the distribution of the Eastern brown kiwi, and many of these projects are aimed at providing for species other than kiwi. In some cases, additional management could be added to these projects that would also provide significant benefits to kiwi.
In addition, sites of non-biodiversity conservation work but with high rates of human activity (e.g. popular tourist sites or walking tracks), could also be assessed for their suitability to support kiwi conservation management. Sites of high human activity sites represent a resource that may be able to be utilised for kiwi conservation management in novel ways.
Issue
Issue 28.1: There is potential for taking a more holistic approach and developing synergies with other conservation projects.
Objective and Actions
Taxon Plan Objective
Objective 28.1: To maximise the benefits to kiwi from all current and proposed conservation programmes
Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objective
# Action Timeframe Priority Accountability 28.1 Assess the potential of all current and proposed 2013 Medium Science & Capability conservation projects for their ability to concurrently onwards Group; Kiwi Recovery provide opportunities for additional Eastern brown kiwi Group; EBK Taxon Group management
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5.1.29 Topic 29: Inter-Agency Co-ordination The resources required to achieve the goals of both this Plan, and the Kiwi Recovery Plan, are considerable. While the Department of Conservation has legal delegation and jurisdiction under the Wildlife Act to promote the protection of Eastern brown kiwi, the management resource requirements of this task are far too great for one organisation alone. Therefore, any resource that can be harnessed to achieve these goals should be utilised. These include the multiple agencies of central Government, (e.g. use the NZ Airforce to aerially monitor transmittered kiwi), as well as regional and local Government agencies.
Regional and local councils, as well as TB Free NZ, undertake many pest control operations (e.g. aerial 1080 operations), and optimising both the spatial and temporal components of these operations to maximally benefit kiwi could be of considerable value. In addition, co-management arrangements for kiwi conservation sites could be another powerful tool.
Issues
Issue 29.1: Other agencies could undertake management at much lower cost as part of their normal activities, e.g. airforce aerially monitoring transmittered kiwi.
Issue 29.2: There are potential efficiencies in kiwi management in conjunction with Territorial Local Authorities (i.e. councils) and other agencies.
Issue 29.3: Some areas may be able to be closed off for rahui for kiwi protection and management (especially co-managed areas). An education programme may need to be run in association with this.
Issue 29.4: Hawke’s Bay Regional Council may want to undertake landscape- scale pest control, including stoats. Hawke’s Bay kiwi practitioners may be able to influence this design to maximise benefits for kiwi.
Issue 29.5: TB Free NZ – could undertake kiwi surveys in 1080 areas.
Objective and Actions
Taxon Plan Objective
Objective 29.1: To maximise the use of multiple agencies to increase the efficiencies of Eastern brown kiwi management
Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objective
# Action Timeframe Priority Accountability 29.1 Scope the use of central, regional and local 2013 Medium Project Managers; Kiwi
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Government resources to determine how they could onwards Recovery Group be utilised for Eastern brown kiwi conservation management
5.1.30 Topic 30: Mixed-provenance Management
Kiwi populations containing more than one recognised taxon present their own unique management challenges. Some have been deliberately mixed (e.g. Kapiti, Little Barrier Island), by historically well meaning but ultimately misguided conservation attempts when there was little to no understanding of kiwi genetics. It is impossible to “unpick” such mixed-provenance groups into their constituent components, so mixed populations, even if they have a high number of individuals, have a limited capacity to be used to support currently recognised taxa.
Other populations have arisen due to inter-breeding of different taxa in captivity, due to the limited understanding of kiwi taxonomy, before the current 11 taxa had been described. The recently established Pukaha Mt Bruce and Rimutaka populations both arose as a result of captive breeding of Eastern and Western taxa, and the decision was taken to use these birds to deliberately establish a mixed-provenance population. Therefore, this Plan also needs to consider the on-going management of these populations, and should be consistent with the Western Taxon Plan (Scrimgeour & Pickett, 2011) for these same populations.
Other populations have historically had kiwi deliberately moved between taxa, e.g. Northland Taxon birds found during manuka roller-crushing activities were moved to Hawke’s Bay in the 1970’s (Butler & McLennan, 1991). The implications for current management of such movements are unknown.
Other areas may have natural groupings of mixed-provenance populations, where the Eastern Taxon distribution may overlap with Western or Coromandel Kiwi Taxa. Understanding these areas, the implications for management and developing effective tools to manage such populations in perpetuity are likely to be challenging.
Issues
Issue 30.1: Currently there is no clear understanding if the Eastern brown kiwi taxon contributes to any naturally occurring mixed-provenance populations.
Issue 30.2: If there are natural mixed-provenance populations, it is unknown how they are structured at each site, e.g. a transition over 2km, 20km or 200km from one “pure” taxon to another.
Issue 30.3: Appropriate management of the Mt Bruce and Rimutaka mixed- provenance sites is required.
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Issue 30.4: The implications for current kiwi management of the deliberate movement of other kiwi taxa into areas occupied by the Eastern brown kiwi taxon are unknown.
Issue 30.5: New mixed-provenance sites could be established.
Objectives and Actions
Taxon Plan Objectives
Objective 30.1: To further understand the spatial extent of any naturally occurring or deliberately produced mixed- provenance populations containing genetic material from the Eastern brown kiwi Taxon Objective 30.2: To determine how the mixed-provenance Eastern/Western Taxon populations at Mt Bruce and Rimutaka fits into the long-term management of the Eastern brown kiwi Taxon
Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objectives
# Action Timeframe Priority Accountability 30.1 Identify the spatial extent of any natural zones of 2016 Medium EBK Taxon Group; WBK mixed-provenance birds, and the management actions Taxon Group; Kiwi required for such populations Recovery Group 30.2 Determine management options for the known mixed- 2013 Medium Director Conservation provenance Pukaha Mt Bruce and Rimutaka onwards Services (Lower North populations that is also consistent with the Western Island); Project brown kiwi Taxon Plan Managers; WBK Taxon Group; EBK Taxon Group; 30.3 Identify historic transfers of non-Eastern brown kiwi 2014 Medium EBK Taxon Group into the distribution of Eastern brown kiwi
5.1.31 Topic 31: Impact of other pest management on kiwi
Death or injury to kiwi as a result of animal pest operations is known to occur occasionally. The death of even one adult breeding kiwi can have a large affect on the viability of smaller populations. As there is little evidence to suggest kiwi are affected by possums, rats, pigs and hedgehogs, any “by-kill” of kiwi in operations targeting these pests cannot be justified as having a net benefit for any kiwi population. There could be some justification however, if there was a low rate of kiwi “by-kill” in some operations which effectively reduced mustelid, cat and dog numbers to low levels, resulting in enhanced breeding and recruitment of kiwi.
It is highly desirable that no kiwi are killed or injured in any animal pest operations. There is always some risk when toxins or traps are used, so developing effective methods to reduce and maintain this to very low levels is essential. Monitoring kiwi is a reasonably robust, but expensive, way to determine any negative impact of pest control on the population. With any changes in trapping, toxin or material technology (or even small differences between toxin batches), unexpected by-kill of kiwi could result at any time. See also Topic 37 and Topic 54.
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Issues
Issue 31.1: Possum trapping, both performance contract and fur trapping, can catch and injure kiwi in traps.
Issue 31.2: The method of bait presentation and the toxic effect of pesticides (e.g. Feratox) can impact upon kiwi.
Issue 31.3: Many trap types targeting different pests are widely used and new traps are under development; their effects on kiwi in field conditions are largely unknown.
Issue 31.4: There are currently consistent standards across Eastern brown kiwi taxon range, i.e. within DOC estate, council reserves and private land.
Objective and Actions
Taxon Plan Objective
Objective 31: To ensure kiwi-safe pest control methods are undertaken on all land tenures
Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objective
# Action Timeframe Priority Accountability 31.1 Develop a Best Practice manual for both plant and 2013 Essential Conservation Services animal pest control methods aimed at ensuring a onwards Managers; Kiwi Recovery minimal impact on Eastern brown kiwi Group Project Managers; EBK Taxon Group 31.2 Ensure all Eastern brown kiwi projects are 2013 Essential Directors Conservation undertaking kiwi-friendly pest management Best onwards Services; Directors Practice Conservation Partnerships; Conservation Services Managers; Project Managers 31.3 Advocate for all land owners, land management 2013 High Directors Conservation organisations (e.g. Federated Farmers) and territorial onwards Partnerships; local authorities that undertake any pest Conservation Services management, that kiwi-friendly Best Practice Managers; Project methods are used Managers; Partnerships Managers 31.4 Support research to increase the effectiveness of 2013 Essential Director Conservation pest control methods while not increasing the risk of onwards Services; Project harm to Eastern brown kiwi (Also see 44.1) Managers; EBK Taxon Group; Science & Capability
5.1.32 Topic 32: Kiwi in non-native habitats
While most Eastern brown kiwi are found in more remote native forests where predation by mammalian predators is the key agent of decline, some are found in more developed areas. Extra hazards in these sites include farming-
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Production forestry has been shown to be able to provide suitable habitat for a moderate density of kiwi. Sites with developed forestry roads can increase the risk to kiwi by attracting high numbers of pig hunters with dogs, but there is little information about the direct effect of harvesting operations (every 25-30 years) on the population dynamics of resident kiwi. Also see Topic 54.
Issues
Issue 32.1: The effect of production forestry management practices (e.g. felling trees, dragging logs, soil compaction with heavy machinery, burning) on resident Eastern brown kiwi is largely unknown.
Issue 32.2: Change in predator dynamics through production cycles (e.g. an increase in rabbits in recently planted areas may allows ferrets to become established) is largely unknown.
Issue 32.3: Kiwi can be impacted by farming environments and practices (e.g. sheep and cattle dogs, drowning in cattle stops, bush clearance).
Objective and Actions
Taxon Plan Objective
Objective 32.1: To minimise the impact productive land management practices have on Eastern brown kiwi populations
Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objective
# Action Timeframe Priority Accountability 32.1 Identify areas of production forestry, agriculture and 2014 High EBK Taxon Group horticulture containing Eastern brown kiwi 32.2 In conjunction with the forestry industry, develop 2014 High Director Conservation management practices that minimise any impact on onwards Partnerships ; EBK Eastern brown kiwi. (Also see 38.1) Taxon Group 32.3 Identify priority areas where forestry companies or 2014 Medium Project Managers; EBK landowners could manage Eastern brown kiwi, either Taxon Group with predator control or BNZONETM management 32.4 Support research to monitor Eastern brown kiwi 2013 Medium Director Conservation populations and predator densities through cycles of onwards Partnerships; Science & production forestry management (see Topic 54) Capability Group 32.5 Working with industry, develop risk profiles that 2013 Medium Science & Capability various agricultural and horticultural practices may onwards Group; EBK Taxon Group have on Eastern brown kiwi. (Also see 38.1)
32.6 Work with industry and individual landowners to 2013 High Director Conservation minimise any potential impacts of productive land onwards Partnerships; Project management upon Eastern brown kiwi (See Topic 38 Managers; National Kiwi & 54). Mentor; EBK Taxon
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Group
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5.2 Community Relations and Engagement
Background Statement Community relations is an essential element of long-term kiwi management. Kiwi are in the enviable position of being highly valued by the great majority of New Zealanders, and are therefore likely to support the long-term management of kiwi populations. Maintaining and increasing this support is an important, ongoing task that increases the chances of long-term persistence and recovery of this taxon.
Engaging communities to undertake practical hands-on kiwi management is another step again beyond mere education and information, but has been overwhelmingly successful in many cases (e.g. Waikaremoana Hapu Restoration Trust, Whakatane Kiwi Project). Increasing the number of communities that are prepared to spend time, money and effort in undertaking meaningful, sustained and successful kiwi conservation management is an ongoing challenge, yet vital for the long-term persistence and recovery of the taxon throughout its current range (Goal 1.2).
5.2.1 Topic 33 : Advocacy Kiwi advocacy refers to informing the public about kiwi issues. A well informed and educated public will lead to kiwi being increasingly seen as an important natural component of our surroundings. This should translate into the public wanting to afford more protection to kiwi at more sites.
Issues
Issue 33.1: Media coverage is very important, and strategies are needed to maximise coverage of the Eastern brown kiwi taxon. More specific issues may include: Can a ‘whole of taxon’ approach work better than each project going to media alone? Does the taxon co-ordinate media exposure so not all projects are competing for media space? (e.g. a 1 month spotlight on each project?) Use the Taxon Group to approach media outlets for an overview on what is happening with this taxon.
Issue 33.2: People need to see kiwi and connect with kiwi to appreciate kiwi.
Issue 33.3: People need to engage with the bird for people to own and protect the various projects.
Issue 33.4: Political action may be seen as necessary by some groups – to maintain or increase funding levels by local, regional and central Government.
Issue 33.5: Heightened national awareness campaign to protect kiwi.
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Issue 33.6: Websites can be an effective way to provide public advocacy and awareness.
Issue 33.7: Eastern brown kiwi are found in a large area of private land.
Issue 33.8: Eastern brown kiwi taxon groups could link with the national advocacy co-ordinator, captive institutes (that will all hold Eastern brown kiwi) and the Kiwi Captive Co-ordinator.
Issue 33.9: Education Strong education, i.e. more opportunities for people to see kiwi in daylight. Using schools and wananga to help Education/powerpoint to local community
Objectives and Actions
Recovery Plan Objective Objective 18.1: To increase awareness and support for kiwi protection through the provision of high-quality advocacy for kiwi projects at all levels
Taxon Plan Objective
Objective 33.1: To increase awareness and support for Eastern Brown kiwi protection through the provision of high- quality advocacy for kiwi projects at all levels
Recovery Plan Actions specified to meet objective(s)
Action Action # Accountability Priority (recovery plan) Coordinate advocacy nationally, including the development of 18.1 Recovery Essential resources and provision of advice, through a National Mentor Group/ BNZ for Kiwi Advocacy throughout the term of the plan Save the Kiwi Trust
Establish a regional support structure for local kiwi projects, 18.2 National High including for advocacy, by 2010 and maintain this throughout Mentor for Kiwi the term of the plan (Note: Same as Action 20.2, section Advocacy 5.2.3) 18.3 Taxon plan Essential Develop an advocacy section in each taxon plan that outlines lead methods and tools by 2009 conservators
Taxon Plan Action required to achieve objective
# Action Timeframe Priority Accountability 33.1 Develop a media strategy to maximise coverage of kiwi to as 2013 High EBK Taxon many Eastern brown kiwi projects as possible onwards Group 33.2 Develop strategies to maximise exposure of Eastern brown kiwi 2013 High EBK Taxon to local groups (e.g. kiwi releases) onwards Group; Project Managers 33.3 Develop a web-based advocacy approach for Eastern brown kiwi 2013 Medium EBK Taxon onwards Group; Project Managers
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33.4 Develop an advocacy strategy with captive institutions (who will 2014 High EBK Taxon provide key advocacy opportunities) to promote Eastern brown onwards Group; Captive kiwi Institutions
5.2.2 Topic 34: Tangata Whenua Tangata whenua have a strong and unique relationship with kiwi, and are vital for their sustained conservation. This is particularly so for Eastern brown kiwi, where a high proportion of their range coincides with culturally strong Maori communities, where kiwi are highly regarded as a taonga (treasure).
The special relationship Maori have with kiwi, enshrined in legislation by the Treaty of Waitangi, coupled with the large areas of multiply-owned Maori land within the range of Eastern brown kiwi, means every encouragement should be given to enabling and empowering these landowners to successfully manage kiwi on both their lands, and also other lands where feasible. Iwi managed projects may be the greatest potential area for the growth of kiwi conservation over the term of this Plan and beyond.
The known distribution of the Eastern brown kiwi taxon at least partly encompasses the rohe of approximately 26 iwi. Most large areas of Maori multiply-owned land that still retain indigenous vegetation – sites of likely tangata whenua managed projects – are in relatively remote areas, making management of these projects challenging in many respects.
Tangata whenua have a strong cultural and spiritual connection to kiwi, and may have a different approach or set of priorities to aspects of kiwi conservation and management than other conservation groups.
Issues
Issue 34.1: Not all Eastern brown kiwi projects have significant iwi interactions.
Issue 34.2: Iwi are partners with the Crown, not stakeholders.
Issue 34.3: There are suitable areas for additional Eastern brown kiwi conservation projects within the rohe of some iwi which currently do not have an Eastern brown kiwi project.
Issue 34.4: Growth in iwi conservation could be substantial in the next decade and beyond.
Issue 34.5: Treaty settlements are likely to have an impact on managing kiwi on DOC public conservation land.
Issue 34.6: Tangata whenua have a strong sense of kaitiakitanga (guardianship, stewardship) for kiwi, which should be widely acknowledged, respected and promoted.
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Issue 34.7: Local contacts are very important for tangata whenua so they can deal with people they know. Good lines of communication to discuss sensitive subjects and transparency of relationships is essential.
Issue 34.8: Tikanga protocols of each iwi/hapu should be acknowledged and supported in the management of Eastern brown kiwi.
Issue 34.9: The Waikaremoana kiwi project could be used as a model for iwi management of kiwi (e.g. the relationship between LWHRT and DOC) for other tangata whenua groups to aspire to, and see what is possible.
Issue 34.10: Tangata whenua may be able to access funding options for kiwi that are not available for other groups, including landscape-scale management.
Issue 34.11: Training outcomes for tangata whenua: Wildlife/resource project management (Nga Taonga tuku iho) Training at schools Tangata whenua employment Inter-generational transmission of traditional knowledge Maori world view (especially of kiwi) recognised and understood
Issue 34.12: The use of toxins is not necessarily wanted by tangata whenua, however naturally occurring toxins may be considered as acceptable. Application of toxins is a big issue for tangata whenua.
Issue 34.13: The ‘bloodline’ of kiwi should be kept intact – this is especially an issue when translocating kiwi across iwi/hapu boundaries. Kiwi from one area may be more suited to that area than other areas (i.e. have they “evolved” to better suit one place)?
Issue 34.14: Tangata whenua may have issues with how projects name individual kiwi, and also the current label “Eastern brown kiwi”. There may be a more suitable name more acceptable and meaningful to tangata whenua.
Issue 34.15: Use of kiwi as a resource to maintain strong cultural links to kiwi e.g. korowai (cloaks).
Issue 34.16: Balancing of science and cultural perspectives in Recovery Plans – especially translocating kiwi.
Issue 34.17: Tangata whenua have a passion for kiwi which should be acknowledged, developed and promoted.
Issue 34.18: The most important Maori management issues are toxins (1080), dogs, whakapapa, korowai and bones.
Issue 34.19: The Maori version of components of the Taxon Plan needs to be incorporated (including proverbs).
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Issue 34.20: Tangata whenua involvement should be regarded as a priority for the future management of this taxon.
Issue 34.21: Developing enduring and trusting relationships between tangata whenua and other Eastern brown kiwi stakeholders can only be good for the long-term future of Eastern brown kiwi.
Objectives and Actions
Recovery Plan Objective Objective 19.1: To ensure that iwi are involved at all levels of kiwi management and research in an interactive way and in a way appropriate to all parties’ commitments and expectations
Taxon Plan Objective Objective 34.1: To ensure that iwi are involved at all levels of Eastern Brown kiwi management and research in an interactive way
Recovery Plan Actions specified to meet objective
Action Action # Accountability Priority (recovery plan) Include tangata whenua in the development and 19.1 Taxon plan Essential implementation of taxon plans throughout the term of the lead plan conservators
Identify opportunities and current barriers for the involvement 19.2 Area Essential of tangata whenua in kiwi recovery throughout the term of the managers/ plan conservators
Ensure that agreed processes for involvement of tangata 19.3 Area Essential whenua in kiwi management are observed throughout the managers/ term of the plan conservators
Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objective
# Action Timeframe Priority Accountability 34.1 Include tangata whenua in the implementation of the 2013 Essential Eastern brown kiwi Taxon Eastern brown kiwi Taxon Plan, and ensure their onwards Plan author, Director perspectives on kiwi are reflected in the Plan Conservation Partnerships, EBK Taxon Group, Kahui Kaupapa Atawhai 34.2 Acknowledge the kaitiakitanga role of tangata 2013 High Project managers whenua in Eastern brown kiwi conservation, and in onwards consultation with tangata whenua develop appropriate tikanga (protocols) for kiwi management at each site 34.3 Develop protocols and a standard model for tangata 2013 Essential Project managers, EBK whenua involvement in all Eastern brown kiwi onwards Taxon Group conservation projects
34.4 Provide opportunities for tangata whenua to 2013 Essential Project managers, EBK increase their involvement and skills in Eastern onwards Taxon Group
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brown kiwi conservation management, and identify current barriers for their involvement 34.5 Develop and annually refine protocols that address 2013 Essential Project managers, EBK issues particularly sensitive to Maori (e.g. toxins, onwards Taxon Group dogs, whakapapa, korowai, bones) regarding Eastern brown kiwi conservation management 34.6 Support the maintenance and development of the 2013 High Project managers, EBK cultural use of dead Eastern brown kiwi by tangata onwards Taxon Group whenua 34.7 Work with Nga Whenua Rahui to identify areas of 2013 High EBK Taxon Group high Eastern brown kiwi conservation potential on onwards private Maori land, and provide support to landowners to undertake this work 34.8 Consult with tangata whenua (and other 2013 High EBK Taxon group stakeholders) regarding the applicability of the taxon name “Eastern brown kiwi” 34.9 Support tangata whenua in accessing funding for 2013 High Director Conservation Eastern brown kiwi projects onwards Partnerships, Project managers, EBK Taxon Group, Kahui Kaupapa Atawhai
5.2.3 Topic 35: Community-led Initiatives
There are currently 8 community-led (i.e. not central or local Government agency-led) kiwi projects within the Eastern brown kiwi taxon (Appendix 2). These projects reflect a strong desire by members of the general public to be involved in kiwi conservation, and as such should be encouraged to become sustainable in the long-term, and to enable other projects to proliferate.
Community involvement is critical to achieving the Goals of this Taxon Plan (Section 4.2), enabling populations of Eastern brown kiwi throughout its range to be represented by conservation management projects.
Issues
Issue 35.1: Consistent methods and best-practice (with local variations as required) are needed to support and build community capacity and increase community skills.
Issue 35.2: An optimal structure or model by which to run a sustainable Eastern brown kiwi Community Group project may help groups to maximise efficiencies.
Issue 35.3: Engagement by communities is critical for ongoing Eastern brown kiwi survival, e.g. the Whakatane kiwi population is very close to an urban area.
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Issue 35.4: Changing behaviours (especially with dogs and dog owners) to be sensitive to the requirements of Eastern brown kiwi is a long-term community issue.
Issue 35.5: Community groups are diverse and inspirational.
Issue 35.6: Local groups often just want to know what action they can take to help kiwi.
Issue 35.7: Support from relevant agencies to community groups is required to maximise efficiencies and maintain momentum. Some further issues include: Regular meetings of all practitioners in Eastern brown kiwi taxon. Some groups need considerable support to increase skills and provide ongoing support (e.g. Pakihi Care Group). Energy and enthusiasm are there but need support at times. A clear and achievable path for community practitioners to obtain certification to handle and band kiwi. National co-ordination to help Community Groups set up Care Groups (how to set up Care Groups). Care groups need to be cared for – especially dogs. Regular updates sent out to groups (especially regarding technology and traps).
Issue 35.8: Sustaining community groups is essential to their long-term survival. Some issues include: Budget cuts, succession issues, recession issues Annual cost for typical project: $100K management, $70-150K predator control, $10K publicity, $30K field expenses, $15K kiwi crèches, plus aversion training $3000 (advertising plus trainer – 6 days) = $300K total. In addition, volunteer hours need to be recorded. Lump sum invested could give long-term certainty (e.g. Whakatane Kiwi Project needs about $6 million lump sum to return enough $ per year off investments to sustain the project). Resources could be found or collated to fully support one project at a time until it reached a financial position whereby its long- term outlook is sustainable; perhaps one eastern brown kiwi project every 1-5 years could achieve this status, and then no longer be financially supported by the wider group.
Issue 35.9: Identification and development of new community-led kiwi projects The pros and cons of various options for the required large 200 kiwi pair site have not yet been developed. The Mahia peninsula site could be a promising site, but there is a lot of discussion required between both iwi and residents; this could be an ideal location for the 200 kiwi pair site.
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Issue 35.10: Developing enduring relationships between tangata whenua, community groups and the Eastern Brown Kiwi Taxon Group (see Topic 34 also).
Objective and Actions
Recovery Plan Objective Objective 20.1: To ensure that community involvement in kiwi protection is optimised, sustained and follows best practice
Taxon Plan Objective
Objective 35.1: To ensure that Community Group involvement in Eastern brown kiwi protection is optimised, sustained and follows best practice
Recovery Plan Actions specified to meet objective
Action Action # Accountability Priority (recovery plan) Provide regular opportunities to strengthen networks and 20.1 Recovery Essential information sharing among community-led projects, including Group/ BNZ regional/national meetings (‘kiwi hui’) for kiwi practitioners Save the Kiwi and other stakeholders throughout the term of the plan Trust
Establish a regional support structure for local kiwi projects, 20.2 National High including for advocacy, in 2010 and maintain this throughout Mentor for Kiwi the term of the plan (Note: Same as Action 18.2, section Advocacy 5.2.1)
Provide regular suitable forums and training opportunities to 20.3 BNZ Save the Essential share information on best practice, sustainability, strategic Kiwi Trust/ planning and funding for community-led initiatives throughout Recovery the term of the plan Group
Provide community groups with information on priority areas 20.4 Recovery High for management of kiwi by 2010 and then throughout the Group/ BNZ term of the plan taxon plan Save the Kiwi Trust/ lead conservators
Include community groups, where applicable, in the 20.5 Taxon plan Essential development and implementation of taxon plans throughout lead the term of the plan conservators
Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objective
# Action Timeframe Priority Accountability 35.1 Establish an Eastern brown kiwi support structure for 2013 High Kiwi Mentor; EBK local kiwi projects, including for advocacy onwards Taxon Group
35.2 Provide regular suitable forums and training 2013 Essential Kiwi RG ; EBK Taxon opportunities to share information on best practice, onwards Group; Conservation sustainability, strategic planning and funding for Partnerships Managers community-led initiatives 35.3 Provide community groups with information on priority 2014 High Kiwi RG; EBK Taxon
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areas for management of Eastern brown kiwi (same Group; Conservation Action as 19.2) Partnerships Managers
5.2.4 Topic 36: Sponsorship Sponsorship is vital for ongoing kiwi conservation. While much can be achieved by voluntary labour, effective kiwi conservation requires at least some degree of monetary investment. However, sponsorship can come in all forms, and non-financial support can be as important as financial support.
All projects require a sustainable outlook. Sponsorship can help to achieve this sustainability. Each project should pursue their own sponsorship drives, but equally the Eastern brown kiwi group could prioritise projects, in order to achieve sustainable management of the whole of taxon.
Issues
Issue 36.1: Corporate sponsorship. Should be just “sponsorship” not just corporate sponsorship
Issue 36.2: Financial and non-financial sponsorship should be included
Objectives and Actions
Recovery Plan Objectives Objective 21.1: To ensure that the strategic direction of the BNZ Save the Kiwi Trust is consistent with the national kiwi recovery plan Objective 21.2: To ensure that the benefits and responsibilities through the formation of the BNZ Save the Kiwi Trust are fully realised Objective 21.3: To increase the support (financial and otherwise) for kiwi recovery through sponsorship
Taxon Plan Objective
Objective 36.1: To increase the support (financial and otherwise) for Eastern brown kiwi recovery through sponsorship
Recovery Plan Actions specified to meet objectives
Action Action # Accountability Priority (recovery plan) Review and communicate the focus and role of BNZ Save 21.1 General Essential the Kiwi Trust in national kiwi recovery in 2009 then every 3 Manager years thereafter Marketing and Communications Group/ BNZ Save the Kiwi Trust
Undertake joint development and implementation of national 21.2 Recovery Essential strategies by the Kiwi Recovery Group and BNZ Save the Group/ BNZ
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Kiwi Trust throughout the term of the plan Save the Kiwi Trust
Promote within DOC and externally the role of BNZ Save 21.3 Area managers/ High the Kiwi Trust as a key participant in kiwi management conservators throughout the term of the plan
Ensure DOC staff are aware of and follow their obligation 21.4 Area managers/ High under the sponsorship agreement with BNZ throughout the conservators term of the plan
Develop strategies in 2009 to double the amount of 21.5 General Essential corporate sponsorship funding for kiwi recovery available by Manager 2013 Marketing and Communications Group/ BNZ Save the Kiwi Trust
Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objective
# Action Timeframe Priority Accountability 36.1 Promote within DOC and externally the role of The 2013 Essential Director Conservation Kiwi Trust as a key participant in kiwi management onwards Services; Director Conservation Partnerships; Project Managers 36.2 Ensure DOC staff are aware of and follow their 2013 Essential Director Conservation obligation under the sponsorship agreement with The onwards Services; Conservation Kiwi Trust and main sponsors Services Managers 36.3 Support projects in developing strategies to increase 2013 High Directors Conservation the amount of sponsorship funding for Eastern Brown onwards Partnerships; Kiwi recovery Conservation Partnerships Managers; Project Managers
5.2.5 Topic 37: Statutory Planning Statutory plans from local, regional and central government agencies form the basis of many aspects of land management. The current known distribution of the Eastern Brown Kiwi taxon encompasses or is close to the border of 19 Councils (Fig. 10 and 11): 12 District Councils (Central Hawke’s Bay, Tararua, Manawatu, Rangitikei, Wairoa, Opotiki, Whakatane, Kawerau, Western Bay of Plenty, Hauraki, Matamata-Piako, South Waikato), two City Councils (Napier, Tauranga) and five Regional Councils (Horizons (Manawatu-Wanganui), Hawke’s Bay, Waikato, Gisborne, and Bay of Plenty).
Statutory plans generated by these councils are powerful instruments that determine land use and council policy on many issues. These plans represent the opportunity to influence such arrangements within the jurisdiction of each council, and as such it is important to advocate for kiwi conservation measures to be included as part of this planning process whenever applicable.
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Fig. 10.. Eastern brown kiwi distribution in relation to Territorial Local Authorities
.
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Fig. 11. Eastern brown kiwi distribution in relation to Regional Councils
Issues
Issue 37.1: Effect of District Plans on projects – now and in future, e.g. housing development near kiwi areas could affect the viability of some projects.
Issue 37.2: Dog and pest management issues.
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Issue 37.3: Vegetation clearance and development issues.
Issue 37.4: Dog management on DOC-managed public conservation land.
Issue 37.5: Kiwi management issues in DOC’s Conservation Management Strategy planning documents.
Issue 37.6: Possum trapping on council reserves and private land containing kiwi.
Objectives and Actions
Recovery Plan Objective Objective 22.1: To avoid, remedy or mitigate threats to kiwi and their habitat by promoting legislative and policy changes to statutory authorities
Taxon Plan Objective
Objective 37.1: To avoid, remedy or mitigate threats to Eastern Brown Kiwi and their habitat by promoting legislative and policy changes to statutory authorities
Recovery Plan Actions specified to meet objective
Action Action # Accountability Priority (recovery plan) Raise awareness of kiwi threats associated with land use 22.1 Area managers/ High and how statutory planning and policy can support kiwi conservators/BNZ recovery by 2009 and then throughout the term of the plan Save the Kiwi Trust
Promote the inclusion of statutory protection of kiwi habitat 22.2 Area managers/ High and of kiwi from predation in district plans by 2009 and conservators/BNZ then throughout the term of the plan Save the Kiwi Trust
Provide local authorities with information on priority areas 22.3 Area managers/ High for management of kiwi by 2009 and then throughout the conservators term of the plan
Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objective
# Action Timeframe Priority Accountability 37.1 Raise awareness of threats to Eastern brown kiwi 2013 High Conservation Partnerships associated with land use practices and encourage onwards Managers; Conservation submissions to statutory planning and policy that Services Managers can support Eastern brown kiwi recovery 37.2 Promote the inclusion of statutory protection of 2013 High Directors Conservation Eastern brown kiwi habitat and of kiwi from onwards Partnerships ; Conservation predation in District Plans Services Managers; EBK Taxon Group 37.3 Provide local authorities with information on priority 2013 High Conservation Services areas for management of Eastern brown kiwi onwards Managers; Conservation Partnerships Managers;
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EBK Taxon Group 37.4 Encourage District and Regional Councils to 2013 High Director Conservation financially support identified priority sites for Eastern onwards Partnerships; Conservation brown kiwi management Partnerships Managers
5.2.6 Topic 38: Development of Environmental Standards
Closely associated with Topic 32, this topic concerns the development of environmental standards on private land – primarily on production lands (farming and forestry). Eastern brown kiwi may be affected by environmental protection standards that are not tailored to their unique requirements – see also Topic 54.
Issue
Issue 38.1: RMA, Council plans
Objectives and Actions
Recovery Plan Objective Objective 23.1: To optimise opportunities for kiwi protection on private production land through inclusion in appropriate environmental standards
Taxon Plan Objective(s)
Objective 38.1: To optimise opportunities for Eastern brown kiwi protection on private land through inclusion of appropriate environmental standards
Recovery Plan Actions specified to meet objective
Action Action # Accountability Priority (recovery plan) Provide information to certifying bodies for forestry, live-stock 23.1 Area Medium farming and horticulture regarding kiwi biology and protection managers/ methods, and promote their consideration in the development conservators/ of standards and certification criteria by 2009 and then BNZ Save the throughout the term of the plan Kiwi Trust
Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objective(s)
# Action Timeframe Priority Accountability 38.1 Provide information to certifying bodies for forestry, live-stock 2012 High Directors farming and horticulture regarding kiwi biology and protection onwards Conservation methods, and promote their consideration in the development of Partnerships; standards and certification criteria. (Also see 32.2) Conservation Partnerships Managers; EBK Taxon
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Group
5.2.7 Topic 39: Tourism Tourism operators can be a useful way of both educating the public about kiwi and their management issues, and attracting income for kiwi conservation projects. Kiwi can be a powerful drawcard for tourists, due to their unique nature and quintessential iconic status. Some projects are naturally better placed than others to cater for the tourism market, mainly due to location and ease of access issues. Different types of management approaches can also lend themselves to being more tourism-friendly, e.g. kiwi crèche sites, ONE sub-adult kiwi releases, adult kiwi captive management.
However, all kiwi projects have a potential for tourism activities, and some projects may also receive substantial benefits from these activities that may enable the project to be more independently sustained. Some tourism operations may require Wildlife Act approval through the Department of Conservation, and all activities should be consistent with the goals and objectives of this Plan.
Issues
Issue 39.1: The endangered status of kiwi adds to its tourism attraction.
Issue 39.2: The tourism potential of all in situ Eastern brown kiwi sites has not been assessed.
Issue 39.3: The appropriate use of Eastern brown kiwi in captivity, crèches, and enclosures has not been assessed for tourism potential.
Issue 39.4: Successful Eastern brown kiwi tourism operations would require excellent marketing and associations with many different groups.
Objective and Actions
Taxon Plan Objective
Objective 39.1: To further develop the tourism potential of Eastern brown kiwi
Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objective
# Action Timeframe Priority Accountability 39.1 Assess the tourism potential of Eastern brown kiwi 2013 High Project managers; projects and sites EBK Taxon Group 39.2 Develop a Tourist Guide to Eastern brown kiwi projects, 2014 High Project managers; and make it available at tourist operations, including high EBK Taxon Group volume kiwi-oriented tourist sites (e.g. Rainbow Springs, Te Puia) 39.3 Support kiwi projects to more easily attract tourists, e.g. 2013 Medium Project Managers;
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web-based advocacy and advertising onwards National Kiwi Mentor 39.4 Support projects in their ability to develop aspects of 2013 Medium Project Managers; their projects that increase their attractiveness to fee- onwards EBK Taxon Group paying tourists 39.5 Support marketing of Eastern brown kiwi projects to 2013 Medium Project Managers; increase both domestic and international tourists onwards EBK Taxon Group
5.2.8 Topic 40: Volunteers The use of volunteers on kiwi conservation projects can come in a variety of forms, and can add immense value to projects. This resource can be vital to the sustainability of many projects. Volunteers can undertake a variety of tasks, from low skilled one-off work to highly skilled work over many years. Volunteers can be locally based, or projects can attract people from all over New Zealand and even internationally. Indeed, some projects may even attract “volunteers” willing to pay for their experience of working with Eastern brown kiwi.
Volunteers differ from community groups (Topic 35) in that, while many community groups are composed of people who give voluntary labour, not all volunteers work for Community Groups, or are long-term members of such groups.
Issues
Issue 40.1: Volunteers are a limited resource for projects.
Issue 40.2: Some projects attract lots of volunteer hours, others receive none.
Issue 40.3: There is no co-ordinated kiwi volunteer programme within the Eastern brown kiwi taxon.
Objective and Actions
Taxon Plan Objective
Objective 40.1: To increase the amount of effective volunteer hours for Eastern brown kiwi projects
Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objective
# Action Timeframe Priority Accountability 40.1 Develop an Eastern brown kiwi volunteer programme 2013 High Project Managers; DOC network that can share volunteer resources between onwards Community Relations projects in a prioritised order managers; EBK Taxon Group 40.2 Develop a database of volunteers within the Eastern 2013 High Project Managers; EBK brown kiwi Taxon to be available to projects to attract onwards Taxon Group volunteers when they are required 40.3 Develop a certification system for volunteers who 2013 Medium Project managers; achieve designated skills in various aspects of onwards National Kiwi Mentor; Eastern brown kiwi conservation management Kiwi Recovery Group;
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EBK Taxon Group 40.4 Develop an easy to access volunteer programme for 2013 Medium Project managers; Eastern brown kiwi targeting both overseas and onwards National Kiwi Mentor; domestic volunteers Kiwi Recovery Group; EBK Taxon Group
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5.3 Research, Monitoring and Innovation Background Statement:
Research and innovation is a key component for the future successful management of Eastern brown kiwi. There are a huge range of unknown components of Eastern brown kiwi biology, such as behaviour, genetics, and physiology. Research should be designed to help answer these unknown aspects, and to give greater certainty in helping to guide future management of this Taxon. Innovation is important in using current and emerging technology to make kiwi management more cost-effective.
5.3.1 Topic 41: Research Planning Planning for research is a strategic approach needed to prioritise the most important components of kiwi research that can ultimately provide the greatest gains in Eastern brown kiwi knowledge and management.
Issues
Issue 41.1: Support the Kiwi Recovery Group in undertaking research on Eastern brown kiwi.
Issue 41.2: Efficiencies and effectiveness can be increased by supporting and linking with other organisations and agencies in undertaking appropriate research on Eastern brown kiwi.
Objectives and Actions
Recovery Plan Objective Objective 24.1: To identify, communicate and support key research needs for kiwi recovery
Taxon Plan Objective
Objective 41.1: To identify, communicate and support key research needs for Eastern brown kiwi recovery
Recovery Plan Actions specified to meet objective(s)
Action Action # Accountability Priority (recovery plan) Develop (by 2010) and review (in 2013 or more regularly if 24.1 Research & High required) a research plan for kiwi, and communicate this to Development researchers (internal and external to DOC) as part of kiwi Group recovery planning
Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objective
# Action Timeframe Priority Accountability
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41.1 Develop a research plan for Eastern brown kiwi that is 2013 High Science & Capability updated biennially and communicate this to biennially Group; EBK Taxon researchers (internal and external to DOC) and project Group managers
5.3.2 Topic 42: Genetics and Taxonomy
The emerging recombinant DNA and genomic sequencing technologies that have combined in recent years to revolutionise the genetic knowledge of various species will continue at an increasing pace, and this will have great benefit for kiwi management. There are a wide variety of research questions regarding the genetics of the Eastern brown kiwi taxon that need to be addressed in order to guide management approaches.
Issues
Issue 42.1: The absolute geographical limit of the Eastern brown kiwi taxon is unknown (e.g. low country to west of Ruahine ranges is of unknown provenance).
Issue 42.2: The presence of any hybrid zones is unknown, and how these should be managed is unclear.
Issue 42.3: The presence of any genetic structure within the taxon that should be preserved (i.e. gene flow between different areas) is unknown.
Issue 42.4: The genetics of small populations (i.e. development of family trees) at each site following management has not been catalogued in each case.
Issue 42.5: The optimum use of kohanga kiwi, kiwi crèches, and islands for increasing the genetic robustness of in situ kiwi populations has not been determined.
Issue 42.6: The inbreeding coefficients of small populations, both managed and unmanaged, are largely unknown.
Issue 42.7: The genetic diversity of all Eastern brown kiwi populations or management sites is unknown.
Objectives and Actions
Recovery Plan Objectives Objective 25.1: To formally clarify the taxonomy of kiwi Objective 25.2: To maximise the genetic diversity of kiwi within each taxon within the bounds of natural rates of genetic exchange and to ensure that new populations are established with the best possible composition of founders
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Taxon Plan Objectives
Objective 42.1: To formally clarify the taxonomy of Eastern brown kiwi Objective 42.2: To undertake research that informs management of the best options to maximise the genetic diversity of large populations of Eastern brown kiwi populations: a. within the bounds of natural rates of genetic exchange; b. within agreed parameters for small populations; and c. to ensure that new populations are established with an optimum composition of founders, appropriate to the long- term purpose of the new population being established.
Recovery Plan Actions specified to meet objectives
Action Action # Accountability Priority (recovery plan) Complete research on kiwi taxonomy by 2010 and formally 25.1 Research and Essential publish findings Development Group
Support/lead research on the genetic diversity of 25.2 Research and High translocated, captive, BNZ Operation Nest Egg-based and Development island populations by 2013 Group
Research the implications of bottlenecking, fine-scale 25.3 Research and High diversity and genetic homogenisation by 2013 Development Group
Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objectives
# Action Timeframe Priority Accountability 42.1 Provide support for any Eastern brown kiwi taxonomy 2013 Essential Project Managers; research as necessary onwards Science & Capability Group 42.2 Support or lead research on the genetic diversity of 2013 Essential Science & Capability translocated, BNZ Operation Nest EggTM-based and onwards Group; Project island populations of Eastern brown kiwi Managers; EBK Taxon Group 42.3 Support research into the presence and implications 2014 Essential Science & Capability (management and cultural) of any genetic onwards Group; Project bottlenecking, in situ fine-scale diversity within the Managers; EBK Taxon Taxon, and genetic homogenisation caused by Group previous translocations of Eastern brown kiwi populations (including island translocations and captive releases) 42.4 Determine the genetic diversity of all managed Eastern 2015 High Project Managers; brown kiwi populations, particularly those with small onwards Science & Capability populations or previously suffering severe bottlenecks, Group; EBK Taxon but also non-managed populations, and devise Group appropriate management approaches to resolve any significant issues 42.5 Ensure captive populations contain enough genetic 2013 High Kiwi Captive Co- variation to be able to contribute in the long-term to onwards ordinator; EBK Taxon recovery of Eastern brown kiwi populations (see also Group Topic 15) 42.6 Determine the entire current geographic extent of the 2013 High Project Managers; Eastern brown kiwi taxon, by selective genetic onwards Science & Capability sampling throughout the known, suspected range of Group; EBK Taxon the taxon Group
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42.7 Research the presence and implications of any hybrid 2015 High Science & Capability zone areas incorporating Eastern brown kiwi, and onwards Group; EBK Taxon define where any zone is currently present Group 42.8 Develop protocols to maximise the genetic diversity of 2015 High Project Managers; all Eastern brown kiwi projects and populations when Science & Capability required and appropriate (e.g. kohanga kiwi sites, Group; EBK Taxon islands, captive populations, new populations, and in Group; Kiwi Captive situ populations) – also see Action 7.3. Co-ordinator 42.9 Support research into geological processes that are 2016 Medium Science & Capability reflected in the geographic distribution of alleles within onwards Group; EBK Taxon the Eastern brown kiwi taxon Group
5.3.3 Topic 43: Kiwi Ecology and Population Modelling This topic refers to the ecology of kiwi, including life history and behaviour, along with changes in the size and age structure of kiwi populations over time. Information from both managed and unmanaged sites are required to develop computer simulations that can then be modelled to more accurately predict these many aspects of kiwi biology.
Issues
Issue 43.1: Few current Eastern brown kiwi population models exist for each project which have high confidence levels (and can especially also cope with stochastic (irregular, unpredictable) dog or ferret impacts).
Issue 43.2: The rate of Eastern brown kiwi population decline in different unmanaged areas is largely unknown.
Issue 43.3: Both realistic and maximum achievable targets have not been determined. Project managers want to know the kind of targets they should be achieving for each project.
Issue 43.4: The time needed to realistically achieve long-term targets for most projects is largely unknown.
Issue 43.5: Population modelling of large Eastern brown kiwi populations and the entire taxon itself (including both managed and unmanaged sites) has not been undertaken (e.g. total Kaweka population is still declining).
Issue 43.6: Kiwi are a management-dependent species on the mainland – their distribution may contract to only managed sites over time. Modelling the distribution of Eastern brown kiwi in 10, 50, 100 and 500 years time will be useful for gaining a perspective of long-term management.
Issue 43.7: Analysis of the carrying capacity of each site has not been determined – e.g. using parameters of size, terrain and vegetation.
Issue 43.8: There has been no comparative population and economic modelling of large projects that are employing novel approaches (e.g. a ‘Core
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Areas’ approach has not been compared to other more conventional approaches).
Issue 43.9: The cost-effectiveness of the fenced peninsula model at Waikaremoana needs to be modelled and communicated.
Issue 43.10: The dispersal behaviour of Eastern brown kiwi is required to be incorporated into population models.
Issue 43.11: Variation in behaviour may sometimes be geographically influenced – e.g. there appears to be quite different sub-adult dispersal behaviours at Makahu compared to Makino (both in the Kaweka ranges).
Issue 43.12: The effect of population density on the dispersal behaviour of Eastern brown kiwi is unknown.
Objectives and Actions
Recovery Plan Objectives Objective 26.1: To ensure that robust population modelling is undertaken for all taxa Objective 26.2: To increase our understanding of the ecology and behaviour of kiwi
Taxon Plan Objectives
Objective 43.1: To undertake robust population modelling of each Eastern brown kiwi project, spatially distinct population, and the Taxon as a whole. Objective 43.2: To increase the understanding of Eastern brown kiwi ecology and behaviour
Recovery Plan Actions specified to meet objectives
Action Action # Accountability Priority (recovery plan) Initiate/improve collection of baseline data for modelling of 26.1 Research and High great spotted kiwi and southern Fiordland tokoeka by 2010 Development Group
Initiate/complete population modelling and disseminate 26.2 Research and Essential results from available data (including banding and territory Development mapping) for all species by 2013 Group
Liaise with research providers to initiate/support research on 26.3 Research and Medium the ecology and behaviour of all kiwi species, with a Development particular focus on South Island species, throughout the term Group of the plan
Research (including through research by management) 26.4 Research and Essential reasons for low fecundity and small effective population size Development for rowi and Haast tokoeka, and develop management Group prescriptions based on these findings by 2011 (Note: Same as Action 8.5, section 5.1.8)
Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objective
# Action Timeframe Priority Accountability
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43.1 Support research to understand the natural dispersal 2013 High Project managers; EBK behaviour of Eastern brown kiwi populations, onwards Taxon Group particularly those in large forested areas, resulting in a high level of confidence in dispersal-dependent population models 43.2 Liaise with research providers to initiate or support 2013 High Project managers; EBK research on the ecology and behaviour of Eastern onwards Taxon Group brown kiwi 43.3 Initiate/complete population modelling and disseminate 2013 High Project managers; EBK results from available data (including banding and onwards Taxon Group territory mapping) for each managed population, each sub-population and the taxon as a whole
43.4 Determine predation parameters (including likely 2013 - 2015 High EBK Taxon Group; scenarios of stochastic ferret and dog impacts) Project managers required to maintain current kiwi populations at each project 43.5 Undertake population modelling using different 2013 - 2014 Medium EBK Taxon Group management scenarios in large areas
5.3.4 Topic 44: Pest Research Eastern brown kiwi are vulnerable to a variety of introduced mammalian pests; the impact of each species often differs according to the age class of kiwi. While a great deal is known about pest agents of decline, these may differ both spatially and temporally, and be sustained or stochastic in the nature of their impact.
Researching more effective means to reduce pest impacts on mainland Eastern brown kiwi populations is likely to be the primary means by which advances in kiwi management can be made throughout the duration of this Plan.
Issues
Issue 44.1: Any change in predator/pest dynamics as a trapping programme progresses is largely unknown.
Issue 44.2:The control of non-mustelid pests may have positive or negative impacts upon Eastern brown kiwi populations.
Issue 44.3: The impact of 1080 operations on pig numbers is largely unknown (they might increase in post-operation years).
Issue 44.4: The impact of pigs on mustelid traps can be significant and site- dependent.
Issue 44.5: The cause of death of many Eastern brown kiwi mortality events is unknown.
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Issue 44.6: Ferret and dog predation is sporadic but catastrophic for many eastern brown kiwi populations.
Objectives and Actions
Recovery Plan Objectives Objective 27.1: To improve the cost-effectiveness of pest control management Objective 27.2: To reduce the impact of dogs on kiwi populations
Taxon Plan Objective
Objective 44.1: To improve the cost-effectiveness of pest control management Objective 44.2: To reduce the impact of dogs and ferrets on Eastern brown kiwi populations
Recovery Plan Actions specified to meet objectives
Action Action # Accountability Priority (recovery plan) Support and/or lead the development of traps, bait, toxins 27.1 Research and Essential and delivery systems for control of mustelids, rats, cats and Development dogs in kiwi areas throughout the term of the plan Group
In collaboration with other landscape-scale predator control 27.2 Research and Essential programmes, support/initiate the development of integrated Development pest management techniques that support broader Group biodiversity maintenance and enhancement while fulfilling the goal for kiwi recovery throughout the term of the plan
Implement aerial 1080 at two or more additional sites by 27.3 Research and Essential 2011, and monitor effects for kiwi and the wider ecosystem Development Group
Support/lead research into the effectiveness of kiwi 27.4 Research and Essential avoidance training for dogs and standardise the technique Development according to research findings by 2010 Group
Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objectives
# Action Timeframe Priority Accountability 44.1 Support the development of traps, lures, bait, toxins 2013 onwards Essential Project managers; and delivery systems for the control of mustelids, cats Science & Capability and dogs which do not increase the risk of harm to Group; Eastern Eastern brown kiwi Brown Kiwi Group 44.2 In collaboration with other landscape-scale predator 2013 onwards Essential Project Managers; control programmes, support/initiate the development Science & Capability of integrated pest management techniques that Group; EBK Taxon support broader biodiversity maintenance and Group enhancement while fulfilling the goal for Eastern brown kiwi recovery 44.3 Support/lead research into the effectiveness of kiwi 2013 onwards Essential Science & Capability avoidance training for dogs and support the Group; EBK Taxon standardisation of the technique according to Group research findings 44.4 Support/lead research to understand ferret biology, 2013 onwards Essential Project Managers; particularly habitat preferences, dispersal, and Science & Capability
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distributional overlaps with existing Eastern brown Group; EBK Taxon kiwi populations Group 44.5 Research the impacts on other pest species (e.g. 2013 onwards High Science & Capability rabbits, rats, pigs) that may result from sustained or Group; EBK Taxon intermittent predator management at Eastern brown Group kiwi projects 44.6 Research ways to minimise the impact of ferrets and 2013 onwards High Science & Capability dogs (including feral dogs) in both managed and Group; EBK Taxon unmanaged Eastern brown kiwi areas Group 44.7 Support/lead research to determine cost-effective 2013 onwards High Science & Capability mechanisms to individually identify dogs or ferrets Group; EBK Taxon that may be present in kiwi areas, particularly those Group individuals that may have caused a stochastic predation event 44.8 Research means to reduce or avoid pig interference 2013 onwards Medium Science & Capability on mustelid traps Group; EBK Taxon Group 44.9 Research means to reduce or avoid rats being caught 2013 onwards Medium Science & Capability in and ‘clogging’ mustelid traps Group; EBK Taxon Group 44.10 Research any change in pest avoidance behaviour to 2013 onwards Medium Science & Capability traps, and more effective means to avoid this Group; EBK Taxon occurring Group
5.3.5 Topic 45: Monitoring Monitoring kiwi is an expensive component of kiwi management, and there are several different methods used for different purposes. The most important techniques use radio transmitters to determine the location and status of individual birds, and call count monitoring schemes to determine adult population trends. Radio transmitters can be used at each life-stage for chicks, juveniles, sub-adults and adults, but monitoring of each requires different levels of resourcing, largely dependent upon the frequency with which they must be tracked down and their transmitter re-strapped to accommodate leg growth. Recent developments in transmitter technology – Egg timers, chick timers and “Ear in the Sky” – have all stemmed from initial work on Eastern brown kiwi populations, and have resulted in large increases in cost-efficiency, both with the Eastern brown kiwi taxon and other kiwi taxa nationwide. Imminent new developments in sound recording appear likely to result in similar increases in efficiency and data quality of kiwi call rates and population trends.
Issues
Issue 45.1: The cost-effectiveness of all aspects of kiwi monitoring needs constant improvement.
Issue 45.2: The confidence by which Eastern brown kiwi call count monitoring methodologies reflects true population trends is uncertain.
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Objectives and Actions
Recovery Plan Objective Objective 28.1: To ensure that sufficient and robust information is available to assess the status and trends of kiwi species and key populations
Taxon Plan Objective
Objective 45.1: To ensure that sufficient and robust monitoring information is available to assess the status and trends of key populations of Eastern Brown Kiwi, and also the taxon in its entirety
Recovery Plan Actions specified to meet objective
Action Action # Accountability Priority (recovery plan) Continue the nationwide Kiwi Call Count Scheme and 5- or 28.1 Research and High 10-yearly monitoring of banded populations in moderate- to Development high-density populations throughout the term of the plan Group
Support/lead research on remote landscape-scale monitoring 28.2 Research and High methods for use in sparse populations by 2013 Development Group
Support/lead research into identification of individuals, e.g. 28.3 Research and Medium automated call recognition, genetic fingerprinting from faeces Development or feathers, by 2013 Group
Support/lead research into the link between index methods 28.4 Research and High (e.g. call counts) and the actual abundance of kiwi by 2013 Development Group
Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objective
# Action Timeframe Priority Accountability 45.1 Continue to support the nationwide Kiwi Call Count 2013 Essential Project Managers Scheme by undertaking call counts according to onwards standard operating procedure at all applicable sites 45.2 Support/lead research on remote landscape-scale 2013 High Project managers; monitoring methods onwards Science & Capability Group; EBK Taxon Group 45.3 Support/lead research into the relationship between 2013 High Project managers; index methods (e.g. call counts) and the absolute onwards Science & Capability density or abundance of Eastern brown kiwi Group; EBK Taxon Group 45.4 Support/lead research into cost-effective techniques 2013 High Project managers; of monitoring the rate of dispersal of Eastern brown onwards Science & Capability kiwi populations, using different techniques, e.g. ‘Ear Group; EBK Taxon in the Sky’, GPS transmitters Group 45.5 Support/lead research into methods of determining 2013 High Project managers; landscape-scale population density and population onwards Science & Capability trends of Eastern brown kiwi. (Also see Action 52.2) Group; EBK Taxon Group 45.6 Support/lead research into understanding variation in 2013 High Project managers; current Eastern brown kiwi density, and if this relates onwards Science & Capability to predator density, terrain, vegetation type, etc. Group; EBK Taxon Group
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45.7 Support/lead research into the identification of 2013 Medium Project managers; individual kiwi, e.g. automated call recognition, onwards Science & Capability genetic fingerprinting from faeces or feathers Group; EBK Taxon Group
5.3.6 Topic 46: BNZ ONE and Captive-Raised Kiwi One of the major successes over the past two decades of kiwi management has been the emergence of captive management to hatch wild kiwi eggs, and raise chicks for release into the wild when above a stoat-vulnerable weight threshold. While this approach has generally worked well for the projects involved and led to greater understanding of kiwi egg incubation, it remains an expensive management technique, which has led to other issues arising.
Issues
Issue 46.1: The cost-effectiveness of different chick release weights (including survival rates) has not been fully optimised.
Issue 46.2: ONE kiwi chicks have a different growth rate to wild chicks, and adult captive-raised birds are smaller than their wild counterparts.
Issue 46.3: Any long-term effect on survival, productivity and growth rates on captive-raised chicks that shed significant amounts of weight when released into the wild is not known.
Issue 46.4: The relative breeding success and survival rates of captive-raised to wild-raised eastern brown kiwi is not fully understood.
Issue 46.5: There may be methods of making captive-raised kiwi less vulnerable to predation (e.g. before release, train them to avoid mustelids and dogs).
Issue 46.6: The relative cost-effectiveness of BNZONETM captive-raised compared to BNZONETM crèche-raised and non-incubated wild raised Eastern brown kiwi has not been fully demonstrated.
Issue 46.7: Best practice for use of BNZONETM in different sized kiwi populations (e.g. prevent over-expression of genetics from a small proportion of the population that happen to have transmitters attached) has not been developed – see Topic 7.
Issue 46.8: The relative cost-effectiveness of undertaking BNZONETM or mustelid trapping for different sites at different stages of their project development has generally not been assessed.
Issue 46.9: Disease management in captive-reared kiwi, especially with many kiwi confined to a small area.
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Issue 46.10: Any effects arising from hatching and raising multiple kiwi generations in captivity are unknown.
Objectives and Actions
Taxon Plan Objectives
Objective 46.1: To increase the cost-effectiveness of BNZONETM and raising kiwi in captivity Objective 46.2: To develop captive techniques that result in similar growth rates and adult size of wild-raised Eastern brown kiwi
Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objectives
# Action Timeframe Priority Delivered by 46.1 Support/lead research into disease management in 2013 Essential Captive practitioners captive-reared kiwi (also see Topic 52) onwards 46.2 Support/lead research into the diet of captive kiwi chicks 2013 High Captive projects; and juveniles that minimises morphological differences onwards BNZ ONETM projects between captive and wild-raised Eastern brown kiwi 46.3 Research the long-term multi-generational effects of 2013 High BNZ ONETM project BNZONETM and captive rearing on productivity and onwards managers ultimate adult weights of resulting Eastern brown kiwi 46.4 Research methods that can improve the survival of 2013 Medium Captive practitioners; captive-raised kiwi to mustelid and dog predation upon onwards Science & Capability release into the wild Group 46.5 Develop models to determine the relative cost- 2013 High EBK Taxon Group effectiveness and optimum times to implement onwards BNZONETM, crèche or in situ Eastern brown kiwi management for each project 46.6 Research the optimum use of BNZONETM in small to 2013 Medium Science & Capability large Eastern brown kiwi populations that limits genetic onwards Group; EBK Taxon bottlenecks (see Action 7.3 and 42.8) Group
5.3.7 Topic 47: Modelling Pest Distributions and Impacts
Eastern brown kiwi are distributed over approximately 10,000 km2 over a variety of terrain, vegetation types and environmental conditions. Consequently, there is considerable variation in the prevalence of different pest animals over this area, leading to differing predation pressures between sites. It is important to understand these different predation pressures, and model these at different sites, to develop priorities for kiwi management.
Issues
Issue 47.1: Some Eastern brown kiwi populations are vulnerable to ferret predation – exactly where these stochastic effects are likely to occur has been difficult to predict.
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Issue 47.2: Some areas containing Eastern brown kiwi may be more vulnerable to ferret impacts than others, even over relatively short distances (e.g. Makahu more vulnerable than Makino in the Kaweka Ranges).
Issue 47.3: The effects of other introduced animals that may act as stoat competitors or prey (e.g. cats, pigs, weka, rabbits, hares, rats and mice (i.e. stoat food), and weasels) on stoat and ferret density and behaviour is largely unknown.
Issue 47.4: The effects of total kiwi habitat size and its relationship to predator density (i.e. edge effects, island biogeographic theory) are largely unknown.
Issue 47.5: The current ferret distribution is likely to be at least partially the result of historic releases, including from fitch farms in the 1980’s.
Objectives and Actions
Taxon Plan Objectives
Objective 47.1: To understand spatial and temporal variation in predator impacts on populations within the Eastern brown kiwi taxon. Objective 47.2: To use predator density modelling to determine likely success rates of kiwi management at different sites.
Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objectives
# Action Timeframe Priority Delivered by
47.1 Undertake modelling of kiwi mammalian predators and 2014 Medium Science & Capability other pest distributions and densities, and correlate Group; EBK Taxon this to likely kiwi survival outcomes over time at Group current known kiwi densities 47.2 Undertake pest density modelling to help inform 2014 Medium Science & Capability current and future priority sites for Eastern brown kiwi Group; EBK Taxon management Group
5.3.8 Topic 48: Vulnerability of Kiwi Populations to Dogs
While the primary agent of decline in Eastern brown kiwi has been shown to be stoats (REF – McLennan) through the predation of young kiwi, this results in the slow decline of kiwi populations, reflecting the low rate of juvenile kiwi recruitment to adulthood that then affects total reproductive output. Dog (and ferret) predation is very different in that it can often result in the sudden and dramatic decline of adult kiwi populations. These declines can result in sudden local extinction events, and are usually episodic in nature, so are difficult to predict. Dog predation is quite different from ferret predation in that it is entirely associated with human behaviour: dogs can only access kiwi by the action, or inaction, of their human owners. Feral dogs, that are a result of
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Issues
Issue 48.1: The vulnerability to sites from dogs of all types (e.g. pig dogs, farm working dogs, companion dogs (pets), and feral dogs has not been determined at all sites.
Issue 48.2: The effectiveness of dog aversion tools is unknown.
Issue 48.3: More effective education tools to protect kiwi from dogs need to be developed.
Issue 48.4: A map of likely feral dog sites has not been developed.
Issue 48.5: There are limited techniques to determine the presence, abundance and control of feral dogs over the full range of the Eastern brown kiwi taxon.
Issue 48.6: Techniques to prevent the establishment of feral dogs have not been fully developed.
Issue 48.7: Vast areas of the Eastern brown kiwi taxon are found in remote sites that do not receive any aerial 1080 control. This method is effective at controlling any feral dog population through secondary poisoning.
Objective and Actions
Taxon Plan Objective
Objective 48.1: To limit the effect of dog predation on all Eastern brown kiwi populations to a negligible level
Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objective
# Action Timeframe Priority Delivered by 48.1 Support/lead the development of tools to enhance the 2013 Essential Conservation dogs co- effectiveness of kiwi aversion methods for dogs onwards ordinator; National Kiwi Mentor; Project Managers; Science & Capability Group 48.2 Develop increasingly effective information and 2013 Essential National Kiwi Mentor; education tools to protect kiwi from dog predation onwards Project Managers; EBK Taxon Group 48.3 Support the prosecution of people who own dogs 2013 Essential Director Conservation proven to kill kiwi onwards Services; Director Conservation Partnerships; Policy & Regulatory Services Group 48.4 Develop a risk profile map of all areas containing 2013 Essential EBK Taxon Group
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Eastern brown kiwi and determine their vulnerability to recreational hunting dogs, farm working dogs, pets and feral dogs 48.5 Develop Best Practice methods that ensure project staff 2013 Essential Project Managers; can take DNA samples from any kiwi carcass which Science & Capability can then identify dogs at an individual level Group 48.6 Support/lead research to develop methods that 2013 High Project Managers; significantly reduces the likelihood of feral dogs onwards Science & Capability establishing within the Eastern brown kiwi taxon Group; EBK Taxon distribution Group 48.7 Support/lead research to develop techniques to 2013 High Science & Capability determine the presence, abundance, and control of onwards Group; EBK Taxon feral dogs over the range of the taxon Group 48.8 Develop Best Practice protocols to monitor hunting 2013 High Project Managers; dogs, and other protocols to be used when dogs go onwards EBK Taxon Group missing and may subsequently become feral
5.3.9 Topic 49: Technology
All aspects of kiwi management and research has the potential to be affected by technology. Technological advances should be aimed at ultimately making kiwi conservation increasingly more cost-effective, resulting in more kiwi being protected and monitored for the same funding levels.
Issues
Issue 49.1: Very remote sites can be expensive to manage for kiwi.
Issue 49.2: Current kiwi call count techniques are intensive, expensive, weather dependent and observer-dependent.
Issue 49.3: Little of remote monitoring of Eastern brown kiwi currently occurs.
Issue 49.4: Current trapping for mustelids, cats and dogs is intensive and expensive.
Issue 49.5: An estimate of kiwi densities, population, sex and age structure needs intensive monitoring – DNA technologies have the potential to enable this to occur at much lower cost than current monitoring regimes.
Objective and Action
Taxon Plan Objective
Objective 49.1: To use advances in technology to make conservation management of Eastern brown kiwi increasingly more cost-effective
Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objective
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# Action Timeframe Priority Accountability 49.1 Ascertain aspects of kiwi conservation management 2014 High Science & Capability that would benefit the most by advances in technology, onwards Group; Project cost these out, prioritise them and support/lead Managers; EBK taxon research into developing these to practitioners Group 49.2 Support the introduction and use of data loggers or 2013 Medium Science & Capability other in-field applications that can be transferred to onwards Group; Project Managers web-based storage and applications that all key users can access as appropriate (Note: same Action as 14.4, section 5.1.14)
5.3.10 Topic 50: Site Suitability for Kiwi
Eastern brown kiwi inhabit a wide range of environments, from warm coastal forests to alpine grasslands. Some of these sites may be better suited to kiwi than others; conversely some sites may be marginal or even unsuitable for the long-term persistence of kiwi due to a range of pressures that are difficult, expensive or impractical to counter. This is especially so for very low populations and projects attempting to reinstate locally extinct kiwi populations – they have significantly declined at these sites for a reason, and attempting to overcome these agents of decline may be very difficult compared to areas where they still persist in reasonable densities. In addition, island sites that historically had no kiwi population may also be unsuitable for kiwi in the long- term due to a variety of factors.
Issues
Issue 50.1: There may be mineral deficiencies on the mainland limiting kiwi distribution or on islands limiting kiwi success (e.g. low breeding success on Moutohora Island).
Issue 50.2: The impact of high seabird or weka densities on Eastern brown kiwi island populations is largely unknown (e.g. Moutohora and Mokoia).
Issue 50.3: It may be difficult to overcome high stoat densities that result from beech mast seeding events.
Issue 50.4: There may be sites with naturally low rat (and stoat) densities (e.g. 1000m+ asl) that may act as mainland refugia for Eastern brown kiwi.
Objective and Actions
Taxon Plan Objective
Objective 50.1: Determine the natural features ecosystems containing Eastern brown kiwi that may result in high or low chances of kiwi persistence
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Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objective
# Action Timeframe Priority Accountability 50.1 Support research to understand why some island 2013 High Science & Capability populations of Eastern brown kiwi appear to be having onwards Group; Project managers; low rates of reproduction (Note: same as Action 3.2, EBK Taxon Group section 5.1.3) 50.2 Determine likely abiotic factors, competition with other 2016 Medium Science & Capability species, areas of natural low predator densities, and onwards Group; EBK Taxon natural events (including masting events and Group volcanism) that may either limit or enhance the likely persistence of Eastern brown kiwi
5.3.11 Topic 51: Carrying Capacity Due to variation in ecosystem productivity, site size or location, the type of ecosystem a kiwi population inhabits may largely determine the maximum density they can ultimately achieve. Even though dispersal may prevent densities ever building to a theoretical maximum (except in islands or fenced enclosures), over time the maximum density could be deduced. Then the percentage of the maximum density achieved at each project (percentage of the maximum achievement) could be calculated.
Issues
Issue 51.1: The maximum obtainable density of kiwi in different environments is unknown.
Issue 51.2: The impact that competition from largely non-predatory pests (e.g. rats, possums, pigs) and native species (e.g. North Island weka, Little Spotted Kiwi) has on Eastern brown kiwi carrying capacity is not known.
Objective and Actions
Taxon Plan Objective
Objective 51.1: Determine the maximum realistic carrying capacity of Eastern brown kiwi populations found in different ecosystem types.
Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objective
# Action Timeframe Priority Accountability 51.1 Support/lead research into developing efficient methods 2015 High Science & Capability to measure the absolute density of different populations onwards Group; Project of Eastern brown kiwi Managers; EBK Taxon Group 51.2 Support/lead research to deduce the maximum carrying 2016 Medium Science & Capability capacity of Eastern brown kiwi in different ecosystems onwards Group; Project with differing densities of native and introduced Managers; EBK Taxon competitors Group 51.3 Undertake research to identify any impact LSK have on 2018 Medium Science & Capability Eastern brown kiwi behaviour and carrying capacity Group; Project
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(Note: same as Action 10.2, Section 5.1.10) Managers; EBK Taxon Group
5.3.12 Topic 52: Emerging Threat Research Kiwi are under threat almost exclusively from recent human-induced actions, including habitat clearance and importation of predatory mammals to New Zealand. There is no guarantee, however, that these threats will remain static. Firstly, kiwi may have endemic diseases or parasites that may periodically cause mortality or sickness. Secondly, the threat of even more introduced predators, competitors or diseases from overseas in a rapidly homogenizing world ecology linked to largely uninhibited trade and global human movement could bring yet unknown long-term threats to kiwi. Climate change is another factor with uncertain repercussions that kiwi will have to adapt to in upcoming decades and millennia.
Issues
Issue 52.1: New threats (e.g. rabbits, chinchilla, new mammal species establishing in new areas which may support mustelids; new larger cat genetics establishing in wild cat populations; endemic disease emergence, especially of populations under stress; imported diseases) may emerge at any time that may affect kiwi in unexpected ways.
Issue 52.2: Current surveys would not detect any catastrophic declines in unmanaged Eastern brown kiwi populations from unknown threats.
Issue 52.3: The future impact of climate change on various aspects of Eastern brown kiwi populations and biology (e.g. pest distributions, new disease occurrences such as mosquito-borne diseases) is largely unknown.
Objective and Actions
Taxon Plan Objective
Objective 52.1: Maintain vigilance, and develop plans to counter any emerging threats to Eastern brown kiwi
Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objective
# Action Timeframe Priority Accountability 52.1 Support/lead research and develop a plan that 2014 Medium EBK Taxon Group accounts for the monitoring, planning and onwards implementation of likely new threats to Eastern brown kiwi 52.2 Support/lead research of whole-of-taxon survey and 2015 Medium Project Managers; EBK monitoring to detect any sudden catastrophic declines onwards Taxon Group in Eastern brown kiwi populations (Also see Action 45.5)
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5.3.13 Topic 53: Risk Assessment of Local Extinction Events Eastern brown kiwi are subject to different pressures at different sites throughout its current range, making some more prone to extinction. Assessing the likely result of these pressures on resident kiwi populations is necessary to determine the likelihood of local extinction events occurring, and whether these can be cost effectively countered.
Issue
Issue 53.1: A risk assessment of sites likely to lose a functional kiwi population in the next 5, 10, 20 years and more has not been undertaken.
Objective and Action
Taxon Plan Objective
Objective 53.1: To determine the likelihood of local Eastern brown kiwi populations becoming extinct over the next few decades
Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objective
# Action Timeframe Priority Accountability 53.1 Explore modelling of Eastern brown kiwi populations 2013 - 2014 High Science & Capability using likely scenarios and parameters to determine Group; EBK Taxon extinction risk of local Eastern brown kiwi populations Group (also see Action 23.1 – to be completed after Action 53.1)
5.3.14 Topic 54: Living with Kiwi – Rural and Urban Issues Most areas with high human populations do not have kiwi - they have long disappeared due to the combined effects of habitat loss and predator impacts. Remarkably, however, some urban areas do retain Eastern brown kiwi populations, the most notable being Ohope and Whakatane. As kiwi populations recover, however, kiwi may begin to come into ever more contact with urban populations, and the inherent dangers to kiwi they present. Likewise, rural communities also have many characteristics that may pose a risk to kiwi. If we are to live with Eastern brown kiwi close to human populations in the long-term, we may need to seek ways to modify our collective behaviour and reduce hazards to enable these kiwi to survive. Also see Topic 31 and Topic 32.
Issues
Issue 54.1: Rural dogs (working dogs) may kill kiwi.
Issue 54.2: Urban dogs (pets) can kill kiwi.
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Issue 54.3: Farm activities such as habitat loss (logging trees, burning), machinery and cattle stops can all present hazards to kiwi.
Issue 54.4: Cats (pets) and feral cats resulting from illegal releases can all kill kiwi.
Issue 54.5: Vehicles can represent a significant mortality hazard for kiwi.
Issue 54.6: Pest control, especially trapping and poisoning (also see Topic 31) can injure and kill Eastern brown kiwi.
Issue 54.7: Kiwi in small blocks of forest – dispersal of young into hazardous surroundings and inbreeding is a major issue. There are multiple management issues for kiwi in rural environments within small blocks of bush (e.g. bush remnants can act as refugia for Eastern brown kiwi on pastoral lands, where a pair of kiwi can live in bush by daytime, and come out at night to feed). Refugia every 200-300m apart in pastoral lands may be able to maintain a viable kiwi population (Potter, 1990).
Objective and Actions
Taxon Plan Objective
Objective 54.1: To develop methods, practices and behaviours in which human populations do no further harm to nearby Eastern brown kiwi populations
Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objective
# Action Timeframe Priority Accountability 54.1 Research and identify current and potential issues of 2013 - 2014 High Project Managers; EBK human behaviours and land use that may affect Taxon Group Eastern brown kiwi 54.2 Develop alternative ‘kiwi friendly’ behaviours and land 2013 - 2014 High Project Managers; EBK use practices that currently put Eastern brown kiwi at Taxon Group risk 54.3 Implement the alternative ‘kiwi friendly’ approaches at 2014 High Project Managers priority sites and according to the likelihood of each onwards being achieved
5.3.15 Topic 55: Synergies with Other Flightless and Ground Nesting Birds Kiwi are arguably the most iconic bird species in New Zealand, and so have a special place in the hearts and minds of New Zealanders and international visitors alike. Being flightless, they are more vulnerable to a range of threats than other avian species that are capable of flight. However, other flightless or ground nesting birds may also be vulnerable to these same threats. Kiwi projects can have a two-fold positive outcome for these species: 1. attract funding to the site where these species reside, if they share habitat with Eastern brown kiwi;
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2. cost-effective threat management is developed and implemented for kiwi at other sites, and these same management approaches can be replicated at the site of other vulnerable ground species.
Likewise, if other species can attract research on pest control funding at sites that also contain kiwi, there will be benefits to kiwi also.
Issue
Issue 55.1: There are potential synergies and linkages to other research and pest control programmes being undertaken for other species, particularly vulnerable flightless or ground-nesting bird programmes.
Issue 55.2: There are possible benefits to other threatened species found in the same sites as Eastern brown kiwi where pest control occurs.
Objective and Actions
Taxon Plan Objective
Objective 55.1: To maximise benefits to other threatened ground birds by undertaking kiwi management at priority sites
Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objective
# Action Timeframe Priority Accountability 55.1 Identify and prioritise sites containing threatened 2014 Medium Project Managers; EBK ground birds or other species subject to similar threats Taxon Group that Eastern brown kiwi are prone to 55.2 Develop management techniques that benefit both 2015 Medium Project Managers; EBK Eastern brown kiwi and other sympatric flightless birds onwards Taxon Group
5.3.16 Topic 56: Population Spillover from Kiwi projects
Successful management of Eastern brown kiwi projects will increase kiwi densities within the managed area. In some projects, where suitable kiwi habitat is larger than the managed area, the kiwi density outside the managed area may also increase as successfully managed young kiwi disperse out of the managed area. As this is a direct result of management, this should be included as a measure of the success of management. Quantifying the extent of any ‘spillover’ will be important in the long-term to understand and promote the successes of management projects.
Issues
Issue 56.1: The density of kiwi surrounding Eastern brown kiwi management projects is largely unknown.
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Issue 56.2: A quantitative measure of the extent of dispersal of Eastern brown kiwi from projects is unknown.
Issue 56.3: The frequency and extent of very long dispersal events is unknown.
Issue 56.4: The spatial placement of different Eastern brown kiwi projects in relation to each other may or may not allow gene flow from natural dispersal events.
Issue 56.5: The natural rate of gene flow between sites – both managed and unmanaged – may be able to be approximated by management.
Issue 56.6: The rate of sex-linked dispersal of Eastern brown kiwi is unknown.
Issue 56.7: The survivorship of dispersing Eastern brown kiwi outside managed areas is largely unknown.
Issue 56.8: The presence of any factors that limit Eastern brown kiwi spillover at each management site is largely unknown.
Objective and Actions
Taxon Plan Objective
Objective 56.1: To quantify the spillover of kiwi from all Eastern brown kiwi management projects Objective 56.2: To understand if there are any significant natural barriers to Eastern brown kiwi dispersal
Taxon Plan Actions required to achieve objective
# Action Timeframe Priority Accountability 56.1 Research and model the extent of natural dispersal 2013 High Science & Capability events by Eastern brown kiwi at mainland onwards Group; Project management sites Managers; EBK Taxon Group 56.2 Quantify the extent and nature of spillover from 2013 High Project Managers; EBK Eastern brown kiwi mainland management sites onwards Taxon Group
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6. References
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7. Personal Communications
Castro, Isabel. Lecturer, Massey University, Palmerston North.
McLennan, John. Kiwi Scientist, Havelock North.
Richardson, Carmel. Kiwi Encounter, Rotorua.
Robertson, Hugh. Kiwi Scientist, Department of Conservation, Wellington.
Ward-Smith, Tamsin. Cape Kidnapper’s & Ocean Beach Preserve, Napier.
Willems, Paddy. DOC, Puketitiri, Hawke’s Bay.
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8. Appendices
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Appendix 1
Timeline and priorities for recovery actions for Eastern Brown Kiwi (Apteryx mantelli).
Shaded areas are years when actions should be implemented.
Priorities: Essential - to be done within specified timeframe and/or frequency to achieve the goals for kiwi recovery over the term of this plan. Highest risk for kiwi recovery if not done within the specified timeframe and/or frequency High - necessary to achieve long-term goals. To be progressed and ideally completed within the term of the plan, with moderate risk if not done within the specified timeframe and/or frequency Medium - necessary to achieve long-term goals. To be progressed within the term of the plan but least risk if not completed within the term of the plan or within the specified timeframe and/or frequency
Action Action Priority 13/14 14/15 15/16 16/17 17/18 18/19 # 1.1 Undertake a process to determine if an Eastern brown kiwi taxon Essential “Governance Group” is required in order to achieve the goals, outcomes and actions of this Taxon Plan 1.2 Depending on outcome of Action 1.1, initiate Eastern Brown Kiwi Essential Taxon group 1.3 Prepare a progress report annually against taxon plan objectives Essential and communicate to stakeholders 1.4 Undertake a full review of the Eastern Brown Kiwi Taxon Plan (Note: same as Action 5.1, section 5.1.1) 1.5 Develop formal lines of communication with the Recovery Group High regarding reporting, strategic input in the Kiwi Recovery Planning Process to any issues either specific to this taxon or applicable to other kiwi taxa also 2.1 Develop a formal communication link between Kiwi Sanctuary High projects and Eastern brown kiwi taxon projects 2.2 Develop a research strategy for Eastern brown kiwi, highlighting Medium sites that can be used to augment Kiwi Sanctuary research 2.3 Determine whether a Kiwi Sanctuary could be provided for within Medium
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Action Action Priority 13/14 14/15 15/16 16/17 17/18 18/19 # the Eastern brown kiwi taxon 3.1 Develop an island strategy for Eastern brown kiwi that also Essential assesses all possible EBK islands, efficient use of islands for kiwi management, and islands suitable for kiwi crèche sites 3.2 Support research to understand why some island populations of High Eastern brown kiwi appear to be having low rates of reproduction (Note: same as Action 50.1, section 5.3.10) 3.3 Work collaboratively with island landowners to maximally benefit Essential the Eastern brown kiwi taxon, while maintaining culturally acceptable kiwi management 3.4 Develop contingency plans for islands containing Eastern brown High kiwi in case of fire, in association with pest incursion contingency plans (Note: same as Action 6.2, section 5.1.6 ) 3.5 Support the continued ecological improvement of islands High containing Eastern brown kiwi (e.g. eradication of wasps from Tuhua, translocation of threatened species to islands) 3.6 Support the progression of the Tuhua Eastern brown kiwi High population towards a true self-sustaining (management free) state 4.1 Contribute to regular updates of the Kiwi Best Practice Manual by High liaising with the Kiwi Recovery Group 4.2 Provide regular technical best practice workshops for all Eastern High brown kiwi practitioners (e.g. kiwi handling, transponder, transmitter, egg handling, trapping issues) 4.3 Ensure all Eastern brown kiwi practitioners are invited to a High biannual Eastern brown kiwi taxon hui 4.4 Ensure Eastern brown kiwi practitioners are invited to attend the High biannual North Island kiwi hui 4.5 Develop a revolving review process of all Eastern brown kiwi High projects to ensure Best Practice requirements are being met, maintained, and where applicable, developed 5.1 Undertake a full review of the Eastern Brown Kiwi Taxon Plan High (Note: same as Action 1.4, section 5.1.1) 5.2 Reprioritise Objectives and Actions, and record where these High changes occur 6.1 Develop, maintain and implement island biosecurity plans for Essential each island containing Eastern brown kiwi 6.2 Develop contingency plans for each island containing Eastern Essential brown kiwi in case of pest incursion, in association with fire contingency plans (Note: same as Action 3.4, section 5.1.3)
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Action Action Priority 13/14 14/15 15/16 16/17 17/18 18/19 # 6.3 Undertake an assessment of feasibility and likely costs for High eradication of a variety of pest species on islands containing Eastern brown kiwi 7.1 Undertake an analysis of the history of all managed EBK High populations to determine which projects or areas are likely to have undergone recent bottleneck effects with <20 individuals remaining at any one time 7.2 Undertake an analysis of all projects that have ever had small High kiwi populations to determine the contribution all known original individuals and pairs have made to the current population (family tree) 7.3 Develop a best practice guide and methods for management of High small populations, in consultation with captive industry and small population genetic experts 7.4 Determine site-specific operational management options for all High projects that have undergone small population bottlenecks and are in danger of long-term deleterious genetic effects 7.5 Identify unmanaged sites with small relict populations of Eastern High brown kiwi, and determine the best use of this genetic resource for the long-term benefit of the Eastern brown kiwi taxon 8.1 Control relevant pests in situ (stoats, ferrets, dogs, cats) at all High managed sites with populations above 100 pairs, and 30% of sites with populations between 50-100 pairs 8.2 Maximise effectiveness and efficiency of predator control at all High currently managed sites with large populations of Eastern brown kiwi through review of existing management and/or increase in effort 8.3 Establish one additional managed site capable of securing an High additional 200 pairs of Eastern brown kiwi 9.1 Apply landscape-scale pest control at sufficient intensity or High intervals at the sites with the greatest potential gain i.e. sites containing the largest number of currently unmanaged kiwi – see Appendix 2 9.2 Establish or enhance new or existing projects, including those High utilising BNZONE, to increase local population abundance to the point where the population can be used as a ‘Kohanga Kiwi’ site (Topic 22) – see Appendix 2 10.1 Identify any sites containing Eastern brown kiwi that would be Medium suitable for the re-establishment of a viable LSK population 10.2 Undertake research to identify any impact LSK have on Eastern Medium
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Action Action Priority 13/14 14/15 15/16 16/17 17/18 18/19 # brown kiwi behaviour and carrying capacity (Note: same as Action 51.3, section 5.3.11) 11.1 Develop procedures for identifying if an Eastern brown kiwi High population is at risk of, or undergoing, inbreeding depression 11.2 Develop a Best Practice template for management of small High Eastern brown kiwi populations, including those steps required to prevent, minimise and mitigate any inbreeding depression 11.3 Develop genetic management plans for all Eastern brown kiwi High projects likely to be subject to small population effects, particularly those in which the total minimum population at any time is likely to have been less than 20 individuals 11.4 Measure the genetic diversity within and between current Essential managed and unmanaged populations of Eastern brown kiwi for evidence of recent genetic bottleneck effects (see Topic 42) 11.5 Ensure projects with small kiwi populations take the time, and Essential use external expertise if appropriate, to clearly articulate to members and the interested public why any potentially controversial management actions are appropriate for the genetic management of the small populations found in these projects 12.1 Undertake kiwi listening surveys to ascertain the limits of the High current Eastern brown kiwi distribution 12.2 Collect feather, faeces or blood samples near the outer limits of High the known Eastern brown kiwi distribution, to determine if there is any hybrid zone with Western or Coromandel kiwi (also see Topic 42) 12.3 Collate all known surveys or observations for kiwi to have a Essential single depository of information on Eastern brown kiwi abundance and distribution 12.4 Design a survey schedule to improve the understanding of the High distribution and abundance of Eastern brown kiwi 12.5 Manage mixed-provenance populations at Rimutaka and Pukaha Medium Mount Bruce as part of the mixed-provenance zone between the Western and Eastern brown kiwi taxa 13.1 Support research into determining whether nuclear DNA Essential microsatellites can provide sufficient understanding of the Eastern Brown Kiwi genetic variation (see Topic 42) 13.2 Support research into determining if any meaningful intra-taxon Essential genetic gradients (clines) exist through the range of Eastern brown kiwi (see Topic 42). Same as Action 18.1
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Action Action Priority 13/14 14/15 15/16 16/17 17/18 18/19 # 13.3 Manage populations within the Eastern brown kiwi taxon to Essential maintain fine-scale diversity by minimising translocations between geographic extremes and likely natural boundaries to approximate more natural rates of gene flow between populations 14.1 Develop a biennially reviewed and updated Best Practice High document for the collection, security and long-term storage of Eastern brown kiwi data from all projects and surveys 14.2 Support all Eastern brown kiwi projects to acquire appropriate High skills and equipment to follow the Best Practice developed in Action 14.1 14.3 Develop a database collating all Eastern brown kiwi data that is Medium nationally consistent with other kiwi taxa data management standards 14.4 Support the introduction and use of data loggers or other in-field Medium applications that can be transferred to web-based storage and applications that all key users can access as appropriate (Note: same Action as 49.2, section 5.3.9) 15.1 Clarify the formal link and reporting structures for captive kiwi Medium between the Eastern Brown Kiwi Taxon Group, Kiwi Recovery Group, ZAA and captive institutes 15.2 Develop a plan consistent with the objectives of the Kiwi Captive High Management Plan that prioritises sites and issues to enable the captive industry to best contribute to in situ Eastern brown kiwi recovery 15.3 Support research into aspects of kiwi physiology, behaviour and Medium captive management where these can best be researched in controlled captive conditions 16.1 Support the Kiwi Recovery Group in achieving the Objectives and High undertaking the Actions outlined in the Kiwi Recovery Plan for the captive husbandry of Eastern brown kiwi Support Kiwi Recovery Group national coordination of High 17.1 TM BNZONE reporting standards Consider options to make best use of the limited resources High 17.2 TM provided by BNZONE incubation sites for Eastern brown kiwi, and co-ordinate with other taxa that use these same sites (e.g. biennial pulsing of projects) TM 17.3 Determine the likely future requirements of BNZONE captive High facilities for Eastern brown kiwi, including the required capacity and optimal location of these 17.4 Develop models that show the most cost-effective use of High
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Action Action Priority 13/14 14/15 15/16 16/17 17/18 18/19 # BNZONETM for Eastern brown kiwi sites, and compare with other management tools TM 17.5 Develop a database that collates all BNZONE outcomes for High Eastern brown kiwi and analyse trends that may increase management efficiencies 18.1 Support research into determining if any meaningful intra-taxon Essential genetic gradients (clines) exist through the range of Eastern brown kiwi (see Topic 42). Same Action as 13.2 18.2 Develop a plan for the genetic management of the entire Eastern Essential brown kiwi taxon 18.3 Develop clear guidelines for appropriate translocations between Essential both managed and unmanaged populations of Eastern brown kiwi 18.4 Develop a plan on future management options for small non- High viable remnant kiwi populations likely to have rare genetic alleles that can be captured (e.g. new populations started, add to existing populations, need to set up new management area) (also see Topic 23) 18.5 Trace previous the translocation history of kiwi in all managed High sites, including community groups 19.1 Prioritise current and potential management sites by using a clear Essential set of criteria (e.g. cost-effectiveness, population security, sustainability, iwi cultural valuable sites and representativeness of Eastern brown kiwi distribution) 19.2 Provide community groups with information on priority areas for High management of Eastern brown kiwi (Same Action as 35.3) 20.1 Undertake a cost-benefit analysis of the different types of High management fences for Eastern brown kiwi compared to other management options 20.2 Determine the most cost-effective sites for different fence types High for future management of Eastern brown kiwi 21.1 Determine the current and future requirements of kiwi crèches for High Eastern brown kiwi and the best sites for these to achieve the goals of this Plan (Note: see Topic 20 and Action 20.2 also) 21.2 Support the development of cost-effective best practice Medium management for kiwi crèche sites 22.1 Support the development of identified priority kohanga kiwi sites High for Eastern brown kiwi (see Action 19.1) 22.2 Develop models for optimizing the size, location and Medium management methods of kohanga kiwi sites
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Action Action Priority 13/14 14/15 15/16 16/17 17/18 18/19 # 23.1 Identify small unmanaged Eastern brown kiwi populations with High the highest risk of extinction (after completing Action 53.1) 23.2 Estimate the cost of various management options for small Medium remnant populations currently present in both small and large areas of remaining forest habitat 23.3 Determine cost-effective methods for managing small Eastern Medium brown kiwi populations in small habitats (e.g. ‘mopping up’ remnant kiwi to capture this genetic diversity), and decide what to do with these birds (e.g. start new populations, add to existing populations, need to set up new management area) 24.1 Determine the sites of past local extinction events of Eastern Medium brown kiwi, i.e. sites with non-contiguous kiwi distribution 24.2 Undertake a cost-benefit analysis of re-establishing locally extinct Medium kiwi populations, using projects currently undertaking this process 24.3 Develop a Best Practice plan to minimise the costs of re- Medium establishing locally extinct kiwi populations 24.4 Prioritise sites to re-establish locally extinct Eastern brown kiwi Medium populations 24.5 Implement Best Practice to re-establish extinct Eastern brown Medium kiwi populations at priority sites 25.1 Support the development of effective legislation at local, regional High and national forums to obtain a high level of protection for kiwi from dogs 25.2 Support the development of kiwi aversion training for all dogs Essential likely to come into contact with Eastern brown kiwi 25.3 Support the development of tools in which to manage the threat Essential urban, working, hunting and feral dogs pose to Eastern brown kiwi 25.4 Contribute to the national dog kill database as incidents are Essential reported to better understand the extent of the impact of dogs on EBK 26.1 Determine the minimum resource required for all kiwi projects High needed to achieve the Goals of this Taxon Plan 26.2 Outline options that may be used to achieve the Goals of this Medium Taxon Plan, with varying levels of declining funding 26.3 Develop an understanding between all kiwi projects for them to High work collaboratively and co-operatively with each other to support a minimum funding for a few high priority projects, that could be supported by other projects if individual funding streams for these projects declines
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Action Action Priority 13/14 14/15 15/16 16/17 17/18 18/19 # 27.1 Prioritise other conservation values present at current Eastern Medium brown kiwi management sites 27.2 Assess the conservation values of other sites within the current Medium and historic distribution of Eastern brown kiwi, and consider whether attracting funding to undertake kiwi management at these sites could help protect these conservation values 28.1 Assess the potential of all current and proposed conservation Medium projects for their ability to concurrently provide opportunities for additional Eastern brown kiwi management 29.1 Scope the use of central, regional and local Government Medium resources to determine how they could be utilised for Eastern brown kiwi conservation management 30.1 Identify the spatial extent of any natural zones of mixed- Medium provenance birds, and the management actions required for such populations 30.2 Determine management options for the known mixed-provenance Medium Mt Bruce and Rimutaka populations that is also consistent with the Western brown kiwi Taxon Plan 30.3 Identify historic transfers of non-Eastern brown kiwi into the Medium distribution of Eastern brown kiwi 31.1 Develop a Best Practice manual for both plant and animal pest Essential control methods aimed at ensuring a minimal impact on Eastern brown kiwi 31.2 Ensure all kiwi Eastern brown kiwi projects are undertaking kiwi- Essential friendly pest management Best Practice 31.3 Advocate for all land owners, land management organisations High (e.g. Federated Farmers) and territorial local authorities that undertake any pest management, that kiwi-friendly Best Practice methods are used 31.4 Support research to increase the effectiveness of pest control High methods while not increasing the risk of harm to Eastern brown kiwi. (Also see 44.1) 32.1 Identify areas of production forestry, agriculture and horticulture High containing Eastern brown kiwi 32.2 In conjunction with the forestry industry, develop management High practices that minimise any impact on Eastern brown kiwi. (Also see 38.1) 32.3 Identify priority areas where forestry companies or landowners Medium could manage Eastern brown kiwi, either with predator control or BNZONETM management
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Action Action Priority 13/14 14/15 15/16 16/17 17/18 18/19 # 32.4 Support research to monitor Eastern brown kiwi populations and Medium predator densities through cycles of production forestry management (see Topic 54) 32.5 Working with industry, develop risk profiles that various Medium agricultural and horticultural practices may have on Eastern brown kiwi (Also see 38.1) 32.6 Work with industry and individual landowners to minimise any High potential impacts of productive land management upon Eastern brown kiwi (See Topic 38 & 54) 33.1 Develop a media strategy to maximise coverage of kiwi to as High many kiwi projects as possible 33.2 Develop strategies to maximise exposure of Eastern brown kiwi High to local groups (e.g. kiwi releases) 33.3 Develop a web-based advocacy approach for Eastern brown kiwi Medium 33.4 Develop an advocacy strategy with captive institutions (who will High provide key advocacy opportunities) to promote Eastern brown kiwi 34.1 Include tangata whenua in the implementation of the Eastern Essential brown kiwi Taxon Plan, and ensure their perspectives on kiwi are reflected in the Plan 34.2 Acknowledge the kaitiakitanga role of tangata whenua in Eastern High brown kiwi conservation, and in consultation with tangata whenua develop appropriate tikanga (protocols) for kiwi management at each site 34.3 Develop protocols and a standard model for tangata whenua Essential involvement in all Eastern brown kiwi conservation projects 34.4 Provide opportunities for tangata whenua to increase their Essential involvement and skills in Eastern brown kiwi conservation management, and identify current barriers for their involvement 34.5 Develop and annually refine protocols that address issues Essential particularly sensitive to Maori (e.g. toxins, dogs, whakapapa, korowai, bones) regarding Eastern brown kiwi conservation management 34.6 Support the maintenance and development of the cultural use of High dead Eastern brown kiwi by tangata whenua 34.7 Work with Nga Whenua Rahui to identify areas of high Eastern High brown kiwi conservation potential on private Maori land, and provide support to landowners to undertake this work 34.8 Consult with tangata whenua (and other stakeholders) regarding High
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Action Action Priority 13/14 14/15 15/16 16/17 17/18 18/19 # the applicability of the taxon name “Eastern brown kiwi” 34.9 Support tangata whenua in accessing funding for Eastern brown kiwi projects 35.1 Establish an Eastern brown kiwi support structure for local kiwi High projects, including for advocacy 35.2 Provide regular suitable forums and training opportunities to Essential share information on best practice, sustainability, strategic planning and funding for community-led initiatives 35.3 Provide community groups with information on priority areas for High management of Eastern brown kiwi (same Action as 19.2) 36.1 Promote within DOC and externally the role of The Kiwi Trust as Essential a key participant in kiwi management 36.2 Ensure DOC staff are aware of and follow their obligation under Essential the sponsorship agreement with The Kiwi Trust and main sponsors 36.3 Support projects in developing strategies to increase the amount High of sponsorship funding for Eastern brown kiwi recovery 37.1 Raise awareness of threats to Eastern brown kiwi associated with High land use practices and encourage submissions to statutory planning and policy that can support Eastern brown kiwi recovery 37.2 Promote the inclusion of statutory protection of Eastern brown High kiwi habitat and of kiwi from predation in District Plans 37.3 Provide local authorities with information on priority areas for High management of Eastern brown kiwi
37.4 Encourage District and Regional Councils to financially support High identified priority sites for Eastern brown kiwi management 38.1 Provide information to certifying bodies for forestry, live-stock High farming and horticulture regarding kiwi biology and protection methods, and promote their consideration in the development of standards and certification criteria. (Also see 32.2) 39.1 Assess the tourism potential of Eastern brown kiwi projects and High sites 39.2 Develop a Tourist Guide to Eastern brown kiwi projects, and High make it available at tourist operations, including high volume kiwi- oriented tourist sites (e.g. Rainbow Springs, Whakarewarewa) 39.3 Support kiwi projects to more easily attract tourists, e.g. web- Medium based advocacy and advertising 39.4 Support projects in their ability to develop aspects of their Medium
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Action Action Priority 13/14 14/15 15/16 16/17 17/18 18/19 # projects that increase their attractiveness to fee-paying tourists 39.5 Support marketing of Eastern brown kiwi projects to increase Medium both domestic and international tourists 40.1 Develop an Eastern brown kiwi volunteer programme network High that can share volunteer resources between projects in a prioritised order 40.2 Develop a database of volunteers within the Eastern brown kiwi High Taxon to be available to projects to attract volunteers when they are required 40.3 Develop a certification system for volunteers who achieve Medium designated skills in various aspects of Eastern brown kiwi conservation management 40.4 Develop an easy to access volunteer programme for Eastern Medium brown kiwi targeting both overseas and domestic volunteers 41.1 Develop a research plan for Eastern brown kiwi that is updated High biennially and communicate this to researchers (internal and external to DOC) and project managers 42.1 Provide support for any Eastern brown kiwi taxonomy research Essential as necessary Support or lead research on the genetic diversity of translocated, Essential 42.2 TM BNZ Operation Nest Egg -based and island populations of Eastern brown kiwi 42.3 Research the presence and implications (management and Essential cultural) of any genetic bottlenecking, in situ fine-scale diversity within the Taxon, and genetic homogenisation caused by previous translocations of Eastern brown kiwi populations (including island translocations and captive releases) 42.4 Determine the genetic diversity of all managed Eastern brown High kiwi populations, particularly those with small populations or previously suffering severe bottlenecks, but also non-managed populations, and management approaches to resolve any significant issues 42.5 Ensure captive populations contain enough genetic variation to High be able to contribute in the long-term to recovery of Eastern brown kiwi populations. (Also see Topic 15) 42.6 Determine the entire current geographic extent of the Eastern High brown kiwi taxon, by selective genetic sampling throughout the known, suspected range of the taxon 42.7 Research the presence and implications of any hybrid zone areas High incorporating Eastern brown kiwi, and define where any zone is
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Action Action Priority 13/14 14/15 15/16 16/17 17/18 18/19 # currently present 42.8 Develop protocols to maximise the genetic diversity of all Eastern High brown kiwi projects and populations when required and appropriate (e.g. kohanga kiwi sites, islands, captive populations, new populations, and in situ populations) – also see Action 7.3 42.9 Support research into geological processes that are reflected in Medium the geographic distribution of alleles within the Eastern brown kiwi taxon 43.1 Support research to understand the dispersal behaviour of kiwi High populations, particularly those in large forested areas, resulting in a high level of confidence in dispersal-dependent population models 43.2 Liaise with research providers to initiate or support research on High the ecology and behaviour of Eastern brown kiwi 43.3 Initiate/complete population modelling and disseminate results High from available data (including banding and territory mapping) for each managed population, each sub-population and the taxon as a whole 43.4 Determine predation parameters (including likely scenarios of High stochastic ferret and dog impacts) required to maintain current kiwi populations at each project 43.5 Undertake population modelling using different management Medium scenarios in large areas 44.1 Support the development of traps, lures, bait, toxins and delivery Essential systems for the control of mustelids, cats and dogs in Eastern brown kiwi areas 44.2 In collaboration with other landscape-scale predator control Essential programmes, support/initiate the development of integrated pest management techniques that support broader biodiversity maintenance and enhancement while fulfilling the goal for Eastern brown kiwi recovery 44.3 Support/lead research into the effectiveness of kiwi avoidance Essential training for dogs and support the standardisation of the technique according to research findings 44.4 Support/lead research to understand ferret biology, particularly Essential habitat preferences, dispersal, and distributional overlaps with existing Eastern brown kiwi populations 44.5 Research the impacts on other pest species (e.g. rabbits, rats, High pigs) that may result from sustained or intermittent predator management at Eastern brown kiwi projects
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Action Action Priority 13/14 14/15 15/16 16/17 17/18 18/19 # 44.6 Research ways to minimise the impact of ferrets and dogs High (including feral dogs) in both managed and unmanaged Eastern brown kiwi areas 44.7 Support/lead research to determine cost-effective mechanisms to High individually identify dogs or ferrets that may be present in kiwi areas, particularly those individuals that may have caused a stochastic predation event 44.8 Research means to reduce or avoid pig interference on mustelid Medium traps 44.9 Research means to reduce or avoid rats being caught in and Medium ‘clogging’ mustelid traps 44.10 Research any change in pest avoidance behaviour to traps, and Medium more effective means to avoid this occurring 45.1 Continue to support the nationwide Kiwi Call Count Scheme by Essential undertaking call counts according to standard operating procedure at all applicable sites 45.2 Support/lead research on remote landscape-scale monitoring High methods
45.3 Support/lead research into the link between index methods (e.g. High call counts) and the actual abundance of Eastern brown kiwi 45.4 Support/lead research into cost-effective techniques of High monitoring the rate of dispersal of Eastern brown kiwi populations, using different techniques, e.g. ’Sky Ranger’, GPS transmitters 45.5 Support/lead research into methods of determining landscape- High scale population density and population trends of Eastern brown kiwi 45.6 Support/lead research into understanding variation in current High Eastern brown kiwi density, and if this relates to predator density, terrain, vegetation type, etc. 45.7 Support/lead research into identification of individual kiwi, e.g. Medium automated call recognition, genetic fingerprinting from faeces or feathers 46.1 Support/lead research into disease management in captive- Essential reared kiwi (also see Topic 52)
46.2 Support/lead research into the diet of captive kiwi chicks and High juveniles that minimises morphological differences between captive and wild-raised Eastern brown kiwi
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Action Action Priority 13/14 14/15 15/16 16/17 17/18 18/19 # TM 46.3 Research the long-term multi-generational effects of BNZONE High and captive rearing on productivity and ultimate adult weights of resulting Eastern brown kiwi
46.4 Research methods that can improve the survival of captive-raised Medium kiwi to mustelid and dog predation upon release into the wild Develop models to determine the relative cost-effectiveness and High 46.5 TM optimum times to implement BNZONE , crèche or in situ Eastern brown kiwi management for each project TM 46.6 Research the optimum use of BNZONE in small to large Medium Eastern brown kiwi populations that limits genetic bottlenecks (see Action 7.3 and 42.8) 47.1 Undertake modelling of kiwi mammalian predators and other pest Medium distributions and densities, and correlate this to likely kiwi survival outcomes over time at current known kiwi densities 47.2 Undertake pest density modelling to help inform current and Medium future priority sites for Eastern brown kiwi management 48.1 Support/lead the development of tools to enhance the Essential effectiveness of kiwi aversion methods for dogs 48.2 Develop increasingly effective information and education tools to Essential protect kiwi from dog predation 48.3 Support the prosecution of people who own dogs proven to kill Essential kiwi 48.4 Develop a risk profile map of all areas containing Eastern brown Essential kiwi and determine their vulnerability to recreational hunting dogs, farm working dogs, pets and feral dogs 48.5 Develop Best Practice methods that ensure project staff can take Essential DNA samples from any kiwi carcass which can then identify dogs at an individual level 48.6 Support/lead research to develop methods that significantly High reduces the likelihood of feral dogs establishing within the Eastern brown kiwi taxon distribution 48.7 Support/lead research to develop techniques to determine the High presence, abundance, and control of feral dogs over the range of the taxon 48.8 Develop Best Practice protocols to monitor hunting dogs, and High other protocols to be used when dogs go missing and may subsequently become feral 49.1 Ascertain aspects of kiwi conservation management that would High benefit the most by advances in technology, cost these out,
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Action Action Priority 13/14 14/15 15/16 16/17 17/18 18/19 # prioritise them and support/lead research into developing these to practitioners 49.2 Support the introduction and use of data loggers or other in-field Medium applications that can be transferred to web-based storage and applications that all key users can access as appropriate (Note: same Action as 14.4, section 5.1.14) 50.1 Support research to understand why some island populations of High Eastern brown kiwi appear to be having low rates of reproduction (Note: same as Action 3.2, section 5.1.3) 50.2 Determine likely abiotic factors, competition with other species, Medium areas of natural low predator densities, and natural events (including volcanism) that may either limit or enhance the likely persistence of Eastern brown kiwi 51.1 Support/lead research into developing efficient methods to High measure the absolute density of different populations of Eastern brown kiwi 51.2 Support/lead research to deduce the maximum carrying capacity Medium of Eastern brown kiwi in different ecosystems 51.3 Support research to identify any impact LSK have on Eastern Medium brown kiwi behaviour and carrying capacity (Note: same as Action 10.2, section 5.1.10) 52.1 Develop a plan that accounts for the monitoring, planning and Medium implementation of likely new threats to Eastern brown kiwi 52.2 Implement whole-of-taxon survey and monitoring to detect any Medium sudden catastrophic declines in Eastern brown kiwi populations (Also see Action 45.5) 53.1 Undertake modelling using likely known parameters to determine High extinction risk of local Eastern brown kiwi populations (also see Action 23.1 - to be completed after Action 53.1) 54.1 Identify current and potential issues of human behaviours and High land use that may affect Eastern brown kiwi 54.2 Develop alternative ‘kiwi friendly’ behaviours and land use High practices that currently put Eastern brown kiwi at risk 54.3 Implement the alternative ‘kiwi friendly’ approaches at priority High sites and according to the likelihood of each being achieved 55.1 Identify and prioritise sites containing threatened ground birds or Medium other species subject to similar threats that kiwi are prone to 55.2 Develop management techniques that benefit Eastern brown kiwi Medium and other sympatric flightless birds
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Action Action Priority 13/14 14/15 15/16 16/17 17/18 18/19 # 56.1 Research and model the extent of natural dispersal events by High Eastern brown kiwi at mainland management sites 56.2 Quantify the extent of spillover from Eastern brown kiwi High management sites
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Appendix 2
Details of Current Eastern Brown Kiwi Management Sites (as at June 2013)
Project Kiwi Area Project Year Management Mean Nearest 2 other DOC Region Name Pairs (ha) Management commenced Type Annual projects, kiwi Organisation Pair walking distance Type Popn (km) Growth Rate (last 5 years) Opuiaki 2 2100 DOC 2002 Trapping 25 Otanewainuku Central NI Tuhua 2 2500 DOC/iwi 2004 Island biosecurity; n/a Central NI translocations Mokoia 3 135 Iwi 2000 Island biosecurity n/a Central NI Whakatane 25 2300 Community/ 2001 BNZ ONETM; 20 Omataroa; Central NI Kiwi Project DOC/Regional trapping; 30 TUMI Council Otanewainuku 1 1000 Community 2004 Trapping 25 Opuiaki Central NI Translocations 25 Mokoia Omataroa 5 4500 Iwi 2004 BNZ ONETM; 20 Whakatane Central NI trapping 60 Otanewainuku Moutohora 2 161 Iwi/ DOC/ 2003 Island biosecurity n/a Central NI Regional Council/ Community TUMI 100 4500 DOC 1996 Trapping 35 Whakatane; Central NI (Otamatuna/ 40 Ruatahuna Mangaone) Whinray 3 400 Community/ 1998 BNZONETM, 40 TUMI Lower NI DOC trapping 60 Whakatane Motu 0 2 Community 2007 Fenced 2 Whinray Lower NI 40 TUMI Ruatahuna 2 1000 Iwi 2004 BNZONETM 9 Whirinaki Central NI 18 Puketukutuku
Whirinaki 10 5000 DOC 1996 BNZONETM 9 Ruatahuna Central NI 18 Maungataniwha Puketukutuku 70 800 Iwi/ DOC 1992 Trapping, BNZ 18 Maungataniwha Central NI ONETM, dispersal 18 Ruatahuna fence Maungataniwha 30 3000 Private 2006 BNZ ONETM; 20 Boundary Stream; Lower NI trapping 17 Puketukutuku Boundary 5 1000 DOC 1999 Trapping 25 Maungataniwha Lower NI Stream 5 Opouahi Opouahi 0 100 Community/ 2006 Fenced crèche 0 5 Boundary Stream; Lower NI DOC 50 Kaweka Kaweka 80 17,000 Community/ 2001 BNZ ONETM; 35 Boundary Stream; Lower NI DOC crèche; 40 Ruahine ferret trapping Cape 2? 2500 Private 2007 Fenced; trapping 60 Kaweka Lower NI Kidnapper’s 70 Ruahine Ruahine 2? 8000 Community 2007 BNZONETM; 40 Kaweka Lower NI trapping 70 Cape Kidnapper’s
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Appendix 3
Major volcanic events in Taupo Volcanic Zone
Eruptions that are likely to have impacted upon Eastern brown kiwi during the past approx. 300,000 years
Volcanic Square Explosivity Cubic km km Volcanic Centre Date Index (VEI) expelled covered Okataina 10 Jun 1886 5 2 Taranaki 1655 4 Okataina 1310 (+12 yrs) 5 7.5 232 (+5 yrs), Mar 15 (+20 Taupo days) 6? 100 (35 DRE) 31,000 Taranaki 150 3? Taupo 200BC 4+ 2 Tongariro 550BC (+200yrs) 5 1.2 Taupo 1010BC (+200yrs) 4+ 2 Taupo 1050BC 4 Taupo 1250BC 3 Taupo 1460BC (+40yrs) 6 19 Okataina 1750BC 4+ 0.7 Taupo 2500BC 3 Taupo 2600BC 4 3 Taupo 2800BC 3 Taupo 2850 BC 3 Taupo 2900 BC 4 Taupo 3070 BC 4 Taupo 3120 BC 3 Taupo 3170 BC (+200yrs) 4 1 Taupo 3420 BC 3 Okataina 3580 BC (+ 50 yrs) 5 19 Taupo 4000BC 3 Taupo 4100BC 4 Taupo 4700 BC 4 Mayor Island 5060 BC (+ 200yrs) 5 1? Taupo 5100 BC 3 Okataina 6060BC (+50 yrs) 5 21 Okataina 7560 BC (+18 yrs) 5 15 Ruapehu 7840 BC (in or before) 4 3.5 Taupo 8130 BC (+200 yrs) 5 4 Taupo 9210 BC 4 Taupo 9240 BC (+ 75 yrs) 5 3 Tongariro 9350 BC 5 Tongariro 9450 BC 5 Taupo 9460 BC (+ 200 yrs) 5 5 Tongariro 9650 BC 5 Okataina 11.9ka 6 15T; 4LF Okataina 13.1ka 5+ 7T; 1 LF Okataina 14.7ka Okataina 19.1ka
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Okataina 21.1 ka 43T; 8 LF Taupo 22.6ka 1170 (530 DRE) Taupo 23.5ka 2.5 Taupo 25.1ka 7 Okataina 26.5ka 8.1 Okataina 26.7ka 16 Okataina 28.0ka 19.9 Okataina 29.0ka 8 2 Okataina 31.9 ka 6 16.2 Okataina 34.2 ka 5 2.5 Okataina 35.1 ka 6 15.2 Okataina 35.9 ka 6 10 Okataina 37.1 ka 6 11 Taupo 38 5 5 Taupo 39 5 1 Taupo 40.0 5 2 Okataina 42.0 7? 100 Okataina 61.0 6? 80 Likely much active volcanism unknown in this period due to poor strata retention during ice age period
Maroa 210 ka 5? 1? Maroa 230 ka 5? >1 DRE 10 Reporoa 230 ka 7 100 DRE 800-1870 Kapenga 240 ka 7 100 DRE 500 Rotorua 240 ka 7 145 Maroa 260 ka 5 2 Maroa 270 ka 5 2 Kapenga 280 ka 7 100 DRE 360 Maroa 280 ka 5? 1? Okataina 280 ka 7 150 3200 Kapenga 300 ka 7? 50 DRE Maroa 330 ka 8? 500 DRE Maroa 340 ka 8 1500 DRE 13,000 Okataina 340 ka 6 >25
DRE = dense rock equivalent (multiply by ~3 to obtain approximate bulk volumes) T = tephra LF = lava flow VEI: number (n) refers to 10n km3 volume expelled.
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Appendix 4.
Current contacts (2013) for Eastern Brown Kiwi taxon projects
Project Project Contact Address Phone E-mail Website Name Management Name Number Type Opuiaki DOC Jeff Milham C/- DOC (07) 571 2724 [email protected]
Otanewainuku Community Whakatane Community/ John Sutton C/- DOC [email protected] Kiwi Project DOC/Regional Council Tuhua DOC/iwi Jeff Milham C/- DOC (07) 571 2724 [email protected] TUMI DOC Hemi C/- DOC [email protected] (Otamatuna) Barsdell Kaweka Community/ Paddy C/- DOC [email protected] DOC Willems Opouahi Community/ Wendy ECOED DOC Rakete- Stones Maungataniwha Private Pete Shaw n/a n/a n/a n/a Puketukutuku Iwi/ DOC Lisa Waiwai Whirinaki DOC Sarah King C/- DOC Whinray Community/ Fiona Fisher n/a n/a n/a n/a DOC Motu creche Community Fiona Fisher n/a n/a n/a n/a Mokoia Iwi Moutohora Iwi/ DOC/ John Sutton Regional Council/ Community Cape Private Tamsin n/a n/a n/a n/a Kidnapper’s Ward-Smith Ruahine Community/DO Viv C McGlynn Ruatahuna Iwi Bruce n/a n/a n/a n/a Bancroft
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Appendix 5.
List of meetings held in the development of this Taxon Plan
Date Location Purpose
26/7/07 Rotorua Initial taxon meeting
29/9/09 Napier Hawke’s Bay Scoping Meeting
28/10/09 Murupara South-western Te Urewera Scoping Meeting
29/10/09 Whakatane Bay of Plenty Scoping Meeting
23/11/09 Napier Hawke’s Bay Scoping Meeting #2
23/11/09 Tuai Waikaremoana Scoping Meeting
17/3/10 Waimana Northern Te Urewera Scoping Meeting
13/4/10 Whakatane Whakatane Kiwi Trust Scoping Meeting
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