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Abandoning the Ark in Durban: Development, Displacement, Resettlement and Livelihood Struggles

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Abandoning the Ark in Durban: Development, Displacement, Resettlement and Livelihood Struggles ABANDONING THE ARK IN DURBAN: DEVELOPMENT, DISPLACEMENT, RESETTLEMENT AND LIVELIHOOD STRUGGLES by TARA JADE FITZGERALD 218087625 Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN GEOGRAPHY in the School of Agricultural, Earth and Environmental Sciences at The University of KwaZulu-Natal Supervisor: Professor Brij Maharaj January 2021 DECLARATION I, Tara Jade Fitzgerald, declare that: i. The findings of this research are my original work, except where otherwise indicated; ii. This thesis has not been submitted for any other degree at another university; iii. This thesis does not use another person’s data, graphs or pictures unless otherwise stated and acknowledged; iv. No other writings have been used, unless otherwise referenced. Where other written works have been used then: • their words have been rewritten and referenced appropriately; • where their exact words have been used, their writings have been placed in quotation marks and referenced appropriately. Signature: Date: 26/01/2021 Signature: Date: 26/01/2021 i DEDICATION This dissertation is dedicated to the former Ark residents. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS To my God, thank you for blessing me with wisdom, strength and perseverance. Meeting Professor Brij Maharaj can only be described as an act of divine intervention. While taking my niece to an open day at UKZN, I had a very fortunate encounter with Prof Maharaj who graciously offered to supervise this thesis. Thank you, Prof, for your constant guidance and reassurance throughout this journey. Most of all, thank you for teaching me the art of writing. To my family and friends, I could not have done this without your constant support. Special thanks go to: • My mom, Heather Fitzgerald, thank you for your love, reassurance and support; • My sister, Chantel Lamp, thank you for your profound wisdom, unconditional love and constant support. You are my light; and • My best friend, Dr Schalk Ebersohn, thank you for being my sounding board, my shoulder in times of need and my greatest supporter. This thesis would not have been possible without the participants of this study. Special thanks go to: • Dr Mark Haskins, director of Arauna Ark. Thank you for your information on the history of the Ark homeless shelter. • Dr Peter Munns, current chairman of the Ark. Thank you for access to your invaluable newspaper archives of the Ark’s history and your contribution to this study. • Greg Huggins, resettlement expert and director of Nomad Consulting. Thank you for the information you provided on resettlement practices. Last, but certainly not least, I would like to thank the former Ark residents for their invaluable contribution to this study. This thesis would not have been possible without your assistance. I am highly indebted to each participant for their willingness to share their experience. iii ABSTRACT Forced removals, the theme of this thesis, through evictions, clean-up campaigns and development-induced displacement, results in the ‘hygienisation’ of public space and the ‘violent un-homing’ of vulnerable communities. The Ark Christian Ministries Church (ACMC) was established in 1982 in Durban’s notorious Point Precinct, offering shelter and rehabilitation opportunities for socially excluded and marginalised persons in the inner city. As the city forged ahead with the Point Waterfront Development mega-project and prepared to host the 2010 FIFA World Cup, the Ark was shut-down in 2004. Notwithstanding a spirited resistance, one hundred families were forced to relocate to Welbedacht East, 30km from the Point Precinct. The aim of this study is to examine the implications of Development-Induced-Displacement and Resettlement (DIDR) on the livelihoods of those displaced from the Ark homeless shelter in the Point Precinct in Durban, and their survival strategies after relocating to the urban edge in Welbedacht. Influenced by theories of displacement, social justice and human rights, this thesis analysed the displacement, resistance, relocation and livelihood struggles of the Ark dwellers. A mixed-method approach was adopted in this study, drawing from qualitative and quantitative techniques and information from documents. The study found that those displaced remained socially excluded and marginalised in Welbedacht and expressed a deep sense of detachment and hopelessness. Their lives were characterised by unemployment, poverty and social pathologies. The former Ark residents failed to restore their livelihood opportunities and remain in a constant state of precarity. The study identified a new form of displacement. ‘New-Place Displacement’ refers to the inability to adapt to the new environment or integrate with surrounding communities. Instead, the ‘Arkians’ remained in a constant state of alienation in Welbedacht. Keywords: Urban Displacement, Relocation, Point Precinct, Welbedacht, Durban, South Africa iv LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ACMC Ark Christian Ministries Church ADB Asian Development Bank AIDS Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome APS Addington Primary School CBD Central Business District CHC Christian Help Centre COHRE The Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions COVID Corona Virus Disease DFID Department for International Development DID Development-Induced Displacement DIDR Development-Induced Displacement and Resettlement DoH Department of Housing DPDC Durban Point Development Company DPSA Disabled People of South Africa EM eThekwini Municipality EMA eThekwini Municipal Area EMM Early Morning Market ESS Environmental and Social Standard EST Extension of Security of Tenure FIFA Federation Internationale de Football Association FWC FIFA World Cup GEAR Growth, Employment and Redistribution HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus IAIA International Association for Impact Assessment IFC International Finance Corporation IFI International Finance Institution IOC International Olympics Committee IRR Impoverishment Risks and Reconstruction iTRUMP inner Thekwini Regeneration and Urban Management Project Km Kilometer KSIA King Shaka International Airport v MICE Meetings, Incentives, Conferences/Conventions and Exhibitions NGO Non-Government Organisation NMPS Nomzamo Mandela Primary School NPO Non-Profit Organisation No. Number N2 National Highway PAP Project-Affected Person PPP Public-Private Partnership PWD Point Waterfront Development PIE Prevention of Illegal Eviction OD Operational Directive OP Operational Policy RAP Resettlement Action Plan RDP Reconstruction and Development Programme SANCA South African National Council on Alcoholism SAQA South African Qualifications Authority SASSA South African Social Security Agency SLF Sustainable Livelihoods Framework SPSS Statistical Package for the Social Sciences TB Tuberculosis TRA Temporary Relocation Area UN-HABITAT United Nations Human Settlements Programme UKZN University of KwaZulu-Natal UNISA University of South Africa WB World Bank WC World Cup vi TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION .............................................................................................................................................. i DEDICATION ................................................................................................................................................ ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ......................................................................................................................... iii ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................... iv LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................... v TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................................ vii LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................................................ xi LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................................................... xii CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Background of the Study ............................................................................................................ 1 1.2 Theoretical Underpinnings ....................................................................................................... 3 1.3 Statement of the Research Problem ...................................................................................... 4 1.4 The Rationale for the Study ...................................................................................................... 5 1.5 Aims and Objectives .................................................................................................................... 6 1.6 Guiding Questions ........................................................................................................................ 6 1.7 Chapter Overview ......................................................................................................................... 7 1.8 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................... 8 CHAPTER TWO: THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ......................................... 9 2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................
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