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Screening for Galactosemia: Is There a Place for It?

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Screening for Galactosemia: Is There a Place for It? International Journal of General Medicine Dovepress open access to scientific and medical research Open Access Full Text Article REVIEW Screening for galactosemia: is there a place for it? This article was published in the following Dove Press journal: International Journal of General Medicine Magd A Kotb Abstract: Galactose is a hexose essential for production of energy, which has a prebiotic Lobna Mansour role and is essential for galactosylation of endogenous and exogenous proteins, cera- Radwa A Shamma mides, myelin sheath metabolism and others. The inability to metabolize galactose results in galactosemia. Galactosemia is an autosomal recessive disorder that affects newborns Pediatrics Department, Faculty of Medicine, Kasr Al Ainy, Cairo University, who are born asymptomatic, apparently well and healthy, then develop serious morbidity Cairo, Egypt and mortality upon consuming milk that contains galactose. Those with galactosemia have a deficiency of an enzyme: classic galactosemia (type 1) results from severe deficiency of galactose-1-uridylyltransferase, while galactosemia type II results from galactokinase deficiency and type III results from galactose epimerase deficiency. Many countries include neonatal screening for galactosemia in their national newborn screening program; however, others do not, as the condition is rather rare, with an incidence of 1:30,000–1:100,000, and screening may be seen as not cost-effective and logistically demanding. Early detection and intervention by restricting galactose is not curative but is very rewarding, as it prevents deaths, mental retardation, liver cell failure, renal tubular acidosis and neurological sequelae, and may lead to resolution of cataract formation. Hence, national newborn screening for galactosemia prevents serious potential life-long suffering, morbidity and mortality. Recent advances in communication and biotechnology promise facilitation of logistics of neonatal screening, including improved cost- effectiveness. Keywords: galactosemia neonatal screening, galactose-1-phosphate uridylyltransferase, galactokinase, UDP galactose-4-epimerase, galactosylation What are galactose and galactosemia? Galactose is a monosaccharide which, when combined with glucose (another monosaccharide), yields the disaccharide lactose, which is abundant in human milk and other newborn feeding formulae.1,2 Galactose has many roles in vivo, e. g., it is essential for galactosylation of ceramide for synthesis of myelin sheath, other ceramides and Fc (the crystallizable fraction) of immunoglobulin G (IgG), is involved in heparin and heparan sulfate synthesis,3 and the Leloir pathway, to produce energy for various tissues of the body.4 Galactokinase (GALK) facilitates the phosphorylation of galactose into galactose-1-phosphate, which is then cata- lyzed into glucose-1-phosphate by galactose-1-uridylyltransferase (GALT), releas- ing uridine diphosphate galactose (UDP galactose). UDP galactose is converted to Correspondence: Magd A Kotb uridine diphosphate glucose (UDP glucose) by UDP galactose-4-epimerase Pediatrics Department, Faculty of (GALE) in mammals. These three enzymes are part of the degradation pathway Medicine, Kasr Al Ainy, Cairo University, 1,2 Al-Saray Street, El Manial, 11956 Cairo, known as the Leloir pathway for galactose (Figure 1). Egypt UDP GALE also catalyzes the formation of UDP-N-acetylgalactosamine, which Tel +2 022 508 4994; +2 010 142 0831 5 Email [email protected] is an essential step in glycoprotein/glycolipid production. submit your manuscript | www.dovepress.com International Journal of General Medicine 2019:12 193–205 193 DovePress © 2019 Kotb et al. This work is published and licensed by Dove Medical Press Limited. The full terms of this license are available at https://www.dovepress.com/terms.php and incorporate the Creative Commons Attribution – Non Commercial (unported, v3.0) License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/). By accessing the work http://doi.org/10.2147/IJGM.S180706 you hereby accept the Terms. Non-commercial uses of the work are permitted without any further permission from Dove Medical Press Limited, provided the work is properly attributed. For permission for commercial use of this work, please see paragraphs 4.2 and 5 of our Terms (https://www.dovepress.com/terms.php). Kotb et al Dovepress Figure 1 Galactose metabolism pathways; Leloir, oxidative and reductive galactose degradation pathways. In the absence of the three enzymes described by of proteins, ceramides essential for myelin sheath synthesis10 Leloir,1 galactose is forced to transform into the debatably and other substances (Figure 2). toxic galactonate and notoriously toxic galactitol, which 6 accumulate in various tissues (Figure 1). Galactosylation of ceramides Galactosemia is an autosomal recessive disorder that Ceramides comprise a family of lipids composed of sphin- affects newborns who are born asymptomatic, apparently gosine and fatty acids, which are essential for sphingomye- well and healthy, then develop serious morbidity upon lin synthesis. Ceramides in the plasma membrane of consuming milk that contains galactose. They have a defi- eukaryotic cells provide structural cellular support and par- ciency of one of the enzymes mentioned in the opening ticipate in functional cellular signaling essential for differ- paragraph. Classic galactosemia (also known as type I) entiation, proliferation and apoptosis.11 Galactosylation of results from severe deficiency of GALT, galactosemia ceramide by galactosylceramide synthase (GalCerS), also type II results from GALK deficiency and type III results known as UDP galactose:ceramide galactosyltransferase, is from GALE deficiency.7 distributed primarily in Schwann cells, oligodendrocytes Newborns with galactosemia build up galactose, galac- and astrocytes, and is essential for production of galacto- titol and galactonate, while being deprived of galactosyla- sylceramide, the major sphingolipid of the myelin sheath.10 tion, hence they develop serious acute and long-term morbidities of body systems, e.g., the nervous system, liver, kidneys and eyes, and premature mortality.2,7 Galactosylation of IgG Galactosylation of proteins aims to protect, stabilize and What is the role of galactose in vivo? immobilize surface proteins to improve the structural stabi- Galactose is essential for the production of energy1,8 and has lity of native proteins against inactivation by the interaction a prebiotic role.9 Above all, it is essential for galactosylation of water with hydrophobic clusters.12 Galactosylation is 194 submit your manuscript | www.dovepress.com International Journal of General Medicine 2019:12 DovePress Dovepress Kotb et al Figure 2 Role of galactose in vivo. Abbreviations: FSGS, focal segmental glomerulosclerosis; M. pneumoniae, Mycoplasma pneumoniae. performed by the enzyme galactosyltransferase in the Golgi A key role of blood group B-antigens was reported in apparatus. the biochemical and morphological pathology of the exo- IgG is the most abundant immunoglobulin found in crine pancreas in Fabry disease patients with blood 19 plasma. It has four subclasses, IgG1,IgG2,IgG3 and IgG4, group B. which are glycoproteins in nature. The organization of galac- tosylation takes place in the endoplasmic reticulum and the Galactose binds to focal segmental 13 Golgi apparatus via galactosyltransferase. While IgG gly- glomerulosclerosis circulating cation involves fucosylation and sialylation,14 galactosyla- tion remains an important step to achieve immune activation permeability factor Cytochemical and biochemical analysis of rat glomeruli, by autoantibodies through either complement (C1q) or Fc treated with puromycin to induce experimental necrosis, gamma receptors (FcγR).15 Agalactosylation decreases affi- showed disrupted glomerular galactosylation of sialic acid nity for FcγRIII and decreases C1q binding and downstream residues.20 Furthermore, galactose was found to decrease activation. Agalactosylation has been shown to predispose the focal sclerosis permeability factor in children with toward and mediate immune diseases.16 steroid-resistant nephrotic syndrome, with the most signif- Agalactosylation of IgG3 is associated with severe forms icant improvement found in those with post-transplant of glomerulonephritis,17 lupus and other immune diseases.16 recurrence of focal segmental glomerulosclerosis. However, it failed to improve proteinuria.21 Galactosylation for synthesis of blood group B What controls the phenotype and Galactosylation is essential for biosynthesis of blood outcome of galactosemia? group B substances, which are substrates of the lyso- Classic galactosemia (type I), characterized by severe defi- somal alpha-galactosidase A. Weak blood group B ciency of GALT, is the most studied form. It is reported to expression is associated with abnormal red cell present acutely with a sepsis-like picture in a previously membranes.18 apparently healthy newborn, which progresses rapidly to International Journal of General Medicine 2019:12 submit your manuscript | www.dovepress.com 195 DovePress Kotb et al Dovepress liver cell failure and death after consuming lactose-containing galactosemia mostly suffer mild neurological sequelae, pri- milk.22 Yet, the clinical spectrum of galactosemia varies mark- mary ovarian failure and hypergonadotrophic hypogonadism, edly, ranging from acute and early death within the first week possibly leading to decreased fertility but are spared the serious or weeks of life to chronic neurodevelopmental,
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